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THE INTERNATIONAL 
CYCLOP-EDIA 


A COMPENDIUM OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


REVISED WITH LARGE ADDITIONS 


EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 


HST. PECK, Ph.D., L-H.D. 


Professor in Columbia University 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


SELIM H. PEABODY, Ph.D., LL.D. CHARLES F. RICHARDSON, A.M. 


Late President of the University of Illinois Professor in Dartmouth College 


IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES 


Vol. | 


NEW YORK 


DODD, MEAD & COMPANY 
1898 


CopyriGHtT, 1885, 
CoPyYRIGHT, 1889, 
CopyRIGHT, 1891, 
COPYRIGHT, 1894, 
CopyvrIGHT, 1895, 


COPYRIGHT, 1898, 


BY Dopp, Mgap & ComMpaANy 
BY Dopp, Meap & CoMPANY 
BY Dopp, Mreap & ComMpPpANy 
BY Dopp, Mgap & ComMPpANY 
BY Dopp, Meap & ComMpaANy 


BY Dopp, Mrap & Company 


Anihersity WBress s 


Joun WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. 


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PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 


THE present edition of the INTERNATIONAL CrYcLOPaDIA preserves in their entirety 
those features that in the past have won the commendation of all who have fairly 
tried it by the criterion of practical utility. At the same time, the work as a whole, 
in receiving the very large additions made necessary by the recent progress of the 
sciences, has undergone such essential modifications of its scope and plan as to have 
become in many of its most prominent details a new encyclopedia. For this reason, 
and in order that it may be judged by the standard of its own ideal, it seems desir- 
able to indicate the purpose that its editors have had before them, and to state as 
concisely as possible the general plan and method that have been adopted. 

Historically, there have been developed two definite and distinct conceptions of the 
ideal encyclopedic treatment. The so-called phtiosophic method, of which the elab- 
orate Encyclopedia Metropolitana may be taken as a type, arranges the topics ac- 
cording to the department of knowledge to which each most properly belongs. Thus, 
one volume would contain all the articles relating to Pure Science, a second those 
relating to Applied Science, a third those relating to Biography and History, a fourth 
those relating to Geography, and other subjects in like manner. The lexicographi- 
cal or alphabetic method, on the other hand, discards the arrangement by subjects, 
in favor of the much simpler, though less scientific grouping under a single alpha- 
bet. It is evident that the extreme convenience and simplicity of the alphabetic 
method, render it the only one that is possible for popular use; since to consult a 
work constructed on the philosophic plan requires a degree of special knowledge 
on the part of the reader such as very few are so fortunate as to possess. The sec- 
ond method, then, has almost universally prevailed, and is represented and embodied 
in such standard works as the admirable Konversations-Leakon of F. A. Brockhaus, 
the Dictionnaire Universel du Dix-Neuviéme Siecle of Pierre Larousse, and the Cyclopedia 
of Chambers which still enjoys an undiminished popularity. 

It is a matter of interest to note, however, to what extent a feeling in favor of 
the philosophic method has unconsciously hampered the freedom of those editors 
who have avowedly rejected it. Although adopting the alphabetic arrangement, they 
nevertheless seem curiously anxious to consolidate their information under as few 
captions as possible, and also curiously unwilling to facilitate convenience of ref- 
erence by a simple and rational subdivision of their leading topics. In other words,. 
they have rejected the most commendable feature of the scientific mode of grouping, 
while retaining, to a great extent, the very ones that render it objectionable. For if an 
encyclopedia, though constructed on the alphabetic plan, still masses its information 
in a comparatively few ponderous and elaborate articles, the same general objection 
equally exists, since its knowledge is conveniently available to the specialist alone, 
while the average reader can find a particular topic only after a long and vexatious 
search. This objection, to be sure, is partially obviated by the somewhat awkward 
device of a general index ; but even this is much less simple than such a division of 
subjects as would enable one who is in search of information to turn to it at once 
and find it given in succinct and intelligible form under the title that is most obvious 
and natural. 

Something, also, of the old tradition which invested an encyclopedia with a fac- 
titious dignity, is still perceptible in the selection and rejection of their subjects by 


4 PREFACE. 


many of the existing works. There seems to prevail a notion that certain fields of 
knowledge are more dignified than others; forgetting that the name encyclopedia 
itself expresses the whole range of man’s intellectuai activity, to which nothing can 
be truly alien. Here, again, the theory of the Konversations-Lexikon is better than 
the prevailing practice ; so that perhaps the excellent compilation of Meyer is the only 
one that consistently and exhaustively carries out the true design of a popular ency- 
clopeedia. 

This brief criticism will, perhaps, sufficiently explain in a negative way the general 
design of the new edition of the present work. Briefly stated, that design is (1), while 
treating each main topic with a reasonable degree of fullness under its own title, to set 
forth also in separate articles and under separate titles the essential facts regarding the 
several branches of the subject ; besides multiplying cross-references to both text and 
illustrations to such an extent as at once to direct the reader to the precise informa- 
tion of which he is in need, so that each article may stand as a clew to all the others 
that are cognate ; and (2), so far as is possible, to make the work in its wide range and 
diversity of subjects, that which its very name implies—a true Compendium of Human 
Knowledge. 

In the accomplishment of this general purpose, the INTERNATIONAL has been subjected 
to a most thorough and detailed revision. The single task of making all the existing 
articles truly representative of the marvelous advance of modern scientific knowledge, 
and of the political, literary, and educational development that has characterized the past 
decade, would in itself involve a radical alteration of the subject matter. But much more 
than this has been actually done. While many of the former articles have been recast and 
thoroughly revised, many more have been entirely rewritten by specialists of establisned 
reputation, and upward of three thousand new titles have been added. In contem- 
porary biography, and especially in contemporary American biography, it is believed 
that this cyclopeedia is more comprehensive than any other existing work. Political 
topics, both American and foreign, have been made a very prominent feature of the 
revision, and are so treated that each separate subject, whether it be a great constitu- 
tional question or a popular catchword, may be found under its own proper title. 
Educational theories, with their most recent developments, are carefully described. 
The discussion of each important topic is supplemented by a bibliography of the latest 
standard works relating to it. The recent census enumerations in Russia (1886), Spain 
(1887), Switzerland (1888), Holland (1890), Belgium (1890), Austria (1890), Germany 
(1890), the United States (1890), Hawaii (1890), England (1891), France (1891), India 
(1891), and Canada (1891), have been used, so far as the official figures were available, to 
give the very latest statistical information. New illustrations, many of them in colors, 
have been added, as well as a complete set of railroad and county maps of the States of 
the American Union, and of the Provinces of the Dominion of Canada. Meteorology 
and its cognate topics are made both intelligible and interesting by a series of colored 
weather-maps and charts. It is impossible, however, to describe, even in the most 
cursory manner, the extent and variety of the specific changes that have been made. 
The revision, as it stands, represents the combined work of a staff of more than 
a hundred and fifty writers, besides the advice, assistance, and suggestion of a still 
larger number of others who have courteously lent their aid to the regular contributors. 
There are few pages of the fourteen thousand contained within these volumes, that do 
not show the hand of the reviser. More than a third are absolutely new. 

An encyclopedia, like a lexicon, necessarily represents the garnered labor, experi- 
ence, and knowledge of all like works that have preceded it. The editors of the INTER- 
NATIONAL have endeavored to profit by whatever is most valuable in the many useful 
compilations that have been elsewhere published. The volumes of Brockhaus, of Meyer, 
of Larousse, of Pierer, of Chambers, and, in fact, of all the European scholars who have 
labored in this interesting field, have been many times consulted. To them a frank 
acknowledgment of obligation is cheerfully accorded. At the same time, however, it 
has been first of all the purpose of publishers and editors alike, to make the INTERNA- 
TIONAL before aught else a truly American encyclopedia, giving with fairness and fullness 
the information regarding American History, Geography, Politics, Biography, Science, 


PREFACE. 5 


Art, and Literature, that American readers most desire. And it may be well to add, in 
view of the fact that contemporaneous questions of interest—political, social, economical, 
an‘ religious—occupy so large a portion of its pages, that no partisan expressions have 
been permitted to appear. Statements of fact regarding which there can be no question 
are never coupled with mere opinions, which too often represent only the personal bias 
of an individual. 

In so extensive a revision, embodying, as it does, contributions from many sources, 
it is impossible that inconsistencies should not be here and there detected. But the 
editors believe that these are few and unimportant ; and with a feeling of confidence 
that, both in its purpose and in the accomplishment of that purpose, the work is worthy 
of success, they now submit it to the test that is of all the most searching and most 
satisfactory,—the test that lies in critical comparison and in daily use. 


Harry THurston PEck, 
Editor-in-Chief. 


PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF 1898. 


Ir is now six years since the INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPADIA in its present form was 
given to the public. Since that time, owing to reasons which will be sufficiently 
obvious to all who are familiar with the history of works of reference, the progress of 
events has made inevitable a careful and systematic revision of certain departments, 
which from their very nature require frequent alteration or amplification. It has, 
indeed, been the settled policy of the publishers to correct from year to year those 
articles in which circumstances made immediate alteration imperative ; but this work 
was special rather than general, and did not extend to whole departments. In putting 
forth the present edition, which embodies so much detailed revision, it seems desirable 
to indicate in a general way the nature of the work that has been done. 

As in every similar book, the department of Brograruy is that which stood in need 
of most careful examination, especially in that portion of it which relates to living men 
and women. This whole department, therefore, has been critically examined ; and new 
matter has been added from a great variety of sources, including information given by 
the subjects of the articles. In the case of persons who have died since the last edition 
of the Cyclopedia was issued, that fact and the date of each death have been inserted, 
together with such additional information as seemed necessary. A very important 
feature of this department will be found in the inclusion of many new names, repre- 
senting those persons in every department of intellectual activity to whom public 
interest has been of late significantly drawn, and in whom this interest is.certain to 
be enduring. 

Scarcely less important and equally in need of constant alteration is the department 
of GroGRAPHY. Those articles especially that relate to places in the United States and 
Canada have demanded a thorough and minute revision, owing to the rapid growth of 
population, the establishment of new industries and public works, and, in many cases, 
the alteration of local terminology and municipal divisions. Accordingly, a large pro- 
portion of these articles have been entirely rewritten with reference to the insertion of 
these new facts. In nearly every case the information so included has been derived 
from an official source, and this has been especially true of the statistical material 
relating to the larger alministrative divisions of the two countries. It is believed that 
this feature of the work is now in a more satisfactory state and more near to the em- 
bodiment of a proximate accuracy in detail than is the case with any other standard work 
of reference. In those articles that relate to foreign countries and to foreign cities, 
although the need of revision is always far less frequently demanded, they have none the 
less in their turn been subjected to a searching criticism. The principal results of the 
German census of 1895, of the French census of 1896, and of the Russian census of 


6 PREFACE. 


1897 have been at the disposition of the editors, as have also the official estimates relat- 
ing to the population of the departments and large cities of Italy for 1894 and 1895 ; 
while for several of the countries of Central and South America, not only the statistics 
relating to population but to other matters as well have\been accessible, making it in 
many cases possible to include much information of this sort officially put forth in 
1895 and 1896. Under this head the editors and revisers have also had recourse to 
authoritative sources ; and they wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the diplo- 
matic representatives of the United States abroad and to those of foreign countries 
accredited to the United States. The consular reports that have from time to time 
been published by our own Government have furnished very valuable information, and 
with the aid of these and many other similar publications a large number of the foreign 
articles have been entirely rewritten. 

The rapid development of the INpusTRIAL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES that is so 
striking a feature of the present day has rendered this department of the Cyclopedia 
one demanding a special scrutiny, which has resulted in the revision of the principal 
articles on applied science ; while new and important titles have of necessity been added 
in order to supply much interesting information with regard to new inventions and 
discoveries of a mechanical nature, and their application to industrial uses. 

Besides the subjects which fall under the several heads already specified, the scope of 
the revision has included many other topics which it will be sufficient to specify more 
generally. An examination has been made of such portions of the work as relate to 
the most recent PotiticaL History, and to some of the more important topics of 
Economics and Epvucation, including, under the latter head, the universities, the 
colleges, and other institutions of higher learning in the United States. In this 
portion of the revision, as in the others specified, such information as has been added 
is drawn very largely from local and official sources; and in collecting it the co- 
operation of the Presidents and Faculties of these institutions has been frequently 
secured. On the whole, it may be stated with much confidence that the INTERNATIONAL 
CYCLOP&DIA, by reason of the alterations made in it, is now brought measurably nearer 
to the standard of an ideal work of reference. The present revision has in its details 
been carried out under the personal direction of Professor Frank Moore Colby, of New 
York University, who, with a staff of assistants, has devoted many months to the com- 
pletion of the task. Such especial merit as the new edition shall be found to possess 
is to be mainly ascribed to his experience, and to the careful, conscientious, and effective 
manner in which he has discharged this very onerous duty. 

Six years ago, in putting forth the earlier edition, the editors expressed their firm 
belief that owing to the comprehensiveness of its plan, and to the fact that it embodied 
the lessons drawn from the experience afforded by other undertakings of a like character, 
both foreign and American, the Cyclopedia would be found worthy to sustain the crucial 
test that comes from daily reference and use. This confidence may be said to have been 
fully justified. While the book has of necessity received much criticism in detail, — 
a thing inevitable in the case of any work so broad in its design, so varied in the range 
of subjects treated in it, and so comparatively minute in its subdivision of topics for the 
convenience of the general reader and for ease of reference, —it is not too much to say 
that, measured by every fair and impartial standard, it has well sustained the claims that 
have been made for it. No better proof of this could be desired than the striking appro- 
bation which has been given it by educators, by scholars, and by those whose professional 
necessities have led them to consult it systematically and often. It has made its way 
into all the great libraries of the country, it has been officially adopted by many educa- 
tional boards as a standard work of reference, and it has received the unsolicited com- 
mendation of a great body of disinterested and intelligent readers. It is the feeling of 
obligation arising from this very generous favor that inspires the publishers and editors 
alike with the earnest wish to make the work still more deserving of it; and both pub- 
lishers and editors would be equally remiss did they not, in issuing a new edition, 
express for this most gratifying evidence of approval their very high appreciation. 


Harry Tuurston Prck, 
Editor-in-Chief. 


New York, JANUARY ist, 1898, 


THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPAIDIA. 


REVISED EDITION. 


EDITOR-IN-CHIEF, 


HARRY .THURSTON PECK, A.M., Pa.D., L.H.D. 


Professor of the Latin Language and Literature in Columbia University and Secretary to the 
College; Member of the American Dialect Society; of the American Philological 
Society ; of the American Folk-Lore Society ; of the New York Academy of Sciences; 
Associate of the Royal Society of Canada ; Editor of Harper’s Dictionary of Classical 
Literature and Antiquities ; of Appleton’s Atlas of Modern Geography ; of the Univer- 
sity Bulletin; of the Bookman; Associate Editor of the Library of the World’s Litera- 


ture ; etc., etc. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS. 
SELIM HOBART PEABODY, Pxa.D., LL.D. 


Late President of the University of Illinois; Chief of the Department of Liberal Arts, 
World’s Columbian Exposition. 


CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M. 


Professor of the English Language and Literature in Dartmouth College. 


The following is a list of some of the principal contributors whose work forms a part of 
the revised edition of the INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPZDIA: 


Hersert B. Apams, Pu.D. 
Professor of American and Institutional History 
in the Johns Hopkins University. (University 
Extension.) 


JEROME ALLEN, A.M., Pa.D.* 
Professor of Pedagogy in the University of 
New York. (Education.) 


E. Benzamin AnpDREwS, D.D. 
President of Brown University. (Baptists.) 


RosertT ARRowsMITH, A.M., Pu.D. 
Professor of Greek and Latin in the Teachers’ 
College, New York City. 
(Biography. ) 
Sipney G. AsHumoreE, A.M., L.H.D. 
Professor of the Latin Language and Literature 
in Union College. (Classical Literature. ) 


Henry Batpwin, A.B. 
New York. (Biography and Geography.) 


Freperick A. Bancrort, Pu.D. 

Formerly Librarian of the Department of State, 
Washington, D. C.; Lecturer in the School of 
Political Science, Columbia University. (Inter- 
national Law.) 


Epwin J. Bartiett, M.D. 
Professor of Chemistry in Dartmouth College. 
(Chemistry.) 
ALFRED L. BEEBE, PH.B. 


Chemist to the N. Y. Board of Health. 
istry of Foods.) 


(Chem- 


EpWARD BELLAMY. 


Boston, Mass. (Nationalism, etc.) 


GrorGE R. BISHOP. 
Official Stenographer to the N. Y. Stock Ex- 
change. (Shorthand.) 


Hsatmar Hgortu Boyresen, Pu.i).* 
Gebhard Professor of German in Columbia Col- 
lege. (Literary Biography.) 


CHARLES ROLLIN BrRainarD, A.M. 


New York. (Biography. ) 


EvizaABETH Stow Brown, M.D. 
Resident Physician to the Messiah Home, N. Y. 
City. (Dietetics.) 


Howarp M. Bort. 
Editor of Among the Clouds. 
Manufactures.) 


(Paper and Paper 


* Deceased. 


8 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 


Nicnoras Murray Bouter, A.M., Pu.D. 
Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy in Columbia 
University. Editor of the Educational Review. 
(Manual Training.) 
Witiiam H. Carpenter, Pu.D. 


Professor of Germanic Philology in Columbia 
University, N. Y. (Philology, etc.) 


Henry CHADWICK. 
Editorial Staff of the Brooklyn Eagle. 


A. N. CHENEY. 
Editor of Shooting and Fishing. 
Epwarp B. Cuapp, M.A. 


Professor of the Greek Language and Literature 
in the University of California. (Greek Lan- 
guage and Literature.) 


(Sports.) 


(Game Laws.) 


Rey. Sytvester CuiarKE, D.D. 

Professor of Homiletics and Pastoral Theology in 

the University of the South. (Religious Topics.) 
Apo.tpeHeE Conn, A.M., LL.B. 

Professor of the Romance Languages and Litera- 
tures in Columbia University. (French Biog- 
raphy.) 

Cuarues FE. Corsy, C.E.* 

Adjunct Professor of Chemistry in Columbia Uni- 

versity. (Chemistry.) 
Frank Moore Cocsy, A.M. 

Professor of Economics in the New York Univer- 

sity. (Political Science.) 
Freperick T. Cooper, A.M. 

Professor of Sanskrit in the New York University. 

(Biography. ) 
Metvit Dewey, A.M. 
Librarian to the State of New York. Secretary to 


the Board of Regents of the University of the 
State of New York. (Library Schools.) 


Rev. BERNARD DRACHMANN, Pu.D. (Heidel- 
berg.) 
New York. (Jewish Antiquities.) 
Witiiam A. Dunnine, A.M., Pa.D. 
Editorial Staff of the Political Science Quarterly. 
Professor of History in Columbia University. 
(Political Theories and English History.) 
MortimMER Lamson Earte, A.M., Pu.D. 
Professor of Greek and Latin in Bryn Mawr Col- 
lege. (Archzeology.) : 
Henry R. Ettiot, M.A. 


Editor Dry Goods Economist, N. Y. 
Statistics.) 


(Commercial 


ALLAN ForMAN. 
Editor of the Journalist, N.Y. (Journalism, etc.) 
Ricuarp J. H. Gorrneit, A.M., Pu.D. 


Professor of Rabbinical Literature in Columbia 
University. (Aramaic and Jews.) 


Frank PIERREPONT Graves, A.M. 
President of the University of Wyoming. 
cal Biography.) 
Rev. Witiram E. Grirris, D.D. 
Late Professor of the Physical Sciences in the 
Imperial University of Tokio, Japan. (Asiatic 
History and Biography.) 


(Classi- 


Ropert GRIMSHAW, PH.D. 
Member of the Franklin Institute ; of the Société 
des Ingénieurs, Paris, etc. (Scientific Topics.) 
Herpert W. GRinDAL, LL.B. 
Formerly Librarian of the Columbia University 
Law School. (Law.) 
GrorGE J. HAGar. 
Associate Editor Columbian Encyclopedia. (Biog- 
raphy and Gazetteer Matter.) 
VALENTINE G. HALL. 
New York. (Lawn-Tennis and Out-door Sports.) 
CHARLES H. Hircucock, Pu.D. 
Professor in Dartmouth College. (Geology: Pet- 
rography. ) 
CHarLes L. Hocrsoom, M.D. 
New York. (Medicine.) 


Rev. R. I. Houarp, S.J. 
College of St. Francis Xavier, N. Y. 
Catholic Dogma.) 


(Roman 


Lucius Wares Horcukxiss, M.D. 
Professor of Anatomy in the Woman’s Medical 
College of the New York Infirmary. (Anatomy 
and Medicine. ) 


Mortimer T. HUMPHREY. 
New York. (Billiards.) 


Wiviiam C. Hunt. 
Chief of the Population Division, Eleventh Census 
of the United States. (Statistics of Population.) 


A. V. Witiiams Jackson, Pu.D., L.H.D. 


Professor of the Indo-Iranian Languages in 
Columbia University. (Avesta.) 


Haroutp Jacosy, Pa.D. 


Adjunct Professor of Astronomy in Columbia Uni- 
versity. (Astronomy.) 


HELEN A. JOHNSON. 
New York. (Decorative Art.) 


Howarp M. JENKINS. 


Editorial Staff of the American. (Philadelphia.) 


OLIVER JOHNSON.* 


Late editor of the Independent. (Biography.) 


Davip STARR JORDAN, Pu.D. 
President of the Leland Stanford, Jr., University. 
(Ichthyology. ) 


Lyman G. Jorpan, A.M. 


Professor of Chemistry and Biology in Bates Col- 
lege. (Bates College.) 


Cou. DELANCEY KANE. 
New York. (Coaching.) 


James F. Kemp, A.B., E.M. 

Professor of Geology, Columbia University. 

(Mining. ) = 
Otto Kimmie, Pu.D. 

Professor in the Grand-Ducal Gymnasium, Kone 
stanz, Baden. (Education: European Biog- 
raphy.) 

THeopore Y. Kinne, M.D. 


President of the American Institute of Home- 
opathy. (Homeopathy.) 


* Deceased. 


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 9) 


Cuarves Kircaorr, Jr., C.E. 
Editor of The Jron Age. (Iron and Steel.) 


CHARLES Knapp, A.M., Pu.D. 
Classical Instructor in Barnard College, N. Y. 
(Classical Biography.) 


Witrrip Lay, A.B. 
(Biography and Gazetteer Matter.) 


James MacArruor. 
Associate Editor of the Bookman. 
Biography. ) 


(Literary 


Rev. H. H. McFaruanp. 
New York. (Biography.) 


GeorGE R,. Metcarre, C.E. 
Editor of Hlectricity. 
dustrial Arts, etc.) 


W. Max Miurer, Pu.D. (Leipsic). 
Professor in the Methodist Episcopal Seminary, 
Philadelphia. (Egyptology. ) 


(Electrical Appliances, In- 


THomas Morone, Ru.D.* 


Late Curator of the Herbarium, Columbia Univer- 
sity. (Botany.) 


Artuur P. Nazro, Lieut. U.S. N. 


Hydrographic Office, N. Y. (Military and Naval 
Topics.) 


Cuarues A. NELSON. 


Late Librarian of the Howard Library, New Or- 
leans. (Biography.) 


CoL. CHARLES Lepyarp Norton, 
Author of Political Americanisms, etc. 
raphy. ) 


T. K. OGuessy. 


Secretary to the late Hon. Alex. H. Stephens. 
(Southern Biography.) 


(Biog- 


Gen. Paut A. OLIVER. 
Oliver’s Mills, Pa. (Gunpowder.) 


W TxHorNTON PARKER, M.D. 
Boston, Mass. (Surgery.) 


Epwarp DELAVAN Perry, A.M., Pu.D. 
Jay Professor in Greek in Columbia University. 
(German Universities. ) 
Hon. Ropert P. Porter. 


Superintendent of the Eleventh Census of the 
United States. (Customs.) 


Watpo S. Pratt, A.M. 
Professor in the Hartford Theological Seminary. 
(Music.) 


Joun D. QuacKkensos, A.M., M.D. 
Emeritus Professor of Rhetoric in Columbia Uni- 
versity. (Angling, Trout, etc.) 
ALFRED G. Reeves, LL.B. 
Professor in the New York Law School. (Law.) 
ALVAN F, Sanzporn, AB. 
Boston, Mass. (Biography.) 
CLARENCE W. Scort, A.M. 


Professor in the New Hampshire College of Agri- 
culture. (Agriculture.) 


KaTE SANBORN. 


Boston, Mass. (Biography.) 


Wivi1am W. SuHare, Pu.D. 
Professor of Chemistry in the Adelphi Academy. 
Brooklyn, N. Y. (Dynamics.) 


EsTHER SINGLETON. 


New York. (Music and Biography.) 


STEPHENSON. 
(Bicycle.) 


WaLTreR T. 
New York. 


BRANDRETH Symonps, A.M., M.D. 
New York. (Materia Medica.) 


DuruamM WuiteE STEVENS. 
Councillor to the Imperial Legation of Japan, 


Washington, D. C. (Japan.) 
C. J. Sropparp. 
United States Treasury, Washington, D. C. 


(Banking Statistics.) 


J. W. Tuomas, A.M. 


Professor of Modern Languages in Allegheny Col- 
lege. (Allegheny College.) 


R. D. Townsenp, LL B. 
New York. (Law.) 


HERBERT Tutte, Pu.D.* 


Professor of Modern European History in Cornell 
University. (German Politics.) 


Hon. Lyon G. Tyrer, M.A. 


President of William and Mary College. (Biog- 
raphy. ) 
Bisuor Joun H. Vincent, D.D. 
Chancellor of Chautauqua University. (Chau- 
tauqua. ) 
ARTHUR DupLEY VINTON. 
Editorial Staff, North American Review. (Bi- 


ography.) 


Epwarp D. WALKER.* 
Editorial Staff of Cosmopolitan Magazine. 
(Glass and Glass Manufactures. ) 


Henry, C. Watsu, M.A. 
Editor Lippincott’s Magazine, formerly editor of 
the Catholic World. (Biography.) 
WitiramM S. WALSH. 
Editorial Staff Zllustrated American, New York. 
(Biography, etc.) 
ELLA WEED.* 
New York. (Barnard College.) 


FRANK WEITENKAMPF (‘ FRANK LINSTOW 
WuiTE.’’) 


New York. (Theatrical Topics and Biography.) 


ScHuyLeER S. WHEELER, Sc.D. 

Electrical Expert to the Subway Commission, New 
York. Member of the American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers. (Electricity, etc.) 

Water B. WINEs. 

Chicago, Ill. (Statistics.) 

Henry P. Wrient, Pu.D. 


Professor in Yale University. (Yale University.) 


* Deceased. 


10 


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 


The Editors of the InrerNatronaL CrcLopapia are indebted also to the following, 
among others, for their courtesy in furnishing valuable information, In revising manu- 


scripts, or in making useful corrections and suggestions. 


CARDINAL GIBBONS. 
Archbishop of Baltimore. 


Don Matias ROMERO. 
Minister of Mexico to the United States. 


Don ANTONIO PENAFIEL. 
Chief of the Mexican department of Public Works. 
Hon. bol al RACK 
Late Secretary of the Navy. 
Hon. Wi.tt1am Winpom.* 
Late Secretary of the Treasury. 
Hon. WitiiaMm E. Curtis. 


Assistant Secretary of the Treasury; formerly 
Chief of the Bureau of American Republics. 


Hon. E. 8. Lacey. 
Late Comptroller of the Treasury. 
Hon. Jonn WANAMAKER. 
Late Postmaster-General. 
Hon. JEREMIAH RUSK. 
Late Secretary of Agriculture. 
Hon. REDFIELD PROCTOR. 
Late Secretary of War. 
Frankiin Carter, LL.D. 
President of Williams College. 
WiLiiaAM Rainey Harper, Pa.D. 
President of the University of Chicago. 
Hon. Sypney C. D. Roper. 
Chief of the Canadian Bureau of Statistics. 
EpwarkpD HARRIGAN. 
New York City. 
AIMARO SATO. 
Late Secretary of the Imperial Japanese “Legation 
to the United States. 
SAMUEL L. CLemeEns (“ Mark TwalIn ”’). 
Hartford, Conn. 
W. T. Sasine, D.D. 
New York City. 


Hon. Wituram M. Evarts. 
New York. 


Hon. Witit1am McKIn ey. 
Columbus, Ohio. 


Hon. HanniBat Hamiin. 


Hon. Brypcsrs P. HENNIKER. 
Late Registrar-General of England. 
Tuomas D. Srtymour, LL D. 
Professor of Greek Language and Literature, 
Yale University. 
HERMANN COLLITZ. 
Bryn Mawr College. 
HERMANN OLDENBERG. 
Professor of Sanskrit, University of Kiel ; formerly 
of the University of Berlin. 
BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, Pu.D. 


Professor of Greek and Comparative Philology, 
Cornell University. 


Wooprow Witson, Pu.D., LL.D. 
Professor of Jurisprudence, Princeton University. 
Wiiiam I. Knapp. 
Yale University. 
Francis W. KEtLsey. 
University of Michigan. 
AvucGcustus C. MERRIAM. 
Columbia College. 
Ropert H. M. DawsBarn, M.D. 
New York Polyclinic College. 
Minton WARREN. 
Johns Hopkins University. 
Hon. 8S. G. Brock. 
Late Chief of the Governmental Bureau of Statis- 
tics, Treasury Department, Washington. 
Hon. Witiiam T. Harris. 
United States Commissioner of Education. 
EDWARD STABLER. 


Actuary of the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., New 
York. 


CHARLTON T. Lewis. 

New York City. 

JAMES SCHOULER. 

Boston, Mass. 

Hon. A. R. Sporrorp. 

Librarian of Congress. 
Hon. Epwin WILLITs. 

Late Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, 
Tuomas A. Epison. 

Menlo Park, N. J. 

R, A. Guin. 

Librarian of Brown University. 
Epear W. Nye (“ Birt NrE”’).* 
P. SAMPERS. _ 

Courrier des Etats-Unis. 

ALBRECHT WEBER. 
Professor of Indian Language and Literature, Uni- 
versity of Berlin. 
Hon. Nort A. HumpnHreys. 


Secretary to the Royal Census Office of Great 
Britain and Ireland. 


W. W. NEWELL. 

Editor of the Journal of American Folk-Lore. 
Hon. F. A. CRANDALL. 

Superintendent of Public Documents. 
Hon. R. E. Preston. 

Director of the United States Mint. 


Rev. J. F Burnett. 
Secretary of the American Christian Convention. 


, Rev. ALEXANDER McLEAN. 


Corresponding Secretary of the American Bible 
Society. 
GENERAL JAMES GILLISS. 
Deputy Quartermaster-General. 
Hon. Josepn P. SmitH. 
Director of the Bureau of the American Republics. 


* Deceased. 


Sn 


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. LI 


Hon. Carrourt D. Wricut. 
United States Conimissioner of Labor. 
Hon. Joun E. RIsiey. 
United States Minister to Denmark. 


Hon. MAcGRANE Cox. 
Late United States Minister to Guatemala. 


Hon. Wiiii1aAM H. Hearp. 
United States Minister Resident and Consul-Gen- 
eral to Liberia. 
Don E. Dupuy DE Lome. 
Spanish Minister to the United States. 
Hon. EpMoND BRUWAERT. 
Consul-General of France (N. Y. City). 
Hon. FrepeERICK C. PENFIELD. 
United States Diplomatic Agent and Consul-Gen- 
eral to Egypt. 
I, P. A. Renwick, M.A., LL.B. 
Associate Editor of the Statesman’s Year-Book. 
GEORGE G. CoisHoLM, M.A., B.Sc. 
Editor of Longmans’ Gazetteer of the World. 
Rev. Francis L. Patron, D.D., LU.D. 
President of Princeton University. 
Rev. M. W. Stryker, D.D., LL.D. 
President of Hamilton College. 
Rev. Henry M. MacCrackew, D.D., LL.D. 
Chancellor of New York University. 
Rr. Rev. Joun F. Hurst. 


Chancellor of the American University, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 


GEORGE HarRIS. 
President of Andover Theological Seminary. 


W. F. Warren, St.D., LL.D. 


President of Boston University. 


Rev. Wituiam Dewitt? Hype, D.D. 
President of Bowdoin College. 


Miss M. Carry THOMAS. 
President of Bryn Mawr College. 


Henry Morton, Pu.D. 
President of Stevens Institute of Technology. 


Caprain P, H. Cooper. 
Superintendent of United States Naval Academy. 


Rev. T. S. Hastines, D.D., LL.D. 


Late President of Union Theological Seminary. 


Rev. G. S. Burroveus, D.D., Pu.D. 
President of Wabash College. 


Henry Wapbe Rogers, LL.D. 


President of Northwestern University. 


Rey. Henry A. Butrz, D.D., LL.D. 


President of Drew Theological Seminary. 


Joun I. Brapiry, Pa.D., LL.D. 
President of Ilinois College, 


C. A. ScHAFFER, Pu.D. 


President of Iowa State University. 


Rev. Greorce A. Gates, D.D., LL.D. 


resident of Iowa College. 


W.M. BearpsueEar, A.M., LL.D. 
President of Iowa State College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts. 


Rev. WILuiaAM F. PIERCE. 
President of Kenyon College. 


Cuartes Louis Loos, LL.D. 
President of Kentucky University. 
T. M. Drown, LL.D. 
President of Lehigh College. 
Miss Emi ty J. Suiru, A.B. 
Dean of Barnard College. 
B.S. Hurvsort. 
Recording Secretary of Harvard University. 
JAMES B. ANGELL, LL.D. 
President of the University of Michigan. 


CHARLES F. Emerson, 
Dean of Dartmouth College. 


GrorGeE H. Baxer, A.M. 


Librarian of Columbia University. 


c ye (ales q Kan bes s 
: 1.3% We 1” - 


| 
on, . 


THE 


INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPASDIA. 


aN. 


THE first letter in the English as in almost every known alphabet. This pre- 
A cedence in alphabetic position is probably due to the phonetic character of the 

9 sound it represents. An exception to this law of first place, however, is found 
in the Ethiopic, in which it is the thirteenth letter, and also in the old national Ger- 
manic alphabet, the Runic ‘‘futhark.’’ Its secondary position in this latter, it has been 
suggested, with some plausibility, is due, perhaps, to an artificial arrangement of the 
Runes, in assimilation with the order of the initial letters of the old Teutonic form of 
the Paternoster. 

In form our A, like the rest of our Alphabet, is derived from the Latin, and that in 
turn from the Greek. The Greek alphabet, with some additions, adaptations, and 
changes, was formed, as is generally agreed, on the basis of the Phcenician ; the 
Pheenician itself is commonly supposed to have been adopted from symbols in the old 
hieratic writing of the Egyptians. In the history of its forms, A has undergone a series 
of changes and developments. The Greeks called the letter alpha, whence ‘‘ alphabet,” 
having borrowed its name and form from the Phenician. In the latter, as in Hebrew, 
it was called aleph, from some supposed resemblance to the head and horns of an ‘‘ ox,” 
which the latter word, aleph, signifies. This fancied identification, by the Pheenicians, 
with the ox, is now presumed to be erroneous; there is reason for believing with de 
Rouge that in the oldest hieroglyphic pictures the form used by the Egyptians to express 
the sound was that of an eagle; the corruption in the cursive hieratic form may have 
led to the mistake on the part of the Phenicians. 

Phonetic Character.—In regard to its phonetic character, original a may be described 
as a ‘‘mid-back-wide” vowel; it had what we may term the ah-sound, familiarly known 
as the ‘‘ Italian” or ‘‘ Continental” a, heard in yar, father. By nature a is a simple and 
easy vowel, made by opening the throat naturally and expelling the breath with the 
least modification by the parts of the mouth. Such is the sound that this letter has in 
most languages; in Envlish, however, it has undergone so many modifications that 
to-day the pure ah-sound is comparatively scarce in our speech, and instead now of 
calling the letter itself by the name ah, as in most Indo-Germanic tongues, we term it 
‘*qay” (ae), as in Tennyson, The Hpicad fin. ‘“ Mouthing out his hollow oes and aes.”’ 
The Anglo-Saxon or Earliest English preserved the genuine old af-sound, though 
shorter perhaps in quantity than the a of father. It was of quite frequent occurrence, 
and by its side existed the corresponding long a, often marked with the quantity sign. 
In Anglo-Saxon, short @ was subject, however, to certain modifications and shiftings ; 
in its stead 9 was frequently written, as in hond, hand, from, fram; or the ah-sound 
was shifted to @, asin sat; A.S., set; Goth., sat These modifications account only 
in part for the variety of sounds which the Mod. Eng. a represents, as other external 
influences have come in still more to alter the sound. The orthography has not kept 
pace with the change in pronunciation ; hence the anomalous character of a as a sound- 
symbol. There are some half dozen different sounds, shorter and longer, which a may 
represent in English ; some of these sounds are, of course, extremely common ; others 
are comparatively rare. The principal are: 


(1) fat, (4) father, 
(2) fate, (5) false, 
(8) fare, (6) what, was. 


To these is to be added the vowel sound in ask, chance, can’t, past, which varies with 
different speakers, and is apparently to be placed somewhere intermediate between fat 


Ai. 
Aard-vark. 14 


and father. Likewise is to be noted the indifferent sound of a, approaching the w in 
but, that so frequently occurs in unstressed syllables, like against, abundant, and also 
the sporadic a in any, many, Where it approaches a short e. The rounded vowel above 
noted in was, false, and the like, is due to the influence of the adjacent consonant w, 0. 
The former sound, the a in was, is almost the short to all. In the latter case with 7, we 
find also aw beside a to express the sound, as fault beside false. The commonest short 
sound of a in English, however, is the flat vowel in hat ; its frequency leads to our call- 
ing this the ‘‘ short a ,” as corresponding “‘ long ” we generally assign the vowel in hate, 
although the latter is really the long e-sound of they. The vowel of fare, bare, is a still 
further modification. The percentage of occurrences of the old ah-sound in far, father, 
is in English extremely small. 

Indo-Germanic a.—In the Indo-Germanic languages the vowel row a, 7, wu is 
especially prominent ; in Sanskrit, and also in Gothic, these are the only short vowels. 
The short @ is never written in Sanskrit after consonants, but is regarded as inherent in 
the sign. Owing to these circumstances it was believed, until within a few years, that 
the primitive Indo-Germanic speech possessed only a, ¢, wu, and that a was the oldest and 
purest of the vowels ; this view has since been much modified ; it has been shown that 
e and o must have existed beside a, 7, win the primitive speech, and that they are of 
equal age with the others. As an instance of a genuine Indo-Germanic short a, we may 
take Indg.* agro-s, ‘‘ field, acre ;’’ Skt., dra-s ; Gk., dypo-¢ ; Lat., ager ; Goth., akr-s. As 
instances of the change of pronunciation in English may be cited A.S. stand-an (pron. 
stond-an), ‘‘ to stand ;” Mid. Eng., stand-en (pron. stgnd-an) ; Mod. Eng., stand. Again, 
A.S. and M.E., mann (pron. monn); Mod. Eng., man (pron. men); A.S., nama 
(pron. noma); M.E., name (pron. naama); Mod. Eng., name (pron. netm). The corre- 
sponding long @ occurs commonly in the oldest English, as in the other Indo-Germanic 
tongues; the history of its development into the modern speech, however, has been 
somewhat different, as it has passed over chiefly into an 6-sound. 

As a Symbol.—Standing at the head of the alphabet as a does, it is commonly used as 
a symbol to denote the first in order in a row or series. It is therefore thus employed to 
denote one of the notes (/a) in Musical Notation (q.v.) ; similarly in Logic (q.v.) to denote 
the universal affirmative. In Algebra (q.v.) the letters a, 0, c are used to denote known 
quantities as opposed to 2, y, z, the unknown quantities. In Geometry (q.v.), A, B, @ 
are familiar as a designation for points, angles, etc. In abstract reasonings and sup- 
positions, A, B, C are likewise employed as convenient designations for particular per- 
sons and things. In writing and printing, the series a, b, c is commonly used for 
reference. In nautical matters, Al, A2, A8 is in common use to denote the class and 
quality of ships. A stands also as the first of the Dominical Letters (q.v.). 

In Abbreviations, a is often found : thus, a for ‘‘ adjective,” ‘‘active,” etc.; a, or @, 
for at; A.D. for anno domini ; A.M., ante meridiem ; A.B. and A.M. = artium bacca- 
laureus and artium magister ; and among the Romans, A.U.C. for anno urbis condita 
or anno ab urbe condita. See also ABBREVIATIONS. 

In Grammatical Forms.—This same letter in a number of phrases and grammatical 
forms in English. In some of these it is a mutilated form of a fuller word. The first 
use to be noted is its employment beside an as an indefinite article ; both forms, a, an, 
are weakened from the A.S., dn, ‘‘one.” In provincial dialects a (a) appears as a pro- 
nominal form for he, etc., as in quotha, ‘‘ quoth he.” Sometimesit thus stands for have. 
It appears as a preposition for A.S., on, with a verbal noun in certain old phrases, as 
a-hunting, a-building ; also for A.S. of in Jack-a-lantern, John a Gaunt, Rich. ii. 1.3. 
Similarly as a prefix for A.S., on, in asleep (A.S. on slepe), away (AS. on weg), for off in 
adown (A.S. of dine) ; again intensive in a-thirst (A.S. of-thirst). It likewise stands for 
long 4 as a verbal prefix arise (A.S. a-risan), awake, and in many other phrases. 


A, as a note in music, is the major sixth of the scale of C major. When perfectly 
in tune to C, it stands in the proportion of 2 of 1. But in this state it would not bea fifth 
to D, the second note of the scale of C, being a comma too flat, which difference is as 80 
to 81. The ear being sensibly offended with this deficiency, the note A is therefore 
made the least degree higher than perfect—namely, 3%5,, by which the advantage is 
gained, that A is a fifth above D ({$%), or only deficient in the proportion of 1%1—a 
deficiency so trifling that the ear accepts the fifth, D, A, and the sixth, C, A, as perfect, 
although, mathematically calculated, the one is too great and the other too small.—For 
A major and A minor, see Kry. 


Al, a symbol by which first-class vessels are known in Lloyd’s register of British 
and American shipping (q.v). and by which the operations of shippers of goods and 
insurers are governed. Surveyors appointed by the society examine all vessels in course 
of building, with a view to ascertaining their character, and inscribing them accordingly 
in the register, A designates the character of the hull of the vessel; the figure 1, the 
efficient state of her anchors, cables, and stores; when these are insufficient, in quantity 
or quality, the figure 2 is used. The character A is assigned to a new ship for a certain 
number of years, varying from four to fifteen, according to the material and mode of 
building, but on condition of the vessel being statedly surveyed, to see that the efficiency 
is maintained. A vessel built under a roof is allowed an additional year on that account. 
An additional period of one year, and, in certain cases, of two years, is also allowed te 
vessels whose decks, outside planking, etc., are fastened in a specified way. After the 


Al. 
1 5 Taeieretn, 


original period has elapsed, the character A may be ‘‘continued” or ‘‘restored” for a time 
8 years), on condition of certain specified repairs.—When a vessel has passed the age 
for the character A, but is still found fit for conveying perishable goods to all parts of 
the world, it is registered A in red. (The symbol for this class was formerly 4 asterisk 
in red.)—Ships AS in black form the third class, and consist of such as are still found, 
on survey, fit to carry perishable goods on shorter voyages. 


AA, the name of a number of rivers and streams in the north of France, Holland, 
Germany, and Switzerland. As many as forty have been enumerated. The word is 
said to be of Celtic origin, but it is allied to the old German aha, Gothic ahva, identical 
with the Latin aqua, ‘‘ water.” Ach or Aach is another form of the same word. Four 
streams of the name of Ach fall into the lake of Constance. The word, in both forms, 
occurs as final syllable in many names of places, as Fulda (formerly Fuldaha), Biberach, 
Biberich, etc. In the plural it is Aachen (waters, springs), which is the German name 
of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.). Aix, the French name of so many places. connected with 


springs, is derived from Latin Ague, which became in old French A/gues, and then Aix. 
Compare the Celtic Esk, Ex, Axe, Ouse. 


AA, CurisTrAN KAREL HENDRIK, VAN DER, 1718-93 ; b. at Zwolle, Holland ; a cele- 
brated scholar and clergyman, author of works on natural science. His grandson, 
CHRISTIAN PIETER Rosipe, 1791-1851, »b. Amsterdam, was a poet of considerable 
prominence. Another of the same family (presumably), JAN, is the author of a 
Riographical Dictionary of the Netherlands. 

AACHEN. See Atx-LA-CHAPELLE. 


\A'GESEN, SvEnD, one of the earliest historians of Denmark, who lived in the latter 


part of the 12th century. His history of that country covers from the 4th to the 12th 
centuries, both inclusive. 


AALBORG (Eel-town), a seaport in the north of Jutland, with considerable trade ; pop., 
’90, 19,508. 


AALEN, a walled town of Wirtemberg, on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian 
Alps. In the town are linen and woolen factories, ribbon looms, and tanneries ; and 
near by are extensive iron works. A. was a free city from 1360 to 1863, and then an- 
nexed to Wiirtemberg. Pop. about 7000, 


AALI PASHA’, 1815-71; d, Constantinople, In 1834 he was secretary of legation to 
Austria; in 1888in the British legation, and for a time chargé des affaires. In1840 he was 
‘yder-secretary for foreign affairs; 1841 to 1844, ambassador to England; subsequently 
member of the Turkish council of state and justice, minister for foreign affairs, and 
imperial chancellor. He was in the foreign office from 1846 till 1852; then promoted 
to be field marshal and pasha. About the close of 1852, he was, for a time, grand vizier 
or prime minister, which position he resigned, and was made governor-general of 
Smyrna, and afterwards of Brusa. In 1854 he was restored to power as foreign minis- 
ter; in 1855 he attended the council at Vienna, and was once more made prime minister. 
He resigned Nov. 1, 1856, but the sultan kept him in the cabinet without official posi- 
tion. In 1858 he was again grand vizier, retiredthe next year, but returned again. In 
1861 the sultan made him once more the head of the cabinet, but in the same year he 
resigned and accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs. In June, 1867, he was appointed 
regent of the empire during the sultan’s visit to European courts. He bore a promi- 
nent part in the London conference of 1870, to settle upon Russia’s questions concern- 
ing the opening of the Black Sea. 


AALST. See ALostT. 
AALTEN, a t. in the Netherlands, on the Aar, 29 m.e. of Arnheim ; pop. about 7000. 


AAR, next to the Rhine and Rhone, the largest river in Switzerland, rises in the 
glaciers near the Grimsel in Berne, forms the falls of Handeck, 200 ft. high, flows through 
lakes Brienz and Thun, and passing the towns of Interlaken, Thun, Berne, Solothurn, 
Aarau, Brugg, and Kilngenau, joins the Rhine at the village of Coblenz, in Aargau, after 
a course of nearly 200 miles. It is a beautiful crystal stream, and, though rapid, is navi- 
gable for small-craft from lake Thun. There are several small rivers of the same name 
in Germany. 


AARAD, chief t. in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, near the Jura mountains, on 
the right bank of tie Aar, 41 m. n.e. from Berne. It is well built; has a town hall, bar- 
racks, several small museums, and a library rich in Swiss historical works. There 
are silk, cotton, leather, and cutlery manufactories, and an iron foundry. The town 
is famous for producing excellent mathematical instruments. The slopeyof the moun- 
tains are covered with vines, and the vicinity is very attractive. Pop., about 6800. 


AARD-VARK, Orycteropus capensis, the Earth-pig; a plantigrade animal, class 
mammailia, order edentata; native and common in South Africa ; resembling a short- 
legged pig; length, full grown, about 8 ft. 5in.; head 11 in.; taill ft. 9 in.; ears 6 in. 
Tt has along, thin head, the upper jaw projecting over the lower; mouth small; tongue 
long, slender, flat, and covered with glutinous saliva to entangle ants. The ears erect and 
pointed; eyes far up the snout; body thick and fat; limbs short and very strong. The 
skin is usually bare, but sometimes partially covered with stiff, reddish-brown hair; 
the tail is bare, thick at the base and sharp at the end. It is very timid, and hastens 
to burrow in the ground upon the least alarm, It feeds entirely on ants, going at dark 


d- If. i : 
Pen nde 1 6 


to their hills and running its long tongue into a passage-way ; the frightened ants are 
stuck in the saliva and devoured. The flesh is tolerable for food, and the hind quarters 
are sometimes smoked or salted and eaten. See illus., MARsSuPIALIA, vol. LX. 

AARD-WOLF, Proteles Lalandii viverra cristata, the Earth-wolf ; a quadruped of the 
digitigrade carnivorous mammalia; native of South Africa ; looks like a cross between the 
fox and hyena, and is about the size of a full-grown fox, but standing higher on its 
legs; ears larger and less hairy, tail not so bushy. It is striped, and might be mis- 
taken for the hyena, from which it differs chiefly in a more pointed head, and a fifth 
toe onthe fore foot. Its fur is ash-colored and woolly, and it has a coarse mane from 
head to tail, which is elevated when the animal is enraged, like the hair ona cat’s back. 
Its muzzle is black and nearly naked; legs and feet dark brown in front and gray behind; 
ears dark brown outside and gray inside. It goes abroad only in the night, and then 
for food.. It is fond of its kind, and a number will live in a single burrow. 


AARGAU (ARGOVIE), a canton of Switzerland, on the lower course of the Aar, and 
having the Rhine for its n. boundary. Its surface is diversified with hills and valleys, 
is well wooded, and generally fertile. The area is about 540 sq.m., and the population 
in 1890 was 193,580, rather more than half being Protestants. Besides agriculture, con- 
siderable manufacturing industry in cotton and silk is carried on both in the towns and 
country, and the prosperity of the population has of late markedly increased. In this 
canton is the castle of Habsburg or Hapsburg, the original seat of the imperial family of 
Austria. The chief town is Aarau. 

AAR’HUUS, a seaport on thee. coast of Jutland, and seat of a bishop; pop., 90, 33,308. 

AARIFI PASHA’, a Turkish statesman. He held successively many important offices, 
among them those of minister of foreign affairs, ambassador to France, and Grand Vizir.. 
He was a fine linguist, familiar with French, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, and has won 
a place in literature by translating The History of the Crusades from the French. He was. 
president of the council of state at the time of his death in 1896. 


AARON, the elder brother of Moses, was appointed his assistant and spokesman, and 
at the giving of the Mosaic law received for himself and his descendants the hereditary 
dignity of the priesthood. Aaron assisted his brother in the administration of public 
affairs. He died in the 123d year cf his age, on mount Hor, on the borders of Idumea. 
His third son, Eleazar, succeeded him in the office of high-priest. 


AARSENS, Francis VAN, 1572-1641; one of the greatest diplomatists of the United 
Provinces. He represented the States General at the French court many years, and was 
in diplomatic service in Venice, Germany, and England. Richelieu, with whom he 
had negotiations in 1624, ranked him as one of the three greatest politicians of the time. 
There is a stain on his memory because of his complicity in the death of Barneveldt, who 
was executed in 1619, by order of the States General, after atrial which was scarcely 
more than a mockery. 


AASEN, IvAN ANDREAS, b. 1813; a Norwegian philologist. He was the son of a. 
farmer; educated by his own exertions; studied botany, but turned his attention to the 
native dialects. In 1848 he published Det norske Folkesprogs Grammatik, and in 1850 added 
Ordbog over det norske Folkesprog, enlarged under the title of Norsk Ordbog in 1878, and still 
later a work on Norwegian proverbs. He was granted an annuity some years ago. 

AASVAR, islands off Norway, about lat. 66°, an important centre of herring fishery, 
in which more than 10,000 men are employed in December and January; but for the. 
rest of the year the islands are almost deserted. The fish is the great Nordland her- 
ring, and the catch often reaches 200,000 tons in a season. 


AB, the fifth month of the ancient Jewish year, now the eleventh (and in intercalary 
years the twelfth), in consequence of the transfer of new year from spring to autumn. 
On the first Cay of Ab there is a fast to commemorate the death of Aaron, and on the. 
ninth the most solemn of all Hebrew fasts, to mark the destruction of the first temple 
by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 B.c., and the second temple by Titus, 70 a.p. Ab may begin 
as early as July 10, oras late as August 7. 

ABAB'DE, ABABDEH, or ABABDIE, an African people occupying the region between 
the Nile and the Red Sea, south of Kossier, and near the latitude of Dera, or Derr. 
They are distinct from Arabs, though they intermarry, and accept the religion of the 
Koran. As a rule they are faithless and treacherous. They have few horses, but. 
fine breeds of camels and dromedaries. There are three tribes, numbering in all about 
120,000. Some are agriculturists, but the great part are nomadic. They have consid- 
erable possessions, and a small trade in senna and charcoal, which they send to Cairo. 


AB’ACA, or Maniua Hemp, is the fibre of a species of plantain or banana, Musa 
troglodytarum, a native of the Philippine isles, where it is extensively cultivated. The 
leaf-stalks are split into long strips and the fibrous part is then separated from the fleshy 
pulp. A laborer can in this way produce daily 50 lbs. of hemp. Before 1825, the quan- 
tity produced was insignificant, but now it amounts to nearly 31,000 tons annually. In 
Manila there is a steam rope-work for making ropes of it for naval purposes. They are 
very durable, but not very flexible. The fibre of a number of species of dA/uwsa is used in 
tropical countries, See PLANTAIN. ; 


iby Aard-wolf, 


Abandon. 


ABACOT, a word corrupted from bycocket, and said to mean a ‘‘ cap of state wrought 
up into the shape of two crowns, worn formerly by English kings.” The true word, 
bycocket, frequently found up to 1500 and later, after undergoing many corruptions 
appears in Spelman’s Glossarium (1664) as ‘‘ Abacot,” with the above definition. The 
original meaning probably survives in the Sp. dicoguin, a cap with two points. Henry 
V. wore a crown upon his bassinet at Agincourt, and Richard at Bosworth wore his 
crown upon his helmet ; so Henry VI. (crowned king of England and France) wore at 
Hedgley Moor two crowns upon his bycocket, but in no sense as part of it. 


AB’ACO, or Luca’ya, the largest of the Bahama islands, 80 m. long by about 15 m. 
wide, 150 m. e. of Florida, lat. 25° 51’ N., long. 77° 5’ W. Pop. 2000. Ship-building, 
wrecking, and turtle-fishing are the chief employments. 


AB’ACUS, a calculating machine or table occasionally employed in modern primary 
schools to make the elementary operations of arithmetic palpable. It consists of a frame 
with a number of parallel wires, on which beads or counters are strung. In ancient times, 
it was used in practical reckoning, and is so still in China, Persia, and elsewhere. — déa- 
cus Pythagoricus meant the multiplication-table.—ABACcDds, in arch., is a square or oblong 
level tablet on the capital of a column, and supporting the entablature. In the Doric, 
old Ionic, and Tuscan orders, the abacusis a regular oblong ; but in the new Ionic, 
Corinthian, and Roman orders, the abacus has concave sides, with truncated angles. 
Square marble tablets let into walls, and fields with figures in them inserted in mosaic 
floors, were also included under the term abacus in ancient architecture. 


ABAD’ (allied both in etymology and meaning to the Eng. abode), an affix to names of 
Persian origin, as Hyderabad, the ‘‘ dwelling” or city of Hyder. 


ABAD’ I. (Apu AMRu IBN Hazen), the first Moorish king of Seville, and founder 
of the Abadite dynasty. His ancestors were from Syria, but he was born near the 
Guadalquivir, and brought up in Seville, where by generosity and hospitality he became 
so popular that the people, in 1015, elected him king. He ruled 26 years, and added 
Cordova to his dominions. 


ABAD’ II, (MoHAMMED IBN HaBeEp), 1012-69; son of A. I. Heenlarged his father’s 
dominions by adding Andalusia. He is said to have been cruel and relentless. 


ABAD’ III. (MOHAMMED IBN HABED), 1039-95; son of A. II., a lover and patron of 
letters and writer of poetry. He was tolerant and kind, and peaceably added a part of 
‘Portugal to his kingdom. His chief opponent, Alfonso VI. of Castile, married A.’s 
daughter, and the alliance roused the jealousy of the smaller Moorish princes, who 
engaged the king of Morocco in a league by which A. and Alfonso were defeated. 
Seville was spared from sack by a A.’s prompt surrender. He was kept four years a 
prisoner in Morocco, and his daughters were compelled to spin wool for subsistence. 
A.’s verses, written while in captivity, are admired. He was the last of the Abadites. 


ABAD’DON. See APOLLYON. 


ABAFT (lit., dy aft). Nautical term, meaning behind, toward the stern, e.g., ‘‘abaft 
the mainmast,” equivalent to behind the mainmast, toward the stern of the vessel. 


ABA’KA KHAN d. 1280; the second Mongol king of Persia, of the family of 
Genghis Khan. He completed the conquests begun by his father, and consolidated the 
Mongol rule over western Asia. 


AB’/ANA and PHARPAR, ‘‘rivers of Damascus” (1. Kings v. 12); probably the 
present Barada and Awaj, the former flowing through Damascus, and the other passing 
8 m. to the south. Both rivers are lost in the marshes on the border of the Arabian 
desert. The plain of Damascus owes much of its fertility to the irrigation of these rivers. 


ABANCAY’, a. t. in Pern, 65 m. w.s.w. of Cuzco, on the Abancay, over which is one 
of the finest bridges in South America. The town has extensive sugar refineries ; sugar 
and hemp are cultivated, and silver is found in the mountains. 


ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH D’, 1758-92, a French statesman. When 
the revolution of 1789 broke out he was captain of cavalry, but Louis XVI. made him 
minister of war. In 1792 he was imprisoned by the revolutionary tribunal as a foe to 
freedom ; but while on the way from Orleans to Paris the transport was mobbed and he 
and his fellow-prisoners were butchered. 

ABANDON, ABANDONING, ABANDONMENT. This term, in its different grammatical 
and etymologic:! forms, has various applications in legal phraseology, but all more or 
less corresponding to its popular meaning. The following are examples: 

ABANDONING AN ACTION is a technical expression in Scotch legal procedure, signify- 
ing the act by which a plaintiff—or ‘‘ pursuer,” as he is called in Scotland—abandons 
or withdraws from his action on the payment of the costs incurred, and with the ap- 
proval of the judge before whom the action had previously been conducted. The same 
purpose is effected in the U. S. by the plaintiff in a court of common laweither entering 
a nolle prosequt, or at the trial withdrawing the record. In the courts of equity, the plain- 
tiff may move the dismissal of his own bill, or the defendant may move to dismiss the 
suit for want of prosecution by the plaintiff. Suits may also abate by the death or super- 
vening incapacity of the parties. - See ACTION. 

ABANDONMENT, in marine insurance, signifies the relinquishment to the insurer or 


Abere 18 


underwriter of goods or property saved from ashipwreck, and of all interest in the same, 
previous to the owners’ demanding payment in terms of the policy. See INSURANCE. 

ABANDONMENT of a wife by her husband is synonymous with desertion. See Hus 
BAND AND WIFE. 

ABANDONING or deserting seamen, by masters of merchant-vessels, is a misdemeanot 
and punishable by imprisonment. See SEAMEN. 

ABANO, PieTRO D’, an Italian philosopher, 1250-1316 ; educated in Constantinople 
and Paris ; professor of medicine in Padua ; wrote on philosophy and medicine, and, 
like other learned men of his time, practised astrology, by reason of which he was ac- 
cused of magic, and sentenced to be burned ; but he died in prison. 

ABAR’BANEL, See ABRAVANEL. 

ABARCA, JOAQUIN, a Spanish bishop, b. about 1780, d. 1844. For supporting the 
absolute rule of Ferdinand VII. he was made bishop of Leon ; but he went with Don 
Carlos to Portugal and England, acting as his agent, though finally losing the pretender’s 
regard. Banished from Spain, he sought a monastery at Lanzi, where he died. 


AB’ARIM, a range of mountains in the land of Moab, e. of the Jordan and facing 
Jericho. The highest point was Mt. Nebo, the place where Moses closed his earthly 
career. 

AB’ARIS, a Scythian priest of Apollo, to whom it was fabled the god gave a golden 
arrow on which to ride through the air. This dart rendered him invisible, and it cured 
diseases and gave oracles. <A. gave the arrow to Pythagoras. ; 


ABASCAL’, José FERNANDO, 1743-1821; a Spanish statesman and general; entered 
the army in 1762; governor of Cuba in 1796; viceroy of Peru from 1806 to 1816; in the 
year 1816 made a marquis, and afterwards captain-general of Spain. He was noted for 
administrative ability, firmness, and moderation. 

ABATEMENT. This is a term used in various senses in the law of the United States, 
as follows: 1. Abatement of Freehold, where a stranger without right enters and gets 
possession. See FREEHOLD. 2, Abatement of Nuisances, which is a remedy against 
injury by nuisance. See Nuisance. 3. Plea in Abatement, by means of which a de- 
fendant, on some formal and technical ground, seeks to abate or quash the action. See 
Action, 4. Abatement of Legacies and Debts, where the estate is insufficient for pay- 
ment in full. See Leaacy, 5. Abatement by the death of parties to actions at law and 
suits in equity, which are in consequence stopped till revived. The marriage of a 
plaintiff, the change or loss of interest and right, and other similar considerations, have 
also the effect of abating legal proceedings. See Action. 6. Abatement or discount in 
commercial law. See MERCANTILE Law. 1%. Abatement or deduction of duties levied 
by the custom-house. See Customs Duties; DRAWBACK. 

ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, is a mark placed over a portion of the paternal coat-of- 
arms of a family, significative of some base or ungentleman-like act on the part of the 
bearer. The coat is then said to be abated, or lowered in dignity. Guillim gives nine 
such marks, all of which are of either one or the other of the two disgraceful colors, 
tanné (tawney) and sanguine. Such are the delf tanné, assigned to him who revokes his 
challenge; the escutcheon reversed sanguine, proper to him who offends the chastity of 
virgin, wife, or widow, or flies from his sovereign’s banner; the point-dexter tanné, due 
to him who overmuch boasteth himself of his martial acts; and the like. Marks of 
abatement are generally repudiated by the best heraldic authorities. Menestrier calls 
them sottises anglaises, and Montagu is of opinion that we shall seek in vain for a more 
appropriate designation. Abatements are carefully to be distinguished from such sub- 
tractive alterations in coats-of-arms as signify juniority of birth, or removal from the 
principal house or senior branch of the family. These are commonly called marks of 
cadency, distinctions, differences, or brisures. The latter term is generally applied to 
marks of bastardy, which might with less impropriety be classed with abatements. 

ABATI, or Det’ ABATO, Bocco, member of a Florentine family, achieved ignoble 
distinction by an act of treachery, and was doomed to eternal contempt by Dante, who 
represents him in his Jnferno (canto xxxii.), as consigned to the lowest circle of hell. 
During a battle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines in 1260, Jacopo del Vacca carried 
the Florentine standard, until his hand was severed from its wrist by a stroke of Abati’s 
sword. With the fall of their standard, the Florentines lost heart, and Abati had the base 
satisfaction of enabling the enemies of his city to conquer. 


ABATI, or DELL’ Ansato, Niccoxto, 1512-71; a fresco-painter of Modena. He 
assisted Primaticcio in decorating the palace of Fontainebleau. A.’s work has been 
highly praised by Lanzi, Algarotti, and others. One of his finest pieces in oil is the 
“‘ Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul,” now in the Dresden gallery. 


ABATTIS, a species of intrenchment, and one of theoldest. It consists of trees 
felled (abattu), and laid side by side, with the branches directed towards the enemy, the 
softer twigs being cut off. It thus forms a breastwork to fire over, and is very useful 
in field-works and in the outworks of regular fortifications, for retarding the enemy’s 
advance, See illus,, FoRTIFICATIONS, vol. VI. ' 


19 teary 


ABATTOIR (Fr. adattre, to fell or destroy), a slaughter-house. The use of this term 
has passed into England from France, where the example was first given of public estab- 
lishments for the slaughter of animals used as food, on such a scale and with such san- 
itary arrangements as to obviate the injurious effects that are found to result from the 
existence of private slanghter-houses in the midst of a crowded population. This great 
public improvement originated with Napoleon, who passed a decree in 1807 for the 
erection of public abatioirs, The extensive works connected with this design were 
nearly completed before the fall of the Empire; but it was not till the close of 1818 that 
the Parisian butchers ceased to slaughter in their private establishments. There are now 
a number of these abattoirs in Paris—several of them situated on the banks of the Seine, 
containing over 240 slaughter-houses—which, both in architectural propriety and com 
pleteness of internal arrangement, may be regarded as models of their kind. The charge 
per head is, for an ox six fr. a cow 4 fr., a calf 2 fr., and a sheep 50 centimes. Of the 
appearance and management of one of the great Parisian abattoirs, a good account is 
given by Sir Francis Head in his amusing work, A Faggot of French Sticks, Other 
towns in France have similar abattoirs; and so have Mantua and Brussels. 

In the United States, the government, of course, has no control over abattoirs or 
slaughter-houses, as they are generally called. Those of Chicago, Kansas City, Kansas, 
St. Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Louisville, Indianapolis, and Buffalo are celebrated 
for the great extent of their buildings, the improved machinery and appliances used, 
the marvelous rapidity with which the work is performed, and the enormous annual 
output. At Kansas City upward of 10,000 hogs and 1000 cattle can be daily disposed 
of. In the article on the city of Chicago the reader will find similar statistics. 


ABATTUTA (Ital.), in music, in strict or measured time. 


ABAUZIT, Frrmin, a French savant, was born at Uzés, in Languedoc, 1679, and died 
at Geneva 1767. His parents were Protestant, and at the revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes, being only six years of age, he escaped with difficulty, by his mother’s contri- 
vance, from the hands of the authorities, who wished to educate him into Catholicism, 
and was sent to Geneva. Here he prosecuted his studies with such intense ardor and 
diligence, that he became versed in almost all the sciences. He travelled in England and 
Holland in 1698, where he made the acquaintance of Newton, Bayle, and other 
eminent writers. Newton, in sending him one of his controversial works, paid him the 
distinguished compliment of saying: ‘‘ You are worthy to decide between Leibnitz and 
me.” King William wished to retain him permanently in England, and to that end made 
him several advantageous offers; but his affection for his mother induced him to return 
to Geneva. He translated the New Testament into French in 1726, and for his lucid 
investigations into the ancient history of Geneva he received from its authorities the 
rights of citizenship. He likewise wrote numerous theological and archeological trea- 
tises, besides leaving one or two scientific and artistic dissertations in manuscript, but 
the greater portion of these were burned by his heirs, who were Catholics. His orthodoxy 
has been disputed. From some of his works we gain the impression that he was a Uni- 
tarian. His personal qualities secured him universal esteem. Rousseau, who could not 
bear to praise a contemporary, penned his solitary panegyric on A. 


ABBA (Gr., ’A8fa), is a Chaldaic form of the, Hebrew word for father, and appears 
to have had originally the same signification as our papa (7a77ra). Later it wasemployed 
in speaking of the Deity, and in the New Testament (Mark xiv. 36; Rom. viii. 15 ; 
Gal. iv. 6), its meaning is added, for the benefit of readers unfamiliar with Hebrew. 
The title Abba is given to the bishops of the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, and 
by the bishops to the bishop of Alexandria, See BrsHor ; Papa. 

ABBADIE, ANTOINE and ARNAUD-MICHEL D’, two brothers, French travelers, known 
for their researches in Abyssinia, from 1837 to 1845. According to their own account, 
their objects were purely ethnological and geographical; but they were regarded by 
certain English travelers and missionaries as agents employed by the French govern- 
ment for religious and political purposes; amongst the results of their travels are a 
catalogue of Ethiopian MSS., an Ethiopian version of the Pastor of Hermas, and the 
now completed Géodésie de i’ Ethiopie. The English expedition to Abyssinia led Arnaud 
dA. to publish, in 1868, his Dowze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie, Antoine published Dic- 
tionnatre dela Langue Amarinna in 1881. He died in 1897, 

ABBADIE, JACQUES, D.D., 1658 (?) -1727; a French Protestant divine ; b. Nay, near 
Pau, d., London. Of poor descent, he was educated by his friends, and advanced so rapidly 
that at 17 he was granted the degree of doctor of theology. He spent several years in 
Berlin as minister of the French Protestant church, and in 1688 accompanied Marshal 
Schomberg to England, becoming minister of the French church in London. He was 
strongly attached to the cause of William ITI., who made him dean of Killaloe. He 
wrote a defense of the English revolution. 


ABBANDONAMENTE (Ital.), in music, with self-abandonment; despondingly. 


ABBAS, the uncle of Mohammed, the Arabian prophet, and the chief promoter of 
his religion (d. 652), was the founder of the family of the AnBasiDEs, who ruled as caliphs 
of Bagdad from 749 to 1258, and afterwards exercised the spiritual functions of the 
caliphate in Egypt, under the protection of mamelukes, till 1517, when that dignity passed 
to the Turkish sultan. Descendants of this family still live in Turkey and India.—The 
ABBASIDES in Persia were descended from the race of the Sofi, who ascribed their 
origin tothe caliph Alii This race acquired dominion in 1500, and became extinct in 


Abbeville. 20 


1736. Among them, Abbas I., surnamed the great, was the most eminent ruler. He 
came to the throne 1585, and died 1628. His reign was marked by a series of victories 
over the Turks. In alliance with England, he destroyed, in 1621, the Portuguese colony 
at Ormuz. 


ABBAS I., a renowned monarch of Persia, was the youngest son of shah Moham- 
med Khodahendah. He made a successful rebellion against his father; caused one or 
more of his brothers to be murdered, and took possession of the throne when but 18 
years old, in 1585. He went against the predatory Uzbeks, who plundered Khorassan, 
defeating them in 1595 in a great battle near Herat, and driving them out of his domains. 
He was in almost continuous war with the Turks, over whom he gained many important 
successes, adding territory to his dominions. By a victory at Bassorah, in 1605, he 
extended his empire beyond the Euphrates, and Achmed I. was forced to cede Shirwah 
and Kurdistan. In 1618 he defeated the combined forces of the Turks and Tartars near 
Sultaineh, and made an advantageous peace. But the Turks soon renewed the war, 
whereupon, in 1628, Abbas took Bagdad after a year’s siege. When he died, in 1628. 
his empire extended from the Tigris to the Indus. He distinguished himself not only 
by the successes of his arms and the magnificence of his court, but by many administra- 
tive reforms, especially encouraging commerce, to facilitate which he built important 
highways and bridges. He was tolerant to foreigners, especially Christians, though to 
his own family he was cruel, causing his eldest son to be killed, and the eyes of his other 
children to be put out. 


ABBASIDES, THE, Caliphs of Bagdad, and the most famous of all the Saracen 
rulers. They claim to have descended from Abbas, the uncle and adviser of the prophet 
(566-652 a.D.); and they succeeded the Ommiads, who were caliphs of Damascus. The 
family of Abbas acquired great influence because of their near relationship to the prophet, 
and Ibrahim, fourth in descent from Abbas, gained several successes over the Ommiad 
armies, but was captured and executed in 747 by Caliph Merwan. Ibrahim’s brother, 
Abul-Abbas, whom he had named as his successor, assumed the title of caliph, and by a 
decisive victory near the river Zab, in 750, entirely overthrew the Ommiad dynasty; 
Merwan was executed, and the house of Abbas was firmly established in the govern- 
ment, though the Spanish possessions were lost by the establishment of the independent 
caliphate of Cordova. Almansor succeeded Abul-Abbas, and founded Bagdad as the 
seat of theempire. He fought with success against the Turks and Greeks of Asia Minor; 
but from this period the rule of the Abbasides was distinguished by the development. of 
liberal arts rather than the extension of territory. The severity of Mohammed’s religion 
was relaxed and the faithful yielded to the seductions of luxury. The caliphs Haroun 
Al-Raschid, 786-809, and Al-Mamun, 813-833, attained world-wide celebrity for gorgeous 
palaces, vast treasures, and brilliant equipage, in which their splendor contrasted strik- 
ingly with the poverty of European sovereigns. Haroun is well known as a hero of the 
Arabian Nights, and Al-Mamun as a patron of literature and science. But with all their 
splendor the caliphs were tyrants, and their memory is stained with deeds of blood 
wrought through jealousy or revenge. Within less than a century the domains of the 
Abbasides suffered dismemberment, and their power rapidly decreased. Rival sover- 
eignties (the Ashlabites, Edristes, etc.) arose in Africa, and an independent government 
was instituted in Khorasan in 820, under the Taherites. In the west the Greeks again 
began to encroach; but the fatal blow came from a despised and almost savage race. 
The caliphs had long been waging war against the Tartars of Turkestan, and many cap- 
tives taken in these wars were dispersed over the empire. Attracted by the bravery of 
these prisoners, and fearing rebellion among the subjects, Motassem (833-842), the founder 
of Samarah and successful opponent of the Greeks under Theophilus, formed body- 
guards of the Turkoman prisoners, who speedily became the real rulers of the Saracen 
empire. Mota-Wakkel, son of Motassem, was assassinated by them in 861, and the 
succeeding caliphs were only puppets in their hands. The caliph Radhi, 934-941, was 
compelled to delegate to Mohammed ben Rayek, under the title of ‘‘commander of com- 
manders,” the government of the army and other important functions of the caliphate. 
Province after province proclaimed independence; the rule of the caliphs was narrowed 
to Bagdad and vicinity, and the house of Abbas lost its power in the east forever when 
Hulague, prince of the Mongols, set Bagdad on fire, and slew the reigning caliph, 
Motassem, Feb. 20, 1258. The Abbasides continued to hold the semblance of power in 
the nominal caliphate of Egypt, and feebly attempted to recover their ancient seat. The 
last of the A., Mota-Wakkel III., was taken by sultan Selim I., conqueror of Egypt, to 
Constantinople, and kept there some time as a prisoner. He returned to Egypt, and 
ed a Cairo, in 1538, a pensioner of the Ottoman government, and the last of the 

asides. 


ABBAS-MIRZA, a Persian prince, well known by his wars against Russia, was the son 
of the shah Feth-Ali, and was born in 1788. Abbas possessed great talents and acquire. 
ments, anda love for the manners and culture of the west. When he was yet young, his 
father made him governor of the province Azerbijan, where, by the help of English 
officers, he applied himself to the reform of the army. When Persia, in 1811, influenced 
by France, declared war against Russia, Abbas was commander-in-chief of the main 
body of the Persian army, but was unsuccessful. Persia lost, at the peace of Gulistan, 


Ab 
21 Abbeville 


in 1813, its remaining possessions in the Caucasus, and was forced to acknowledge the 
flag of Russia on the Caspian sea. At the instigation of Abbas, a new war broke out in 
1826, between Feth-Ali and Russia. The prince fought a second time with extraordi- 
nary bravery at the head of the army, but was again obliged to yield to the superiority 
of the Russian arms, and to conclude a peace, on Feb. 22, 1828, at Turkmantschai, by 
which Persia lost all share in Armenia. In this treaty, Russia had guaranteed to Abbas 
the succession to the Persian throne, the consequence of which was that he became 
dependent on Russia, and was obliged to give up his connection with England. When, 
in 1829, the Russian ambassador at Teheran was murdered in a popular tumult, which 
he had provoked by imprudence, Abbas went in person to St. Petersburg, to prevent any 
ill consequences, and to maintain the peace. He was received by the emperor with 
kindness, and went back to Persia loaded with presents. He died in 1833. His death 
was a great loss to his country, although he could not have prevented the encroachments 
of Russia. His eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, mounted the throne in 1834. 


ABBAS PASHA’, 1813-54; grandson of Mehemet Ali, and viceroy of Egypt; active 
but not distinguished in Mehemet’s wars in Syria. After Ibraham’s short reign, he took 
the throne (in 1848) as hereditary successor, but was a cruel and capricious ruler. He 
dismissed the Europeans in state service, and frustrated much of Mehemet’s good work; 
but he successfully resisted Turkish attempts to lower the condition and prestige of 
Egypt, and assisted the Sultan in the Crimean war. It is-supposed that he was mur- 
dered. Abbas Pasha is also the name of the Khedive of Egypt, who was installed in 1892. 


ABBATE, NiccoLo DELL, or NiccoLo ABATI, was born at Modena in 1509 or 1512, 
and died at Paris in 1571. He was an able and skilful artist in fresco-painting, and was 
a follower both of Raphael and Correggio; yet he rather blent the two styles in one than 
imitated either separately. His influence is traceable in the art which prevailed during 
the second half of the 16th century. His earlier works are to be seen at Modena; his 
later ones at Bologna, among which is his ‘‘ Adoration of the Shepherds,” considered 
his finest; but he is best known by the frescoes which he executed for the castle of Fon- 
tainebleau, from the designs of Primaticcio. 


ABBATUC’CI, JAcQUES PIERRE, 1726-1812; b. in Corsica; a rival and political 
opponent of Paoli; but he submitted to his control in the war with the Genoese. He 
became general in the royal armr, but after the capture of Toulon resigned and went to 
France, where he was promoted to general of division. When the English fleet left 
Corsica, in 1796, he returned home. 


ABBATUC’CI, JACQUES PIERRE CHARLES, 1791-1857 ; nephew of Charles ; law officer 
under the restoration. After the revolution of 1830, he was made presiding judge at 
Orleans, and sent thence to the Chamber of Deputies. He was a leader of opposition to 
Guizot’s ministry, and conspicuous at reform banquets. In the National Assembly in 
1848, he was a vigorous opponent of the social democratic movement. He became a 
warm supporter of Napoleon III., who made him minister of justice and keeper of the 
seals. His sons, Charles, Antoine Dominique, and Séverin, were supporters of the 
Bonapartes. 


ABBE, the French name for an abbot (q.v.), but often used in the general sense of a 
priest or clergyman. By aconcordat between pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), the 
French king had the right to nominate upwards of 200 abdés commendataires, who, with- 
out having any duty to perform, drew aconsiderable proportion of the revenues of the 
convents. The hope of obtaining one of those sinecures led multitudes of young men, 
many of them of noble birth, to enter the clerical career, who, however, seldom went 
further than taking the inferior orders (see ORDERS, Hoty); and it became customary to 
call all such aspirants abbés—jocularly, abbés of St. Hope. They formed a considerable 
and influential class in society; and an abbé, distinguished by a short black or violet- 
colored frock, and a peculiar style of wearing the hair, was found as friend or ghostly 
adviser in almost every family of consequence. When acandidate obtained an abbey, 
he was enjoined to take holy orders; but many procured dispensation, and continued te 
draw the revenues as secular or lay abbots. 

ABBE, CLEVELAND, b. New York, 1838; astronomer and meteorologist ; in 1868 be- 
came director of the Cincinnati observatory. The system which he inaugurated here of 
weather forecasts,based upon daily meteorological reports by telegraph, attracted the 
attention of the government, and led to the establishment of a similar system at Wash- 
ington, whither A. wascalled to prepare the weather predictions, 1871, July 1. He has 
contributed to periodicals and cyclopedias, and is the author of a number of works on 
meteorology. To him is due the introduction of the present system of standard time. 

ABBESS, the superior of a religious community of women, corresponding in rank 
and authority to an abbot (q.v.), except in not being allowed to exercise the spiritual 
functions of the priesthood—such as preaching, confession, etc. 

ABBETT, Lzon, b. Philadelphia, 1838 ; admitted to the bar in that city, 1857; in the 
same year moved to New York. In 1867 he took up his residence in N. J., was corpo- 
ration counsel of Hoboken, served in the state assembly and senate, in 1883 was elected 
governor, and was re-elected in 1889. In 1893, he was appointed to the state judiciary ; 
and died in 1894, 


ABBEVILLE, a co. in South Carolina, between the Saluda and the Savannah rivers 
Area, 1006 sq.m. ; pop. 90, 46,854. Co. seat, Abbeville. 


Abbott.” 22 


ABBEVILLE, a fortified t. of France, in the dep. of Somme, stands on the river 
Somme, about 12 m. from its mouth, and 90 m.n. by w. of Paris. It is built partly 
on an island, and partly on the banks of the river; the streets are narrow and ill 
paved, and the houses built mostly of brick and wood. The building most worthy of 
notice is the church of St. Wolfran, commenced in the reign of Louis XII., whose facade is 
a splendid example of the flamboyant style, being pierced by three deep portals, and sur- 
mounted by three high gothic towers. The chief manufactures of A. are velvets, serges, 
cottons, linens, sacking, hosiery, jewelry, soap, glass-wares, glue, paper, etc. It is a 
station on the Railway du Nord, and is connected by canals with Amiens, Paris, Lille, 
and Belgium. Vessels of between 150 and 200 tons can sail up the Somme as far as 
Abbeville. Pop. 20,000. 


ABBEY. See MoNAsTERY, SANCTUARY. 


ABBEY, Epwin A., artist, b. Philadelphia, 1852; studied at the Pennsylvania 
Academy of Fine Arts. He early began to execute book and magazine illustrations for 
publishers, and has contributed to all the leading periodicals. His series of illustrations 
of Herrick’s Poems, which had originally appeared in Harper’s Magazine, were collected 
in book-form, 1882. He has also painted in water-colors. One of his most striking pieces 
of work isa series of paintings illustrating the Quest of the Holy Grail on the walls of the 
delivery room of the new public library in Boston. Since 1878 he has resided in Europe. 


ABBEY, Henry E., theatrical manager, was born in Akron, Ohio, in 1848; and spent 
his boyhood as a clerk in a jewelry house. At the age of twenty-two he began his 
theatrical career by becoming advance agent for Edwin Adams. In 1871 he leased the 
Akron Opera House, but not succeeding, abandoned the project, and became a clerk in 
the box office of the Euclid Avenue Opera House, Cleveland. He then became treasurer 
of Elisler’s Opera House in Pittsburg, and from there set out on a bolder professional 
career. His first effort was as manager for Lawrence Barrett, in which a signal success 
attended him. This venture was followed by the engagement for Lotta. After various 
fluctuations in his fortunes, he took the Park Theatre in New York, and formed one of 
the best comedy companies in the country. He acted as manager for Sara Bernhardt, 
Patti, Neilson, Mrs. Langtry, and Henry Irving, with remarkable success in every case. 
He was for some time manager of Booth’s Theatre and the Grand Opera House in New 
York, at the same time running the Park Theatre in Boston and the Lyceum Theatre in 
London. Hed. in New York city, Oct. 17, 1896. 


ABBOT (‘‘father”’). This name, originally given to any aged monk, was afterwards 
more strictly applied to the superior of a monastery or abbey. Since the 6th c., abbots 
have belonged to the clerical orders, but at first they were not necessarily priests. After 
the second Nicene council (787), abbots were empowered to consecrate monks for the 
lower sacred orders; but they remained in subordination under their diocesan bishops 
until the 11th c. As abbeys became wealthy, abbots increased in power and influence; 
many received episcopal titles; and all were ranked as prelates of the church next to the 
bishops, and had the right of voting in church-councils. Even abbesses contended for 
the same honors and privileges, but without success. In the 8th and 9th c., abbeys 
began to come into the hands of laymen, as rewards for military service. In the 10th c. 
many of the chief abbeys in Christendom were under lay-abbots (abbates milites, or 
abba-comites), while subordinate deans or priors had the spiritual oversight. The mem- 
bers of the royal household received grants of abbeys,as their maintenance, and the king 
kept the richest for himself. Thus, Hugo Capet of France was lay-abbot of St. Denis, 
near Paris. Sometimes convents-of nuns were granted to men, and monasteries to women 
of rank. These abuses were, in a great measure, reformed during the 10th c. After 
the reformation of the order of Benedictines, monasteries arose that were dependent 
upon the mother-monastery of Clugny and without abbots, being presided over by priors 
or pro-abbates. Of the orders founded after the 11th c., only some named the superiors 
of their convents abbots; most, from humility or other cause, used the titles of prior, 
major, guardian, rector. Abbesses have almost always remained under the jurisdiction 
of their diocesan bishop; but the abbots of independent or liberated abbeys acknowl. 
edged no lord but the pope. In the middle ages, the so-called abdates mitrati frequently 
enjoyed episcopal titles, but only a few had dioceses. Before the period of seculariza. 
tion in Germany, several of the abbots in that country had princely titles and powers. 
In England there were a considerable number of mitred abbots who sat and voted in the 
house of lords. The election of an abbot belongs, as a rule, to the chapter or assembly 
of the monks, and is afterwards confirmed by the pope or by the bishop, according as 
the monastery is independent or under episcopal jurisdiction. But from early times, the 
pope in Italy has claimed the right of conferring abbacies, and the concordat of 1516 
gave that right to the king of France. Non-monastic clergy who possessed monasteries 
were styled secular abbots; while their vicars, who discharged the duties, as well as all 
abbots who belonged to the monastic order, were styled regular abbots. In France, the 
abuse of appointing secular abbots was carried to a great extent previous to the time of 
the revolution. (See ABBE.) Often monasteries themselves chose some powerful person 
as their secular abbot, with a view of ‘‘commending” or committing their abbey to his 
protection (abbés commendataires). In countries which joined in the reformation, the 
possessions of abbeys were mostly confiscated by the crown; but in Hanover, Bruns- 
wick. and Wiirtemberg. several monasteries and convents were retained as educational 


Abbeville. 
23 Abbott." 


establishments. In the Greek church, the superiors of convents are called hegumeni or 
Mandrites, and general abbots, archimandrites. 


ABBOT, BENJAMIN, LL.D.,1762-1849 ; a New England teacher, who had among his 
pupils Jared Sparks, Daniel Webster, George Bancroft, Edward Everett, and others 
who became famous. For nearly 50 years A. was at the head of Phillips Academy, in 
Exeter, N. H. 


ABBOT, Ezra, L1.D., b. 1819; son of a farmer; graduated at Bowdoin in 1840 ; spent 
five years in teaching in academies. In 1847 settled in Cambridge, Mass., and found 
employment in the libraries of Harvard college and Boston, pursuing private studies in 
philology and theology. In 1856 he was appointed assistant librarian in Harvard, with 
the exclusive duty of classifying and cataloguing the books. He resigned in 1872 to 
accept the Bussey professorship of New Testament criticism and interpretation in the 
- Cambridge Divinity school. In 1852 he was a member of the American Oriental society, 
and became its recording secretary ; in 1861 a member of the American Academy of Arts 
and Sciences ; in 1871 University Lecturer on the Textual Criticism of the New Testa- 
ment. Among his works are New Discussions of the Trinity, Bibliography of the Doctrine 
of a Future Life, as an appendix to Rey. W. R. Alger’s Critical History of the Doctrine, 
and The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel—External Hvidences (1880). He edited, with 
notes or appendixes, Norton’s Statement of the Reasons for not Believing the Doctrines of 
the Trinitarians, Lamson’s Church of the First Three Centuries, and other controversial 
works. He was employed on the American edition of Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible 
(his bibliographical articles being especially valuable), and was a member of the Ameri- 
can Bible Revision Committee. Among his last labors was the assistance he rendered to 
Dr. C. R. Gregory, of Leipsic, in the preparation of a i*rolegomena to Tischendorf’s last 
critical ed. of the Greek Testament. As a bibtical scholar he stood in the very first 
rank. Hed. Cambridge, 1884. 


ABBOT, GoRHAM DuMMER, 1807-74, teacher and writer, studied theology at Andover 
and took charge of a Presbyterian Church at New Rochelle, New York, but gave up 
preaching and established a female seminary in New York City (afterwards the Spingler 
Institute) where he taught for twenty-two years. He wrote The Family at Home, Nathan 
Dickerman, Pleasure and Profit, and other works. 

ABBOT, HENRY LARCOM, LL.D., military engineer, born in 1831, graduated at West 
Point 1854; chief of artillery at Richmond and at the capture of Fort Fisher, 1864-5; 
chief of the U. S. engineers from 1886 to 1895, when he retired. He devised the coast 
defence system of submarine mines. 

ABBOT, SAMUEL, 1732-1812 ; one of the founders of the theological seminary at An- 
dover, Mass., toward which he gave $20,000 in 1807, and $100,000 more in his will. He 
was a successful merchant of Boston and a free donor to worthy charities. 

ABBOT, WILLIs J., author, b. in 1865, best known by his Blue Jacket series of stories 
relating to the naval history of the United States and by a series of stories on the U. S. 
civil war. 

ABBOT OF JOY (ABBE DE LIESSE), the title bestowed upon the chief of a brother- 
hood founded at Lille. He was nominated by the magistrate and people of the town, 
and was invested as an outward distinction of his office with a silver gilt cross, four 
ounces in weight, which he wore upon his hat. Accompanied by a suite of officers and 
servants who bore before him a standard of red silk, he presided over the games which 
were held at Arras and the neighboring towns during the period of the carnival. 

ABBOT OF MISRULE (in Scotland, the ABBoT OF UNREASON), the person who was 
selected to preside over the merry revels at Christmas in the middle ages. 

ABBOTSFORD, the seat of Sir Walter Scott, is situated on the south bank of the 
Tweed, a little above its confluence with the Gala, and about three miles from the town 
of Melrose. Before it became, in 1811, the property of Sir Walter, the site of the house 
and grounds of A. formed a small farm known by the name of Clarty Hole. The new 
name was the invention of the poet, who loved thus to connect himself with the days 
when Melrose abbots passed over the fords of the Tweed. On this spot, a sloping bank 
overhanging the river, with the Selkirk hills behind, he built at first a small villa, now 
the western wing of the castle. Afterwards, as his fortune increased, he added the 
remaining portions of the building, on no uniform plan, but with the desire of combining 
in it some of the features (and even actual remains) of those ancient works of Scottish 
architecture which he most venerated. The result was that singularly picturesque and 
irregular pile, which has been aptly characterized as ‘‘a romance in stone and lime.” 
It has remained in the family for several generations. The great-granddaughter of the 
novelist married the Hon. Joseph Constable Maxwell, who, on becoming proprietor of A., 
assumed the name of Scott. 

ABBOTT, AUSTIN, b. in Boston, Mass., 1831; brother of Dr. Lyman Abbott and of 
Benjamin Vaughan Abbott. He aided the latter in preparing the digest of the laws of the 
U.S. He contributed to light literature and with Benjamin and Lyman was the author 
of two novels, Matthew Caraby and Conecut Corners. He wasan able lecturer on law and was 
dean of the New York Law School at the time of his death, which occurred in 1896. 

ABBOTT, BENJAMIN VAUGHAN, 1830-90; son of Jacob. He was educated in New 
York, and admitted to the bar in 1851. He produced many volumes of reports and digests 


Abbott. 
Abbreviations. 2 4 


of federal and state laws, and was a member of the national commission to prepare 4 
digest of the laws of the United States, published in 1889. 

ABBOTT, Emma A., an American vocalist, b. Chicago, 1849; appeared in concerta 
at the age of nine, was afterwards soprano of Dr. E. H. Chapin’s church (Univ.) in New 
York ; in 1872 went to Europe to prosecute her studies ; made her début in opera, May 
2, 1875, at Covent Garden theatre, London, and after a tour of the British cities appeared 
in New York, Feb. 7, 1877. She visited all the principal cities in Europe and America. 
Miss Abbott was married, Feb. 26, 1874, to Mr. E. J. Wetherell. She died 1891. 


ABBOTT, Jacos, a native of Maine, born 1803 (d. 1879). He graduated at Bowdoin 
college in 1820. He is a remarkably voluminous writer, and has acquired a large 
measure of popularity from the simplicity and earnestness of his thought. He has 
addressed himself principally to the young, and it is perhaps not too much to say that 
of all works intended for the juvenile mind, his are the best in the English language. 
So thoughtful an instructor of youth even as Dr. Arnold speaks in high terms of The 
Way to do Good. Nearly all his books have been repeatedly republished in England, 
and some have been translated into various European and Asiatic languages. His most 
popular works are the Rollo Books and The Young Christian. He also published the 
Franconia Stories ; Histories of Celebrated Persons, 30 vols.; Harper’s Story Books, 36 
vols., etc. 

ABBOTT, Sir JoHN JoSEPH CALDWELL, Canadian statesman, was born in St. Andrew’s, 
Quebec, in March, 1821. He was educated at home by his father, the Rev. Joseph 
Abbott, rector of St. Andrew’s, and entered McGill College, Montreal. Graduating 
there, he studied law, and in 1847 was called to the bar of Lower Canada. In 1859 he 
entered political life as representative from his native county of Argenteuil in the 
Assembly of United Canada, and represented this constituency until the union in 1867, 
when he became member of the Dominion Parliament for the same place. In 1862 he 
was Solicitor-General in the Cabinet of John Sandfield Macdonald, but resigned before 
his chief lost power. Mr. Abbott, still a member of Parliament, was legal adviser to 
Sir Hugh Allan in his negotiations with Sir John Macdonald’s Government over the 
proposed Canadian Pacific Railway, and the money received by Sir John iu 1873 was 
paid by Sir Hugh at the advice of Mr. Abbott. Mr. Abbott, ds a result of his share in 
the proceeding, spent the seven years, 1874-1880, in private life, during which time he 
devoted himself largely to his private practice. In 1880 Mr. Abbott re-entered Parlia- 
ment, again representing Argenteuil; and in 1887 Sir John Macdonald invited him to 
join the Cabinet, as a Minister without portfolio, and he has sat in the council since 
then. Besides his Insolvency act, Mr. Abbott drafted the Jury Law Consolidation act 
for Lower Canada, and various financial acts. In June, 1891, on the death of Sir John 
Macdonald, Mr. Abbott was made Premier of the Dominion Government. Died 1893, 


ABBOTT, JoHN STEPHENS CaBotT, 1805-77; b. Maine; d. Conn.; brother of Gorham 
D. He graduated at Bowdoin, 1825; studied at Andover theol. sem. ; traveled in the 
United States and Europe to study systems of education ; was ordained as a Congrega- 
tional minister in 1830, and settled successively at Worcester and Roxbury and Nan- 
tucket, Mass. In 1833 he published his first book, The Mother at Home, and soon after- 
wards The Child at Home. About 1844 he devoted himself solely to literary work, and 
rapidly produced Kings and Queens, or Life in the Palace ;The French Revolution of 1789 ; 
INstory of Napoleon Bonaparte ; Napoleon at St. Helena ; Life of Napoleon ITI. ; History 
of the Civtt Warin America ; Romance of Spanish History ; History of Frederick the Great. 


ABBOTT, LyMAN, D.D., b. Roxbury, Mass., 1835; brother of Austin. He graduated 
irom New York university in 1858, and went into the practice of law with his brother. 
Afterwards he studied theology with his uncle, Rev. J. 8. C., and was ordained a Con- 
gregational minister in 1860, settling as pastor at Terre Haute, Ind., the same year. 
He was chosen secretary of the American Union Freedmen’s Commission, holding the 
place till 1868. He was pastor of the New England church in New York, 1866 till 1869. 
Among his works are: Results of Emancipation in the United States; Jesus of Nazareth: His 
Life and Teachings; Old Testament Shadows of New Testament Truths; The Prophets of the 
Christian Faith, and Christianity and Social Problems (the two last in 1896). He edited 
Sermons and Morning and Evening Exercises from Henry Ward Beecher’s writings. Later 
he was one of the editors of Harper’s Monthly Magazine, and principal editor of the 
Lilustrated Christian Weekly, of New York ; and was associated with Rev. Henry Ward 
Beecher in the editorship of the Christian Union (now The Outlook), of which he after- 
wards became editor-in-chief. He is preparing and publishing a series of commentaries 
on the New Testament. In 1888 he became pastor of Plymouth church, Brooklyn. 

ABBREVIATIONS are contrivances in writing for saving time and space. They are 
of two kinds, consisting either in the omission of some letters, or words, or in the sub- 
stitution of some arbitrary sign. In the earliest times, when uncial or lapidary characters. 
were used, abbreviations by omission prevailed, such as we find on the inscriptions on 
monuments, coins, etc. In these the initial letter is often put instead of the whole word, 
as M. for Marcus, F. for Filius. It was after the small Greek and Roman letters had 
been invented by transcribers for facilitating their work, that signs of abbreviation, or 
characters representing double consonants, syllables, and whole words, came into use. 
Greek manuscripts abound with such signs, and often only one that has expressly studied 
Greek palzography can make them out. From the manuscripts they passed into the 
early printed editions of Greek books, and it is only recently that they have quite disap- 


Abbott. 
25 Abbreviations, 


peared. Among the Romans, signs of abbreviation were called note, and professed 
scribes who employed them were notarii, To such an extent was the system carried, 
that L. Anneus Seneca collected and classified 5000 abbreviations. The same practice 
has prevailed in all languages, but nowhere more than in the rabbinical writings.—The 
abbreviations used by the ancient Romans were continued and increased in the middle 
ages, They occur in inscriptions, manuscripts, and legal documents; and the practice 
continued in these last long after the invention of printing had made it unnecessary in 
books. An act of parliament was passed in the reign of George II., forbidding the use 
of abbreviations in legal documents. Owing to these abbreviations, the deciphering of 
old writings requires special study and training, and forms a separate science called 
diplomatics (q.v.), on which numerous treatises have been written. Tassin’s Nouveau 
Traité de Diplomatique (6 vols., Par. 1750-65) contains, in the third volume, an exposition 
of Roman abbreviations. Other works on the subject are—Gatterer’s Abriss der Diplo- 
matik (2 vols., Gott. 1798); Pertz’s Schrifttafeln (4 Nos., Hannov. 1846); and Kopp’s 
Palewographica Critica (4 vols., Manh. 1817-29).—In ordinary writing and printing few 
abbreviations are now employed. The sign &, originally an abbreviation for the Lat. ef, 
‘‘and,” is perhaps the only one of the arbitrary kind still to be met with. It does not 
stand properly for a word, for it is used in different languages, but for an idea, and is as 
much a symbol as-+. The abbreviations by using the initials of Latin words that are 
still in use are chiefly confined to titles, dates, and afew phrases; as M.A. (magister 
artiwm), Master of Arts; A.D. (anno domini), in the year of our Lord; e.g. (ecempli gratia), 
for example. Many are now formed from English words in the same way; as F.G.S., 
Fellow of the Geological Society; B.C., before Christ.—Most of the sciences and arte 
have sets of signs of abbreviations, or symbols, peculiar to themselves, and of great use 
both for brevity and clearness. See AToMIcC WEIGHTS; CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE, 
etc. 


The following is a list of the more important Abbreviations in general use 


Abp., Archbishop. 
A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ. 
A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. 
A.H. (Anno Hegire), In the year of the Hegira. 
Ad Lib. (ad libitum), At pleasure. 3 
A.M. (Ante Meridvem), Before noon; (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world 
A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy (London). 
A.R.S.A., Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. 
A.U.C. (Ad Urbe Condita), From the building of the city—that is, Rome. 
B.A. or A.B. (Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Arts. 
Bart. or Bt., Baronet. 
Bbl., Barrel. 
B.C., Before Christ. 
B.C.L., Bachelor of Civil Law. 
B.D., Bachelor of Divinity. 
B.M., Bachelor of Medicine. 
Bp., Bishop. 
co? eatin A hundred ; chapter; c., century. Also C = Centigrade. 
Cantab. (Cantabrigiensis), Of Cambridge. 
Capt., Captain. 
C.B., Companion of the Bath. 
C.E., Civil Engineer. 
ef. or cp., Confer; compare. . 
C.M.G., Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. 
Cr., Creditor. 
Crim. Con., Criminal conversation. 
Cwt., Hundred-weight. 
D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Law. 
D.D., Doctor of Divinity ; Dono dedtt. 
D.D.S., Doctor of Dental Surgery. 
D.G. (Dei Gratid), By the grace of God. 
Do. (Ital. ditto, ‘‘ said”), The said; the same. 
Dr., Doctor, or Debtor. 
D.V. (Deo Volente), God willing. 
dwt., Pennyweight. __ ‘i 
e.g., or ex. gr. (Hxempli Gratia), For example. 
Etc. (Zt cetera), And the rest; and so on. , 
FD. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith. 
ff., following. 
FGS., Fellow of the Geological Society. 
ield-marshal. ea 
Fr Migs allow of the Royal Astronomical or of the Royal Asiatic Society. 
C.P., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. 
C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. E., of England. 
G.S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. 
S. 


Fr. 
Fr 
B 
F'R'S., Fellow of the Royal Society, L., London; E., Edinburgh. 


R. 
R. 
R. 
R. 


b 
Abas 26 


.B., (Knight) Grand Cross of the Bath. 
.H., (Knight) Grand Cross of Hanover. 
M 


.C 
.C 
C.M.G., (Knight) Grand Cross of St. Michael and St. George. 
Greek; Lat., Latin; Ital., Italian, etc. 


Ty 

.E.1.C.8., Hon. East India Company’s Service. 

.M.S., His or Her Majesty’s Service, or Ship. 

.R.H., His or Her Royal Highness. 

b. or Ibid. (Jdidem), In the same place. 

LC.TH. U.S. (zy6vs), Lesous Christos, Theou Huios, Soter—Jesus Christ, the Son of God, 
the Savior. 

Id. (Idem), The same; (Jdus), The Ides. 

i.e. (Ud est), That is. 

I.H.8.,* Jesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Savior of men; In hdc (Cruce) Salus, In this 
(cross) salvation. 

Incog. (Incognito, Ital.), Unknown. 

ILN.R.L. (lesus Nazarenus Rex Iudworum), Jesus of Nazareth, king of the Jews. 

Inst. (Instante—mense understood), Instant, of the present (month); Institute. 

LP.D. Un Presentia Dominorum), In presence of tbe Lords (of Session). 

J.C. (Juris Consultus), Juris-consult. 

J.P., Justice of the Peace. 

J.V. (or U.) D. (Juris Utriusque Doctor), Doctor both of Civil and of Canon Law. 

Kal. (Kalende or Kalendis), the Kalends. 

K.B., Knight of the Bath. 

K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath. 

K.C.H., Knight Commander of the Order of Hanover. 

K.C.M.G., Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George. 

K.G., Knight of the Garter. 

K.H., Knight of Hanover. 

K.M., Knight of Malta. 

K.P., Knight of St. Patrick. 

K.T., Knight of the Thistle. 

K.t.a., Kat ra Aei1mopeva (Kai ta leipomena), same as ‘‘ Et cetera.” 

Lb. (libra), Pound. 

L.D., Lady Day. 

L.H.D. (Litterarum Humaniorum Doctor), Doctor of Literature. 

LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws (the plural being denoted by the double 
L 


Minimo aad 


= 


). 
LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. 
L.R.C.8., Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
L.8.D. (Libre, Solidi, Denari’), Pounds, shillings, pence. 
M. (Mille), A thousand. 
M.A. or A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. 
Mass., Massachusetts; Vt., Vermont; Pa., Pennsylvania; etc. See UNrTED STaTEs. 
M.D. (Medicine Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. 
M.P., Member of Parliament. 
M.R.C.S., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
M.R.1.A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 
MS., Manuscript; MSS., Manuscripts. 
Mus. D. (Musice Doctor), Doctor of Music. 
M.W.S., Member of the Wernerian Society. 
N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well; observe. 
Nem. con. (Nemine contradicente), or Nem. diss. (Wemine dissidente), No one contradicting 
or dissenting; unanimously, 
N.P., Notary Public. 
N.S., New Style. 
O.5S., Old Style. 
Oxon. (Oxoniensis), Of Oxford. 
0z., Ounce. 
P., President; professor, etc. 
P.C., Privy Councillor. 
P.C.S., Principal Clerk of Session. 
Per ann. (Per annum), By the year. 
Per cent. (Per centum), By the hundred. 
Ph.D. (Philosophie Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. 
P.M. (Post Meridiem), After noon. 
P.P., Parish priest. 


* This was originally J }] 5, the first three Greek letters of the name Jesus; but its origin having 
been lost sight of, by substituting S for =, and then mistaking the Gr. H (éta) for Lat. H, a significa- 
tion was subsequently found out for each letter. The symbol was still further altered by converting 


the horizontal stroke, which was the usual sign of abbreviation, into a cross, as it now generally 
appears. 


27 abe 


pp., Pages. ~ 
ro tem. (Pro tempore), For the time. 

Prox. (Proaimo), In the next (month). 

P.S. (Post seriptum), Postscript. 

Q., Query or Question. 

Q.C., Queen’s Counsel. 

Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated. 

.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done. 

8. (Quantum suffictt), Enough. 

Vv. (Quod vide), Which see. 

. (Rex or Regina), King or Queen. 

.A., Royal Academician; Royal Artillery. 

.E., Royal Engineers. 

R.M., Royal Marines. 

R.N., Royal Navy. 

R.S.A., Royal Scottish Academician. 

§., South; saint; seconds. 

Be., Scilicet, same as viz. 


OO 


ko) 


wee 


S.M. (Sa Majesté), His or Her Majesty. 
8.P.Q.R. (Senatus Populusque Romanus), The Roman senate and people. 
Sq. (Sequens), The following; Sqq., Do. in the plural. 


.P., United Presbyterian. 

U.S., United States; United Service. 

V.D.M. (Verbi Det Minister), Preacher of the Word. 

Viz. (Videlicet), To wit; namely. 

W.S., Writer to the Signet. 

Xmas., Christmas. Xtian., Christian, etc. 

Y*, Yt; The, That. (This use of Y originated in the Anglo-Saxon character P, which 
was equivalent to the modern th. In manuscripts, this character degenerates into a 
form like a black letter y, which was retained in these contractions after its origin 
and real sound had been lost sight of.) 

Besides the generally current abbreviations given above, other short methodsof state 
ment are frequently employed in particular circumstances. In the present work, for 
instance, in which the saving of space is of great moment, when the title or heading of 
a subject recurs in the body of the article, it is generally—especially if a proper name— 
represented by its initial letter: e.g., A. for Abd-el-Kader. Two dates thus (1215-1250), 
following the name of a king, a pope, etc., indicate briefly the beginning and end of his 
reign or term of office; or thus (b. 1215—d. 1250), the dates of his birth and death. The 
meaning of these and similar contractions is in general sufficiently obvious from the 
connection in which they stand. In the United States there are fewer A. used than in 
England, as there are no titles except the names of offices. But a great variety are pecu- 
liar to the country, such as Hon. for member of Congress, and indeed almost any one of 
note ; Hsq., usuaily written after names in addressing letters. In politics, Rep., Dem., 
Prohib., Pop., for Republican, Democratic, Prohibition and Populist parties ; H. R., for 
House of Representatives; Sen., for Senate; U.S.S.Ct., for United States Supreme Court, 
etc. Names of States are almost invariably abbreviated, and the contractions are well 
known; also Oo.for county. Military and naval, such as Maj., Gen., Col., Lt., Admi., 
Com. Capt., are used. In commerce, C.0.D., ‘‘ collect on delivery,” is much used; in 
art, A. stands for Academician; N.A.D., for National Academy of Design. A.S.A. 
denotes American Statistical Association. In money, only the $ mark and ets. are 
common, Certain trades have their peculiar contractions, such as booksellers, paper- 
makers and others. In printing, the use of A. depends much upon the nature of 
the work. If technical, as in chemistry, arithmetic, or astronomy, contractions or 
peculiar signs are used in profusion, for oxygen and other elements and combina- 
tions ; for notation, relation, and equality ; for sun, moon, planets, and their aspects. 
In weights and measures the 1b., oz., ft., deg., etc., are used. The legal profession 
has its peculiar contractions. Time is noted in y7., mo., hr., min., and sec. Orders in 
F. and A.M., I.0. of O.F., etc. The church in Adp., Bp., Dea., Rev., D.D.; and 
M.E.P., Bap., R.C., etc. 

ABBT, THomas, 1738-66 ; a German author, educated at Halle university, ana pro- 
fessor of mathematics at Rinteln. He did much toward the improvement of the lan- 
guage of hiscountry. Of his books the more important are those On Merit, and On 
Dying for our Native Country. 

A.B, C, PROCESS. A process of deodorizing impurities, i.e., by Alum, Blood, Char- 
coal. 

ABD signifies in Arabic ‘‘ slave” or ‘‘servant,”’ and enters, along with the name of God, 
into the composition of many proper names; as Abd-Allah, ‘‘ servant of God ;’ Abd-el- 


Abdallah. 
Abdication. 28 


Kader, ‘‘ servant of the mighty God ;” Abd-ul-Latif, ‘‘servant of the gracious God,” etc. 
So Hbed in Hebrew and Syriac. 

ABDALLAH-BEN-ABD-AL-MOTTALIB, 545-570 ; the father of Mohammed. He was an 
only child, and was about to be sacrificed by his father when another person interfered 
and persuaded the father to sacrifice a hundred camels instead of the boy. Soon 
after A. married a daughter of Wahb, a Benu Zahra chief, and of this union came the 
great prophet. 

ABDALLAH-BEN-AL-AFTAS, 1004-60 ; founder of the dynasty of Benee Al-Aftas in 
Africa. His military talents secured for him the title of ‘‘ The Victorious.” 


ABDALLAH-BEN-YASEEN lived in the early part of the 11th century, and founded 
the Almoravides dynasty in Northern Africa. He was a zealous follower of the prophet, 
and converted pagans by the sword rather than the book. Though holding supreme 
authority for a long time, he was content with the title of ‘‘ Theologian.” The reign of 
his successors lasted about a century. 


ABDALLAH-BEN-ZOBAIR, b. about 622, d. 692; the first of Mohammed’s disciples ; 
son of Zobair, one of the prophet’s friends and companions. His mother was a sister of 
Mohammed’s favorite wife. Abdallah opposed Ali, the elected successor and nephew of 
the prophet, and renewed his struggle for supremacy after Ali’s assassination. He seized 
Mecca, holding it against Yezid, caliph of Damascus. During the siege the temple of 
the Holy Caaba was destroyed, but Yezid’s death sayed the city from capture. A. was. 
acknowledged caliph of Mecca, and rebuilt and restored the city by 685. ‘The Damas- 
cus caliphs renewed the war, and Mecca was again besieged, but stoutly defended by 
A. in his seventieth year. Finally Mecca was taken by assault, and A., who retreated 
within the Caaba, was slain. 


ABDALS, Persian religious fanatics who deem it meritorious to slay any one of a dif- 
ferent faith, and if slain themselves in the attempt are considered martyrs. 


ABDAS, a saint in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches. He was a bishop in 
Persia about the beginning of the 5th c. who destroyed a temple of the fire-worshipers, 
refusing to rebuild it, though commanded by the king to doso. In retaliation A. was » 
killed and all the Christian churches were destroyed, the persecution lasting more than 
a quarter of a century, and causing a war between Rome and Persia. 


ABD-EL-HALIM, b. in Cairo, 1826 ; son of Mehemet Ali; educated in Paris. Before 
the viceroy of Egypt was recognized by the sultan, Halim was a member of the family 
council ; in 1856 he was governor of Khartoum, 


ABD-EL-HAMID, 1812-67, the adopted name of DE CoURET, a French traveler in the: 
East, who was sent on a mission to Timbuctoo in 1848. Alexandre Dumas used his 
adventures in ‘‘ The Pilgrimage of Hadji Abd-el-Hamid Bey,’’ 1855. 

ABD-EL-KADER, properly El-Hadji-Abd-el-Kader-Ulid-Mahiddin, was the descendant 
of a Marabout family of the race of Haschem, who trace their pedigree to the caliphs of 
the lineage of Fatima. He was born, 1807, at Ghetna, an educational institution of the 
Marabouts near Mascara, which belonged to his family. His father, who died in 1834, being 
esteemed a very holy man, had exercised great influence over his countrymen, which 
influence he bequeathed to his son. In his eighth year A. made a pilgrimage to Mecca 
with his father; and in 1827 he visited Egypt, where, in Cairo and Alexandria, he first 
came in contact with western civilization. Religious enthusiasm and melancholy were 
the most prominent features of his character. He early showed an uncommonly gifted 
mind, and at the chief school of Fez he acquired such knowledge as composes Arabian 
science. A. was free from the savage cruelty, as well asfrom the sensuality, of the 
Arabs; he maintained purity of manners, and did not suffer himself to be misled by 
anger or passion. Although he firmly adhered to the faith of his nation, and used their 
fanaticism as one of his most important sources of influence, yet he had no-sympathy 
with the fanatical intolerance of the majority among them. His public career began at 
the time of the conquest of Algiers by the French. No sooner was the power of the 
Turks broken, than the Arabian tribes of the province of Oran seized the opportunity 
to make themselves independent. Having got possession of Mascara, they elected A. as 
their emir, who soon succeeded in establishing his authority over a number of the neigh- 
boring tribes. He now attacked the French; and some bloody battles, fought on Dec. 
3, 1833, and Jan. 6, 1834, against Gen. Desmichels, then commanding in Oran, obliged 
the latter to enter into a treaty with him. In the interior of the country the power 
of A. now spread in an alarming way. In consequence of victories over neighboring 
chiefs, he became master of Miliana and Medeah. All the cities and tribes of the 
provinces of Oran and_ Titéri acknowledged A. as their sultan; the more distant 
tribes sent him ambassadors with presents. It was not long before hostilities broke out 
between him and the French. The commencement was favorable to him, for the first 
operations of Gen. Tretzel led to that fatal retreat, during which the French army 
was attacked at Makta, on June 28, 1835, by the whole assembled forces of A., amounting 
to nearly 20,000 cavalry, and suffered a disgraceful defeat. 

_ After a protracted struggle of six years, A. found himself obliged (1841) to take refuge 
in Morocco. Here he succeeded in getting up a sort of crusade against the enemies of 


29 Abdallah, 
Abdication, 


Islam; and the arms of France were now turned eae Morocco for the countenance 
given to A. After the decisive battle of Isly (1844) the sultan was obliged to give up 
ee cause, but soon found that the latter was at least his equal in power, and that he 
could not even prevent him from marching out of Nedem to attack the French again, 
both in Oct. 1845, and in Mar. 1847. But the star of A. was now about to set. In the 
night of the 11th Dec. he made a bold attack on the Moorish camp, in which he was 
defeated and had to resolve on flight. He might easily have secured his own safety, 
but he would not abandon his attached followers, men, women, and children, to the 
plunder and massacre of the Moroccans, After a heroic combat on the 21st December, 
he effected their retreat across the Muluia into the territory of Algeria, where they 
mostly surrendered to the French. He himself, with a few horsemen, resolved to fight 
his way through to the south; but coming to the Pass of Kerbous, he found the way 
closed and was received with musketry. Dispirited at length, A. surrendered, on Dec. 
22, 1847, to Gen. Lamoriciére and the Duc d’Aumale, upon condition that he should 
be permitted to withdraw either to Egypt or to St. Jean d’Acre. The French govern- 
ment refused to ratify this agreement. A. was sent with his family to Toulon, whence 
he was removed in 1848 to Pau, and finally to the Chateau d’Amboise. Liberated in 
1852 by Louis Napoleon, he lived at Brussa, in Asia Minor, till its destruction by an 
earthquake in 1855. He then, for a time, lived in Constantinople, but finally made his 
home in Damascus. He was of great service to humanity during the Syrian massacres 
of 1860. In 1865 he visited Paris and England, and was present at the Paris exhibition 
in 1867. In his retirement he wrote a religious work, a translation of which was pub- 
lished at Paris, 1858, under the title, Rappel ad l’Intelligent: avis a Indifferent. D. 1888. 
ABD-EL-WAHAB’, See WAHABIS. 


ABDE’RA, a maritime t. of Thrace, e. of the mouth of the Nestus. About 400 
B.c. it was a flourishing place. The inhabitants became proverbial for stupidity, 
though such men as Protagoras, Democritus, and Anaxarchus, the Philosophers, Heca- 
teeus, the historian, and Nicznetus, poet, were born there. 


ABDICATION is the act of giving up an office, generally the office of ruler or sover- 
eign. It is rarely done out of pure preference of a private station, but is generally the 
result of vexation and disappointment. It was perhaps voluntarily, and from being 
wearied with dominion, that Diocletian, and along with him Maximian, abdicated 
(805). Christina of Sweden retired from the throne (1654) out of preference for the 
freedom of private life, but wished still to exercise the rights of a sovereign. Charles V. 
laid down the crown (1556) because his great schemes had failed. Philip V. of Spain 
did so (1724) in a fit of melancholy, but resumed it on the death of his son. Amadeus 
of Savoy abdicated (1494) to become a priest. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, who abdi- 
cated in 1730, wished to recall the step, but was not allowed. Louis Bonaparte resigned 
the crown of Holland, because he would not consent to treat that country as a province 
of France. Charles Emanuel of Sardinia retired from the throne in 1802, not finding 
himself equal to the crisis; and the same was the case with Victor Emanuel in 1819. 
William I. of the Netherlands resigned (1840), as his policy had become impossible from 
the turn of affairs in Belgium. Foreign force compelled the abdication of Augustus of 
Poland (1707), and later, that of Stanislaus Leszczynski (1735) and of Poniatowski (1795); 
as well as that of Charles IV. of Spain (1808), and of Napoleon (1814 and 1815). Insur- 
rections have been the most frequent cause of forced abdications. The early history of 
the Scandinavian kingdoms abounds in instances. In England, the compulsory abdication 
of Richard II. (1899) is an early example. In the case of James II. it was disputed 
whether the king had ‘‘ abdicated ” or ‘‘ deserted.” More recent times saw Charles X. 
(1830) and Louis Philippe (1848) retire before the storm of revolution, without the condi- 
tions they made being regarded. The abdication of Ferdinand of Austria (1848) was an 
indirect consequence of the events of the year of revolutions; that of Charles Albert of 
Sardinia (1849), of the battle of Novara. Of several cases among German princes, the 
chief is that of Ludwig of Bavaria (1848). A late instance is that of Amadeus, king of 
Spain, who felt himself obliged to give up his crown on the 11th of February, 1873. 

In some countries, the king can abdicate whenever he pleases; but in England, the 
constitutional relation between the crown and the nation being of the nature of a con- 
tract, the king or queen, it is considered, cannot abdicate without the consent of parlia- 
ment. It is, however, said that the king does abdicate, or, to speak perhaps more 
correctly, an A. may be presumed, and acted on by the people, if his conduct politically 
and overtly is inconsistent with, and subversive of, the system of constitutional govern- 
ment, of which the qualified monarchy of his office forms part. 

At the conference between the two houses of parliament previous to the passing of 
the statute which settled the crown on William III., it would appear that the word 
*‘ abdicated” with reference to king James II. was advisedly used instead of ‘‘deserted”— 
the meaning, it is presumed, being that king James had not only deserted his office, but 
that by his acts and deeds, of which the said desertion formed part, he had, in view of 
the constitution, ceased to have right to the throne. From this it may be inferred that 
A. was considered to have a twofold political signification, involving maladministration 
ae well as desertion. The Scotch convention, however, more vigorously and distinctly 


bdiel. 
Apa a l-Medsid. 30 


resolved that king James ‘‘had forefaulted [forfeited] the crown, and the throne was 
become vacant.” 


AB'DIEL, in ‘‘ Paradise Lost,” the faithful angel who opposed the revolt in heaven 
begun by Satan. 


ABDOMEN. The trunk of the human body is divided by the diaphragm into two 
cavities—the upper being the thorax or chest, and 
the under, the abdomen or belly. Both the cavity 
and the viscera it contains are included in the 
term A. It contains the liver, pancreas, spleen, 
and kidneys, as well as the stomach, small intestine, 
and the colon. The lower bowel, the bladder, and 
internal organs of generation lie in the lowest part 
of the cavity, which is called the pelvis. The A, 
is lined by a serous membrane, the peritoneum, 
which is folded over the viscera, allowing them a 
certain freedom of motion, but keeping them in 
their proper relations to each other. The A. is 
divided externally by two horizontal lines into 
three principal regions—the upper or epigastric, 
the middle or umbilical, and the lower or hypogas- 
tric. These are again subdivided by two vertical 
lines—the side-divisions being called the hypochon- 
driac, lumbar, and iliac regions respectively; the ORGANS OF THE ABDOMEN. 
names epigastric and umbilical are then applied in _1, Diaphragm. 2. Gali-bladder, 3. Py- 
a restricted sense to the middle divisions of the two orig ene oe ee Ps ee ee a 
upper principal regions; while the middle division giomrach- pe Rp leans a Place of (aad 
of the lower is called the region of the pubis, Dis- orOmentum. 9. Pancreas (Sweetbread). 
eases of the abdominal viscera are frequent,and 10. Small ae ae eats oe sete 
chiefly consist either of chronic disorders of the ei (COLORS ae cia as LeSuDS 
digestive organs, or of derangements of the nerve- ) 
plexuses and ganglia there situated. These disorders announce themselves partly in 
bodily pain, and partly in mental affections, such as hypochondria and hysterics. 

ABDOMEN, in Entomology, the last of the three parts into which the body of an insect 
is divided. It is composed of a number of rings or segments, frequently nine, more or 
less distinct from each other. It contains a portion of the intestines and the sexual 
organs. In the perfect insect, its segments bear no legs nor wings; but the hind legs of 
larve or caterpillars, which afterwards disappear, are attached tothem. In many insects, 
its last segments bear appendages of various uses and forms, as pincers, stings, borers or 
of ovipositors, etc. See REGIONS OF THE Bopy. 


ABDOMINAL'ES, or abdominal fishes, in the Linnean arrangement, an order of fishes 
including all the osseous fishes of which the ventral fins are placed upon and beneath 
the abdomen, and so behind the pectoral fins. Subsequent naturalists have thought it 
right in classifying fishes to give a higher place to other characters; and in the system 
of Cuvier, the name A. is given to an order of much more limited extent, a subdivision 
of the malacopterygui of soft-rayed osseous fishes, distinguished by having the ventral fins 
placed beneath the abdomen and not attached to the bones of the shoulder. It includes 
the cyprinide (carp, minnow, etc.), esocide (pike, etc), stlwride, salmonide (trout, salmon, 
etc.), and clupeide@ (herring, etc.). 


ABDUCTION, in the criminal law of England, signifies the unlawful taking away of 
the person of a female. Such is the usual limitation of the word; although, under the 
Jewish law, and subsequently according to the principles of the civil law, the A. or 
‘“‘stealing” of the person was applied to the male sex, as well as to women, coming more 
nearly to what we now understand by kidnapping (q.v.). In the civil law, the offence 
was called plagium, or crinen plagit, under which name it still has a place in the Scotch 
criminal law, and, in practice, is applied to the A. of children of either sex, or of women 
generally. The A. may be accomplished either by force or by any fraudulent or sinister 
means; and this latter quality seems more appropriate to the strict meaning of the term, 
as derived from the Latin verb abducere, to lead off, or induce, or persuade away. 

It is still doubtful whether the earlier English statutes upon this subject have 
become a part of the common law in the United States. The question seems not 
to have been passed upon in the colonial period. At present there are legislative 
enactments in the various states which cover substantially the ground of the English 
statutes. The statutes of many of the states also include within their provisions the 
Seizing or carrying away of a person with intent to cause him to be confined within 
the state, or to be sent out of the state to be sold as a slave, or in any way held in 
service against his will. The U.S. Revised Statutes provide that every person wha 
entices or carries away any person to be held as a slave, or to be sent out of the country 
to be so held by another, shall be punishable by fine not more than $5000, or by ime 
prisonment not more than five years, or both. 


bdiel. 
81 Apa eo leMediid. 


ABD-UL-AZIZ, b. Feb. 9, 18380; d. June 4, 1876; second son of Mahmoud II., and 
thirty-second sultan of the Turkish empire. In early life he had a fondness for agricul- 
ture, and established a model farm. On succeeding his brother Abd-ul-Medjid, June 25, 
1861, he gave many promises of reform, and was ge to be brave and patriotic. He 
began by reducing his own civil list to $3,000,000, and dismissing his brother’s seraglio. 
But his reforms achieved nothing, and dissatisfaction at home and abroad became 
intense. In 1867 he made a tour of Europe, visiting the Paris exhibition and several 
capitals, in which he spent a vast amount of money to little purpose. The knowledge of 
better civilization determined him to do something practical, and in 1868 he changed the 
formation of the council of state, which he wished to make the central government for 
the empire. To his new council of thirty-four Mohammedans and sixteen Christians he 
promised more reform and an attempt to assimilate with western civilization; but the war 
in Candia took his attention, and a war with Greece was probable. The Greek difficulty 
was arranged by aconference at Paris, and the sultan turned his attention to Egypt, 
where the Khédive, Ismail Pasha, contemplated casting off Turkish allegiance; but instead 
of rebelling Ismail visited Constantinople to effect an arrangement. Learning the sul- 
tan’s financial embarrassment, he got important concessions, among them a new law of 
succession for his house, and nearly all the prerogatives of an independent sovereign. 
The sultan’s affairs grew desperate; one ministry followed another at short intervals, and 
Ignatieff, the Russian ambassador became all-powerful with the distressed ruler. When 
the revenues were so low as barely to pay interest on the public debt, a revolt began in 
Herzegovina, and soon spread over all Bosnia. With an empty treasury, the sultan could 
not properly meet this rebellion, and the softas (theological students) demanded his abdi- 
cation; the council of ministers determined upon his removal, and made his nephew, 
Murad V., his successor. A few days after his deposition (May 30, 1876), Abd-ul was 
found dead in his apartments. A jury of physicians decided that he died from severing 
the arteries of his arms, and it was believed that he committed suicide. 

ABD-UL-HAMID, 1725-89; Sultan of Turkey and son of Ahmed ITI., succeeded his 
brother, Mustapha III., in 1774. He was twice involved in wars with Russia, and in 1788 
was defeated at Oczakow, a humiliation that doubtless hastened his death. 

ABD-UL-HAMID II., born Sept. 22, 1842; Sultan of Turkey; son of Abd-ul-Medjid; 
succeeded his brother Murad V., Aug. 31, 1876. He was with Murad and his uncle 
(Abd-ul-Aziz) at the Paris Exhibition in 1867. He developed a taste for study, partic- 
ularly for geography, making an extensive collection of maps, military and statistical. 
He belongs to the old or orthodox Turkish party, and is a strong opponent of the young 
Turkish party. Under his rule the Turkish Empire has lost some of its richest provinces 
in Europe. The treaty of Berlin, which concluded the war with Russia in 1878, virtually 
deprived him of Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, and threatened the ultimate extinc- 
tion of Turkish power in the Balkan Peninsula. It also bound him to introduce reforms 
in the administration of his Christian provinces. In 1894-6 a series of massacres and other 
outrages in Armenia (q. v.), Which excited the indignation of the civilized world, led the 
signatory powers of the treaty of Berlin to exert a severe pressure on him. He denied the 
charge that the reforms promised had not been carried out, but in 1894 ordered a com- 
mission of inquiry. To this body the signatory powers submitted a plan of reform, which, 
under pressure, was approved. Further outrages and indifference to reform brought from 
the powers an imperative note (Aug. 1895) and led to the assembling of many war-ships 
near the Dardanellesin Oct. Lord Salisbury declared (Nov. 9) that the causes of disorders 
in Turkey must be reformed and that the powers would enforce the demand. The 
Sultan promised a constitution; then refused to proclaim it. Massacres and outrages 
continued through 1896; and (Dec. 23d) the ambassadors of the powers at Constantinople 
were instructed to submit fresh demands for reform and to enforce them, if necessary. 


ABD-UL-LAT'IF, a celebrated Arabian writer of multifarious acquirements, was born 
at Bagdad in 1161. During his youth he underwent an amazing amount of mental 
drudgery, in accordance with the eastern fashion of his time, in order to fit himself for 
becoming a scholar. The ordeal consisted in his committing to memory a large number 
of standard works, such as the Koran, the novels of Hariri, and not a few grammatical 
treatises. To complete his culture in the various branches of Mohammedan lore, he 
betook himself to Damascus, where the famous Saladin had gathered round him the 

-most learned men of the time. Through the liberality of the sultan, and the kindness of 
the vizir Fadhel, he was enabled to proceed to Egypt, where he delivered lectures while 
Saladin was fighting the Lion-heart at St. Jean d’Acre. Here he became intimate with 
Moses Maimonides, the great Jewish writer. He now devoted himself chiefly to the 
study of medicine, although, while at Cairo, he also wrote his excellent and accurate 
work on Egypt, which was translated into Latin by Professor White, of Oxford, in 1800, 
Ras into French by baron de Sacy in 1810. He died at Bagdad in 1281, on his way te 

ecca, 


ABD-UL-MED’JID-KHAN, the grand sultan, was born on the 23d April, 1823, and suo- 
ceeded his father, Mahmoud II., July 1, 1889. The Turkish empire was then in a very 
dangerous position. The army had been defeated and dispersed by the Egyptians in the 
battle of Nisib (June 29, 1839), and there was nothing to hinder the victorious Ibrahim 
Pasha from advancing on Constantinople, where a large party were favorable to the 


bd-ur-rahma 
fipeiand. = ; 32 

Eevotian power. This party wished to make the viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, cha 
sag (thé a aclane title of the grand sultan) of both seas. He was the only man, they 
maintained, capable of upholding the banner of Islam against the unbelievers both within 
and without. Had it not been for the intervention of the Christian powers, the house of 
Osman was lost. The treaty of July, 1840, from which France kept aloof, rescued 
the young Padishah from sure destruction. Mehemet Ali had to submit (Noy. 27, 
1840); and the treaty of July, 1841, to which France subsequently adhered, settled the 
future dependent relation of Egypt to Turkey. The sultan, though not very energetic 
in body or mind, proceeded in the path of reform begun by Selim IIT. and Mahmoud IL. 
Tn this he had for his chief adviser Reshid Pasha, an intelligent and humane mussulman, 
educated in France. The aim of all his measures was to place the Osman popuiation on 
a footing with the civilized inhabitants of the west. A. wished the happiness of all his 
subjects, without respect to creed. A sort of proclamation of their rights was issued 
in the hatti-sherif of Nov., 1839. This was followed by numerous reforms in all de- 
partments; and in 1850 the professors of all religions were decreed equal in the eye of 
the law. That these decrees remained, in a great measure, a dead letter, is not attrib- 
utable to the will of the sultan. The chivalrous part acted by A. (1850) in refusing, at 
the risk of losing his throne, to give up Kossuth and the other political refugees to the 
menaces of Russia and Austria, will make his name remembered in the annals of 
humanity. 

The sovereigns of Turkey have long been in an anomalous position. The ambassa- 
dors of the great powers have ruled the divan; and the sultan had a specially difficult 
part to play during the war with Russia (1854-56), and the diplomatic negotiations conse- 
quent to it. A. was the thirty-first sovereign of the race of Osman. On the death of A. 
in 1861, his brother, Abdul-Aziz (b. 1830), succeeded him; but when Abdul-Aziz was 
deposed in May, 1876, A.’s eldest son, Mohammed Murad (b. 1840), became sultan for a 
few months, and then made way in August for the second son, Abdul-Hamid. 


ABD-UR-RAH'MAN, Sultan of Fez and Marocco, b. 1778, was the rightful heir to 
the throne when his father died, 1794; but was superseded by an uncle, after whose death 
he ascended the throne, 1823. His first four years of rule were occupied in quelling in- 
surrections. Next, some danger to the state of Marocco was threatened by the refusal of 
Austria to pay the tribute for safety against pirates; but the sultan wisely adjusted the 
dispute by relinquishing this sort of ‘‘ black-mail,” formerly levied by Marocco on Euro- 
pean ships in the Mediterranean. The religious war under Abd-el-Kader against the 

rench in Algeria involved the sultan in its movements; but was concluded by the battle 
of Isly, 1844, and the subsequent mediation of England. The piratical habits of his sub- 
jects brought A. tothe brink of war with more than one European state. The sultan 
was a zealous mussulman, without the wild fanaticism common among his countrymen; 
as a ruler, he was strict, and often cruel. He died in 1859 and was succeeded by his 
eldest son, Sidi-Mohammed (b. 1803—d. 1873). 

ABDURRAHMAN KHAN, or ABDUL-RAHMAN, Ameer of Cabool, b. abt. 1830. On the 
death of his grandfather, Dost Mohammed, the ‘‘ Great Ameer,’”’ in 1863, A. supported 
the pretensions of his father, Afzool Khan, against the chosen successor, Shere Ali, but 
the rebels were finally defeated in 1869. A. fled to Russia, was recalled by the British 
after the defeat of Yakoob Khan, son of Shere Ali, and proclaimed Ameer of Cabool, 
1880, July 22. His relations with Great Britain have been friendly, and in 1895 his son 
visited London. 


ABECEDA/RIANS, a sect of German anabaptists, followers of Storck, a disciple of 
Luther. They believed it was best not to know how to read, since the holy spirit would 
convey knowledge of the scriptures directly to the understanding. 

ABECEDARY CIRCLES. Rings of letters described around magnetized needles, by 
which friends were supposed to be able to communicate by looking at them at certain 
fixed times. 

A’BECK/ET, THoMAs. See BECKET. 


A’BECKETT, AnTHUR WILLIAM, son of Gilbert Abbott A’Beckett (q. v.), was born at 
Hammersmith, England, Oct. 25, 1844. He entered the civil service, but soon left to 
become a journalist. He was editor of various comic periodicals and monthly maga- 
zines. In 1870-71, he was special correspondent to the Standard and Globe during the 
Franco-Prussian war. In 1874 he went on the staff of Punch and in 1891 became editor 
of the Sunday 7imes. He is the author ‘of several novels and comedies. 


A’BECK’ETT, Gitpert ABzort, b. London, 1811; d. Boulogne, 1856; an English 
humorous writer; at an early age he wrote burlesque dramas. He was correspondent 
and contributor for several journals, particularly Punch and Figaro in London. His 
‘principal works are: Comic Blackstone, Comic History of England, Comic History of Rome, 

he Quizziology of the British Drama, and many articles in Punch. In 1849 he was a 
police magistrate, in which office he displayed remarkable ability. 

A'BEGG, JuLius Frrmepricu Hernricu, German jurist; 1796-1868; he lectured on 
law at Kongsberg in 1826; was professor of law at Breslau, and delegate of the legal’ 


faculty to the Prussian national synod in 1846. A. was an influential writer upon 
criminal administration. 


{ 


us) 3 Abd-ur-rahman, 
Abelard. 


ABEL appears in the book of Genesis as the second son or Adam, and a shepherd. 
He was slain by his elder brother Cain, under the influence of jealousy, because the 
offering of the latter had been rejected by Jehovah, and that of the former accepted. 
It is not said in Genesis why Jehovah accepted the sacrifice of Abel; but the Savior. 
in the New Testament, speaks of ‘‘righteous Abel,” from which it is concluded that 
there dwelt in him a spirit of faith or trust in the unseen God, of which his brother was 
destitute. The writer of the epistle to the Hebrews opens his enumeration of the 
**faithful” in the 11th chapter of Hebrews, with these words: ‘‘ By faith Abel offered 
unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain.” Such, also, has been in all ages the 
universal opinion of the Christian church, which has regarded Abel as a type of inno- 
cence and faith. 


ABEL, Karu FRIEDRICH, musician, b. in Koethen, Germany, about 1725; d. in 
London, June 22, 1787. He was a pupil of Sebastian Bach, and for some years a mem- 
ber of the famous Dresden band of the elector of Saxony, King of Poland. In 1758, 
when over thirty years of age, he came to England ina state of great destitution ; but 
his talents were quickly recognized. He was appointed chamber-musician to the queen 
of George III. His peculiar instrument, the viola da gamba, a small violoncello, with 
six strings, was never played by any one in equal perfection. He also obtained con- 
siderable reputation as a composer, though his works are now almost forgotten. 


ABEL, Str FREDERIC AUGUSTUS, chemist, was born in London in 1827. He devoted 
himself chiefly to the science of explosives, expounding his discoveries in Gun-cotton 
(1866) ; The Modern History of Gunpowder ; On Explosive Agents ; Researches in Explosives, 
and Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes. He wrote also, in conjunction with 
Colonel Bloxam, a Handbook of Chemistry. By converting biasting gelatine into a solid 
ey he produced a more powerful and manageable explosive. He was knighted in 


A’BEL, Nrets Henrik, 1802-29 ; a Norwegian mathematician. For so short a life 
the extent and thoroughness of his mathematical investigations and analyses are marvel- 
ous. His powers were shown in a remarkable degree in his development of the theory 
of elliptic functions. Legendre’s eulogy, ‘‘ What a head that young Norwegian has,”’ is 
the more forcible, because the French mathematician had occupied most of his lifetime 
with those functions. Abel’s works were published by the Swedish government in 1839. 

ABEL, CARL, Ph.D., philologist, b. in Berlin, Germany, Nov. 25, 1837. He studied 
philology, national psychology and history at the Universities of Berlin, Munich and 
Tiibingen, but afterwards devoted himself especially to the study of language, acquiring 
familiarity with all European and several Oriental tongues. His study of the develop- 
ment of linguistic concepts led him to the conclusion that their comparison offered the 
best means of gauging the intellect and feelings of a race. He was lecturer on compara- 
tive Slavonic and Latin lexicography at Oxford, taught philosophical and comparative 
linguistics at the Humboldt Academy of Science in Berlin and was linguistic assistant in 
the German foreign office. He published many philological works. 


AB'ELARD, Fr. Abélard or Abailard; Lat. Abelardus, PETER, a scholastic philoso- 
pher and theologian, the boldest thinker of the 12thc., was b. near Nantes, in 1079, 
at Palet, a village which belonged to his parents. An irrepressible thirst for knowledge, 
and a special pleasure in scholastic logic, moved him to resign his rights of primogeni- 
ture in favor of his younger brothers. He left Bretagne for Paris, in order to hear the 
prelections of William of Champeaux, but soon incurred the hatred of his master, whom 
he puzzled by his wonderful subtlety. He fled to Melun, and afterwards to Corbeil, 
persecuted and admired wherever he went. He then returned home for the restoration 
of his health. With renewed strength, he returned to Paris, reconciled himself with 
his opponents, and moulded, by his influence as a lecturer, some of the most distin- 
hon men of his age, amongst whom were the future pope Celestine II.; Peter 

ombard; Berengar, his future apologist; and Arnold of Brescia. At this time, there 
lived in Paris, Heloise, the niece of the canon Fulbert, then seventeen years of age, and 
already remarkable for her beauty, talents, and knowledge. She soon kindled in the 
breast of A., then thirty-eight years old, a violent and overwhelming passion, which was 
returned by Heloise with no less fervor. By means of Fulbert, A. became teacher and 
companion of Heloise, and the lovers were happy together untii A.’s ardent poetical 
effusions reached the ears of the canon. He sought to separate the lovers; but it was 
too late. They fled together to the country, where Heloise bore a son, and was privately 
married to A., with the consent of her uncle. Not long after, Heloise returned to 
Fulbert’s house, and denied the marriage, that her love might be no hindrance to A.’s 
advancement in the church. Enraged at this, and at a second flight which she took 
with her lover, Fulbert, in order to make him canonically incapable of ecclesiastical 
preferment, caused A. to be emasculated. In deep humiliation, A. entered as a monk 
the abbey of St. Denis, and induced Heloise to take the veil at Argenteuil. But the 
lectures which he began to give soon after exposed him to new persecutions. The 
synod of Soissons (1121) declared his opinions on the Trinity to be heretical. He left 
St. Denis, and built at Nogent-on-the-Seine a chapel and hermitage called Paraclete, 
which, after being enlarged by his scholars to a monastic foundation, he, on his appoint- 
Ment as abbot of St.-Gildas-de-Ruys, in Bretagne, gave over to Heloise and her sister- 


—2 


Abele. 84 
Abercromby. 


ing ig residence in St. Gildas was embittered by a continued struggle 
ay Rea ae Pe ane of the monks; till at last, in 1140, his doctrine was 
condemned by pope Innocent III., and he was ordered to be imprisoned. But Peter the 
venerable, abbot of Clugny, after A. had retracted his opinions on the Trinity and 
redemption reconciled him to his enemies. A. died with the reputation of a model of 
monastic propriety, on April 21, 1142, in the abbey of St. Marcel, not far from Chalens- 
on-the-Sadne. Heloise had him interred at the Paraclete, hoping one day to lie by his 
side. She survived A. twenty years. The ashes of both were taken to Paris in 1808, 
and in 1828 were buried in one sepulchre in Pére la Chaise.—The doctrines advanced by 
A. in his controversy with St. Bernhard have a decidedly rationalist tendency ; and he, 
and his predecessor Erigena, may be looked upon as the first avowed representatives of 
that school. A. laid down the principle that nothing is to be believed but what has 
been first understood; while the church held that we must believe in order to under- 
stand: and Bernhard was for banishing inquiry altogether from the province of religion. 
In judging of A.’s merits, we are not to look so much to his writings as to the influence 
which his wonderful power of public disputation enabled him to exercise on his age. 
His character, no less than his doctrine, gave great offence. ; Until recently, it is chiefly 
the romantic history of his love that has occupied attention. The chief biographies 
that have appeared are that by Rémusat (2 v., Par. 1845), and that by Wilkens (Gott. 
1855). The Latin writings and letters of A. and Heloise were collected by Amboise, and 
published by Duchesne (Par. 1616). Some works of A. have been recently discovered; 
among others, Sie et Non, a collection of doctrinal contradictions from the Fathers. 
Cousin, who published the hitherto unedited works in 1836, has given us a complete 
edition of A.’s works (2 v., Par. 1849-59). See Compayré, Adélard (N. Y., 1898), 


ABELE. See POPLAR. 


ABELITES, a Christian sect of the 4th c., found chiefly in the neighborhood of Hippo, 
in North Africa. Their chief distinction consisted in marrying but abstaining from 
matrimonial intercourse, in order not to propagate original sin. ‘They held that Abel so 
lived, because the Bible mentions no children of his. 


ABELMOSCHUS, See Hrsiscus. 
ABEN. See BEN. 


ABENA'QUIS, or ABNAKIS, Algonquin Indians, once occupying Maine; the 
Canabis, or Abenaquis, on the Kennebec; the Etechenims towards the St. John; the 
Pennacooks of the Merrimack; and probably the Sokokes further west. The A. were 
friendly with the French, and assisted them in various conflicts and frays during the 
Canadian wars. Their best known leader was Father Rale, a Jesuit missionary; but he 
was killed and the tribe nearly destroyed at Norridgewock in 1724. A large portion of 
the A. went to Canada. The descendants of those who remained in New England are 
the Penobscots and the Passamaquoddys. During our revolution the A. Indians were 
generally on the side of the colonies. Father Rale mastered their language, and made 
a dictionary of it. See ALGONQUINS. 


ABENCERRA’GES, a noble Moorish race whose struggles with the family of the 
Zegris, and tragical destruction in the royal palace of the Alhambra, in Granada, in the 
time of Abu-Hassan (1466-84), the last but one of the kings of Granada, furnish the 
materials for a charming Spanish work of fiction, Historia de las Guerras Civiles de 
Granada (Madrid, 1694). From this Chateaubriand composed Les Aventures du Dernier 
Abencerrage, and furnished the text of an opera of Cherubini’s. The work, however, 
seems to be destitute of historical foundation; at least Conde is perfectly silent on the 
subject in his Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espaiia (3 v., Madrid, 1829). 

A'BENDBERG, a hill in the canton of Berne, rising abruptly out of the waters of 
lake Thun, on the s. side. It is interesting as the site of an institution, established 
by Dr. Guggenbiihl, for the cure of cretinism (q.v.), and supported by contributions. 
from far and near. The sanguine hopes raised as to the good to be effected by the 
healthiness of the situation, and the mode of treatment followed, were greatly disap- 
pointed, little alleviation being perceptible, and on the death of its founder, in 1863, the: 
institution was closed. 

ABEN-ESRA, properly Abraham-Ben-Meir-Ben-Esra, b. 1093 in Spain, d. 1168 in 
Rome, was one of the most learned Jews of his times. He understood the Hebrew, 
Arabic, and Aramaic languages; had considerable knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, 
and medicine; was a scientific observer; and generally distinguished himself as a saga- 
cious thinker. Having left his native land, he visited Lombardy, Provence, France, 
Egypt, and England, and passed the later years of his life in Rome; everywhere givin 
lectures on grammar, theology, astronomy, etc., besides writing and translating severa 
works in Hebrew and Arabic. His Commentaries on the Old Testament are the most. 
important of his works, which include some treatises on astrology, since published in 
Latin. The scholastic writers mention Aben-Esra as ABENARE or AVENARD. 

A'BENSBERG, a t. in Lower Bavaria, 18 m. s.w. of Ratisbon. It has warm springs. 
and fine castle ruins. April 20, 1809, Napoleon here defeated the Austrians and opened. 
the way for the victory of Eckmihl. 


5 Abele. 
3 9) Abercromby., 


ABEOKU'TA, a city, or rather collection of small towns or villages, capital of the terri- 
tory of Egba, in the Yoruba country, on the w. coast of Africa. A. is about 80 m 
by the river Ogun, n. of Lagos (on the Bight of Benin), and 240 m. w. of the 
Lower Niger. It is situated 567 ft. above the sea-level, on an undulating plain, fantas- 
tically broken by masses of gray granite, and covered with bush. Looking down on the 
city from a height, Burton says: ‘‘The scene before me wants neither grandeur nor 
beauty; there is a gorgeous growth around—hill, water, forest, and homestead all are 
present. * * * The primeval forest has been cleared away around the town, yet there is 
not a vestige of cultivation; and if you ask for the farms, you are told that they are 
distant some 5 to 20 m. The reason is that, if placed within reach, nothing could 
defend them from the depredations of robbers and cattle.” A. is surrounded by a wall 
of hardened mud, from 18 to 20m. in circumference, between 5 and 6 ft. hich. without 
embrasure, and pierced here and there ‘‘ with an aperture by way of loophole.” The 
town itself Burton found to measure 4m. by 2. The houses are square, and built of 
mud, with tall roofs of thatch; the streets are narrow and irregular, and the only scav- 
engers are the sun, the vulture, and the pig. There are a few European traders and 
missionaries; the success of the latter, according to Burton, not having been extraordi- 
nary. There is a trade in palm-oil and grain. Pop. estimated at 100,000.—For further 
Interesting details, see R. F. Burton’s Abeokuta and the Camaroons Mountains (1863). 


_ABER is a Celtic word which enters into the composition of several names of places 
chiefly in Wales and Scotland. It indicates the mouth or embouchure of a stream, either 
into the sea or into another river—as Aberbrothock, at the mouth of the Brothock, in 
Forfarshire; Abergavenny, at the junction of the Usk and Gavenny, in Wales. 


ABERAV'ON, or Port Taxzor, a parliamentary and municipal borough on the s. 
coast of Wales, in Glamorganshire, near the mouth of the Avon, about 30 m. w. 
of Cardiff. It is beautifully situated near the valley of Cwm Avon, in which are exten- 
sive mining-works belonging to the Bank of England. The town has a good harbor and 
docks, is a station on the South Wales Railway, and communicates regularly with Bristol 
by steamers. ‘The valley of the Avon is shut in by lofty hills, while every available space 
is occupied by copper and iron works. Population of municipal borough 6300, 

ABERBROTHWICK. See ARBROATH. 


ABERCROMBIE, James, 1706-81; a British general, b. in Scotland. He was 
commander-in-chief in America in 1758, and in July of that year was defeated in an 
attack upon Ticonderoga, losing heavily in men. He was superseded by Sir Jeffrey 
Amherst, who recaptured Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Returning to England he 
became a member of parliament and deputy-governor of Stirling Castle. 


AB'ERCROMBIE, Joun, in his own day the most eminent of Scottish physicians, and 
still worthy of remembrance for his professional and moral excellence, was born in 1780, 
at Aberdeen, where his father was long a parish minister. He studied medicine in 
Edinburgh, taking his degree in 1801, and thenceforth devoted himself to the practice 
of his profession in the Scottish capital. At a comparatively early age he attained a 
high reputation; and after the death (in 1821) of the celebrated Dr. Gregory, he became 
recognized as the first consulting physician in Scotland. His professional writings con- 
tributed to his celebrity, which was still further extended by the publication, in 1830 and 
1833, of his works on The Intellectual Powers and The Moral Feelings. These works have 
no pretensions to originality or depth of thought, but acquired, from the high personal 
character of the author, a reputation during his life which a few years have sufficed to 
impair. They possess, however, the merit of being more readable than many works of 
the same class, and are pervaded by a moral and religious feeling which, in the case of 
their pious and benevolent author, was perfectly genuine. Dr. A. died suddenly, Nov. 
14, 1844. Among the honors bestowed upon him during his life were the degree of M.D. 
from Oxford, the rectorship of Marischal college, the vice-presidency of the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh, and the office of physician in ordinary to her majesty for Scotland, 


ABERCROMBIE, Joun J., 1802-77, graduate of West Point, 1822. His bravery was 
marked in our wars with the Indians and especially in the war with Mexico. During 
the civil war he rose to the rank of brig.-gen. vols., and in 1865 was brevetted brig.-gen. 
in the regular service and retired. _ 

AB’ERCROMBY, Davin, a Scotch metaphysician, who died about 1702, of whom 
little is known except through his writings. He had been a Roman Catholic 
priest, but abjured and published his reasons in Protestancy safer than Popery, in 
1686. His most notable work is Discowrse on Wit, published in 1685, which has been 
ascribed to Patrick Abercromby and other authors. In medicine he is known through 
his Nova Medicine Prawxis, De Pulsus Variatione, and others on the effect of salivation, 
*tc. His Opuscula were collected in 1687. 


ABERCROMBY, Sir Rautpu, was born at Menstry, in Clackmannanshire, in 1734. He 
was designed by his father for the Scottish bar; and studied from 1752 to 1755 at the 
universities of Edinburgh and Leipsic. His natural inclination, however, pointed to 
a military life; and in 1758 he went to Germany asa cornet in the 3d dragoon guards. 
In 1780 he raised a regiment in Ireland, which was called the 103d, or king’s Irish. It was 
disbanded in 1788; and the next ten years were spent by Sir Ralph in the retirement of a 
country life. He had married in 1767. In 1793, he accompanied the duke of York to 


Aberdare. 
Aberdevine. 3 6 


Holland. His conduct throughout that unfortunate campaign, especially during the 
disastrous retreat in the winter of 1794-95, won him the love and admiration of the whole 
army. On his return to England, he was appointed to the chief command of the expe- 
dition to the West Indies, which, notwithstanding the vexatious obstruction of his 
designs, he conducted with distinguished success, taking Grenada, Demarara, Essequibo, 
St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad. Soon after he was appointed commander of the 
forces in Ireland; but his enlightened and manly remonstrances against the policy of 
government towards that country occasioned his removal to a similar command in Scot- 
land. In 1799, he was appointed second in command to the duke of York in the expedi- 
tion to Holland, still more unhappy and ignominious in its results than the former. 
A. alone acquitted himself on all occasions with entire credit. On his return, he was 
appointed to command the expedition to the Mediterranean, The fleet anchored in 
Aboukir bay on the 2d of March. On the 7th, A. reconnoitred the shore in person. 
Before mid-day of the 8th, the British troops were in possession of the sand-hills that 
commanded the shore, having landed in the face of a storm of shot that ploughed the 
water around them. On the 13th, the enemy were driven within the lines of Alexandria. 
On the morning of the 2ist, Menou attempted to surprise the British camp. He found 
them ready, under arms. In the glorious action that ensued, the British commander wag 
struck by a musket-ball in the thigh; but not till the battle was won, and he saw the 
enemy retreating, did he show any sign of pain. He was borne from the field in a ham- 
mock, cheered by the blessings of the soldiers as he passed, and conveyed on board lord 
Keith’s ship. The ball could not be extracted; mortification ensued; and Mar. 28, 1801, he 
died, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. In the character of A. were combined the 
qualities that seem peculiarly characteristic of a true British soldier. He was at once 
gentle and brave, clear-sighted and cool in deliberation, in action prompt and daring, 
even to hardihood. Apart from his qualities as a soldier, he was a man of liberal accom- 
plishments, free from prejudices, and of sound practical judgment.—The national grati- 
tude to this eminent man took the form of a peerage conferred on his widow, afterwards 
enjoyed by his eldest son, with the title of baron Abercromby.—His third son, JAMzEs 
ABERCROMBY, after being m.p. for Edinburgh and speaker of the reformed house of 
commons, was raised to the British peerage in 1839, with the title BAaRoN DUNFERMLINE. 
He died in March, 1858. 


ABERDARE, a t. in Wales, Glamorgan co., on the right bank of the Cynon, 4 m. 
s.w. of Merthyr-Tydvil, in a rich mineral district, having extensive coal and iron works. 
Tin works have recently been opened. A. is connected with the coast by a canal and 
railway. Its growth of late years has been remarkable. Pop., 41, 6471; in 791, 43,208. 

AB'ERDEEN, the chief city and seaport in then. of Scotland, lies in lat. 57° 9’ n. and 
long. 2° 6' w., in the s.e. angle of the co. of the same name, at the mouth of the river 
Dee, which forms its harbor, and 111 m. n. of Edinburgh. Its mean annual tempera- 
ture is 45°.8 F., and rainfall, 30.57 in. William the lion made A. a royal burgh in 1179, 
The English burned A. in 1836, but it was soon rebuilt, and called New Aberdeen. Old 
A., within the same parliamentary boundary, is a small t. a mile to the n., near the mouth 
of the Don. King’s college and university, founded in old A. in 1494, and Marischal 
college and university, founded in new A. in 1598, were in 1860 united into one institu- 
tion, the university of Aberdeen. It had 691 students, in 1895, and its general council 
with that of Glasgow university, sends one member to parliament. In the 17th c. A. 
had become an important place, but it suffered much from both parties in the civil wars. 
It has now a flourishing trade and large manufactures, and its handsome light-gray 
granite architecture is much admired. The harbor has been much enlarged and 
deepened, and at the entrance is the Girdleness Lighthouse, about 185 feet in height. 
The dock acreage is very extensive. The chief exports are linens, woollens, cotton- 
yarns, paper, combs, granite (hewn and polished), cattle, grain, preserved provisions, 
and fish. A. has considerable ironworks and much shipbuilding. It has a large number 
of churches and excellent educational advantages. The A. clipper-bow ships are cele- 
brated as fast sailers. A. has above 60 places of worship, and 10,000 children at school. 
Connected with A., which has always been a celebrated seat of learning, have been the 
names of Barbour and Boece; bishops Elphinstone, Runbar, and Forbes; the earls 
Marischal, Jameson, Gregory, Reid, Beattie, Campbell, and Hamilton. The British 
association met here in 1859, under the presidency of the prince consort. The burgh is 
governed by 25 councilors, including a provost, six bailies, a dean of guild, ete. Pop. 
1895, 138,783. 


ABERDEEN, t. and co. seat of Monroe co., Miss., on the Tombigbee River and the 
Illinois Central, Kansas City, Memphis and Binghamton and the Mobile and Ohio rail- 
roads; 232 miles by water above Mobile, Ala. It has banks, public high and grammar 
schools, several weekly and monthly periodicals and grist-mills, lumber-mills, and 
cotton-gins, and is principally engaged in the cotton trade. Pop. 1890, 3449. 


ABERDEEN, city and co. seat of Brown co., South Dakotah; on the Chicago and 
Northwestern, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, and the Great Northern railroads; 
42 miles north of Redfield. It has banks, newspapers, good educational facilities, 
a public library and some important manufactures. It was settled in 1880-1 and incor- 
porated in 1882. Pop. 1890, 3182. 


ABERDEEN, GrorGe HAmILTron Gorpon, EARL ‘OF, was born at Edinburgh in 1784. 
He was educated at Harrow and at St. John’s college, Cambridge, where he took his 


Aberdare. 
37 Aberdevine, 


degree of M.A. in 1804. Before this, on succeeding to the earldom in 1801, he made a 
tour through Greece, the record of which is preserved in Byron’s well-known line— 


‘*The traveled thane, Athenian Aberdeen.” 


In his twenty-second year, he was elected one of the sixteen Scottish representative 
peers, and entered public life as a tory. In 1813, he was appointed ambassador to the 
Austrian court, and conducted the negotiations which terminated in the alliance of that 
power with Britain. At this time he formed that close friendship with prince Metter- 
nich which so decidedly influenced his subsequent policy as a statesman. On the con- 
clusion of the war, he was elevated to the British peerage as viscount Gordon. From 
this time till the year 1828, his lordship made no prominent appearance in public life. 
In that year he took office in the new ministry formed under the duke of Wellington. 
The general principle which guided his policy, as secretary of state for foreign affairs, 
was that of non-interference in the internal aifairs of foreign states, which, joined to his 
well-known sympathy with such statesmen as Metternich, has exposed him—not always 
justly—to the suspicion of being inimical to the cause of popular liberty. His gradual 
abandonment of high tory principles was evinced by his support of the bill for the 
repeal of the test and corporation acts, and of the Roman Catholic emancipation act. 
From the fall of the Wellington ministry till the Peel administration in 1841, his lord- 
ship was out of office, with the exception of his brief administration of the colonial 
office in the tory ministry of 1834-5. In 1841, he again received the seals of the 
foreign office. M. Guizot was at that time foreign minister in France, and the two 
statesmen acted in cordial alliance. ne conclusion of the Chinese war, the Ashbur- 
ton treaty, and the Oregon treaty, were the principal services rendered to the coun- 
try during his administration of foreign affairs. His act in 1848 for removing doubts 
regarding the admission of ministers to benefices in Scotland, neither saved the disrup- 
tion of the church nor pleased those for whom it was meant, and is now virtually 
repealed by the ‘‘act for the abolition of patronage” (1874). From the time that the 
repeal of the corn-laws became the rallying-point of the Peel party, he became iden- 
tified with their policy. In 1846, he resigned with Sir Robert Peel. In 1853, on the 
resignation of lord Derby, the extraordinary state of parties necessitated a coalition, 
and lord A. was selected as the fittest man to head the new ministry, which for some 
time was extremely popular. The feeble and vacillating policy displayed in the conduct 
of the war with Russia gradually undermined its stability, and the disastrous misman- 
agement brought to light in the winter of 1854, in all departments of the public business 
connected with the war, filled up the measure of the popular discontent. On Feb. 1, 1855, 
lord A. resigned office. He died in 1860, See Gordon, Lari of Aberdeen (1893). His grand- 
son, JOHN CAMPBELL HAMILTON GORDON, became governor general of Canada in 1893. 


ABERDEENSHIRE, a large maritime co. in the e. of Scotland, between 56° 52’ and 
57° 42’ n. lat., and 1° 49’ and 3° 48’ w. long.; bounded n. by Banffshire and the North 
sea; e. by the North sea; s. by Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth shires; w. by Inver. 
ness and Banff shires. It is the fifth in size of the Scottish counties; greatest length, 
102 m.; greatest breadth, 50 m.; with 60 m. of sea-coast, and an area of 1955 sq.m. It 
has long been popularly divided into five districts (proceeding from s.w. to n.e.)— 
Mar, Strathbogie, Garioch, Formartin, and Buchan. A. is generally hilly, and in the 
s.w. (Braemar) entirely mountainous, the Grampians running along the s. side, and 
branching off to the n.e. and n. Braemar contains the highest mountains: Ben-Muic- 
Dhui (next to Ben Nevis, the highest hill in the British isles), 4296 feet; Cairntoul, 
4245; Cairngorm, 4083; Ben-na-Buird, 3860; Lochnagar, 3770. The predominant rocks 
are granite and gneiss. The granite is very durable, and is much used for building and 
polishing. The chief rivers are the Dee (96 m. long), Don (78 m.), and Ythan (87 m.), 
which run eastward into the North sea; and the Doveran (58 m.), which runs n.e. into 
the North sea (see DEE, Don, DovERON). On the upper part of the Dee is Balmoral 
(q.v.). The Ythan yields the pearl-mussel, but rarely pearls of any value. The mean . 
annual rainfall of A. varies from 80 to 87in. Clay soils predominate near the coast, 
loamy soils near the centre, and poor, gravelly, sandy, and peaty soils elsewhere. The 
most fertile parts lie between the Don and Ythan, and in the n.e. angle of the co, 
Nowhere in the kingdom have the natural disadvantages of soil and climate been more 
successfully overcome. A. has 188 m. of railway, and 2359 m. of public roads, the latter 
supported by rates, and not by tolls. The chief towns and villages are Aberdeen (new 
and old), Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Huntly, Kintore, Inverurie, and Turriff. Theco. returns 
two members to parliament; the city of Aberdeen, one; and the burghs of Peterhead, 
Kintore, and Inverurie, with Elgin, Cullen, and Banff, one. About 87 per cent. of the 
area of A. is cultivated. Aberdeenshire produces large crops of hay, oats, turnips, bar- 
ley and potatoes, and is unsurpassed in breeding and feeding stock. The fislreries on the 
coast are very productive. Pop. in ’91, 284,036; with 49,185 inhabited houses, and above 
80 per cent. of the children, of ages 5 to 13, receiving education. The munificent Dick 
and Milne bequests for parochial schoolmasters have given A. a high place in the statis- 
tics of education; and in proportion to its population the number of its places of worship 
is very large. 


AB/ERDEVINE, or SISKIN, fringilla spinus, a song-bird, nearly allied to the gold- 
finch, with which it is placed by Cuvier and others in the new genus carduelis, It is 
rather smaller than the goldfinch, and less elongated in form. The crown of the head 


Abergavenny. 
Abies. 3 8 


and the throat are black, the nape dusky green, and there is a broad yellow streak above 
and behind each eye. It is only a winter visitant of Britain, and breeds in the n. of 
Europe, building its nest in high trees. It is frequently kept as a cage-bird, being easily 
tamed, and breeds freely with the canary. It feeds on the seeds of the thistle, alder, 
birch, and elm, and occasionally does great damage to the hop plantations in Germany. 
In France it injures the blossoms of the apple trees. 

ABERGAVENNY, the Roman Gobaniwm, a market t. of England, in Monmouthshire, 
13 m. w. of Monmouth, is beautifully situated in the valley of the Usk, the garden 
of Wales, at the junction of the Usk and Gavenny, and is surrounded on every side by 
high mountains and thick woods. The town is regularly and compactly built, and many 
improvements have of late years been made. St. Mary’s church, which was once a fine 
cruciform structure, and contains many interesting monuments, has been spoiled by al- 
terations. The castle, which is very ancient, is now a ruin. ‘The principal modern 
building is the lunatic asylum. There are collieries and iron-works in the neighborhood. 
Pop. 791, 7640. 

AB'ERNETHY, Joun, 1680-1740; b. Coleraine, Ireland; a dissenting minister, 
son of adissenter. He was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and licensed to preach 
before the age of 21. He was ordained at Antrim in 1703; in 1717 he was invited toa 
congregation in Dublin, as colleague of Rev. Mr. Arbuckle, but he declined and remained 
at Antrim. This refusal was considered ecclesiastical rebellion, and a fierce controversy 
ensued, the parties dividing into ‘“‘subscribers” and ‘‘ non-subscribers.” Though himself 
strictly evangelical, A. and his associates were remotely the occasion of the contest which 
ended in eliminating Arian and Socinian elements from the Irish Presbyterian church. 
In 1726, A. and all the ‘‘non-subscribers” were turned out with due ban and solemnity. 
Yet only four years afterwards he was called to a ‘‘regular” congregation in Dublin. In 
1731, in the controversy regarding the test act, A. took broad ground “against all 
laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, 
excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country.” He was a century 
ahead of the time, having to argue against those who denied that a Roman Catholic or 
a dissenter could be a ‘‘man of integrity and ability.” A. was foremost where unpop- 
ular truth and right were to be maintained, and his Zvacts, collected after his death, 
did good service for generations. 


AB'ERNETHY, Jonn, a very eminent English surgeon, was born in London in 1764. 
His grandfather was the Rev. John Abernethy, an Irish Presbyterian clergyman, who 
acquired distinction by his writings, and his bold adoption of bishop Hoadly’s views on 
the right of private judgment and the subscription of confessions. <A.’s early tastes dis- 
posed him to the bar; but in 1780 he was apprenticed to Mr. (afterwards Sir Charles) 
Blicke, surgeon of St. Bartholomew’s hospital. He attended at the same time the lec- 
tures of John Hunter and Sir W. Blizard. In 1787, A. was elected assistant-surgeon to 
St. Bartholomew’s, an office which he filled for twenty-eight years; at the end of which 
time he was appointed surgeon, with a salary. Soon after his election, he began to lec- 
ture in the hospital on anatomy and surgery, and may be said to have laid the foundation 
of its character as a school of surgery. At first, he manifested extraordinary diffidence, 
but his power soon developed itself; and his lectures at last attracted such crowds, that, 
in 1790, it was found necessary to build a lecture-theatre in the hospital for his use. His 
clear, simple, and positive style, illustrated by an inexhaustible variety of apt anecdotes, 
made him the most popular medical teacher of his day. In 1813, he was appointed sur- 
geon to Christ’s hospital, and in 1814, professor of anatomy and surgery to the college of 
surgeons. His practice increased with his celebrity, which the singular eccentricity and 
occasional rudeness of his manners contributed to heighten. Notwithstanding, however, 
the irritability and harshness which he so often exhibited, those who knew him best bear 
unanimous testimony to the generosity and kindliness of his character. He married in 
1800, and had several children. He died at Enfield, in 1831. Of his works, the most 
original and important is his Odservations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment of 
Local Diseases, first published in 1806, in which a simple principle, till then little attended 
to, was made the foundation of much important and ingenious observation. His Lectwres 
on the Theory and Practice of Surgery were published in 1880. 


ABERRATION OF LIGHT is an apparent alteration in the place of a star, arising from 
the motion of the earth in its orbit combined with the progressive passage of light. 
When rain is falling perpendicularly, a drop entering at the top of an upright tube at 
rest, will go through; but if the tube be carried forward horizontally, a drop entering 
the top will strike against the side before it goes far; and to make the drop go through 
the tube in motion, we must incline the top of it forward in the direction of the motion. 
The amount of this inclination will be the greater the more rapid the motion of the tube 
is compared with that of the falling drops. If in the time that a drop takes to fall 
through the height AB of the parallelogram in the annexed cut, the inclined tube BC 
is moved horizontally over a space equal to its breadth, AC, a drop entering the top of 
the tube will descend without touching the sides. For in half the time the tube will be 
in the position B’C’, and the drop in the positiond,; and so for any other portion of 
the time. This exactly illustrates the astronomical phenomenon in question. The tube 
is a telescope directed to receive the light of a star; this tube, and the person looking 


Abergavenny. 
3 2 Abies. if 


through it, are moving along with the earth in its orbit, and the light may be con- 
ceived as particles coming from the star like drops of rain, moving much faster, no 
doubt, still requiring time. That a particle or ray of light from 


the star may pass through the tube, it must be directed, not straight i I 

to the star, but ata slight angle in the direction of the earth’s motion. 4 ,t.. aif Ls 
Thus the place where we see the star is not its true place. As the i A) fF 
earth’s motion, however, is slow compared with the velocity of light, | ip ? 
the angle of inclination is small—never exceeding about 20". The wet Fi 
result is, that, if we conceive the true place of a staras a fixed point, ii? 
the apparent place of the star describes about this true place, in the H Q 
course of a year, an ellipse whose greater axis is about 40". The 1 
aberration of light was discovered by the English astronomer Brad- A 


Sean 
wine 


ley, in 1727, while seeking to determine the parallax of certain fixed 
stars. 

AB‘ERT, JoHn JAMES, 1788-1863; an American military engineer. p} 
He was educated at West Point; resigned on graduation and practiced “=; 
law. He served as a private in the. battle of Bladensburg, Aug. B 
24,1814. In 1829, he was It.-col. in command of the engineers and head of the topo- 
graphical bureau. In 1832-33 he was commissioner for Indian affairs, and in 1838 
made col. of the corps of engineers, having charge of the tovographical service of 
the government until his retirement, Sept. 9, 1861. 


ABERYST WITH, a seaport of Wales, and till 1885 one of the Cardigan districts of 
parliamentary boroughs. A. is the seat of the univ. coll. of Wales (1872), is much re- 
sorted to for sea-bathing, and is well provided with good hotels and lodging-houses. 
Pop. 1881, 6664; 791, 9424. 

ABES'SA, a damsel in Spenser’s poems, impersonating abbeys and convents. When 
Una asked if she had seen the red cross knight, A., frightened at the lion, ran into the 
house of Blind Superstition, and closed the door, which the lion broke open. The 
meaning is, that when Truth came, the abbeys and convents were alarmed and barred 
her out, but England (the lion) broke in the door. 


ABEY'ANCE, a legal term importing that a freehold inheritance, dignity, or office is 
not vested in any one, but is in expectation, or suspended, until the true owner appears, 
or the right thereto is determined. Titles of honor are said to be in A. when it is uncer- 
tain who shall enjoy them. 


AB'GAR, the title of a line of kings of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. One of them is 
known from a correspondence which he is said to have had with Jesus Christ. A letter 
of A. entreating Jesus to come and heal him of disease, and offering him an asylum from 
the wrath of the Jews, together with the answer of Jesus, promising to send a disciple 
to heal A. after his ascension, are given by Eusebius, who professed to believe the docu- 
ments to be genuine, The same opinion has been held by scholars here and there, and 
by many unlettered persons down to our own times; but there can be no reasonable 
doubt that the whole correspondence is fabulous. It has also been stated that A. pos- 
sessed a picture of Jesus, and the credulous may still find such a picture either in Rome 
or Genoa. Still others report A. as the possessor of the handkerchief which a woman 
gave Jesus to wipe the sweat from his brow as he toiled under the weight of his cross, 
and say that the features of the Savior are miraculously imprinted thereon. 


ABHORRERS, the supporters of Charles II. in his policy of discouraging petitions for 
the reassembling of Parliament (1680). The plan of the king’s adversaries for present- 
ing these petitions from every part of the kingdom was checked bya royal proclamation 
indicating the king’s displeasure and encouraging the magistrates to treat them as 
seditious. Many Tory addresses followed, expressing confidence in the king and 
abhorrence of the petitions. This became the watchword of the party, while the opposing 
whigs were termed Petitioners. 


A'BIAD, BAuR-EL-, the ‘‘ White Nile,” the western branch of the Nile above Khar- 
toum. See NILE. 

ABI ATHAR, a Jewish high priest; son of Ahimilech, slain by Saul for receiving 
the fugitive David, to whom Abiathar adhered, especially during Absalom’s rebellion 
For taking part in the rebellion of Adonijah, A. was deprived of his priesthood by Solo- 
mon, and banished. 


A'BIB, the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, and the seventh of the civil 
year ; also called Nisan. Itis rather a name for the season when new grain appears than 
fora month. According to the rabbins it began with the new moon of March. 


A'BICH, WILHELM HERMANN, b. Berlin, Dec. 11, 1806; a German naturalist. He 
graduated in 1831, and in 1842 became professor of mineralogy in the university of 
Dorpat, and in 1853 member of St. Petersburg academy of sciences. Abich explored 
the Caucasus, Russian Armenia, northern Persia and Daghestan, and published several 
books on the geology, etc., of those regions. He d. 1886. 


ABIES, See Fir. 


‘ta, 
~ ay oo 


Abigail. 
Abolitionists. +f 0 


ABIGAIL is a general name for a waiting-maid or a lady’s-maid. Some suppose the 
name to refer to Abigail Hill, afterwards Mrs. Masham, a maid of honor and a great 
favorite of Queen Anne. Others think the name refers to Abigail, wife of Nabal, a 
wealthy chief, who refused common hospitality to David when he fled from Saul. 
David afterwards determined to punish Nabal, but Abigail went out to meet him with 
a present, and made herself so charming that, on the death of her husband, not long 
after, David made her his wife. In her address to David, when she first meets him, she 
styles herself a handmaid. 

ABILENE. The seat of justice of Dickinson Co., Kan., on the Union Pacific and two 
other railroads. It has shops, churches, banks and newspapers, graded public schools 
and a Roman Catholic college for young ladies. Pop. ’90, 3547. 


ABIM’ELECH, a son of Gideon. When his father refused to take the title of king, 
either for himself or children, A. set out to claim the sovereignty, slew seventy of his 
brothers, and was declared king. Three years afterwards the Shechemites made an 
unsuccessful attempt to throw off his rule. After destroying Shechem, A. went against 
Thebez, which had revolted, and here, while storming the piace, was struck on the head 
by a piece of millstone thrown from the wall bya woman. To avoid an ignominious 
death, he ordered his sword-bearer to run him through. His reign is regarded as the 
first attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel. 

ABIM’ELECH, a Philistine king, to whom Abraham represented Sarah to be his 
sister, and not his wife. Upon Abimelech soliciting her company, the fraud was 
exposed. 

ABINGDON, a city in Knox co., Ill., incorporated in 1857, on the line of the Chicago, 
Burlington and Quincy and the Iowa Central railroads; 85 m. n. e. of Quincy. It is the 
seat of the Hedding Methodist Episcopal College, and has churches, banks, newspapers, 
and several flourishing industries. Pop. 790, 1521. 


ABINGDON, town and co. seat of Washington co., Va., on the Norfolk and Western 
railroad; is the seat of the Martha Washington College and the Stonewall Jackson 
Institute (both for young ladies); has cigar factories, flour and planing mills, and other 
industries. Pop. 1890, 1674. 


AB’INGDON, a market t. in Berkshire, England, situated at the junction of the Ock 
and the Thames. The name was originally Abbendon (town of the Abbey). It sends a 
member to parliament. Pop. of parliamentary borough ’81, 6608; °91, 6557. 


ABINGTON, a town in Plymouth co., Mass., 20 m. s. e. of Boston, on the New York, 
New Haven and Hartford railroad; pop. ’90, 4244. It has high and graded public 
schools, a public library, and manufactures of boots and shoes. 


ABINGTON, Frances, b. 1787, d. London, Mar. 4, 1815; a famous English 
actress, daughter of Barton, a common soldier. As an errand-girl, she picked up French 
from a milliner. She became a flower-girl around theatres, and made her first appear- 
ance at the Haymarket as ‘‘ Miranda,” in ‘‘ The Busybody,” soon after marrying Abing- 
ton, her music master, from whom she separated. She wasa favorite in Dublin, opening 
with ‘‘ Kitty,” in ‘‘ High Life Below Stairs,” for Tate Wilkinson’s benefit, who gives an 
animated picture of her success. The headdress she wore was adopted by the women of 
fashion, and the ‘‘ Abington cap” became famous. Returning to England in 1765, she 
was warmly received by Garrick. After the retirement of Mrs. Pritchard and Kitty 
Clive she had no rivals on the London stage, and became the first comic actress of the 
period, appearing last, April 12, 1799. She left legacies to the theatrical funds. 


ABIOGEN'ESIS (see GENERATION, SPONTANEOUS), the name for the supposed 
production of living matter from non-living; one of the fundamental and oldest ques- 
tions in biology; recently much studied because of more accurate means of experiment, 
and partly because of its important bearing on evolution, correlation of forces, and the 
theory of infectious diseases. Though the doctrine of A. may not be said te 
be either established or refuted, we can believe in gradual progress towards a solution. 
The defenders of A., while interpreting the results of past observations in their 
favor, are less disposed to rest on these, preferring to argue from such wide analogies of 
evolution and correlation as seem to support their doctrines. Haeckel embraces A. as a 
necessary and integral part of the theory of universal evolution; and Huxley, from the 
other side, confesses that if it were given to him to look beyond the abyss of geologically 
recorded time to the more remote period when the earth was passing through early phys- 
ical and chemical conditions, he should expect to be a witness of the evolution of living 
protoplasm from non-living matter. Thus it is not so much on the ground of fact and 
experiment that abiogenesists are convinced of the truth of their doctrine as because it 
seems to gain confirmation from a much wider scope: because it aids the theory of evo- 
lution by tracing organic into inorganic matter; because it fosters the increasing unpop- 
ularity of the hypothesis of a special vital force; because it would well agree with the 
principle of uniformity, and by disclosing the existence of unknown worlds of material 
for development would relieve natural selection from the immense labor of evolving all 
species from one or a very few primary forms. See Lirz, MATERIALISM. 


ABIPONES, a small tribe of South American Indians, living in the Gran Chaco in the 


Argentine Republic. They are tall and active, good swimmers and hunters. Frequent. 
wars have reduced their numbers to a few scores. 


4 1 Abigail. 
Abolitionists. 


ABKHA’SIA, or ABASIA, a former district of Asiatic Russia on the Black Sea, bet. 
42° 30’ and 44° 45’ n. and 37° 3, and 40° 36’ e.; separated by high mountains from Circas- 
sia; bounded on the s. by Mingrelia, and s. w. by the Black sea. It nearly coincides 
with the present district of Sukhum. It derives its name from the Abasians or Abazians. 
The country is mountainous, with well watered valleys and mild climate. Some of the 
inhabitants till the soil, some raise cattle and horses, and some are pirates and robbers. 
There still continues a considerable trade in slaves. This country was subdued by the 
emperor Justinian, who introduced the Christian religion. Since then, Persia, Georgia, 
and Turkey have ruled; the latter expelling Christianity and establishing Moslemism. 
By the treaty of Adrianople, Russia obtained the fortresses in the territory, but until the 
insurrection in 1866 the native chiefs had almost unlimited power. The chief town in 
this region is Sukhumkaleh. 


ABLATIVE CASE. See DECLENSION. 


ABLEGATE (Latin, a-legatus), a papal envoy or emissary, a special commissioner, 
deputed by the court of Rome to carry the hat and red bonnet to a newly appointed 
cardinal. His official duties are completed when the latter has received the insignia of 
his office. The so-called apostolic ablegates are of higher rank than those termed 
pontifical. 


ABLUTION. See PURIFICATION. 


ABLUTION, a symbol of purification, as when Aaron and his sons were dedicated 
to the priestly office. A. was required of all the Israelites as a preparation for receiving 
the law at Mt. Sinai. It was a religious custom with other nations also, particularly for 
those to be inducted into the mysteries of Eleusis. Priests among the Hebrews were 
required to wash their hands and feet before approaching the sacred altar; and in the 
early Christian church, officiating ministers laved their hands in view of the people imme- 
diately before the communion services. Among the Egyptians A. was carried to great 
excess. Herodotus says their priests shaved the entire body once in three days, so that 
no unclean thing should be upon them in the time of worship, and that they bathed in 
cold water twice in the night and twice in the day time. Mohammedans, both priest 
and lay, are noted for their frequent washings. The law of Moses directed A. for phys- 
ical defilements also, and specified periods when uncleanness should cease. This, too, is 
a Moslem practice. <A. was a sign of a declaration of innocence, and in the case of one 
found slain, the murderer being unknown, the rulers of the city sacrificed a heifer, and 
the nearest of kin of the person slain washed their hands over the sacrifice, declaring, 
‘Our hands have not shed this blood; neither have our eyes seen it.” Pilate’s hand- 
washing has been thought to be prompted by the Hebrew custom; but such A. was the 
custom on many occasions among the Romans and Greeks. The Pharisees were so 
excessive in A. that they were rebuked for the hypocrisy of it. They had rules so exact 
that one could scarcely rise up or sit down without some infraction of them. They 
extended A. to inanimate objects also, requiring the cleansing (ceremonially, not merely 
for cleanliness) of pots, dishes, tables, etc. A. is aritualistic term in the Roman Catholic 
service for the use of wine and water after the eucharist, to cleanse the cup and the 
fingers of priests. The Greek church has A. as a ceremony seven days after baptism. 


AB’NER, the son of Ner, and cousin of Saul, and commander of his army. After 
Saul’s death, the tribe of Judah recognized David, while Abner prevailed upon the other 
tribes to recognize Saul’s son, Ishbosheth. David sent his army, under Joab, into the 
field, and A. was defeated. In his flight, A. being hotly pursued by Asahel, turned and 
slew him. According to usage, Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, became the avenger of 
blood. Afterwards A. went over to David, who promised to make him chief of the 
yee on the reunion of the two kingdoms; but A. was killed by Joab and his brother 

bishat. 


ABO (pronounced Odo), the chief t. of the government of Abo, in Finland, now 
belonging to the Russian empire, issituated on the river Aurajokki, near its embouchure 
in the gulf of Bothnia; pop. ’91, 32,184. The town was founded by the Swedes in 
1157, and remained the capital of Finland until 1819. In the year 1827 a gréat part of 
the town, including the university buildings, was destroyed by fire, and consequently 
the university was removed to Helsingfors, now the capital.—The Peace of Abo (1743), 
between Sweden and Russia, put an end to the war commenced by Sweden, under 
French instigation, in 1741. 


A'BO-BJORNEBORG, a department of Finland, on the gulfs of Finland and 
Bothnia ; 9450 sq.m. It has general commerce, ship-building, and government factories. 
Pop. ’90, 395,474; chief t., Abo. 

ABOLITIONISTS, a term used to designate a party in the U.S., who sought the 
immediate and total abolition of slavery. See SuaAveRy. Abolitionist views had long 
been held by many, especially by members of the society of Friends; but the term was 
not commonly used until an aggressive party spread from New England throughout the 
north and west, demanding immediate and unconditional emancipation. After about 
30 years of agitation, the A. became sufficiently powerful to get some of their doctrines 
adopted by the republican party. The ends of the A. were gained when, under Lincoln’s 
administration, slavery was abolished, Jan, 1, 1863, 


Abomasum, 
Abousambul. 49 


ABOMA'SUM, the fourth stomach of ruminating animals, or the rennet. From the 
omasum the food is deposited in the A., a cavity considerably larger than either the 
second or third stomach, although smaller than the first one. The A. is that part of the 
digestive apparatus which is analogous to the single stomach of other mammalia, as the 
food there undergoes the process of chymification, after being macerated and ground in 
the first three stomachs. 

ABO'MEY, the capital of Dahomey, West Africa ; 7° n. 2° 4’ e.; about 60 m. n. of Why- 
dah, the port of the kingdom. A. isaclay-built town, surrounded by mud-built walls and 
a moat, and is spread over a large area, some of which is under cultivation. The houses 
stand far apart; there are no regular streets, and tie town is very dirty. There are four 
market places for trade in palm-oil, ivory and gold, the business being done by Moham- 
medan traders. In A. is the palace of the king of Dahomey, which has often been the 
scene of human sacrifices. There was a ‘‘ custom ’’ (sacrifice) held annually at which many 
criminals and war-captives were slaughtered; and whenever a king died there was a ‘* orand 
custom”? at which as many as 2000 men and women have been butchered. The slave 
trade prospered until the town was taken by a French army under Gen. Dodds in 1892, 
and the king overthrown. See DAHOMEY. 


ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION, possibly, the Roman standard, set up in the 
temple of Jerusalem, to which the soldiery offered sacrifices as to an idol. 


ABORIGINES (Lat.), properly the earliest inhabitants of a country. The correspond- 
ing term used by the Greeks was autochthones. The Roman and Greek historians, how- 
ever, apply the name to a special people, who, according to tradition, had their original 
seats in the mountains about Reate, now Rieti; but, being driven out by the Sabines, 
descended into Latium, and, in conjunction with a tribe of Pelasgi, subdued or expelled 
thence the Siculi, and occupied the country. The A. then disappear as a distinct people, 
they and their allies the Pelasgi having taken the name of Latini. The non-Pelasgic 
element of the Roman population is supposed to represent these A., who would thus 
belong to the Oscans or Ausonians. 


ABOR'TION is the term used in medicine to denote the expulsion of the product of 
conception (the impregnated ovum) from the womb before the sixth month of pregnancy. 
If the expulsion takes place after that date, and before the proper time, it is termed a 
premature labor or miscarriage. In law no such distinction is made. The frequency of 
abortion as compared with normal pregnancy is very differently estimated by different 
writers; but the best evidence leads us to the belief that abortion is of far more common 
occurrence than is generally supposed, and that it takes place on an average in one out of 
every three or four cases of pregnancy. The following are amongst the causes predispos- 
ang to this accident: (1) A diseased condition of either parent, and especially a syphilitic 
taint. (2) A peculiar temperament on the part of the mother. Those women who present 
a strongly marked nervous or sanguine temperament seem to abort with singular facility; 
and the same tendency is observed in those in whom the catamenial or monthly discharge 
is abundant or excessive. Again, very fat women, while they have a tendency to sterility, 
are liable to abort when pregnancy does occur. Any cause interfering with the normal 
oxidation of the blood—as, for instance, the constant breathing of impure air, may pro- 
voke abortion—a fact excellently illustrated by the experiments of Brown-Séquard on 
pregnant animals (rabbits), when he showed that the application of a ligature to the 
windpipe excited uterine contractions, ending, if the experiment were continued long 
enough, in abortion, but ceasing if air was freely admitted into the lungs. Change of 
climate, as from India to England, certainly predisposes to this accident; and it has been 
observed by various writers that great political events, the horrors of war, and famine, 
exert a similar action. The marvellous events that occurred in Paris in 1848 were speedily 
followed by an extraordinary number of abortions and of still-born children; and a 
similar fact had been previously noticed by the elder Nagele and Hoffmann during the 
famine of 1816 and during the siege of Leyden. Nor can there be a doubt that, amongst 
the causes predisposing to abortion, must be included the employment of such corsets 
and other garments as by their tightness interfere with the circulation of the blood, and 
alter the natural position of the womb and of the abdominal viscera. Many diseases 
supervening during the course of pregnancy, especially the eruptive fevers (as small-pox, 
scarlatina, etc.), almost invariably lead to abortion of a very dangerous character; and it 
has been known from the time of Hippocrates that intermittent fevers have this effect. 
Amongst the direct causes of abortion may be placed blows on the abdomen, falls, any 
violent muscular efforts, too long a walk or ride on horseback (indeed, women with a 
tendency to abort should avoid horseback during pregnancy), a severe mental shock, ete. 
Moreover, the death of the foetus from any cause is sure to occasion abortion. 

The symptoms of abortion vary according to the stage of pregnancy at which it is 
threatened, and according to the exciting cause. Many of these resemble those of con- 
gestion of the womb, such as a sensation of weight or painful pressure in the revion of 
the loins or sacrum, extending to the bladder and rectum (with or without ten2smus, 
q.v.); these symptoms being aggravated by standing or walking, and being accompanied 
by chills, accelerated pulse, loss of appetite, and a general feeling of discomfort. A dis- 
charge of serous fluid, sometimes slightly tinged with blood,is then observed. The 
feeling of weight is replaced by pains, leading to the expulsion of the ovum, which, during 


43 Abomasum. 
e Abousambul, 


the first two months, is so small as commonly to escape detection. In more advanced 
stages of pregnancy, the pains are more severe, the discharge is more abundant, and con- 
sists chiefly of blood; and after more or less time, the product of conception escapes 
either in whole or in part. In the former case, the patient has little further trouble; in 
the latter, hemorrhage will probably continue, and the parts retained may putrefy, and 
give rise to serious symptoms. After about the commencement of the fourth month, the 
symptoms gradually approximate to those presented in ordinary parturition. 

In the treatment of abortion, prophylactics (or the guarding against causes likely to 
lead to it) hold the first place. Women liable to this affection should, on the slightest 
threatening, assume as much as possible the horizontal position, avoiding all bodily exer- 
tion or mental excitement. They should use non-stimulating foods and drinks, and keep 
the bowels open by gentle aperients—such as manna and castor-oil, and carefully avoid 
aloes and other medicines irritating the lower bowel. Moreover, a separate bedroom 
must be insisted on by the physician. We shall only enter into the curative treatment 
so far as to state that if it is deemed necessary to check hemorrhage before professional 
aid can be called in, cloths soaked in cold water may be applied locally (care being taken 
to change them before they grow warm), and iced water containing an astringent, such 
as a little alum, may be given internally. Further proceedings must be left to the med- 
ical attendant. 

There are occasional cases (as where the outlet of the pelvis is very contracted) in 
which it is necessary to induce abortion by professional means, but it would be out of 
place to enter into this subject in these pages. It cannot be too generally known that 
all attempts at procuring criminal abortion, either by the administration of powerful 
drugs or the application of instruments, are accompanied with extreme danger to the 
pregnant woman. 

It cannot be too earnestly impressed upon the mind of those who are tempted to pro- 
cure a criminal abortion by means of drugs, that the danger of causing death is very 
serious. Many so-called emmenagogues (q.v.) which induce the menstrual flow in a 
woman who is not pregnant, but is merely suffering from Amenorrha@a or suppression of 
the menses, are abortifacients only when given in such doses as to endanger life, or to 
set up violent internal inflammations. Among these are the various preparations of ergot 
of rye (q.v.) savin (the most powerful of all emmenagogues), borax, rue, tansy, cantharides, 
etc. At the South, among the ignorant negroes, concoctions of pennyroyal are used 
for the same purpose. The milder emmenagogues, such as iron, aloes, etc., have no 
abortive tendency, except in the case of those women who are predisposed to abort. 
Violent purgatives in cases where they have caused abortion, have not done so because 
they directly exercise an ecbolic effect on the uterus, but only as a secondary conse- 
quence of the excessive intestinal irritation which they cause. 

In the United States statutes vary in defining abortion, but the latest of N. Y. may 
serve asasample of the tenor of legislation. They are (Rev. Stat., part iv., chap. i., 
title 2, sec. 9-12): Any person administering, prescribing, advising, or procuring to 
take by a woman with child any drug or thing whatever, or advising or procuring her 
to submit to operation with intent to procure miscarriage, unless necessary to preserve 
her life, shall, if the woman or child die through such means, be guilty of manslaughter 
in the second devree, punishable not less than four nor more than twenty years in state 
prison. A pregnant woman voluntarily causing abortion, except to preserve her life, 
suffers four to ten years. The sale of drugs and instruments for such purpose is 
criminal, whether to a woman pregnant or not; and the latest law makes the advertis- 
ing of such medicines or instruments a misdemeanor. Convictions for actual criminal 
abortion, however, are rare, as it is, naturally, one of the most secret of crimes, and 
among the most difficult to prove. 


ABOUKIR’, the ancient Canopus, is now an insignificant village on the coast of Egypt, 
about 13 m.n.e. of Alexandria. The castle of Aboukir stands on the w. side of the bay of 
the same name. This bay is celebrated on account of Nelson’s victory here gained over 
the French fleet, Aug. 1, 1798. The French fleet was stationed in a curved line near a 
small island guarded by a battery; but Nelson, with his usual intrepidity, forced a pas- 
sage with half of his fleet of fifteen vessels between the island and the French line of 
battle, while the other half attacked the enemy in front. The French admiral De Brueys 
was killed by a cannon-bali, and his flag-ship, /’ Orient, was destroyed. Napoleon defeated 
the Arabs here in 1799, and Sir Ralph Abercromby (q. v.) repulsed the French near this 
point in 1801. The French fleet was completely defeated, and only two vessels escaped. 


ABOUSAM'BUL, or IPSAM’BUL, a place on the left bank of the Nile, in Nubia, lat. 22° 
22’, the site of two very remarkable rock-cut temples, perhaps the oldest existing 
specimens of architecture in the world. The larger temple contains fourteen apartments, 
hewn out of the solid rock. The first and largest of these is 57 ft. long, and 52 broad, 
and is supported by two rows of massy square pillars (four in each row), 30 ft. high. 
To each of the pillars is attached a standing colossus, reaching to the roof, overlaid with 
a kind of stucco, and painted with gaudy colors. In front of the temple are four colossal 
seated figures—the largest pieces of Egyptian sculpture yet discovered. Reproductions 
of two of these, on the scale of the original (65 ft. in height), form very striking objects 
in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, where also may be seen a fac-simile, on a small scale, 


About. 
AMEE. At 


of the temple itself. These figures are supposed to represent Rameses the great (or 
Sesostris), whose achievements are described on the painted walls of the temple. 


ABOUT, EpmMonp FRANGoIs VALENTIN, an eminent French novelist, dramatist, and 
journalist, was born at Dieuze, on the 14th Feb., 1828. He studied first at the Lycee 
Charlemagne, where he greatly distinguished himself; and afterwards at the Kcole 
Normale. In the beginning of 1852, he received an appointment to the French school at. 
Athens, an institution supported by the French government, with no very definite 
object, but with the hope that the members, who are selected on account of their attain- 
ments and promise in scholarship, and left perfectly free to choose their own studies, 
should be able to make contributions to the history or the archeology of Greece. A. 
remained at Athens for about two years. He wrote, as required by the terms of his: 
appointment, a memoir for the academy of inspections, entitled L’Jle @Hgine,; but it. 
was as the satirist of modern Greece, not as the investigator of Grecian antiquities, that 
his name first became familiar to the public. On his return to France, towards the end. 
of 1853, he published La Gréce Contemporaine, a work which at once attained to great 
popularity, and was in course of the following year translated into several foreign lan- 
guages. This work, full of livelyand pointed sketches, abounding in shrewd and witty 
observation, its censures, very severe as they were, scarcely seeming offensive, from the: 
ease and perfect good-humor with which they were conveyed, at once made its author be: 
regarded as among the most promising writers of the day. It unquestionably affected 
European opinion as to the character and the capabilities of the modern Greek; the truth- 
fulness of its portraiture being confirmed by all who had special knowledge of this people. 
It gave earnest of the qualities which go to making a brilliant novelist; and A. did not: 
long delay to come before the public as a novelist. His first novel, Tol/a, appeared in the: 
Revue des Deux Mondes, and was republished early in 1855. It did not disappoint the: 
high expectations formed of it; but the author had laid himself open to a charge which, 
whenever it can be colorably sustained, is certain to be disastrous. He had taken many 
of his leading incidents from an Italian work, Vittoria Savorelli, published in 1841, and 
soon after withdrawn, the incidents contained in which were well known as actual 
occurrences; and, though something of this was hinted in the book, there was no distinct 
acknowledgment of it. A hue and cry of plagiarism was got up against A., from which 
his reputation took sometime to recover. His comedy, Gwillery, brought out in Feb. 
1856, at_the Théatre Francais, did not make his peace with the Parisians; it was a com- 
plete failure, so far as the theatre-going public was concerned, and had to be withdrawn 
after two representations. A set of stories which he now began to contribute to the 
Moniteur, however — Les Mariages de Paris— placed him high in public favor; and after 
that time his career was a series of successes. Les Mariages de Paris was followed by Le 
Roi des Montagnes (1856), Germaine (1857), Les Echasses de Mattre Pierre (1857), L’ Homme @ 
l’Oreille Cassée (The Man with the Broken Ear) (1861), trans. into Eng., Le Turco (1866), 
L’ Infame (1867) Les Mariages de Province (1868). 

In 1859, after a tour in Italy, of a portion cf which he contributed a description to 
the Moniteur, A. published a political pamphlet—La Question Romaine—which, displaying 
the same qualities as his early work on Greece, but matured, and wielded for a definite 
object, and being, moreover, regarded as written with the approval of the emperor of the 
French, created a sensation throughout Europe. His object was to expose the abuses of 
the ecclesiastical government at Rome; and numerous answers to his work were made 
by friends of the papacy. In the following year, he published two political pamphlets, 
La Nouvelle Carted@ Hurope, and La Prusse en 1860; both of which, being taken as indic- 
ative of the emperor Napoleon’s leanings, underwent criticism in all parts of Europe. 
A second work on Rome—Rome Contemporaine—appeared in 1861. About was decorated 
with the Legion of Honor in 1858. 

The novels produced in his later years were received with unabated popularity ; and 
he also wrote several slight dramatic pieces, which were favorably received. it is unneces- 
sary to put down a catalogue of works which are perfectly familiar to those who are 
interested in French contemporary fiction. In 1864, he published Le Progrés, a work of 
considerable pretensions, in which he discussed at great length, but with his usual liveli- 
ness of style, the existing state of society, especially in France, and the methods of 
improving it. His conclusion was that in France there were needed for progress the 
liberty of association (for the purposes of production and trade), an amendment of the 
land-system, a proper distribution of population as between country and town, the absence 
of police interference in the affairs of private persons, freedom of religious worship, and 
other similar conditions. In 1868, A. became a leading contributor to the Gaulots news- 
paper. At the outbreak of the Franco-German war in 1870, he accompanied the army 
of MacMahon to Alsace as special correspondent of the Soi, and in 1872 he became editor 
of Le XIX™ Siécle. He published Alsace in 1872. In the same year he suffered a week’s 
imprisonment, from the Germans, who chose to consider him, as a native of Lorraine, a 
German subject. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1884. Hed. 1885. 


ABRACADAB'’RA, a word said to be of Persian origin, and to designate in that lan- 
guage Mithra, the sun-god. It was, in former times, the most venerated of those magical 
formulas that were constructed out of the letters of the alphabet, and was supposed to be 
highly efficacious for the cure of fevers, and especially quartan and semi-tertian agues, 


b ° 
45 A beEadell 


Serenus Sammonicus gives the following directions for its use: Write the letters of the 
word so as to form a triangle, capable of being read many ways, on a square piece of 
paper. Fold the paper so as to conceal the writing, and stitch it into the form of a cross 
with white thread. This amulet wear in the bosom, suspended 

ABRACADAB RA by a linen ribbon, for nine days. Then go in dead silence, 
ABRACADABR pefore sunrise, to the banks of a stream that flows eastward, 
ABRACADAB take the amulet from off the neck, and fling it backwards into 
ABRACADA the water. If you open or read it, the charm is destroyed. 


ABRACAD The adjoining is one of the principal forms of arranging this 
ABRACA mystic word. 

sh A cae ABRAHAM, the progenitor of the Israelitish nation. He 

oa was a native of Chaldeea, but migrated, with his wife Sarah and 

aS his nephew Lot, to Canaan, where he lived a nomadic life, and 

0 worshipped the one God, Jehovah, in the midst of the poly- 


theistic Canaanites. The details of the narrative, as given in 
the book of Genesis, are familiar to every one. A. died at the age of 175 (about 1800 B.c.). 
Of his two sons, Isaac was the ancestor of the Israelites; and the Arabs claim to be 
descended from Ishmael, whose mother was Hagar, a bond-woman. Later tradition 
ascribed to A. a complete knowledge of astronomy and philosophy, the invention of 
alphabetic writing, the art of internreting dreams, etc. Even among Mohammedans, 
A. is reckoned a prophet and the friend of God; and they attribute to him the building 
of the sacred Kaaba at Mecca. 


ABRAHAWM’S BOSOM, a synonym among the Jews for felicity. In reclining at table, 
a custom almost universal in the Hast, the second person’s head would be near the bosom 
of the first one, who might be the host or some mcre distinguished man. To be in that 
position to his bosom was to be the preferred friend or guest. While Dives was in tor- 
ment, Lazarus was in Abraham’s bosom. 


ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLARA, a very eccentric but popular and useful German 
preacher, was b. 1642, and d. in Vienna 1709. His real name was ULRIcH MEGERLE, 
but he is generally known by the name given to him in his monastery. Uncouth puns, 
coarse expressions, and strange freaks of humor marked his sermons; but beneath their 
fantastic shells they had good kernels. A. was an honest, faithful, and devoted priest, as 
was proved by his self-sacrificing conduct during the plague in 1679. Though very severe 
in his reproof of vice, he was highly esteemed. The singular style of his writings is indi- 
cated by their very titles, e.g.,Gack Gack, i.e., Wallfarth Maria Stern in Tera; Hetlsames 
Gemisci- Gemasch (Wholesome Hodgepodge). His collected works amount to twenty vols. 
(1835). A selection was published in 2 vols. (1846). 


ABRAHAM-MEN, a class of sturdy beggars who simulated lunacy, and wandered 
about the country in a disorderly manner; at onetime working on the sympathy and at 
another on the fears of women, children, and domestics. 'They were common in Shaks- 
peare’s time, and, it would seem, existed even as late as the period of the civil wars. 
The term isacant one. ‘‘An Abram cove,” as Decker, in his Hnglish Villanies, calls 
one of these mendicants, meant one who personated a ‘‘Tom o’ Bedlam.” He would 
‘‘ disguise himself in grotesque rags, with knotted hair, long staff, and with many more 
disgusting contrivances to excite pity,” but he did not hesitate to live by thieving too, 
and, when detected pilfering or in any species of depredation, he pleaded the immunities 
of the real Bedlamite, who was formally permitted to roam about the country when dis- 
charged from ‘‘ Bethlem Hospital.” A verbal relic of this class is still preserved in the 
slang phrase, ‘‘to sham Abraham.” 


A'BRAHAMITES, or Bohemian deists. Under this name, anumber of residents in Bo- 
hemia, trusting to the edict of toleration issued by Joseph II., avowed themselves (1'782) 
as believers of the doctrine alleged to have been held by Abraham before his circum- 
cision. As early as the 9th c., a sect of the same name had arisen in Syria, and had de- 
nied the divinity of Christ. But the Bohemian deists professed to be followers of John 
Huss, though they held no Christian doctrine beyond that of the unity of God, and ac- 
cepted nothing of the Bible save the Lord’s Prayer. As they would join neither Jewish 
nor Christian sects, the emperor refused to tolerate them; and in 1788 expelled them 
from their native land, and scattered them in various parts of Hungary, Transylvania, 
- and Slavonia, where many were made converts to the Roman Catholic church, while 
others died as martyrs to their simple creed. 

ABRAN'TES, a t. in Estremadura, Portugal, on the Tagus, 70 m. n.e. from Lis- 
bon, in a fine situation. The hill-slopes around it are covered with olive-trees and vine- 
yards, and there is considerable trade in fruit, corn, and oil. The town is strongly forti- 
fied, and isan important military position. At the convention of. Cintra it was ceded 
to Great Britain. From this town marshal Junot took his title of duc d’Abrantes. Pop. 


ABRAN'TES, DUKE oF. See JUNOT. 


ABRAVANEL’, or ABARBANEL’, ISAAC BEN J UDAH, b. Lisbon, 1487, d. Venice, 
1508 ; a Jewish Rabbi of Spain, who claimed descent from king David. He was remark: 


br . 
Rprsaas- 46 


ably learned, especially in biblical literature. In early life A. was employed in finan- 
cial matters by Alfonso V., butafter that king’s death he and the other ministers were ban- 
ished from Portugal and their property was confiscated. In Spain he made a fortune asa 
merchant, and was in high favor with Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, but the decree of 
1492 banished all Jews from Spain, and A. fled to Naples, where he found royal favor, 
but was again obliged to fly when Naples surrendered to the French in 1495. He settled 
last at Venice. Though so much driven about, he wrote many works, and was esteemed 
one of the ablest men of his time. His writings were mainly in defence and exposition 
of the Hebrew religion. One of his sons wrote a work in Italian. 


ABRAX'AS STONES are so called from having the word abrazas or abrasax engraved 
on them. They are cut in various forms, and bear a variety of capricious symbols, 
mostly composed of human limbs, a fowl’s head, and serpent’s body. These gems, 
whose value and significance have been greatly exaggerated, are common in collections, 
and are represented as coming from Syria, Egypt, and Spain. It is certain that the use 
of the name abraxas was at first peculiar to the Gnostic sect of the Basilides (q.v.) ; 
and probably the word, by taking the numerical value of its Greek letters, may signify 
the number 365, so that there is no need to have recourse to old Persian or Egyptian, as 
is sometimes done. The Basilidians, however, did not designate by this name the high- 
est deity, but the spirits of the world collectively. At a later period, the doctrines and 
practices of the sect were carried by the Priscellianists to Spain, whence many of these 
stones are got. Gnostic symbols were afterwards adopted by all sects given to magic and 
alchemy; and thus there is little doubt that the greater part of the abraxas stones were 
made in the middle ages as talismans. 


ABROGA'TION of laws is the repealing or recalling of them—as where a statute re- 
peals a previous one. Generally, in America, all statutes, no matter how old, or how 
unsuited soever to the times, remain in force until they are expressly repealed. But in 
Scotland a statute may become obsolete and virtually repealed, so that it may not, owing 
to the lapse of time, be founded on. See STATUTES. 


A'BRUS, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminose, sub-order papilionacee, 
of which the only known species, A. precatorius, is ashrub, originally belonging to India, 
where it is chiefly found in clayey soils, but now not uncommon in the West Indies and 
other tropical regions. 'The roots possess properties exactly similar to those of the com- 
mon liquorice. The seeds are nearly spherical, as large as small peas, of a scarlet color, 
with a black scar, and are familiar enough to most people in Britain, being used as 
beads. They are narcotic. 


ABRUZ/ZI AND MOLIS’E, a district of Italy, comprising the provinces of Teramo, Chieti, 
Aquila, and Campobasso, of which the first three formed the n. e. corner of the kingdom 
of Naples, and were known as— Abruzzo Ulteriore I. and II., and Abruzzo Citeriore. 
These three divisions correspond to thé present Italian provinces Chieti, Teramo, and 
Aquila respectively. The whole district contains 6384 sq. m., and, 1894, 1,879,559 in- 
habitants. Its chief towns are Chieti, Teramo, Aquila, Sulmona. It forms the wildest 
and loftiest portion of the Apennines. The streams are numerous, but the only river of 
any consequence is the Pescara, which flows into the Adriatic. The rent and jagged 
mountain groups arrange themselves in picturesque shapes, reaching in Il Gran Sasso 
d'Italia, or ‘‘the great rock of Italy,” which is the highest of the chain, the elevation of 
9800 feet. The highlands slope precipitously on all sides, but especially towards 
the n.e. shore. The climate of A. is raw in the higher regions; snow rests on 
the hills from Oct. to April, and on some of the peaks all the year round; but the val- 
leys are extremely fertile, though husbandry is in a wretched condition, and the low, 
open plains are left without the slightest protection from inundations of the rivers 
in spring, or means for irrigation in the arid summer. Dense forests of oak and 
fir clothe the sides of the mountains; at the base, almond, walnut, and other fruit-trees 
grow abundantly; olives in the deep-lying valleys. Fine cattle pasture in these regions; 
herds of swine roam through the lofty pine-woods; and the remoter fastnesses 
are the haunt of bears, wolves, and boars. The chief importance of A. used to 
be its military position as a defence of the kingdom of Naples. There are few roads 
into it, so thatit is very difficult for an enemy to reach Naples from the n. _ It 
is admirably suited for the purpose of guerilla warfare. But the people have ceased to 
possess a reputation as banditti. No trace of the old spirit which made their ancestors, 
the Marsi, Sabines, and Samnites so terrible to the Romans, and which in modern times 
manifested itself in a love of petty plundering, is to be found. - They have become a 
race of rude and simple shepherds, fondly attached to their mountain homes, musical, 
superstitious, and hospitable; but they are robust and powerful, and during the French 


invasion of Naples, in 1799, displayed a vigorous courage in opposing the soldiers of the 
revolution. 


_ ABSALOM, the third son of David, king of Israel, remarkable for his beauty, and for 
his unnatural rebellion against his father. By popular acts he contrived to win the af- 
fections of the people, and then stirred up a formidable rebellion. The adherents of the 
king haying rallied round him, a battle was fought in the forest of Ephraim, in which 
the rebels were defeated. In the flight, as A. was riding under atree, his hair caught in 
the branches, and he was left suspended: in which position Joab, the commander of 


ny i 
47 Absiuthe, 


Davids army, thrust him through, contrary to the king’s express orders that he should be 
spared. The grief of David for his loss was excessive. See 2 Sam. c. 18. 


ABSCESS (apostema), acollection of purulent matter formed by disease within some 
tissue or organ of the body. The process by which an abscess is formed is the follow- 
ing: First, the capillary vessels become overcharged with blood, in consequence of in- 
flammation. From the blood thus made stagnant, or flowing very feebly, a fluid exudes 
through the walls of the capillary vessels, and, containing a large portion of albumen, 
becomes pus or purulent matter. This matter, at first contained in the minute interstices 
of the tissues, gradually dissolves them, and so makes for itself a larger cavity; and fre- 
quently, by gradual dissolution of the adjacent parts, works its way either to the surface 
or to some natural cavity of the body. Pus thus makes its appearance often in a differ- 
ent part of the body from where it was formed. It also occurs that when the purulent 
matter does not find any outlet, either naturally or artificially, it is gradually dried up or 
absorbed. In abscesses superficially seated—either in or close under the skin—the early 
treatment consists chiefly in promoting the formation of pus by the application of moist 
and warm bandages or poultices. The next step is the removal of the pus. When this 
is too long delayed, serious disturbance of the organ, or even poisoning of the blood, may 
ensue. An abscess must be regarded not as a distinct, original disease in itself, but as 
the result of another disease—inflammation; or as an effort of nature for the removal of 
injurious matters from the system. 


ABSCHIEDS SYMPHONIE (Farewell symphony), by Haydn, dated 1772, on the auto- 
graph score. It was written as an appeal to the Prince von Esterhaz to allow the 
musicians leaveof absence. One after another stopped playing and left the orchestra, and 
Haydn’s object was attained through this delicate hint. 


ABSCISSA. See PARABOLA. 


ABSENTEE’, a term applied, by way of reproach, to capitalists who derive their income 
from one country, and spend it in another. It has been especially used in discussions on 
the social condition of Ireland. As long as Ireland had its own parliament, a great por- 
tion of the large landed proprietors lived chiefly in the country during summer, and 
passed their winters in Dublin; thus spending a large portion of their incomes among 
their dependents, or at least among their countrymen. The union changed the habits of 
the Irish nobility and gentry, who were attracted to London as the political metropolis, 
or were induced, by the disturbed condition of Ireland, to choose residences on the con- 
tinent. Such Irish landed proprietors were styled ‘‘absentees;” and it was argued that 
their conduct was the great source of Irish poverty, as it drained the resources of the 
land, or, in other words, sent money out of Ireland. One class of political econo- 
mists—among them M ‘Culloch—maintain that, economically viewed, absenteeism has no 
injurious effect on the country from which the absentee draws his revenue. An Irish 
iandlord living in France, it is argued, receives his remittances of rent, not in bullion, but 
in bills of exchange; and bills of exchange represent, in the end, the value of British 
commodities imported into France. The remittance could not be made unless goods to 
the same amount were also drawn from Britain. Thus, although the landlord may con 
sume, for the most part, French productions, he causes, indirectly, a demand for as much 
of British productions; and his income goes, in the end, to pay tor them. His residence 
abroad, then, does no harm to the industry and resources of the country at large, although 
it is admitted that it may be felt as an evil in a particular locality. The truth of this 
doctrine, however, in its full extent, is disputed. Among other objections to it, it is 
argued that whatever may be true of the amount actually consumed, all the tradesmen 
and others who supply the absentee’s wants have their profits, and have thus the means of 
accumulating; and that these accumulations which are thus added to the national wealth of 
a foreign country would have been added to the wealth of his native country had he been 
living at home. The result of the controversy would seem to be that absenteeism does, 
to some extent, act injuriously on the wealth of a country, though it is not true that the 
whole revenues thus spent are so much clear loss, there being several indirect compensa- 
tions.—On the evil of absenteeism, in a moral point of view, all are agreed; especially in 
a country in the condition of Ireland, where nearly the whole wealth is in the hands of 
extensive landed proprietors, with almost no middle class. 'The possessors of land have 
duties to perform which cannot be deputed; the very least of these obligations being that 
of setting a good example in a neighborhood, and one not less important being that of 
giving personal aid in effecting local improvements. It is a bad sign of the social condi- 
tion of a country when its proprietors systematically live abroad, or in great cities away 
from their estates. The relations between landlord and tenant then become more and more 
cold and distant; while, too often, the agents of the landlords have no good feeling towards 
tenants, but strive only to raise as large sums as possible for their principals, 


ABSINTHE. See Liqueur and ARTEMISIA. 

ABSINTHE, or Wormwoop, spirits prepared from the leaves and flowering 
tops of artemisia absinthium, united with angelica root (archangelica officinalis), sweet- 
flag root (acarus calamus), dittany leaves (origanum dictanus), star-anise fruit (seli- 
cium anisatum), and other aromatics, macerated in alcohol eight days, and distilled. The 
product is an emerald colored liquor, to which anise-oil is added. This is the genuine 


Absolute. ; 
Absorption. 48 


French eztrait dabsinthe, but much of inferior quality is made with other herbs and 
essential oils, while adulterations are numerous and deleterious. In adulteration the 
green color is usually produced by turmeric and indigo; but blue vitriol has often been 
detected. In commerce are two kinds of A., common and Swiss, the latter prepared 
from highly concentrated spirits, and when genuine is most trustworthy as to herbs used. 
The chief place of manufacture is Neufchatel. It is mostly consumed in France, but 
large quantities are exported to the U. 8. Absinthe was first used by the French 
soldiers in the Algerine war (184447), mixed in their liquor, as a febrifuge, and they 
brought the habit to France, where it has become so great an evil that its use is prohib- 
ited in both army and navy. Excessive use of A. gives at first a feeling of exhilarated 
intoxication; the digestive organs are immediately deranged; the appetite destroyed, then 
raging thirst, giddiness, ringing in the ears, hallucinations of sight and heavy mental 
oppression, anxiety, loss of brain power, and idiocy succeed each other rapidly. The 
moderate drinker soon feels muscular twitchings and loss of strength, his hair falls out, 
his countenance is mournful, and he becomes emaciated, wrinkled, and sallow; lesion of 
the brain, horrid dreams, gradual paralysis, and death follow in successive order. It is 
more deleterious and dangerous than brandy or any other strong spirits. 


AB'SOLUTE stands opposed to relative, and means that the thing is considered in itself, 
and withvut reference to other things. In physics, we speak of the absolute velocity of a 
body—i.e., the rate of its motion through space; and of the relative velocity of two 
bodies—i.e, the rate at which they approach or recede from one another, one or both 
being in motion. In the language of modern metaphysics, the absolute is the uncon- 
ditioned, unalterable original—that which is the ultimate cause and ground of the phe- 
nomena of the visible world. Cousin and others use absolute as self-existent or ‘‘ being ” 
in itself, which is the primitive in thought, the ultimate in science, and the object of 
immediate intuition; or the infinite, recognized solely as pure being. But the knowledge 
of an absolute has been held impossible, on the ground that knowing is in itself a rela- 
tion between a subject and an object; what is known only in relation to a mind cannot 
be known as absolute. It is therefore said, of an absolute there is no knowledge: first, 
because to be known a thing must be consciously discriminated from other things; second, 
because it can be known only in relation with a knowing mind. Discussion of the abso- 
lute raises the controversy whether the pure, unconditioned absolute ‘‘ being” held to by 
Cousin and some German specialists is real, living being or God, or only a logical abstrac- 
tion. Gioberti maintains that as the terms used are abstract, the idea they evolve can be 
only a logical deduction by the mind operating upon its own conception, regardless of space, 
time, or conditions; that, therefore, the absolute is no real being, but a generalization of 
metaphysical phenomena, and as far removed from the real and necessary being of the 
schoolman, from the real, living God, in whom men believe, as nothing is from being 
something. Kant, while denying the absolute or unconditioned, as an object of knowl- 
edge, leaves it conceivable as an idea regulative of the mind’s intellectual experience. It 
is against any such absolute—whether real or conceivable—that Sir William Hamilton 
and Rev. Henry Mansell have taken ground, the former in his review of Cousin’s ‘‘ Philos- 
ophy,” and the latter in lectures on religious thought. This, however, is strongly con- 
troverted. 


ABSOLU'TION, originally a term of Roman law, signifying acquittal, is now used in 
an ecclesiastical sense. In the primitive Christian church, its form was this: Members 
that had given scandal by gross and open sins were excluded from the Lord’s supper or 
from the congregation altogether, and could be readmitted only if they repented and 
underwent the penance laid upon them by the church. When they had done so, the 
presbyter, along with the elders, pronounced the absolution in presence of the congrega- 
tion—meaning that the congregation forgave the offence, on their part, and received the 
sinner again into their number. Down to the 3d c., the concurrence of the congregation 
continued to be necessary to absolution. But by the 4th c. it had become a right of 
bishops to absolve, and the public confession had gradually turned into a private con- 
fession before the priest, who now imposed the penance himself, modified or remitted 
it, and then absolved. Absolution had not, as yet, been extended to any but open and 
gross sins; but when the dominion of the hierarchy over men’s minds had reached its 
height, and the fourth Lateran council (1215) had made auricular confession, at least once 
a year, obligatory, confession and its attendant absolution were extended to all sins what- 
ever; and the absolution was made to convey, not merely, as before, forgiveness on the 
part of the church, but forgiveness in the sight of God. The formula, Deus or Christus 
absolvit te, which was used till the 12th c., was changed into Ho absolvo te; thus ascribing 
to the priest the power to forgive sinsin the sight of God. This is still the received theory 
of absolution in the Roman Catholic church, sanctioned by the council of Trent, and 
grounded on John xx. 21.—The Protestant churches, generally, ascribe to the absolution 
of the clergy only a declarative power ; on the ground of repentance, it announces and 
assures forgiveness on the part of God, but does not impart it. See PENANCE. 


ABSOLUTISM is that form of government in which the supreme power is in the hands 
of a ruler, unlimited by any constitution or laws. This system of government arose in 
Western Europe on the decline of feudalism. The first form of government after that 
consisted of a monarch whose will was supreme, surrounded by courtiers, and having a 
regular army in the place of the old feudal militia,, Not only the church and the uni- 


— 


49 Absolute. 
e Absorption. 


versities, but law, science, everything was taken into his service and subordinated to his 
will. A mild form of absolute monarchy is familiar to the student of English History 
in the House of Tudor, with its monarchs of strong will and arbitrary methods, but 
a representative absolute monarch of those times is better seen in Louis XIV. of 
France, with his famous assertion, L’état c’est mot (I am the state). The only absolute 
monarchies existing in Europe now are those of Russia and Turkey. See AUTOCRACY. 


ABSORBENTS. See LACTEALS and LYMPHATICS. 


ABSORPTION. All the membranes and tissues of living bodies have the positive prop- 
erty of absorbing fluids—a property that continues after death and until decomposition. 
in absorptions in animal organisms fluids do not penetrate tissues mechanically through 
orifices, for the existence of such orifices, or open mouths, once taken for granted, has 
been disproved by late microscopic research. It may therefore be surmised that absorp- 
tion is equivalent to molecular combination of organs or tissues and fluids or things 
absorbed. Animal substances differ in absorbing power with difference in liquids, taking, 
for example, 100 parts of clear water and only 65 of brine, and less if the brine be stronger; 
and a tissue taking 100 parts of brine will not receive a quarter as much of an oily liquid. 
An idea of differences may be got from Chevreul’s table: 


100 Parts of Absorb in 24 Hours. Parts of Water. Saline Solution. Oil. 
Wartia rie. fo seceicces sere to's ne 231 125 
SONG OM ere cena acceth es sce i 178 114 8.6 
Elastic ligament........... sf 148 30 7.2 
Cartilaginous ligament..., rf 319 3.2 
Gornea crccors tisdee = RSS et a 461 370 9.1 
fo Fe Cre R ava h el: nee vy 301 154 


Activity of absorption varies with the freshness of the membrane, being most the 
soonest after separation from the principal parts; and varies also with pressure, motion, and 
temperature. Absorption of oxygen by the blood in the lungs is apparently instantaneous, 
the change in color from blue to red as soon as it arrives at the pulmonary vessels show- 
ing the action of the gas it has taken from the atmosphere. This rapidity of absorption 
is due to the diffusion of the blood in a great number of minute channels, whereby the 
vascular and absorbing surfaces are brought into contact over a large surface; and to the 
incessant motion of the fluid, by which its effects become perceptible at the earliest pos: 
sible time. Claude Bernard found that if a solution of iodide of potassium were injected 
into the duct of the parotid gland on one side of a living animal, the saliva discharged by 
the corresponding gland on the other side almost instantly afterwards contained iodine. 
In a measureless instant, therefore, the iodine was taken up by the glandular membrane 
on one side, absorbed by the blood, carried to the heart, absorbed from the blood by the 
glandular membrane on the other side, and furnished to the saliva, It is by this process 
of absorption that the elements of nutrition are taken from the intestines and conveyed to 
the tissues they are to nourish; the bones absorb much calcareous matter from the blood, 
cartilages less, and muscles less still; the brain sakes more water than does muscle, and 
muscle more than bone. Late medical schools agree that the action of drugs and poisons 
takes the same course. Opium dissolved by the liquids of the stomach is absorbed by 
the membraneous lining, taken away by the blood and distributed well through the body; 
at the brain it is absorbed by the cerebral substance, acts upon the nervous matter, and 
produces narcotism or insensibility, and the brain, through its nervous ramifications, 
affects the whole body. The quickness of absorptive action is shown in using hypoder- 
mic injections; almost before the syringe has punctured the skin of the forearm a severe 
pain in the foot is sensibly relieved. Adsorption of Gases by Solids, —Solid metals will some- 
times absorb gases. Gaseous hydrogen has been found in newly-fallen meteorites, obtained 
perhaps while passing through nebule. Palladium will take 648 times its own volume of 
hydrogen; silver and platinum absorb oxygen; titanium takes nitrogen; hydrogen will 
pass through platinum and red-hot iron like water through a sieve. Liquids rapidly 
absorb gases; water near the freezing point contains in volume 4 per cent of oxygen and 
2 per cent of nitrogen, equal to 4 oxygen in 6 parts, while air has only 1 oxygen in 5 
parts. At the temperature of 70° the power of absorption is reduced to one half, and at 
boiling nearly all absorbed gases are thrown off. Under low pressure less and under high 
pressure more gas can be taken in. Solutions of neutral salts absorb about the same 
amount as water, except sulphates; acids absorb least, dilute sulphuric taking less than 
a quarter of one per cent in volume. Adsorption of Heat.—The capacity of substances 
for absorbing heat varies widely; it is least in smoothly polished or bright and light col- 
ored objects; greatest in dark colored and rough surfaces. It is found in regard to color, 
that more depends on the coloring material than on the color itself. When the heat- 
giving body is non-luminous, color is without influence, but great in case of luminous 
bodies. There are also great differences in the absorbing power of transparent sub- 
stances; rock-salt absorbs only 8 per cent of the heat passing through with the light, fluor 
spar 25 to 50 percent, Iceland spar and glass 60 per cent, alum 90 per cent, and ice 94 per 
cent. These substances transmit the heat which they do not absorb. Absorption of Light 
is the process which takes place when light enters an imperfectly transparent medium, a 
portion of the light being stifled or spent in producing some physical effect, while the 
temainder is either directly transmitted or emerges after one or more internal reflections. 


Abatemit. 5O 


A body absorbing all the light that reaches it would be perfectly black and wholly invisible 
but in point of fact the blackest object reflects some light from its surface. 
absorbing none but reflecting all light would be perfectly white. In general the different 
parts of white light are absorbed with unequal energy, and thus the light which escapes 
absorption is colored. In most cases the colors of natural bodies are occasioned in this 
way. ‘Transparent substances absorb light in varying degrees, and in many of them an 
elective absorption takes place; glass, gems or liquids absorb certain colors and let others 
pass, those which pass determining the color of the substance. Occasionally a color com- 
plementary to one absorbed is reflected, as red rays transmitted from red aniline and green 
rays refiected. Certain crystals are polychromatic, showing changing colors as light passes 
through ia different directions. 


ABSTE'MII, the name given to those who could not partake of the sacramental cup 
because of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed them to touch the cup with 
the lips without drinking, which Lutherans considered profanation.’ Later, and in 
America especially, there has been a division as to the propriety of using wine in the 
communion, the radical opposers of alcoholic drinks urging the use of the unfermented 
juice of the grape. 

ABSTINENCE. See Fast. 


ABSTINENCE SOCIETIES, associations for the promotion of abstinence from all kinds 
of alcoholic liquors, and the members of which usually receive the designation of abstain- 
ers or teetotalers—this last phrase inferring an utter and uncompromising abstinence, or 
at least that the only exception shall be for sacramental and medical purposes. Abstain- 
ers usually take a pledge or vow to that effect; the ground of their abstinence from 
alcoholic liquors being that they are injurious to, or at least no way promotive of, health, 
and that from the great social evils of intemperance it is important to set an example of 
entire abstinence. A. S. exist in great numbers in North America and the United 
Kingdom. See TEMPERANCE. 


ABSTRACTION is that intellectual process by which the mind withdraws (abstraho) 
some of the attributes of objects from the others, and thinks of them to the exclusion of 
the rest. The abstract is opposed to the concrete. John, William, my brother, form 
concrete images in my mind, each with a multitude of attributes peculiar to himself. 
But they have also certain attributes common to them and to all individuals of the race; 
I can overlook the others and attend to these, and thus form a notion or conception 
which is called aman. Man is, therefore, an abstract notion, the word connoting, as it 
is called, a certain though not very well-defined number of attributes. With the excep- 
tion of proper names, all nouns are thus abstract. There are degrees, however, 
in abstraction. The abstract notion animal rises above that of man, embracing 
all men and innumerable organized beings besides. An organized being, again, is a still 
higher stage, and embraces both animals and plants. Being, time, space, are among the 
highest abstractions, The higher abstractions rise, the fewer attributes are implied or 
connoted in the name; hence the propriety of the phrase, empty abstractions. On the 
other hand, the number of objects to which the name is applicable increases; and thus 
reasoning in abstract terms has the advantage of being general, or extensive in its appli- 
cation. But such reasoning is apt to become vague and fallacious, unless constant 
regard is had to concrete instances. Abstract language is best adapted for scientific 
exposition: concrete for graphic and poetical effect.—AxsstracT in Arith. is applied to 
numbers considered in themselves, and without reference to any objects numbered; thus 
7, 20, are abstract numbers; but 7 ft., 20 horse, are concrete numbers. 


ABSURDUM, Repuctio ap, the method of proving a truth by showing that to suppose 
the proposition untrue would lead to a contradiction or absurdity. 

ABSYNTH'IUM. See Wormwoop. 

ABT, FRANZ, b. 1819, in Saxony. He began to study theology, but left it for music, 
and at 22 was musical director at Zurich ; 11 years later, second musical director at the 
Brunswick court theatre, and promoted by the grand duke in 1855 to be first director. A. 
wasa composer for piano, orchestra, and voice, but best known as a song writer, succeed- 
ing especially in part songs for male voices. Hewasthe author of When the Swallows 
Homeward Fly. He visited the U. 8. in 1872. He d.in Wiesbaden in 1885. 


ABU’ or Bu, Arab for ‘‘father,” is prefixed to many Arabic proper names, as the 
equivalent syllable Ad is prefixed to Hebrew names: ex., Abu-bekr, ‘‘ father of the vir- 
gin” (Ayesha). But Abu, like Ad, often signifies merely possessor; as in Abulfeda (pos- 
ne fidelity), ‘‘ the trusty ;” Abner, ‘the brilliant”—literally, ‘‘ father or possessor of 

it. 


ABU’, a mountain of India, in the territory of Serolie, in Rajpootana, rising far above 
any other of the Aravulli ridge, and said to be about 5000 ft. above the sea. The base 
is broad, its circuit being estimated at 40 to 50 m.; the summit is very irregular, and 
divided into many peaks. It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, especially for the 
Jainas, who have a magnificent group of four temples at Dilwara, about the middle of 


Abst i 
51 a stemii. 


bue 


the mountain, one of which, the Vimlah Sah, is described as ‘‘ the most superb of all the 
temples in India.”’ 


ABU-BEKR, ‘‘ Father of the virgin’? Ayesha, the wife of Mohammed, was a man 
of great influence in the Koreish tribe, and in 632, when Mohammed died, was made 
the first caliph or successor of the prophet. After defeating his enemies in Arabia, 
and warring successfully against Persia, Syria, and the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, 
Abubekr d. 634 A. D., and was buried at Medina, near the remains of Mohammed and 
his wife Ayesha (q. v.). 

ABU KLEA, in the Soudan, is the scene of the battle fought on January 17, 1885, in 
which the Mahdi’s forces were defeated by the English troops under Sir Herbert Stewart. 
It is located on the route between Korti and Metammeh, both of which are on the great 
bend of the Nile below Khartoum. See MAHDI. 

ABULFARAJ’ (Lat. Abulfaragius), 1226-86, called also Barhebreeus —i. e., Son of the 
Hebrew, as being by birth a Jew, though afterwards a Christian — was b. at Malatia, in 
Armenia, and became so distinguished for his knowledge of the Syriac, Arabic, and Greek 
languages, and of philosophy, theology, and medicine, that he was called the pheenix of 
the age. At the age of twenty, he was made bishop of Gula, and afterwards of Aleppo; 
and rose to the rank of maphrian, the highest dignity among the Jacobite Christians next 
to patriarch. Of his numerous Syriac and Arabic writings, most of which yet lie buried in 
the library of the Vatican, the best known is a Chronicle, in Syriac, of universal history from 
Adam down to hisowntime. ‘The first part of it was published at Leipsic in 1789, the rest 
(8 vols.) at Louvain in 1872-4. A. himself abridged this work in Arabic, under the title 
of History of the Dynasties (edited by Pococke, Arab and Lat., Oxf. 1663). Among his 
writings of a theological kind may be mentioned his Magazine of Mysterves, being a com- 
mentary on the Syriac version of the Bible. 

A'BUL-FAZL, Vizier and historiographer of Akbar, the great Mongol emperor; b. 
about the middle of the 16th c. His work is 7’he Book of Akbar, in two parts; the 
first part being a complete history of Akbar’s reign, and the second an account of the 
religious and political constitution and administration of the empire. ‘The style is excel- 
lent, and the second part is of unique and enduring interest. An English edition, now 
very rare, was published in 1783-6. and reprinted in London. A. d. by the hand of an 
assassin, while returning from a mission to the Deccan, in 1602. 


A'BULFE'DA, a Moslem prince, known as a writer of history, was b. 1273 a.p., at 
Damascus; and during his youth distinguished himself in several campaigns against the 
Christian kingdom founded by the crusaders. From 13810 to the time of his death, he 
ruled over the principality of Hamath, in Syria, was a true ally of the sultan, visited Egypt 
and Arabia, patronized literature and science, and d. in 1331. He left several important 
works in Arabic, among which are his annals, the earlier portion of which has been edited 
by Fleischer, under the title of Historia Anteislamica (Leip. 1831), and the rest by Reiske, 
in his Annales Moslemict (Copenh. 1789-94). This work was in great part compiled by A. 
from earlier Arabic authors, and is a valuable source of history, especially of the Arabic 
empire. He also wrote a geography, which has been edited, with a French translation, 
by Reinaud and De Slane (Par. 1848), and by Reiske (Dresden, 1842). 


ABUSE OF PROCESS is the wrongful employment of a regular judicial proceeding. 
In order to sustain an action for malicious abuse of civil process, it is required to allege 
and prove both a want of probable cause and the existence of a malicious motive, 

ABUSHEHR (variously written Bushehr, Bushire, in Pers. Bendershehr) is the name 
of a seaport on the e. coast of the Persian gulf. It is situated at the extremity of a penin- 
sula. The district is liable to be devastated by earthquakes and the simoom, and is defi- 
cient in water; but the situation is so favorable for commerce that the trade exceeds 
£1,500,000 a year (of which three fourths represent imports). It is the land terminus of 
the Indo-European telegraph line ; the head-quarters of the English naval squadron in 
the Persian gulf: and a chief station of the British Indian Steam Navigation Co. The 
exports are horses fruits, shawls, pearls, silk, rose-water, asafoetida, copper, gall-nuts, etc. 5 
imports, sugar, indigo, iron. cotton goods, etc. Pop. nearly 27,000. 


ABU-SIMBEL. See ABOUSAMBUL. 


A'BU-TEMAM’, 806-45 ; an Arabic poet; b. in Syria; a prolific writer, and much 
praised. The Arabs said, ‘‘ No man ever dies whose name has been praised in the verses 
of Abu-Temim.” He made three collections of Eastern poetry, one of which, the 
Hamasa, is praised by Sir Wm. Jones. 

ABUTMENT, in arch., is the part of a pier or wall from which an arch springs, and 
which resists the outward thrust. The term zmpost is used when the arch is a semicircle, 
so that the pressure is vertical. In reference to a bridge, the abutments are the walls 
adjoining the land, which support the ends of the roadway, or the extremities of the arch 
or arches. 


A'BU-YUSUF-YAKUB’, called Au-Manstr, or ‘“‘The Victorious,” 1160-98; the 
fourth sultan of the Almohade dynasty in Africa and Spain. His father was killed atthe 
siege of Santarem, 1184; and as soon as he had quelled certain insurrections in Morocco, 
A. invaded Spain and carried off to Africa 40,000 captives. In a second foray he cap- 


Abydos, 
montis 52 


tured Torres and Silves, in Portugal; and, in a third venture, defeated the Christians 
under Alphonso III., near Valencia, and captured Madrid and four other important 
cities. He died in Morocco. 

ABY'DOS, a t. in Asia Minor, situated at the narrowest part of the Hellespont, opposite 
Sestos. It is celebrated as the place whence Xerxes and his vast army passed into 
Europe in 480 B.c.; also as the scene of the story of Hero (q.v.) and Leander. In the later 
times of antiquity, the people of A. were reproached for their effeminate and dissolute 
manners. —There was another ABypos in Upper Egypt (Thebais), on the left bank of the 
Nile, and on the main route of commerce with Libya. Even in the time of Strabo, this 
t. was in ruins. Here the remains of the Memnonium and of a temple of Osiris are 
still remarkable. In the former, W.J. Bankes, in 1818, discovered the celebrated tablet 
of A., bearing, in hieroglvphics, a genealogy of the eighteenth dynasty of the Pharaohs. 
It is now in Paris, and copies have been published. 


AB'YLA and CAL'PE. See HERCULES. PILLARS oF. 


ABYSS, used in Scripture to denote the ocean, or the under world, and for Hades, 
or the place of the dead, but indicating especially the place where sinful souls were 
imprisoned. In the A. were imprisoned the giants of old; and there the prophets tell us 
the kings of Egypt, Tyre and Babylon were punished for pride and cruelty. The A. 
was the place dreaded by evil spirits, and to which they begged the Savior not to send 
them. <A vast, boundiess and chaotic region of darkness iscommon to most mytholo- 
gies, and is called the A., or by some name of similar signification. 


ABYSSINIA, called Habesh by the Arabs, is the large tract of highlands in the e. of 
Africa. From the Red sea, on the n.e., it rises in terraces towards the s.w. Between 
the highlands and the Red sea lies a flat tract called Adal, narrow at the n. (in lat. 50° 30’), 
and widening to the s. The plains of Nubia and Kordofan form the boundaries on the 
n. and w., while the southern limits are not well known. The total area is about 200,000 
sq.m., and the population 3,000,000 to 5,000,000. The country consists of high table- 
lands, intersected by deep ravines formed by the rivers, and steep sandstone terraces. 
Numerous mountain-chains, mostly of volcanic origin, rise above the table-lands: the 
highest are the mountains of Samen or Samien, rising to about 15,000 ft. above the sea- 
level. Some of the plains have an elevation of from 7 to 10,000 ft. <A. gives birth to 
numerous rivers, the largest of which are the Abai or Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue river), 
and the Takkazie, an afHuent of the Nile. In the s. is the Hawash—from which the 
country takes its name—which flows eastward into the salt-lake of Assalin Adal. The 
largest lake is that of Tzana or Dembea, through which the Abai or Blue Nile flows. 
The climate in the elevated tracts of Abyssinia is temperate and salubrious; in the low 
tracts along the coast, and in the n. andn.w., the heat is excessive and the climate noxious. 
On the whole, A. is a country of great fertility; but, like the climate, the productions of 
the soil vary greatly with the different degrees of elevation. Wheat and barley are 
cultivated, also maize, the grains called teff (Poa Abyssinica) and tocusso (Hleusine 
tocusso), various leguminous plants, cotton, coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, etc. The coffee- 
plant grows wild. Among wild animals, the lion, leopard, hyena, wolf, jackal, elephant, 
buffalo, rhinoceros, and zebra are found. 

The people of A. belong mostly to the Shemitic race, and resemble the Arabs both in 
physical characteristics and structure of language. See Ernropia. The ethnology of 
the country is variously given by different authorities. According to Riippell, there are 
three principal races. The aboriginal Abyssinians, inhabiting the greater part of 
Amhara, and numerous also in Tigré, are of middle size, with oval faces, lips not 
thicker than those of Europeans, pointed noses, and straight or slightly curled hair. In 
this race he includes the Falashas, or Jews, the Gamant, andthe Agows. A second race, 
abounding most in the n. of Tigré, have thick lips, noses blunt and somewhat curved, 
and thick hair verging on wooliness. The third are the Gallas, inhabiting the s. of Shoa 
and the regions w. of lake Dembea and the Abai; a large-bodied race, round-faced, short- 
nosed, with a depression between the nose and brow, deep-set lively eyes, and thickish 
lips. The color of these races is brown of various shades. The only negroes in A. are 
slaves from the country of the Shangallas, to the w. 

The oldest accounts of the Abyssinians are full of fables, but seem sufficient to prove 
that they attained some degree of civilization even in remote antiquity. Christianity 
was introduced about the middle of the 4th c., and soon prevailed extensively. Axum 
was at that time the capital. Two centuries later, the Abyssinians were powerful 
enough to invade Arabia, and conquer a part of Yemen. In the subsequent struggles 
against the invading Moslem, the coast-land Samhara and the country of Adal were lost. 
In the 10th c., a Jewish princess overthrew the reigning dynasty, the surviving repre- 
sentative of which fled to Shoa. After three centuries of confusion the empire was 
restored under Icon Amlac, and some progress was made inimprovement. Early in the 
15th c., the Abyssinians entered into close relations with the Portuguese, by whose assist- 
ance the empire wassaved, in 1540, from falling into the hands of the invader Granie, sultan 
of Adal. The southern provinces, however, were lost, and the seat of empire was removed 
from Shoa to Gondar. Under the influence of the Portuguese missionaries, the royal 
family adopted the Roman Catholic faith; and the old Coptic church was formally 
united to the see of Rome. The people and ecclesiastics obstinately resisted the innova- 


53 oneue 


tion; the emperor gave way; and ultimately, in 1632, the Romish priests were expelled 
or put todeath. In consequence of the commotions thus excited, the monarchical power 
declined, while that of the governors of provinces greatly increased, and indeed became 
almost absolute. Abyssinia has become important of late years for reasons given below. 
The political divisions of the country are subject to continual alteration ; but the following 
are the most important : 1. The kingdom of Tigré, extending between the river Takkazie 
or Bahr-el-Aswad (Black river), and the mountains of Samen on one side, and the district 
of Samhara on the other. Its chief towns are Antalo and Adowa. 2. The kingdom of 
Gondar or Amhara, extending on the w. of the Takkazie and the Samen mountains. The 
capital, Gondar, is situated in the n.e. of the plain of Dembea or Gondar, at an elevation 
of 7420 ft. 38. The kingdom of Shoa (including fat), lying s. of Amhara and separated. 
from the Galla tribes by the Hawash. This is, by all accounts, the best organized and 
most powerful state now existing in A. The capital, Ankobar, at an elevation of 8198 
ft., contains from 7000to 10,000 inhabitants, and enjoys a delightful climate. The 
Gallas, a savage but enterprising race, effected a settlement in the s. of A. in the 16th c. 

In consequence of invasions and civil warfare, the present social and political condi: 
tion of A. is very unfavorable. The kingdom of Shoa is in better circumstances than 
the other states. Though Christianity is still the professed religion of the majority 
of Abyssinians, it exists among them only in its lowest form, and is little more than 
ceremonial. Their church is national and independent, but the visible head, or abuna 
(‘‘our father’) is ordained by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines of the 
Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic church, especially in the monophysite 
heresy; but several peculiar rites are observed, including circumcision of both sexes, and 
observance of the Mosaic laws respecting food, etc. ; love-feasts, and adult baptism. The 
oldest Abyssinian churches are hewn out of rocks. The modern churches are mostly 
small, round, or conical buildings, thatched with straw, and surrounded by pillars of 
cedar. Statues and bas-reliefs are not tolerated in churches, but paintings are numerous. 
The state of manners and morals in A. is as lowas might be looked for in a country so 
long a prey to anarchy and violence. Human life is lightly valued, the administration 
of justice is barbarously negligent and corrupt, and the marriage-bond is tied and loosed 
with extreme facility. The land generally yields at least two crops annually; but the 
agriculture is miserable, and the condition of the lower classes proportionally wretched. 
Among fruits, the fig is the most plentiful. Wine is used only for the Eucharist; the 
common drink is dowza, a kind of sour beer, made from the fermentation of bread. 
The manufactures of A. are rude. The foreign trade is carried on through Massowah. 

The present dynasty of Abyssinia is that of an adventurer, Kassai, who in 1853 
deposed the actual Ras, or ruler, and had himself crowned king, under the name of 
Theodore. This prince, aman of great natural ability, subdued the whole of Abys- 
Sinia and attained toa degree of power beyond that previously exercised by an Abys- 
sinian king. His enormous military establishment, however, finally exhausted the 
resources of his country, and excited such general discontent as to force him into 
tyrannical severity in order to maintain his throne. Failing to secure a European 
alliance, he became hostile to Europeans, and in 1864 his harsh treatment of the foreign 
consuls, and especially his imprisonment of their English envoys, led to the dispatch of 
an English force under General (afterwards Lord) Napier, of 16,000 men. In April, 1867, 
this army reached Magdala, which was carried by storm (April 13th), upon which 
Theodore committed suicide. From 1860 to 1882 the Egyptians carried on a desultory 
war with Abyssinia, which was terminated in 1882 by the abandonment of the Soudan 
(q.v.). In 1885 the town of Massowah was occupied by Italian troops, who had been 
from time to time attacked by irregular forces of Abyssinians, from whom they sustained 
a temporary defeat in January 1887, at Dogali. By aconvention between Italy and Abyssi- 
nia, made in 1889 a sort of protectorate was eifected by Italy over Abyssinia, but this 
was afterward repudiated by the Abyssinian King Menelek, who took up arms to expel 
the Italians. On March 1, 1896, his troops routed the Italian army at Adowa, and drove 
them back to the coast with a loss of some 10,000 men. See ITaty, 

ACA'CIA, a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminose, sub-order Mimosea. 
The genus A. differs from Mimosa in the greater number of its stamens (10-200), and in 
the want of transverse partitions in the bivalvular legumes. The acacias are diffused over 
all quarters of the globe except Europe. The greater number of them have a singular 
appearance, because of the leaf-stalks spreading out in a leaf-like form (phyllodium); 
while the leaflets are more or less stunted in appearance, and frequently are altogether 
absent. Other species have bipinnate leaves, with a great number of leaflets, and are 
extremely beautiful. Many are of great importance in an economical point of view, 
because of the juice which flows from them, which, when inspissated, becomes an article 
of commerce under the name of gum (q.v.). The species called A. gummifera, A. seyal, 
A. ehrenbergit, A. tortilis, A. nilotica, and A. vera, natives of Africa, produce gum-arabic, 
also A. speciosa and A. arabica, natives of the south of Asia. A. arabica is called the 
Babul-tree in India, and its gum, babul. A gum similar to gum-arabic is produced by 
A. decurrens, A. mollissima (the silver wattle), and A. affinis (the black wattle), in New 
Holland, and by A. karroo, at the cape of Good Hope. Gum senegal is the produce of 
A. verek and A. adansonii, natives of the western coast of Africa. Yet A. verek is also 
said to yield true white gum-arabic. Catechu (q.v.) is obtained from the wood of A. 
catechu. The astringent bark and pods of some species are used for tanning. The bark 
of A. arabica is administered in India as a powerful tonic medicine. The pods of A. 
conmnna form an article of commerce in India, its seeds being saponaceous and used in 


da ° 
Academy. b4 


of A. arabica is administered in India asa powerful tonic medicine. The pods of A. 
concinna form an urticle of commerce in India, its seeds being saponaceous and used in 
washing. A decoction of the pods of A. arabica is sometimes used in the same way. 
A considerable number of species afford useful timber. The flowers of many species 
are fragrant. A number of species from New Holland and other countries have been 
introduced into the south of Europe. Some are of frequent occurrence in greenhouses 
in Britain; and a few of the Australian species succeed tolerably in the open air in the 
south of England. The foliage of the acacias with bipinnate leaves shows a peculiar 
sensitiveness to changes of weather; when a thick cloud obscures the sun, the opposite 
leaflets close together, and so remain till the sun reappears. The locust-tree of North 
America (Robinia pseud-acacia) is often called A. both in Britain and upon the continent 
of Europe. Other species of rodinia also receive the same name, as the rose A. and 
locust-tree (q.v.). Flores acacie (A. flowers) is an old medical name for sloe flowers. 
See illus., FLoweErs, vol. VI. 


ACADE’MUS, a hero of Athens, whose name is said to be perpetuated in ‘ Academy’’ 
or ‘‘Academia,” the grove in which Plato established his school. 


ACAD'EMY, a name originally applied to the philosophical school of Plato, and 
derived from the place in which that philosopher was accustomed to meet and converse 
with his pupils. This was a garden or grove in the suburbs of Athens, said to have 
once belonged to the hero Academus, and by him to have been presented to the citizens 
for a gymnasium. The spot is at this day known under the name of Akadimia. The 
variations of doctrine among the successors of Plato gave rise to the distinctive titles of 
Old, Middle, and New A. The first is applied to the philosophic teaching of Plato 
himself and his immediate followers; the second, to that modification of the Platonic 

hilosophy taught by Arcesilaus (q.v.); and the third, to the half-skeptical school founded 
y Carneades (q.v.). 

In its common English acceptation, the word academy is loosely applied to any 
species of school which professes to communicate more than the mere elements of 
instruction. This, however, though perhaps more in affinity with the original applica- 
tion of the term, must be regarded as an abuse of its more general and strict acceptation 
in modern usage, as signifying a society of savants or artists, established for the promo- 
tion of literature, science, or art. ‘The first institution in ancient times that seems to 
merit the name, in this sense, of academy, was the celebrated Musewm founded at 
Alexandria in the 8d c. B.c. by Ptolemy Soter, which concentrated in that intel- 
lectual capital all that was most eminent in science, philosophy, poetry, and criticism. 
After this model, the Jews, and, at a later period, the Arabians, founded numerous 
institutions for the promotion of learning. During the middle ages, with the exception 
of the Moorish institutions at Granada and Cordova, in which poetry and music formed 
prominent subjects of study, we find nothing corresponding to the modern idea of an 
academy, save the learned society established in his own palace, at the suggestion of his 
teacher Alcuin, by Charlemagne. This association was dissolved by the monarch’s 
death; and not till the middle of the 15th c., when the conquest of Constantinople drove 
many learned Greeks to seek an asylum in Italy, do we find any trace of a similar 
institution. Under the enlightened patronage of Lorenzo and Cosmo de’ Medici, the 
lovers of Greek learning and philosophy were united in the bond of a common pursuit, 
and zealously labored to revive the long extinguished light of classic literature. After 
the decline of the Greek and Platonic academies of Florence, there arose institutions of 
a more comprehensive character, the example of which spread from Italy throughout 
all the states of Europe. 

Academies may be divided into those established for general ends, and such as con- 
template specific objects. 'The members are usually classified as Ordinary, Honorary, 
and Corresponding. 'The results of their labors in their various departments are reported 
at the periodic meetings, and printed in the records of the academy. Prizes are gener- 
ally established as the rewards of distinguished merit in original discovery, or excellence 
in the treatment of subjects proposed for competition. Among general academies, de- 
serving of mention in the first place is the A. of Sctences, at Paris, established by Colbert 
in 1666, and now a branch of the Jnstitut de France (see Inst1TuTE). The first scientific 
academy founded in modern times was the Academia Secretorum Nature, established at 
Naples in 1560, and afterwards put down by a papal interdict. It was succeeded by the 
A. of the Lincei, founded at Rome by prince Cesi, which attained distinguished success. 
Galileo was one of its members. Subsequently arose the A. del Cimento, at Florence, 
and the A. degl’ Inquieti, of Bologna, afterwards incorporated into the Accad. della 
Tracea, and finally, in 1711, merged in the Institute of Bologna, or Clementine A.—The 
Berlin A. of Arts and Sciences, founded in 1700 by Frederick I. was in 1710 divided into 
four sections: 1. Physics, medicine, and chemistry; 2. Mathematics, astronomy, and 
mechanics; 8. German language and history; 4, Oriental literature, in special connection 
with missions. The first president was Leibnitz, whose extraordinary versatility of 
genius qualified him for a leading place in all its departments. Under the great Freder- 
ck, new life was infused into the academy by the encouragement offered to learned men 
of all countries to settle at Berlin. Maupertuis was now appointed president, and the 
academy was reorganized under the four classes of physics, mathematics, philosophy, 
history and philology. The public meetings are held twice a year. The transactions 
did not appear regularly till after 1811. They were formerly published in French, but 


d 
55 denon 


now in German.—The Imperial A. of Sciences of St. Petersburg was planned in 1724 by 
Peter the great, with the advice of Leibnitz and Wolf. It was established in the follow- 
ing year by Catherine I., and liberally supported by the empress: fifteen members 
received pensions as professors of various branches. Of these were Wolf, Biilfinger, 
Nicolas and Daniel Bernouilli, and the two De Lisles. After various fluctuations, the 
academy attained a position of high eminence and utility under the patronage of Cath- 
erine TL Among the most important results of her liberality are the travels and re- 
searches of such men as Pallas and Klaproth. The academy 1s still composed of fifteen 
salaried members, besides a president and director, and four pensioned supernumeraries, 
who attend the meetings and succeed to the vacant chairs. It possesses an extensive 
library and a very valuable museum. ‘The first series of its transactions (1725-47) bears 
the name of Commentarii; the second (1748-77), of Novi Commentarii; the third (1777-82), 
of Acta. Up to this date, they were written in Latin; thenceforth in Latin or French. 
From 1783 to 1795, they are called Nova Acta; from that time to the present they are 
entitled Memoitres.—The A. of Sciences at Stockholm, founded in 1739, consisted at first of 
six members, one of whom was the celebrated Linneus. It received a royal charter 
in 1741, but no endowment. Its publications, since 1779, are distinguished as New 
Transactions, Papers on agriculture are separately published, under the title of Gcon- 
omica Acta. In 1799, it was divided into six classes: 1. Political and rural economy, 15 
members; 2. commerce and mechanical arts, 15; 8. Swedish physics and natural his- 
tory, 15; 4. foreign physics and natural history, 15; 5. mathematics, 18; 6. history, phi- 
lology, and fine arts, 12. The resident members preside in rotation, during a term of 
three months: the transactions appear quarterly. At the annual meeting in April, prizes 
are distributed.—The Royal A. of Sciences at Copenhagen owes its origin, like the last 
mentioned, to six learned men, employed by Christian VI. in 1742 to arrange his cabinet 
of medals. In 1748, the king, on the recommendation of count Holstein, their first pres- 
ident, took the academy under his protection, endowed it, and ordered that natural his- 
tory, physics, and mathematics should be embraced within the sphere of its operations, 
at first limited to the national history and antiquities. The academy’s transactions are 
in Danish; some of them are translated into Latin.—The A. of Sciences of Mannheim was 
founded in 1755 by the elector-palatine Karl Theodor, and divided into the sections of 
history and physical science; the latter was subdivided in 1780 into physics proper and 
meteorology. ‘The transactions under the two former heads are published under the title 
of Acta; the meteorological memoirs are entitled Hphemerides.—The A. of Sciences of 
Munich was founded in 1759. Soon after the erection of Bavaria into a kingdom, it was 
reorganized on a very extensive footing, under the presidency of Jacobi. Its memoirs 
are published under the title of Abhandlungen der Batertschen Akademie.—The A. of Lis- 
bon, established by queen Maria in 1779, numbers 60 members, viz., 24 ordinary, and 
36 honorary and foreign; and is divided into three sections: 1. natural science; 2. mathe- 
matics; 3. Portuguese literature. It is liberally endowed by government, and has a 
library, museum, observatory, and printing-office. Its Memorias have appeared since 
1787. The Royal Irish A. dates its origin from 1782, when a number of gentlemen, 
chiefly connected with the university of Dublin, associated themselves for the pursuit of 
science, history, and literature. The plan of the society was afterwards extended. The 
first volume of its transactions appeared in 1788.—The American A. of Arts and Sciences 
was established at Boston in 1780: it had previously existed in another form, the orig- 
inal institution being due to Franklin. The first volume of its transactions was pub- 
lished in 1785.—The A. of Sciences at Vienna was founded in 1846. It is divided into the 
sections of history and philology; mathematics and natural science; philosophy, political 
economy, and medicine. It published Reports of its meetings since 1848, and since 1850, 
Memoirs. 

Among the academies established for the cultivation of particular departments of 
knowledge, are the following: 1. LANeuAcEs. The Academia della Orusca, or Academia 
Furfuratorum, was founded at Florence in 1582, chiefly for the purpose of promoting 
the purity of the Italian language; whence its somewhat fantastic designation—crusca 
signifying chaff or bran. It first drew attention by its attacks on Tasso. Its principal 
service has been the compilation of an excellent dictionary, and the publication of cor- 
rect editions of the older Italian poets. A new edition of this dictionary is at present in 
preparation, but from the slow rate of its progress it is calculated that many centuries 
must elapse before its completion. For an account of the Académie Francaise, instituted 
in 1629, see INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.—The Royal Spanish A. was founded at Madrid in 
1714, by the duke of Escalona, for the cultivation and improvement of the national 
language, in which it has done good service, particularly by the compilation of a Spanish 
dictionary. A similar institution was founded at St. Petersburg in 1783, and afterwards 
united to the Imperial A. At Stockholm, a similar academy was established in 1786; 
and at Pesth (for the cultivation of the Magyar language) in 1830.—2. ARcHmOLOGY. 
At the head of antiquarian institutions stands the Académie des Inscriptions, founded at 
Paris in 1663. See InstrrurE or Franon. For the elucidation of northern languages 
and antiquities, an academy was founded in 1710 at Upsala, in Sweden ; a similar institu- 
tion was established at Cortona, in Italy, in 1727. Both have issued valuable works. 
The A. of Herculanewm was founded at Naples in 1755, by the marquis of Tanucci, for 
the elucidation of Herculanean and Pompeian antiquities. Its publications, commencing 


Acadie. 
Runpulcos 56 


in 1775, bear the title of Antichitd di Ercolano. An academy for the investigation of 
Tuscan antiquities was established at Florence in 1807; and at Paris, in 1805, a Celtic A. 
for the elucidation of the language, history and antiquities of the Celts, especially in 
France. This society changed its name, in 1814, to Société des antiquaires de France.— 
3. History. The Royal A. of Portuguese History was founded at Lisbon, in 1720, by 
John V. At Madrid, in 1730, a learned association was formed for the elucidation 
of Spanish history. It was constituted an academy in 1738, by Philip V. It has pub- 
lished editions of Mariani, Sepulveda, Solis, and the ancient Castilian chronicles, some 
of which had never before been printed. A historical academy has existed for some 
time at Tiibingen.—4. Mepicrng. The Academia Nature Curiosorum was established 
at Vienna, in 1652, by the physician Bauschius, for the investigation of remarkable 
phenomena in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. In honor of Leopold L., 
who patronized it liberally, it took the additional name of Cesareo-Leopoldina ; and, since 
1808, has had its chief seat at Bonn. Its valuable memoirs have appeared at irregular 
intervals under the title of Miscellanea, Hiphemerides, and Acta. The Académie de Médi- 
cine of Paris was founded in 1820, for the prosecution of researches into all matters con- 
nected with the public health, such as epidemics, etc. The Surgical A. of Paris (whose 
functions have partly descended to the preceding) was founded in 1731. It was dis- 
solved during the troubles of the first revolution. The Vienna A. of Surgery, estab- 
lished in 1788, is, properly speaking, a college.—5. Finz Arts. The academies of 
painting and sculpture of St. Petersburg (connected with the Imperial A.) and Paris are 
institutions for the education of pupils. The French Académie des Beaux Arts isa branch 
of the Institute (q.v.). The Royal A. of Arts in London was founded in 1768, for the 
promotion of the arts of design, painting, sculpture, etc. The number of academicians 
is 40. Connected with it is a school, with professors selected from among the acade- 
micians. The annual exhibition of the academy is open to all artists of merit. The 
Royal Scottish A. of painting, sculpture, and architecture, was founded at Edinburgh in 
1826, and received a royal charter in 18388. The number of academicians is 30; the gen- 
eral plan of the institution is similar to that of the London A. Similar to these also is 
the Royal Hibernian A., incorporated at Dublin in 1808. Numerous academies of the 
fine arts have been established in Italy—at Rome, Milan, Turin, Florence, Mantua, and 
Modena; as also at Madrid, Vienna, and Stockholm. 

Many learned societies differ from academies only in name; such as the Royal Society 
of London, the British Association, the Washington Smithsonian Institution, etc., etc. 

The use of the word academy is somewhat arbitrary in this country ; in some 
quarters there seems to be a tendency to limit the name, as in England, to associations 
for promoting the arts, a tendency which is shown in the fact that many of our largest. 
scientific associations have shunned the title. On the other hand, popular usage has ex- 
tended the name to primary schools and (following a Parisian innovation) even to opera. 
houses. The first learned society established in this country in imitation of the Euro- 
pean academies of science was the American philosophical society of Philadelphia, 
which Benjamin Franklin founded in 1744. It soon languished and died, but was re- 
vived in 1767, and is to-day in a flourishing condition. The American A. of science and 
arts in Boston ranks next in date. It was incorporated in 1780. Many of its published 
memoirs and proceedings are of great value. The A. of natural sciences in Philadel- 
phia (organized in 1812) has a remarkably fine museum and the finest collection of books 
on natural history in America. The national A. of science was incorporated at Wash- 
ington in 1863 for the purpose of considering all scientific questions submitted to it by 
the government. The membership was originally limited to 50, selected from the 
prominent scientists of the country, but now comprises nearly a hundred. The Smith- 
sonian institution (q.v.) is in many respects the most important of American scientific as- 
sociations, and its museum is only surpassed by a few of the largest European collec- 
tions. ‘The two chief academies devoted exclusively to the fine arts arc the Pennsyl- 
vania A. of fine arts in Philadelphia (established 1807) and the New York A. of design 
(1828). Both academies maintain a flourishing school of design, and give exhibitions 
annually. 

ACADIE. See Nova Scorta. 


ACALEPH’E (Gr. ‘‘nettles”’), a term given by Aristotle to the jelly-fishes or meduside@ 
and their allies, in allusion to their stinging propensities. As in all other celenterate 
animals, the urticating or stinging properties of such forms reside in the enzde@ or ‘‘ thread- 
cells,” with which the tissues of their bodies are provided. These cells consist each of a 
sac or vesicle, containing fluid and a thread-like filament; the cell rupturing on being 
pressed or otherwise irritated, and emitting the thread and fluid. The former must act 
mechanically as a kind of dart; whilst the fluid acts chemically in producing irritating 
effects by its injection into the wound made by the filament. Some of the forms allied 
to the jelly-fishes, and included under the old term acalephae—such as the physalie or 
‘* Portuguese men-of-war ”—sting, by means of these cells, so severely that the effects on 
the human subject may persist for days or even weeks. 

In modern zoology, it may be noted, the term acalephe is now generally abolished. 
Formerly, this name was given to a group of celenterate or radiate animals, repre- 
sented by the true meduside or jelly-fishes, and also by the lucernarida; whilst older 
systems still, included in the group acalephe other oceanic organisms (calycophoride 


« di . 
57 Acapuice. 


and physophoride) among which were the ‘‘ Portuguese man of-war,” etc., and also the 
order ctenophora (beroé, cestum veneris, etc.), this latter order being now removed to a 
class superior to that of the jelly-fishes and their allies. In modern systems of zoologi- 
cal classification, therefore, the old division of the acaleph is represented by at least 
two distinct orders of ccelenterate animals. Thus the true jelly-fishes or meduside con- 
stitute the sub-class discophora (‘‘disk-bearers”’), and are distinguished by being free- 
swimming forms;.the body in each consisting of a single organism, and being composed 
of a clear gelatinous swimming-bell or nectocalyx, from the roof of which the mouth is 
suspended; whilst throughout the substance of the bell-shaped body a system of radia/ and 
circular canals is distributed. These organisms, familiar to every sea-side visitor, swim 
gracefully by contracting and expanding their clear jelly-like bodies; the aperture or 
mouth of the bell being generally closed or protected by a membrane named the veil or 
velum. Around the margin of the bell auditory sacs or hearing-organs are found; and 
pigment-spots or ocelli existing in the same situation are believed to represent rudimen- 
tary eyes. Tentacles or organs of touch are also developed, and may depend from the 
margins of the bell. See illus. INVERTEBRATES, vol. VIII. 


ACANTHA’CER, an order of monopetalous-exogenous plants, with didynamous 
stamens, and a 2-lipped corolla; its lobes imbricated in the bud. The seeds grow from 
hooks on the placenta. A large family ; but with few genera in the United States. 


ACANTHAS/PIS, a genus of buckler-headed fishes in Ohio limestone, resembling 
cephalaspis ; the buckler bears similar denticulated spines ; the cranial plates are covered. 
with vermicular ornamentation, and not firmly fastened together. 


ACANTHOPTERYG/II, in zoology, one of the two primary divisions of the osseous 
fishes in the system of Cuvier, distinguished by having spinous rays in the first portion 
of the dorsal fin, or in the first dorsal if there are two. The name is derived from the 
Greek wkantha, a thorn, and pteryz, a wing. ‘The A. are divided by Cuvier into fifteen 
families, amongst which are percide (perch, bass, etc.), ¢riglide (gurnard, flying-fish, 
etc.), and scomberide (mackerel, tunny, etc.). 


ACANTHU’RUS CHIRUR’GEON, or SEA-SuRGEON, named from a sharp-pointed, 
keen-edged and movable spine in the side of the tail, which cuts like a lancet. The 
scales are small; its food is vegetable; it is found on Atlantic coasts of tropical America. 


ACAN'THUS, the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the plants sometimes 
called brancursine, of which it is also the botanical generic name. A. moilis and A. 
spinosa, natives of the south of Europe, are the species best known. The twining 
habit of the plants, their large white flowers, and, above all, the beautiful form of their 
dark and shining leaves, have led to their artistical application, especially in the capitals 
of Corinthian columns. See CoLUMN ; CORINTHIAN ORDER. Roman drinking-cups have 
been found whose handles are twined with A. leaves.—The ancients made the A. mollis 
chiefly their pattern; but in Gothic ornaments more use is made of the smaller and less 
beautiful leaves of A. spinosa. 

The genus A. is the type of the natural order ACANTHACE®, which contains nearly 
1400 known species. They are herbaceous plants or shrubs, chiefly tropical; dicotyled- 
onous. The greater part are mere weeds, but the genera justicia, aphelandra, and ruel- 
fia contain some of our finest hot-house flowers. The leaves are opposite, rarely in fours, 
simple; two or three bracts, which are often large and leafy, accompany each flower. 
The calyx is persistent, usually 5-leaved, occasionally cut into many pieces, sometimes 
obsolete. The corolla is monopetalous, hypogynous, usually irregular, deciduous. The 
stamens are generally two; sometimes four, didynamous, the shorter ones sometimes 
sterile; the anthers 4-celled, opening lengthwise. The disk is glandular; the ovary 
free, 2-celled, with two or more ovules in each cell; placentse adhering in the axis; style 
one. The fruit is a capsule, bursting elastically with two valves, the dissepiment also 
separating Into two pieces through the axis. The seeds are roundish, hanging by hard, 
usually hooked processes of the placenta; testa loose; albumen wanting; embryo curved 
or straight; cotyledons large; radicle subcylindrical, next the hilum. 

A CAPELLA (Italian), in the church style, for voices without accompaniment. The 
term is also used when instruments accompany voices in octaves or unison without 
Sh sane parts ; and as an indication of time, in which case it is equivalent to Allu 

revé (q.V.). 


A CAPRICCIO (Italian), at the caprice or pleasure of the performer, regarding both 
time and expression. 


ACAPUL'CO, the best harbor belonging to Mexico in the Pacific, and a place of consid- 
erable commercial importance; situated in lat. 16° 50’ n., long. 99° 48’ w. The harbor 
is so well sheltered that deeply laden vessels may lie safely at anchor close to the granite 
rocks. Thet., defended by Fort Diego, on an eminence, has a very unhealthy site, and 
is one of the places most frequently visited by cholera, which proves especially fatal to 
new scttlers, The population is composed of pearl-fishers, sailors, and husbandmen. The 


Acarnania, 58 
Acceptance. 


chief exports are cochineal, indigo, cocoa, wool and skins; the imports are cottons, 
silks, spices, and hardware. Pop. about 5000. 


ACARNA'NIA, a country of ancient Greece, separated from Epirus on the n. by the 
Ambracian gulf, now the gulf of Arta; from Attolia on the e. by the river Achel6us; 
and washed s. and w. by the Ionian sea. Along with LEtolia, it forms one of the nomes 
or departments of the modern kingdom of Greece. The w. part of A.—from the mouth 
of the Achelous or Aspropotamo to cape Actium in the n.w.—is occupied by a mass of 
rocky and thickly-wooded mountains, rising abruptly from the indented coast, and cul- 
minating in the summit of Berganti. A considerable part of A. is overgrown with wood 
—a rare feature in modern Greece. There is not. of importance in the whole district, 
though naturally it is not destitute of resources. 

AC'ARUS, a genus of arachnides (q.v.), of the order trachearia, the type of a tribe 
called acarides, which corresponds with the genus acarus as defined by Linnzeus. The 
species of the acarides are very numerous. All of them are small; many microscopical. 
Some are familiar to us under the names of mites (q.v.), ticks (q.v.), etc. Some live upon 
the juices of plants; some in the dung of animals; many species are found in the vege- 
table and animal substances used for human food, especially when these have been kept 
for a considerable time, as in cheese, flour, sugar, on the surface of preserves, of dried 
fruits, etc.; others are parasites upon the bodies of animals, particularly in diseased con- 
ditions, as in cases of itch. A minute species has been detected in the follicles of the 
human skin, and others even in the human brain and eyes. Some insects, particularly 
beetles, are often covered with acarides. A species (trombidium holosericeum) common in 
gardens in spring is remarkable for its blood-red color; and a nearly allied but much 
larger species (7. tinctorwm), found in the East Indies, yields a fine dye. <A Persian 
species (argas persicus) is poisonous and causes sores. The bite of many species is annoy- 
ing, as of the common harvest-bug (/eptus auwtuwmnalis). 'The acarides have eyes. Some 
of them have the mouth furnished with mandibles, others with a sucker. They are 
oviparous, and extremely prolific. They have generally eight legs; but, when young, 
many of them have only six, and in some genera the additional pair seems never to be 
acquired. A few are aquatic, and have legs covered with hairs to adapt them for 
swimming. See illus., CRUSTACEANS, ETC., vol. LV. 


AC'ARUS FOLLICULO’RUM is the most generally accepted name for a microscopic 
parasite residing in the sebaceous sacs and hair follicles of the human skin. It is also 
known as the demodex folliculorum, the generic name being derived from the Greek words 
demos, lard, and déx, a boring worm. It was first described by Dr. Simon of Berlin in 
1842, under the title of acarus folliculorum, which was suggested by the eminent zoologist, 
Erichsen of Berlin. In the following year, Mr. Erasmus Wilson made it the subject of 
an elaborate memoir, which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, in which, as there 
are doubts as to its exact zoological position, he simply terms it the entozoon folliculorum. 
According to professor Owen, who gave it the name of demodez, it represents the lowest 
form of the class arachnida, and makes a transition from the annelids to the higher 
articulata. As regards the size and form of these animals, there is much variety; they 
pass their whole existence in the fatty matter of the sebaceous cells, moult- 
ing repeatedly during their growth, and being finally expelled from the fol- 
licles with the secretions of these organs. Their presence has no refer- 
ence, according to Mr. Wilson, to disease of the skin or of the follicles. 
They are met with in almost every person, but are most numerous in 
those in whom the skin is torpid, in invalids, and in the sick. They vary 
in length from jth to ;4,;th of an inch, and the accompanying figure 
represents the magnified parasite. Their number is various; in some per- 
sons not more than two or three can be found in a follicle, while in others 
Mr. Wilson has seen upwards of fifteen. The head is always directed in- 
wards, and when a number are present they seem to be collected into a 
conical bundle, the larger end of the cone being formed by their heads. 
The situation in which they are most commonly found is the skin of the 
face, and particularly that of the nose, but they have also been met with in 
the follicles of the back, the breast, and the abdomen. As far as we know, 
they are never found on the limbs. 

A reference to the figure shows that the animal possesses eight thoracic 
appendages (c, c) of the simplest and most rudimentary kind, each of which 
is terminated by three short sete. The integument of the abdomen is very Bs 
finely annulated. The mouth is suctorial or probosidiform, consisting of {7 
two small spine-shaped maxille (4), and an extensive labium capable of 
being elongated or retracted; it is provided on each side with a short, thick, 49¢7us Jor 
maxillary palp (4, @), consisting of two joints with a narrow, triangular magnified! 
labrum above. The sexes are distinct, but the differences between the male 
and female are not well recognized. Ova are frequently seen, both in the body of the 
female and in detached discharged masses. Any of our readers may readily observe their 
own acari by collecting between two pieces of thin glass the expressed fatty matter 
from a nasal follicle, and moistening it with a drop of olive oil. Very similar if not 
identical animals have been found in the contents of the pustules of mangy dogs. 


59 Acarnania, 
Acceptance, 


ACAS’TUS, a son of Pelias, king of Iolcus; one of the Argonauts and of the Caly- 
donian hunters. He revenged the murder of his father (killed by his daughters at the 
instigation of Medea) by driving Jason and Medea out of lolcus. 


ACATHIS’TUS, a hymn sung in the ancient Greek church in honor of the Virgin. 


ACCAD, a city of Babylonia. It has been identified with Nisibis. Rawlinson sup- 
poses Accad to be the name of the primitive Hamite race of that country, 


ACCELERAN DO (Ital.), in music, with gradually increasing velocity of movement. 


ACCELERATED MOTION, in mechanics, is motion in which the velocity is continu- 
ally increasing. When the increments of velocity are equal in equal times, the motion 
is said to be uniformly accelerated. The best example of such a motion is that of a fall- 
ing body. itis found that near the earth’s surface a body, descending from a state of 
rest, falls 16-4, tt. in the first second. Now a little consideration will show that at the 
end of the first second it is moving at the rate of 324 ft. per second. For since the 
velocity was nothing at first and increased uniformly, 16,5 ft. must have been the mean 
velocity—i.e., the velocity at the middle of the time; and therefore the velocity at the 
end must be double, or 32} ft.: 3214 ft. is thus the measure of tue accelerative force of 
gravity. At the end ofthe second and third seconds the velocity is found to be doubled, 
trebled, etc., or 644, 964 ft. 

ACCELERATION OF THE Moon. It was first observed by Halley that the time of the 
moon's revolution round the earth has for several thousand years been decreasing, or 
her velocity has been increasing. This phenomenon remained for a considerable time 
smexplicable; at last, Laplace, in 1787, discovered the cause in the varying eccentricity 
of the earth’s orbit, which has been on.the decrease since about 12,000 years B.c. Since 
that time the moon has been gradually coming nearer to the earth; and this will go on 


till 36,900 after Christ, when the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit will begin again to 
increase. 


ACCENT, in grammar, is a special stress of voice laid upon one syllable of a word, 
by which it is made more prominent than the rest; the accented syllable is sometimes 
indicated by a mark, as awa'y, fortify. Every word in English has one syllable thus 
brought markedly into notice. When the accented syllable falls near the end of a long 
word, there may be one or more secondary accents, as in re’comme'nd, subo'rdina'tion. A. 
depends upon force of vocal or articulative effort, not upon highness or lowness of pitch. 
Variations of pitch produce what elocutionists call ¢nflection. It is the confounding of 
A. with a rise of tone, and the contrasting of it with a sinking of tone, that has pro- 
duced so much confusion on this subject, especially as regards the accents of the 
ancients. In English, many nouns are converted into verbs simply by transposing the 
A., as o'bject—olje'ct. It is A., and not quantity, that determines English measures or 
metres in versification. No rule can be given as to what syllable of a word shall be 
accented. There seems to be an increasing tendency in our language to throw the A. 
towards the beginning of words. In the Finnish language, the A. is said to be invari- 
ably on the first syllable.—Hmphasis is to sentences what A. is to words; it is a stress 
laid upon one word of a sentence to make it prominent. If A.is syllabic emphasis, 
emphasis is logical A. 


ACCENT, in music, is analogous with A. in language. It consists of a stress or 
emphasis given to certain notes or parts of bars in a composition, and may be divided 
into two kinds—grammatical, and rhetorical or esthetic. The first kind of A. is per- 
fectly regular in its occurrence—always falling on the first part of a bar. It is true that 
long or compound measures of time have, besides the chief A. in every bar, some sub- 
ordinate accents; but these are only slightly marked. As a general rule, we may 
observe that the grammatical or regular A. must not be exaggerated. It should be 
marked only so far as to give a clear sense of rhythm. The esthetical A. is irregular, 
and depends on taste and feeling, exactly as does the A. and emphasis used in oratory. 
In vocal music well adapted to words, the words serve as a guide to the right use of 
eesthetical accents. : 

ACCENT’OR. See HEDGE SPARROW. 


ACCEPTANCE is a formal agreement to pay a bill when legally due, applied usually 
to bills of exchange. There is no fixed time within which a bill must be presented for 
A., but usage prescribes as early a time as may be reasonably convenient, so that the 
acceptor may know when it becomes due. When a bill is drawn upon one’s self, or by a 
partner in a firm upon that firm, or by an officer of a corporation upon such corporation, 
no A. is needed. When a bill is upon a firm, presentation for A. may be made to any of 
the partners; if to be accepted at a bank, it must be presented within the usual bank 
hours; or toa man of business at his place of business within the customary business 
hours. An A. may be either conditional, qualified, or complete; it may be in writing or 
oral, where no law to the contrary exists; it may be before or after the drawing, or after 
jt is due; it may be by the maker of the bill, or by anybody who chooses to protect the 
paper. The common usage is to accept by writing on the bill itself the word ‘‘ accepted,” 
or more generally the mere signature of the acceptor suffices. The law of N. Y. 
requires A. in this form, and if the party refuses to sign his name the bill is subject to 
protest. Destroying a bill or refusing to return it within one day, whether accepted or 
not, is held to be equivalent to accepting. Where A.is given with conditions, the drawer 
of the bill should be apprised of and satisfied with such conditions. To prevent loose 


A ° 
Accolade. 60 


A. the statute of N. Y. requires that no one shall be charged as accepting unless his 
promise in writing to accept, although made before the bill is drawn, is in fact an A. in 
favor of any one who took such bill for value, on the faith of such promise in writing. 
It has been held that authority in writing or by telegraph to draw on a person is equivalent 
to that person’s A. of the bills drawn; also that a letter of credit conferring authority on 
the holder to draw upon the author of the letter is equivalent to a promise in writing to 
accept the bills drawn. An A. is an admission of the signature of the drawer; soif the 
signature be forged, the acceptor is liable to the holder, presuming the latter to be innocent. 
Where A. is refused, the holder must satisfy the drawers and endorsers if he wishes to hold 
them, though failure to notify may not imperil the holder’s action against them if it shall 
appear that no injury has been sustained by them in consequence of such failure; still the 
presumption is in their favor, and the burden of proof 1s on the holder, Foreign bills are 
protected in official form. This is not necessary in the case of home bills, unless where 
required by special statutes. 

ACCES/SORY. An accessory before the fact is one who participates in the act 5; an A. 
after the fact, one who intentionally gives aid, comfort or protection to a felon of whose 
cuilt he is aware. Perpetrators of crime may be principals in first or second degree; one 
not present who counsels or procures a crime to be committed is accessory before the 
fact. If the instigator gave such advice in presence of the actual offender, he would be 
himself a principal. In case of murder all present who aid or abet the killing are 
principals; but if two men fight to kill one another, and the bystanders, ignorant of such 
intent, join in and one is killed, they are not guilty of murder. But if one conspires with 
another to do a murder, and himself keeps watch against surprise or escape, the act of 
watching makes him a principal, for he is constructively present, though he may not see 
the deed done. If A tells B to whip C, and B does so, B is principal and A accessory 
before the fact. If A tells B to commit a crime, and B commits a different crime, A is 
not accessory in any way; but if B in trying to do A’s request kills the wrong person, A 
would be accessory before the fact. Recent statutes provide that a person procuring a 
crime to be done shall be punished the same as the principal. In N. Y. the accessory 
before the fact may be tried and punished, though the principal may have been pardoned 
or discharged before conviction; and so in Massachusetts, if the principal be not 
amenable. There, too, the aider and abbettor, who in common law would have been a 
mere accessory, may be indicted and convicted of a felony without regard to indictment 
or conviction of the principal. Most of the states have similar statutes.—An accessory 
after the fact is one who, knowing the guilt of a felon, whether principal or accessory 
before the fact, receives, protects, or assists him; but it should probably be added, ‘‘ with 
intent to hinder his trial, conviction, or punishment.” Merely allowing a felon to escape, 
or ministering to his physical necessities, will not make one an accessory. Once the 
common law did not except any who aided in an escape unlessa wife who aided her 
husband; but modern statutes are less rigid, or more liberally construed. In Massachu- 
setts the statute excepts from criminal blame as accessory such relations as parent or 
grandparent, child or grandchild, and brother or sister to the offender, and similar laws 
prevail in most of the states, at least in practice. 

ACCIAJUO’LI, Donaro, 1428-78; famous for learning in Greek and mathematics, 
and for services to Florence, his native state. After filling several important embassies, 
he became gonfalonier of Florence in 1473. _ Five years afterwards he died at Milan while 
on his way to Paris to ask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope 
Sixtus IV. He died poor, and his daughters were adopted by his fellow citizens. A. 
wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s Hthics and Politics, and translated some of Plutarch’s 
Lives. He also wrote the lives of Hannibal, Scipio, and Charlemagne. 


ACCIDENT, in law, an unforeseen event, loss, act, or omission, not the result of neg- 
ligence or misbehavior in any of the parties; such as the loss of negotiable or other papers; 
or where some part of a document has been omitted, in which case the court can require 
its insertion. In penalties and forfeitures, where the injury caused by omission of duty 
can be reasonably compensated, as in case of failure to pay rent on a given day, the court 
may relieve the offending party against the penalty of forfeiture. Where there has been 
neglect or omission through want of information or through negligence to defend a suit, 
the court may permit the proper steps to be taken. But as a rule a court will not inter- 
fere in favor of a mere volunteer; so if a seal should be omitted from a conveyance made 
without consideration, or a clause should be left out of a will, no relief would be extended. 
It is also ruled that no relief will be granted against a purchaser who has acquired legal 
rights in good faith for a consideration of value. 


ACCIDENTAL COLORS. See Licur. 


AC'CIDENTS, in music, occasional sharps, flats and naturals placed before notes in the 
course of a piece. 


ACCIDENTS, in logic, are opposed to essentials, or to substance. An accident is a 
property of an object which may be modified, or even be altogether abstracted, without 
the object’s ceasing to be essentially what it is. But many of the distinctions made by 
the older philosophers between accidental and essential are fallacious. 


61 areotaach 


ACCIPITRES (plural of the Lat. accipiter, a hawk), the name given by Linneus to an 
order of birds, including, according to his system, the gencra vwitur (vultures), falco 
(eagles, falcons, hawks, etc.), sta (owls), and landus (shrikes), and principally distinguished 
by a hooked bill, short strong feet, and sharp hooked claws. The name has not generaily 
been adopted by subsequent ornithologists, but the oraer, as a: truly natural one, has 
been retained under the names rapaces, raptores, etc.; the shrikes, however, being 
generally excluded from it, 

ACCLAMATION, an expression of opinion of any assembly by means of the voice. 
Among the Romans A. was varied both in form and purpose. At marriages the spectators 
would shout ‘‘ lo Hymen,” ‘‘ Hymenze” or ‘‘ Talassio.” A victorious army or leader was 
greeted with ‘‘Io triumphe.” In the theater approbation for the play was asked by the 
actor speaking the closing words, who added ‘‘ Plaudite.” In the senate opinions were 
expressed and votes passed in such forms as ‘‘Omnes, omnes,” ‘‘ A.quum est,” ‘‘ Justum 
est,” etc.; and the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain prearranged sentences 
which seem to haye been chanted by the whole body of senators. At first the A. which 
greeted the works of poets and authors recited in public was genuine; but the modern 
claque was early introduced by rich pretenders to literary ability who kept paid applauders 
not only for themselves but lent them to their friends. Nero gave a specimen when he 
caused 5000 soldiers at a given signal to chant his praises in the theater; the soldiers were 
called ‘‘augustals,” and were conducted by a regular music-master. In the early times 
of the Christian church it was not uncommon for a congregation to express their appro- 
bation of a favorite preacher during the course of his sermon; and in this manner 
Chrysostom was frequently interrupted. In ecclesiastical councils voting by A. is very 
common, the question being usually put in the form ‘‘ placet ” or ‘‘non-placet.”” In other 
assemblies A. is expressed by ‘‘ay” or ‘‘ agreed.” 

ACCLI'MATIZE, to accustom an animal or plant to a climate not natural to it. The 
process, of course, varies widely, according to the amount of difference between the old 
and the new climate. In cases where the difference is extreme, important changes take 
place in the constitution, and are often attended with certain diseases described as 
‘‘diseases of acclimatization.” Thus, Europeans settling in tropical parts are liable to 
disease of the liver, while natives of tropical lands, when resident in England, are 
exposed to pulmonary disease. The power of bearing changes of climate is greatest in 
the Anglo-German race, and usually bears a direct ratio to the intellectuality of a race. 
Civilized people display greater ingenuity and strength of will than savages in accommo- 
dating themselves to changes of climate, by making careful corresponding changes 
in their mode of life. Ulloa and Humboldt assert that persons of and above middle age 
best stand transportation to tropical climates. Among animals, we find great powers of 
adaptation to various climates in the horse, dog, cat, rat, etc.; and among plants, in the 
various cereals, in potatoes, and several weeds common to almost all climates; but there 
seems to be a limit to the power, at least as seen in the individual. To A. beyond a 
certain point is the work of some few generations. Almost all the domestic animals now 
commonly spread over Europe, and even in high northern latitudes, were originally 
natives of warm climates. The change produced by the acclimatizing of animals may be 
either an improvement or a deterioration; of the latter, we have an instance in the Shet- 
land pony; of the former, we see an example in the merino sheep of Spain. As an 
instance of want of the faculty of being acclimatized, the reindeer may serve. Removed 
from the cold north to the fertile valleys of a temperate clime, the reindeer degenerates 
and dies. On the other hand, the horse, whose native land is the east, arrives at its 
highest development in England; and the Syrian sheep, brought northwards as far as 
Spain, becomes remarkable for its fine fleece. Spain, on the whole, has a climate much 
warmer than that of Silesia and Pomerania; and yet the merino sheep, bred in these 
countries, have become superior to their ancestors imported from Spain. This is a proof 
that art may do very much in modifying the influences of climate. Silk-worms, brought 
from China first into Italy, have been acclimatized not only in the s. of France, but even 
on the coast of the Baltic. Recently, attempts have been made to A. in France the llama, 
the vicugna, and the alpaca of Peru, and with some success in the last instance, as 
alpacas have been found to thrive pretty well in the Pyrenees. It has been very generally 
believed that plants may become gradually inured to a climate so different from that to 
which they have been accustomed, that if they had been at once transferrec to it, they 
would have perished. On the other hand, it is maintained that each species of plant has 
certain limits of temperature within which it will succeed, and that alleged instances of 
acclimatizing have been merely instances of plants formerly supposed to be more delicate 
than they really were. But as it is certain that different varieties of the same species are 
often more or less hardy, it would seem that in the production of new varieties by seed, 
there is still a prospect of the acclimatizing, to a certain extent, of species of which the 
existing varieties are too delicate to grow well in the open air. Of late years numerous 
acclimatization societies have been formed, the best known being the Paris Société 
@ Acclimatation. 


_ ACCOLADE’, the term applied to the ceremony with which a knight was admitted 
into the order of chivalry. The grand-master, in receiving the neophyte, embraced him 
by folding the arms round the neck (ad collwm).—In music, the A. is the couplet uniting 
several staves, as in part-music or pianoforte-music. 


Ac ac. ) 
ers 62 


AC’COMAC, a co. in e. Virginia, on the Maryland border; 500 sq. m.; pop. 90, 27,277, 
with colored. The surface is level, and the soil moderately fertile, producing corn, oats, 
sweet potatoes, etc. Co. seat, Accomac. 

ACCOMPANIMENT, a term applied to any subservient part, vocal or instrumental, 
added to a melody, or composition of many parts, to enrich the effect, or to support and 
sustain the voice. An accompaniment is said to be Odd¢gato when it is an integral part 
of the composition, and Ad lebitum when it can be either dispensed with or performed. 
The earliest accompaniment is found in the organ parts to services and anthems by the 
English composers of the sixteenth century. Dr. Rimbault, in his Collection of Anthems 
by Composers of the Madrigalian Era (London, 1845), says that, ‘‘ All verse or solo an- 
thems, anterior to the Restoration were accompanied with viols, the organ being only 
used in the full parts,” and gives eyamples. Subsequently, harmonies were written 
down in figures, a practice that became known as Migured or Thorough bass, and here 
the accompanist was free to adhere strictly to the text, or to improvise. In the scores 
of the older masters, especially those of Handel and Bach, much is, found which, if 
played exactly as written, would not reveal the intention of the composer. This is 
partly owing to the modern orchestra, which has taken the place of the organ, and 
which has increased the importance of the accompaniment. Many old compositions 
have been worked over by skilled musicians. Among the scores to which noteworthy 
additions have been made are those of Handel’s (q.v.) Messiah, by Mozart (q.v.), and 
by Franz (q.v.); Israel in Egypt, by Mendelssohn (q.v.); and the great edition of 
Bach’s works, by Robert Franz, for the Bachgesellschaft of Germany. The pianoforte 
accompaniment to songs has reached its perfection in the work of Robert Schumann 
and Robert Franz, which is elaborate, of endless variety in form and harmony, reveal- 
ing poetic suggestions beyond the power of words to express. See FiGuRED Bass and 

ONG. 


ACCORAMBO'NI, Virroria, an Italian woman remarkable for her beauty and her 
tragical history. She was sought in marriage by Paolo Giordana Orsini, duke of 
Bracciano, who was supposed to have murdered his wife Isabella de Medici; but A.’s 
father gave her to Francisco Peretti, nephew of cardinal Montalto. The husband was 
assassinated in 1581, and the widow fled from her father-in-law’s house to that of the 
duke of Bracciano. Pope Gregory XIII. opposed her marriage to the duke so far as to 
keep her a prisoner in the castle of St. Angelo nearly a year, but that did not prevent 
their union. Not long afterward the duke died, leaving nearly the whole of his fortune 
to the widow. This so incensed Ludovico Orsini, a relative, that he caused the widow 
to be murdered in her home in Padua, Dec. 22, 1585. 


ACCORDION, a simple musical instrument, but little better than a toy, which produces 
its tones by the vibration of metallic tongues of various sizes, while wind is supplied by 
the action of bellows. The concertina and the harmoniwm are superior instruments, 
constructed on the same principle—the action of a gust of air on metallic tongues. 


ACCOR'SO, Francis, 1182-1260; a jurist of Florence, and professor and teacher 
at Bologna. He compiled in his work Zhe Great Gloss, the substance of almost innu- 
merable comments upon codes, digests, and institutes from previous writers. He 
disentangled with much skill the sense of many laws; but his ignorance of history and 
antiquities led him into many absurdities. His son Francis, also professor at Bologna, 
was invited to Oxford by Edward I. of England, and read lectures in the university in 
1275-76. 


ACCOUNT, a statement of receipts and disbursements ; any statement of the condi- 
tion of business, particularly with regard to financial affairs. In trade an A. current is 
one running or unsettled. Statements of A. are made at any time desirable, or at stated 
times, or on request, or demand. There is an action in law, seldom used, to compel the 
rendering of an A. by officers required to do so but neglecting the duty. In actions for 
A. both parties may be plaintiffs or defendants. ‘Leh 


ACCOUNTANT, is an officer employed by railway companies, banks, etc., to take 
charge of their books and accounts, and to make out periodical statements and balance 
sheets. It is recognized as a special branch of business. Generally speaking, the work 
of an accountant may be classified under two divisions: (1) All those matters that in- 
volve the investigation of the books of a firm or company, with the making up of 


balance sheets, statements of all kind, and reports; and (2) the management of estates, 
whether of bankrupts or others. 


ACCRA, or AcRA, one of the chief towns of the West African gold coast, under the 
rule of England. Its population is estimated at 16,267, of whom only a few are Euro- 
peans. Crevecceur, an old Dutch settlement, a mile east, was destroyed by the English 
in 1782, rebuilt in 1839, and ceded to England in 1872. The climate is salubrious. 


_ AC'CRINGTON, a manufacturing town of England, in Lancashire, which has recently 
increased much in size and importance, lies in a deep valley, surrounded by hills, about 
34 m. n.e. of Liverpool, and 13 m.e. of Preston, on the banks of the Hindburn. Pop., 
including Old A., ’91, 38,603; ’81, 31,435. Christ church is a fine gothic building, 
erected in 1838. The inhabitants are mostly employed in cotton factories, weaving, and 
calico-printing. A. is considered the center of the cotton-printing business. There are 
eoal-mines in the neighborhood, in which many of the inhabitants find employment, 


63 Aceon 


ACCTBA'TION, the posture of Greeks and Romans at table. Their low tables 
were surrounded by couches on each of which usually three persons reclined, lying on 
the left side, the elbow or head on a pillow, the feet behind the next person. The 
middle was held to be the place of honor. Roman women deemed the position immodest, 
but finally adopted it; children and persons of mean condition were not permitted the 
custom. 


ACCUM, FREDERICK, b. in Westphalia in 1769, went to London in 17938. Heis known 
as an author chiefly on account of his work A Practical Treatise on Gaslight, which 
had the effect of Introducing that method of illumination into London and all the large 
towns of England. It was translated into several languages, and became very popular. 
Subsequently, he wrote a book upon practical chemistry, which was well received, and 
one on the adulteration of food. Ultimately he became professor in an institution in 
Berlin, where he died in 1888. 

ACCUMULATION OF POWER, the quantity of motion in machines at the end of 
given intervals, during which velocity has been constantly accelerated. A simple 
case is the rammer of a pile-driving machine, which descends by force of gravity in a 
certain time and falls upon some object. If the object does not move, the velocities of 
all the particles in the hammer, which had gone on increasing during the descent, are 
destroyed, and thus a shock is produced immensely greater than that which would result 
from the mere pressure of the hammer. The effect is directly proportional to the mass 
in motion, and to the square of the velocity at the instant of impact. 


ACCUMULATOR. See STORAGE BATTERY. 
ACCUSATIVE CASE. See DECLENSION. 


ACEL'DAMA, a potter’s field or working-place; said to have been bought by the 
Jewish priests with the money received by Judas for betraying Christ ; afterwards set 
apart as a burial-place for strangers dying in Jerusalem. It is there shown, on the slope 
of the hills beyond the valley of Hinnom, s. of mount Zion. 


ACEPH’ALA. See Mouuvsca. 


ACEPH’ALOCYST, a cyst without a head, a hydatid growth, found in the liver, 
kidney or other abdominal organ of man, and sometimes of lower animals. It is a 
globular sac with walls of condensed albuminous substance and laminated texture; in 
its cavity is a colorless fluid with albuminous and gelatinous ingredients. Sometimes 
many secondary cysts grow from amainone. They are of parasitic nature, of the class 
of cestoids, of which the tape-worm is a familiar representative. 


A'CER and AcERA’cEa%. See MAPLE. 


ACER’RA (anc. Acerre), a town in south Italy, in the province of Caserta, nine m. 
n.e. of Naples, with which it is connected by railway. It was once fortified, but the 
walls are now crumbling into ruins. It has a cathedral and seminary. The country 
around is fertile, but extremely unhealthy, being afflicted with malaria, caused partly by 
the sluggish artificial channels called the Regj Lagni, the representatives of the Clanius 
non equus Acerris of Virgil; and partly by the flax-grounds, where the stocks are left to 
macerate. Pop. 15,000. 


AC'ETAL, C2H, (OC2Hs)2, a colorless liquid, of an agreeable odor, and a flavor said to 
resemble that of the hazel-nut. It is one of the products of the slow oxidation of alco- 
hol under the influence of finely-divided platinum, or of chlorine, or of dilute sulphuric 
acid and peroxide of manganese. Its specific gravity is -821, and it boils at 221° F. (105° 
C). It yields various reactions and products of interest in organic chemistry. 

AC’ETATES, compounds of acetic acid with metallic bases. They are generally 
soluble in alcohol and water, and some are deliquescent ; the least soluble are the acetates 
of mercury, silver, molybdenum, and tungsten. There are neutral, acid, and basic 
acetates. All acetates are destroyed at red heat or by sulphuric acid, the latter liberating 
acetic acid, easily recognized by its pungent odor. Heated with sulphuric acid and 
alcohol they produce acetic ether; with lime, acetone, which has a peculiar odor; dis- 
tilled with caustic potash, they yield marsh gas. Their solutions yield a deep yellow 
color with ferric chloride, not given by free acetic acid. Acetates are much used in 
medicines and the arts; potassic acetate is prescribed for a diuretic; ammoniac acetate as 
a diaphoretic; plumbic acetate (sugar of lead) is an astringent. Acetates of aluminium, 
manganese, iron and zinc are used in calico-printing; acetate of copper (verdigris) mixed 
with arsenite of copper is used in wall-paper. 


ACET’IO ACID, the sour principle in vinegar, is the most common of the vegetable 
acids. If alcohol, diluted with water, be mixed with a ferment, such as yeast, and exposed 
to the air at, or a little above, its ordinary temperature, it is rapidly converted into vinegar 
or A.A. The views held by Liebig regarding the part that wood-shavings, sand, ash, etc., 
play in condensing oxygen, and transmitting it to the alcohol, are now supplanted by 
those of Pasteur, who maintains that the true acetifying matter is a very minute mycoderma 
—a special vegetable organized being. It is impossible to conceive a more simple form of 
vegetation, consisting of extremely minute spores arranged in chains ; each spore having a 
mean diameter not exceeding y7/soth of an inch, and the length being about twice as great. 


Peal 64 


The rapidity of the development of these spores, under favorable circumstances, is 
almost inconceivable ; and the power which they possess in fixing the oxygen of the air, 
and of transmitting it to the alcohol, and of establishing an incomplete combustion of 
the latter, is no less wonderful. A surface of a square yard covered with this plant is 
able, in the course of 24 hours, to fix the oxygen of more than 1000 quarts of air. The 
temperature of the surface of the fluid at which this slow combustion is proceeding 
is considerably raised, and often remains for several days at 21° or 25° F. (12° or 14° C.) 
above that of the surrounding air. The process which has just been described bears a 
very close analogy to the respiratory process, ‘he oxygen of the air being in one case fixed 
by minute vegetable cells, and in the other by the blood corpuscles. 

The change is accompanied by the absorption of oxygen, one atom of which com- 
bines with two of hydrogen to form water, aldehyde being left. Further oxidation then 
takes place, A.A. being formed thus: 

Alcohol. Aldehyde. Water. Aldehyde. Acetic Acid. 
GAS EE) he Oves C.H,O —- H.O C.H4O a O = C.H,0>2 

From the mode in which A.A. combines with bases to form salts, it is evident that 
one atom of the hydrogen differs from the other atoms in being replaceable by a metal 
or an alcohol radical (as ethyl C2H;), and on this account A.A. is called a monatomic 
acid, and its formula is usually represented as HC:H;0.; that of acetate of potash being 
KC.2H;02, and of acetate of ethyl C2HsC2H;3Ox. 

A striking experiment may be made illustrating the mode in which alcohol is con- 
verted into A.A If slightly diluted alcohol be dropped upon platinum-black, the oxygen 
condensed in tha. substance acts with great energy on the spirit, and A.A. is evolved in 
vapor. Here the whole office of the platinum is to determine the oxygen of the air, and 
the hydrogen of the alcohol to unite. In the commercial processes for manufacturing 
vinegar, some vegetable substance containing nitrogen (one of the albuminous princi- 
ples) takes the place of the platinum-black, and determines the same change. Pure A.A. 
is a crystalline solid at ordinary temperatures. It is obtained by distilling dry acetate 
of potassium and sulphuric acid: 2KC:H;02 + H.SO, = 2HC.H30.2 + K.SO,. 

The anhydride of A.A. (see ANHYDRIDES) is formed by the action of chloride of 
acetyl on acetate of potassium. It has the composition (C.H;O).O, and unites with water 
to form A.A. The salts of A.A., called A’cETATES, are numerous and important in the 
arts. ‘The most important is acetate or sugar of lead. (See Leap.) For the commer- 
cial processes of manufacturing A.A., see VINEGAR. 


ACETONES, or KETONES, are the aldehydes of secondary alcohols (see ALCOHOL). 
Thus secondary propyl alcohol, when oxidized, loses two atoms of hydrogen, and gives 
dimethyl ketone, ordinarily known as acetone. 

Secondary Propyl Alcohol. Acetone. 
CH; - CHOH - CH; — Hz = CH; - CO- CH; 

A series of such acetones is known, of which acetone is typical. It may be pre- 
pared by distilling acetate of calcium. It is a limpid liquid, having a taste like 
that of peppermint, and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, and water. Its specific 
gravity is about 0-792, its boiling point being 182° F. (66° C.). It has recently been 
used in America for the manufacture of chloroform, which is obtained from it by dis- 
tillation with bleaching-powder. It is a solvent for gums and resins, as well as for 
gun-cotton. 


ACETYL, an organic radical not yet isolated ; supposed to exist in acetic acid and its 
derivatives ; the rational formula for acetic acid being on this hypothesis (C2H;0)OH. 
See TypEs, CHEMICAL. The reason for assuming the existence of this radical in the 
acetic compounds is that the formula to which it leads affords the simplest explanation 
of the most important reactions of acetic acid. Thus, when acetic acid is treated with a 
metallic oxide or hydrate, the basic atom of hydrogen is replaced ‘by a metal, and an 
acetate of the metal (C:H;0) OM is produced. The term acetyl was formerly applied to 
the radical C.Hs. 


ACHZ’ANS, one of the four races of ancient Greece, and a name often given by 
Homer to all Greeks. The A. inhabited parts of Thessaty, Argos, and Sparta, in the 
Peloponessus, whence they were expelled by the Dorians Their government was demo- 
cratic, and they preserved liberty until the time of Philip and Alexander, but were after- 
wards subject to the Macedonians, or oppressed by domestic tyrants. In mythology, 
their ancestor was Acheus, son of Xuthus and grandson of Hellen. 


ACHE M'ENES, ancestor and founder of the family of Acheemenide, from the time 
of Cyrus the royal house of Persia. 


ACHA'IA, a small district in the n. of the Peloponessus, was divided into twelve 
little states ; and was bounded e. by the Saronic gulf; n. and w. by the bay of Corinth ; 
and s. by Arcadia and Elis. The land, rising gradually from the coast to the hills of the 
interior, was famed, in ancient times, for fertility in the produce of oil, wine and 
fruits. When the Romans divided the whole of Greece into Macedonia and A., the 
latter included all Greece excepting Thessaly. In the modern kingdom of Greece, A. 
forms, along with Elis, a nome or department, in the extreme n.w. of the Morea, and its 
chief t, is Patras (q.v.), Excepting the w. coast, the land is fertile, and produces corn. 


A t . 
695 Achenium. 


wine and oil. — The ancient Achzans were, in a great measure, separated from the other 
people of Greece. Their twelve little towns of which Aigium was the chief, formed a 
confederacy, Which was dissolved in the Macedonian times, but was renewed in 280 B. ¢., 
and subsequently extended itself, under the name of the Achwan League, throughout 
Greece. In 251 B. c. Aratus of Sicyon brought his city into the league and became the 
general of the confederacy. Its strength was afterward increased through the energy of 
Philopemen. Corinth had already become a member of the league and by the year 191 
B. c. it included Athens, Sparta, Epidaurus, Megara, and many other cities of the Pelo- 
ponnesus as well as of Northern Greece. The government of the league affords the best 
example in antiquity of the federal system, and has been compared to the government of 
the United States. Every city in the confederation had equal rights with the others, but 
in foreign affairs the federal government had complete control. There was a public 
council in which the affairs of the league were discussed and a record kept of its pro- 
ceedings. The council had at first two presiding officers, but afterwards elected only 
one. The chief executive officer of the league was the strategos, who was commander- 
in-chief of the army; subordinate to him were the hipparchus or commander of the 
cavalry, and an under-strategos. There was a secretary of state and a sort of permanent 
council composed of ten men, who were said to have presided at the federal assemblies. 
For many years the league maintained its independence against all enemies. Something 
of the old power of Greece seemed to return, and there was a promise of permanent union, 
but it soon appeared that the league was bent on its own destruction. Instead of pre- 
senting a firm front against the common foes of Greece, its members were divided by 
continual discords. The Atolian League was a formidable rival, but a still more dangerous 
enemy was Rome. In the first war between the Macedonians and the Romans 211-205 
B. c., the league adhered to the Macedonians, but in the second Macedonian war it went 
over to the side of the Romans, and in the third remained neutral. The hostilities of Sparta 
combined with the intrigues of the Romans and the folly of the leaders of the league to 
bring about its destruction. In 146 B. co. the Acheans were defeated at Corinth by the 
Roman general Mummius. This defeat not only dissolved the league but destroyed the 
political independence of Greece. Southern Greece, under the name of Achaia became a 
Roman province. The historian Polybius, who was one of the noble Achzans taken to 
Rome as hostages in 166, has given an extended account of the league in his history of the 
period 220-146 B.c. See also Thirlwall’s History of Greece, vol. 8. Schorn’s History of Greece 
from the Establishment of the dttolian and Achean Leagues ; Drumann’s work on the History 
of the Downfall of the Greek States, and Hertzberg’s History of Greece under the Romans. 

ACHARD’, FRANZ KARL, a meritorious naturalist and chemist, b. April 28, 1753, in 
Berlin, chiefly distinguished himself by his improvements in the process of preparing 
sugar from beet-root. In these labors he was supported by the king of Prussia. The 
results of his experiments were acknowledged as partly successful in 1799 and 1800; but 
were not carried into extensive application until the king gave to A. a farm in Lower 
Lusatia, where he founded a model manufactory of beet-root sugar. Here, after six 
years of experiments, conducted with the aid of Neubeck, a medical man, A. found out 
the true method of extracting beet-sugar; and in 1812, when the factory had become a 
very profitable investment, the king annexed to it a school for teaching the process of 
manufacture. A. was called to Berlin as director of the physical class in the academy 
of sciences, and died April 20, 1821. He wrote, among other similar essays, one on the 
European Manufacture of Sugar from Beet (Leip. 1809). 

ACHARD, Louis AMEDE EuGéEnsE, 1814-75; b. Marseilles. He began life as a mer- 
chant; became a Parisian journalist and royalist writer; accompanied the duke of Mont- 
pensier to Spain. In 1847 he published Belle Rose, a successful novel; later, Wiss Tempéte, 
Histoire Cun Homme, Le Clos-Pommier, L’ Eau qui Dort, La Misere @un Miliionnaire, Madame 
de Sareus and Histoire de Mes Amis, He was an officer of the legion of honor. 

ACHA‘TES, friend and companion of Aineas in his wanderings after the fall of 
Troy. His faithfulness to the Trojan chief originated the saying, ‘‘ Fidus Achates,”’ 
applied to any faithful friend, though not properly to an equal in position. 

ACHA'TES, a river in southern Sicily, now the Dirillo. Pliny says agates were first 
found there, whence their name, from that of the river. 

ACHEEN’, or ACHIN. See ATCHEEN. 

ACHELO’US, now called ASPROPOTAMO (i. e., White river, from the cream color of its 
waters) the largest river in Greece, rises in Mt. Pindus, flows through the land of the 
Dolopians, divides Aitolia from Acarnania, and falls into the Ionian sea. The extensive 
alluvial deposits at the mouth of this river have been observed from ancient times. It is 
said that the banks of the A. were anciently the haunt of lions. 

A/CHENBACH, ANDREAS, b. Cassel, 1815; a German landscape and marine painter. 
He studied under Schadow; was made a royal academician of Berlin, and hon. member 
in Philadelphia and other cities; is a knight of the legion of honor, and took a medal of 
the first class in Paris in 1855. Several of his paintings are in the U. S. 

A/CHENBACH, OswALp, b. Dusseldorf, 1827, brother of Andreas, a painter of Swiss 
and Italian subjects. 

ACHE’NIUM, Acua@NIvuM, or AKENIUM, a term now very frequently employed by 
botanists to designate a dry, hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, in which the integu- 
ments of the seed are closely applied to it, but distinct from it. Such are what are popu- 
larly called the seeds of borage, and other plants of the same natural order. They were 


I—3 


Achenwall. 66 
Achromatism 


termed nuts by Linneus. Sometimes the achenia are aggregated upon a common recep. 
tacle, forming what is called an etaerio, as in the ranunculus, in which they are placed 
upon a dry receptacle, or in the strawberry, in which the receptacle is fleshy. Sometimes 
the aggregated achenia are enclosed within the fleshy tube of the calyx, as in the rose. 
The fruit of the composite is also sometimes called an A.; but a different appellation 
(cypsela) has been given to it, because the tube of the calyx coheres with the fruit, the 


name A. being limited to superior fruits. 


A'CHENWALL, GortTrrieD, 1719-72, a chief promoter of the science of statistics. 
He studied at Jena and Leipsic; lectured at Marburg university on law, history and 
social science; and held a chair in the new university of Gottingen till his death. Though 
not the originator of the science of statistics, he was the first to formulate and define its 
purpose. Achenwall, it has been said, ‘ defined politics as the theory of what a state 
ought to be; statistics the account of what it really is; and history the relation of how 
it became what it is.” His wife, Sophie Elenore Walther, a rarely educated woman, 


wrote poems and essays. 


ACH’'ERON, the name given to several rivers by the ancients, always with reference 
to some peculiarity, such as black or bitter waters, or mephitic gases. The A. in Thes- 
protia, which flows through the lake Acherusia, and pours itself into the Ionian Sea; 
another river of the same name in Elis, now called Sacuto; and several streams in 
Egypt, were supposed to have some communication with the infernal world. Accord- 
ing to Pausanias, Homer borrowed from the river in Thesprotia the name of his infernal 
A., which the later poets surrounded with many imaginary horrors. Other lakes besides 
that above mentioned bore the name of Acherusia, e.g., the lake near Hermione in 
Argolis. 

ACHERON TIA, or DEATH’s-HEAD Mora, a genus of lepidopterous insects; belong- 
ing to the family sphingidew. ‘There is a species in Europe (acherontia atropos) having on 
the back of the thorax a singular representation of a human skull; hence the name. It 
is a beautiful insect, 44 in. long and 5 to 54 in. expanse of wings, and if disturbed or 
handled it makes a squeaking noise. The ignorant and superstitious believe it to be a 
forerunner of evil. It drives bees from their hives and eats their honey, taking no hurt 
from stings. It is seen most frequently mornings and evenings in autumn. Its larva 
is a fat caterpillar 5 in. long, greenish-yellow, and beautifully marked on the back with 
blue and white lines and black spots. 


A-CHEVAL' POSITION. When troops are arranged so that a river or highway passes 
through the center and forms a perpendicular to the front, they are said to be drawn up 
in A. P. Wellington’s army at Waterloo was d-cheval on the road from Charleroi to 
Brussels. In cases where a river forms a perpendicular to the front, secure possession 
of a bridge is necessary; otherwise one half of the troops might be routed, while the 
remainder stood idly as spectators. 


ACH'ILL, or ‘‘ Eagle’”’ Isle, off the w. coast of Ireland, is reckoned within the county 
of Mayo. Itis 154 m.long by 124 m. broad, and has a very irregular coast-line, though 
its general shape is almost that of aright-angled triangle. It has a wild and desolate ap- 
pearance; most of the surface is boggy; of the 35,000 acres which the island contains, 
not half a thousand are cultivated. ‘There are three villages in A., and a number of 
hovels or huts scattered over its barren moors, sometimes in small clusters, forming 
hamlets, but so wretched as hardly to be fit for beasts. A. rises towards the n. and w. 
coast, where the mountains attain an elevation of 2000 ft. One of them, composed, like 
the rest of the island, wholly of mica-slate, presents, towards the sea, a sheer precipice 
from its peak to its base, a height of 2208 feet. There is a mission-station in the island, 
which forms an exception to the general wretchedness of the houses. It possesses, 
amongst other agencies of civilization, a printing-press. The population amounted in 
1871 to 6417 ; in 1881, to about 6700, but has since decreased. 


ACHILL#’A, a genus of plants of the natural order composite (q.v.), having small 
flowers (heads of flowers) disposed in corymbs, and the receptacle covered with chaffy 
scales (small bracte). The florets of the ray are female, and have a short, roundish 
tongue or lip; the florets of the disk are hermaphrodite, the tube of the corolla flatly 
compressed and two-winged; the involucre is imbricated.—The common YARROw or 
Mitrorn (A. millefoliwm) abounds in all parts of Europe and in some parts of North 
America—into which, however, it has perhaps been carried from Europe—growing in 
meadows, pastures, etc. It is about a foot in height: its leaves bipinnate, the pinne 
deeply divided, the segments narrow and crowded. It has white or rose-colored flowers. 
The leaves have a bitterish aromatic, somewhat austere taste, and little smell; the flowers 
have a strong aromatic smell, with an aromatic bitter taste, and contain an essential oil, a 
resin, bitter extractive, gum, several salts, and traces of sulphur. Both leaves and flowers 
are used in medicine as a powerful stimulant and tonic. The leaves were formerly much 
used for healing wounds, and are still so employed by the common people in the high- 
- lands of Scotland and in some parts of the continent, The expressed juice is a popular 
spring medicine in Germany. Yarrow is often sown along with grasses intended to form 
permanent pasture for sheep; and A. moschata, called Musk MixFott, is cultivated as 
food for cattle in Switzerland, A, meschata, A, atrata, and A, nana—all natives of the 


—————— 


67 Achenwal/, 
Achromatism,. 


Alps—are very aromatic, and bear the name of GENIPI or GENIPP. The inhabitants of 
the Alps value them very highly, and use them for making what is called Sviss tea. 
They are very stimulating and tonic; as are also A. setacea and A. nobilis, both natives of 
Switzerland and other middle parts of Europe, and A. ageratum, a native of the south of 
Europe, used by the French as a vulnerary, and called herbe au charpentier.—SNEEZE- 
wort (A. ptarmica) is a native of Britain and other parts of Europe, 1 to 3 ft. high, with 
lanceolate leaves, and much larger flowers than the common milfoil. It grows in meadows 
and damp places. The root, which is aromatic, is used as a substitute for pellitory of 
Spain (q.v.), and the whole plant is pungent and provokes a flow of saliva. 


ACHIL'LES, the hero of Homer’s Jiiad, was the son of king Peleus and Thetis, a sea- 
goddess, belonging to a line descended from Jove. Of his life before the Trojan war, 
and of his death after the fall of Troy, the poets after Homer first profess to give accounts, 
We are told that he was dipped in the river Styx by his mother, and was thus made invul- 
nerable, except in the heel, by which he was held during the process; hence ‘‘ the heel of A.” 
became a proverbial phrase to denote any vulnerable point in a man’s character. It had 
been prophesied at his birth that his life would be short; and, therefore, when the seer 
Calchas announced that without A. Troy could not be taken, his mother, to keep him 
from the dangers of the expedition, concealed him at the court of king Lycomedes, 
among whose daughters the boy lived disguised asa girl. But Ulysses discovered him 
by a stratagem. He offered to the young ladies a number of articles, some of feminine 
attire and others of arms; and the young warrior was betrayed by his choice. A., in the 
Greek campaign against Troy, appeared with fifty vessels manned by his followers, the 
Myrmidons; but remained sullen and inactive during a great part of the contest. When 
the city of Lyrnessus was taken, he had seized and carried away the beautiful Briseis. 
A pestilence in the Greek camp being ascribed to the anger of Apollo, whose priest had 
been robbed of his daughter, Chryseis, by Agamemnon, Agamemnon was compelled by 
the army to send Chryseis back to her father. On this, he took away Briseis from A., 
which greatly offended the latter. With this incident the Iliad begins. Neither the 
splendid offers made by Agamemnon, nor the disasters of the Greeks, could afterwards 
move A. to take any part in the contest, until his friend Patroclus was slain by Hector. 
The hero then buckled on his armor, which had been made for him by Vulcan, and of 
which the shield is described at great length by Homer. The fortunes of the field were 
now suddenly changed in favor of the Greeks; and the vengeance of A. was not satiated 
until he had slain a great number of the Trojan heroes and lastly, Hector, whose body 
he fastened to his chariot, and dragged into the Grecian camp. He then buried his friend 
Patroclus with great funereal honors. King Priam, the father of Hector, came by night 
to the tent of A., and prayed that the body of his son might be given back to the Trojans. 
A. consented; and with the burial of Hector the Jizad closes. We are told that soon 
after the fall of Hector, A. made a contract of marriage with Polyxena, the daughter of 
the Trojan king, but was slain by her brother Paris, in the temple of Apollo, where the 
marriage should have been celebrated. According to other accounts, he was slain by 
Apollo, who assumed the likeness of Paris as a disguise. His ashes were placed in an 
urn, with those of his friend Patroclus, and were buried on the promontory of Sigeum, 
where, after the fall of Troy, the princess Polyxena, who had been made a prisoner, was 
offered as a propitiatory sacrifice. 


ACHIL’LES TATIUS, an ancient writer, a native of Alexandria. There is great uncer- 
tainty as to the time in which he lived, some assigning him to the 2d or 3d century, 
others to a much later period, even to the 5th century. He wrote a novel entitled The 
History of Leucippe and Clitophon, which is graceful in style and interesting in subject 
matter, but is often disfigured by grossness in the narrative. It was extensively imitated 
by subsequent writers. An edition was published by Jacobs in Leipsic, 1821, and the Didot 
collection edited by Hirschig (Paris, 1856), contains its Greek text together with a Latin ver- 
sion in the rotici Scriptores, There is an English translation by Smith (London, 1855). 


ACHIL’LES’ TENDON, TZendoAchilles, attaches the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles 
of the calf of the leg to the heel-bone. It is capable of resisting a force equal to a 1000 
Ibs. weight: and yet is frequently ruptured by the contraction of these muscles in 
sudden extension of the foot. The name was given with reference to the death of Achilles 
by a wound in the heel. Ancient surgeons regarded wounds of the A. T. as fatal. 


ACHIME’NES, a genus of plants of the order gesneracee (q. v.), much cultivated for the 
beauty of their flowers. The species are numerous — natives of the warm parts of America. 


ACHMET, on AHMED, the name of three sultans of Turkey, of whom Achmet ITI. was 
the most famous. It was this sovereign who sheltered Charles XII. after his defeat at 
Pultowa in 1709. He wrested the Morea from the Venetians in 1715. Having invaded 
Hungary, he was defeated by Prince Eugene at Peterwardein in 1716, and later near 
Belgrade. The soldiers drove him from the throne in 1730, and he died in prison in 1736. 


ACHMIN. See EKHMIM. 


ACHROMATISM, the property in virtue of which certain combinations of lenses, 
etc., refract a beam of light without producing colored fringes. Any arrangement of 
lenses or prisms which refract light without dispersion (q. v.; also REFRACTION) is achro- 
matic. Newton, misled by imperfect experiments, concluded that dispersion could not be 
annulled without annulling refraction. Hall, in 1733, and later, Dollond (independently), 
found that certain media give large refraction with small dispersion, while others 


A Chula, 68 
Acne. 


give small refraction with large dispersion ; so that the dispersion produced by one 
medium can be made to annul that due to another, while its refraction is not en- 
tirely annulled. For example, by properly combining a convex lens of crown-glass 
with a concave one of flint-glass, a compound achromatic lens can be produced. 
The achromatism in the above arrangement, and in every other arrangement yet 
tried, is not absolutely perfect. The reason is that such media do not give exactly simi- 
lar spectra (see SPECTRUM)—i.e., the ratio of the distances between any two pairs 
of rays is not quite the same for the different media. A combination of three lenses, 
or prisms, gives a better approximation to absolute achromatism than a combination 
of two. Blair, in 1791, constructed an achromatic telescope giving far better definition 
for high magnifying power than has since been obtained. He used a compound lens 
consisting of two glass lenses inclosing a liquid. 


A CHULA (Portuguese), a dance similar to the Fandango. 


ACIDIMETRY is the determination of the percentage of real acid contained in a 
sample of a hydrated acid, as sulphuric or nitric acid. In most cases, if we know that 
no foreign body is present, it is possible to determine the percentage by means of the 
specific gravity, as indicated by the areometer (q.v.). Usually, however, other sub- 
stances, which alter the specific gravity, may be present, and recourse is then had to 
one of the following methods: 

(I.) By volumetric analysis, in the manner described under alkalimeter (q.v.). 

(II.) By the gravimetric process. This may be conducted in two ways, which will 
be best understood by an example of each. Sulphuric acid forms several insoluble salts, 
the sulphate of barium refusing to dissolve, not only in ordinary fluids, but even in 
strong acids. When chloride of barium is added to a liquid containing sulphuric acid, 
the sulphate of barium is precipitated, and after due precautions have been taken to 
insure its purity, it may be weighed and the amount of sulphuric acid calculated there- 
from. 

A more rapid method consists in adding to the sample some carbonate of soda, and 
noting the amount of carbonic acid disengaged. This is readily accomplished by per- 
forming the operation in a weighed flask, and determining the loss of weight after the 
carbonic acid gas has been liberated. 


ACIDS. An acid is a chemical compound distinguished by the property of combin: 
ing with bases in definite proportions to form salts (q.v.). The most striking charac: 
teristics of A. are a sour taste, and the property of reddening vegetable blues. They 
are also mostly oxidized bodies; and at one time oxygen was thought to be essential to 
an acid, as the name oxygen (the acid-producer) indicates. Subsequent experience has 
extended the definition. There is an important class of undoubted A. that contain no 
oxygen; and silex or flint, which, being insoluble, neither tastes sour nor reddens lit- 
mus-paper, is held to be an acid because it combines with bases and forms compounds 
like acknowledged A. The oxygen A., which are by far the most numerous class, 
are formed of elements (sulphur, nitrogen, chromium, etc.), with two or more equiv- 
alents of oxygen. The elements that form the strongest A. with oxygen are the non- 
metallic, and most of them have more than one stage of acid oxidation. Thus sulphur 
unites with oxygen to form two oxides, SOz and SOs, which, in combination with water, 
yield respectively sulphurous and sulphuric acid. Similarly, arsenic forms two oxides, 
As,O; and As,0;, corresponding to arsenious and arsenic A. The higher stage of oxida- 
tion forms the stronger and more stable acid. All metals, except arsenic, that form 
A. with oxygen, have also, at a lower stage of oxidation, one or more oxides. To 
these inorganic A. containing oxygen must be added the organic A., composed of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. Belonging to this extensive group are oxalic acid, HeC.0x, ; 
acetic acid, HC.Hs;O,.; and formic acid, HCHO... There are also A. found in animal 
fluids, or resulting from their decomposition, which contain nitrogen in addition to the 
three elements above named ; such is uric acid, H2CsH1N:Os. : 

The hydrogen A. are formed of hydrogen and a radical, either simple or compound. 
The most important of these, and the type of its class, is hydrochloric or muriatic 
acid HCl; others are hydriodic (HI) and hydrocyanic (HCN) acids. As all A., however, 
even oxygen A., possess acid properties—i.e., combine with bases—only when in com- 
bination with water, a new view of the constitution of A. now prevails, which makes 
hydrogen the real acidifying element in all A. Thus, instead of considering vitriol as a 
compound of sulphuric acid and water, SO; -+- H,O, the hydrated acid is held to be 
the real sulphuric acid, and its rational formula to be H:SO,. It thus becomes anal- 
ogous to hydrochloric acid, HCl. This view has not only the advantage of bringing all 
A, Into one class, but makes the theory of their combination with bases and of their 
capacity of saturation uniform and simple. Hence has arisen the most general defini- 
tion of an acid—viz., that “A. are salts of hydrogen.”” A more intelligible definition 
to ordinary readers is that which is adopted by Frankland, in which an acid is described 
*‘as a compound containing one or more atoms of hydrogen, which become displaced 
by a metal, when the latter is presented to the compound in the form of a hydrate.” 
Thus nitric acid and sodium hydrate yield nitrate of soda and water : 

Nitric Acid. Sodium Hydrate. Nitrate of Soda. Water. 
Os + NaHO = NaNO; -+ #£424.0 


in which reaction the hydrogen of the nitric acid is replaced by the sodium of the 


69 Aieye 


sodium hydrate (or soda) ; and as only one atom of hydrogen is replaced, nitric acia is 
said to be monobasic. When an acid admits of the displacement of two atoms of 
hydrogen, it is termed dibasic—as tartaric, oxalic, and sulphuric acid ; and when three 
atoms can be replaced—as in common phosphoric acid, H;POu,, in which Hs; may be re- 
placed by Ks; or Ag;—the acid is termed trdasic. The more important A, are included 
in the following list: 

A. containing no oxygen: Hydrochloric, HCl; hydrobromic, HBr; hydriodic, HI; 
hydrocyanic, HCN ; hydrosulphuric or sulphuretted hydrogen, H.S. 

Inorganic A, containing oxygen: Boracic, HsBOs;; carbonic, H.COs;; chromic, H:! 
CrO.:; hypophosphorous, H;PO:2 ; nitric, HNO; ; phosphoric, HsPO, ; phosphorous, 
H;PO; ; sulphuric, H.SO,; sulphurous, HeSOs. 

Organic A.: Acetic, HC.H;0, ; benzoic, HC,H;0.; citric, H3CsH;O;; gallic, HiC1 
H.0O; ; lactic, HCsH;O;; salicylic, HC;H;0Os;; tartaric, H2C,sH4Os. « 

The most characteristic inorganic A. (hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric, sulphuric) 
are used in medicine in a very dilute condition as tonics and astringents, and to allay 
thirst in fevers. They corrode the teeth, however, and if long administered tend to dis- 
order digestion ; so they must be used with caution. Most of the group have special, 
some (as hydrocyanic, oxalic) extremely poisonous actions. The stronger A., when 
concentrated, are powerful caustics. 


ACI REAL’E, at. of Sicily, in the district of Catania. It lies at the foot of Mt. Etna, 
on the coast, where the small river Aci, flowing from Etna, enters the sea. The t. is built 
of lava, is defended by a fortress, and contains about 38,000 inhabitants, who are 
employed chiefly in the manufacture of linen and silk ; it also carries on a not incon- 
siderable trade in flax and grain. Many of the edifices are very handsome. A. R. is 
famed for its mineral waters, and for the cave of Polyphemus and the grotto of Galatea 


ACIS, the son of Faunus and Symethis, beloved by Galatea. Being jealous of him, 
Polyphemus the cyclops crushed him under a rock, and his blood gushing forth was 
changed into the river Acis, or Acinius, at the foot of Mt. Etna. 


ACKERMAN, EvERETT GrorGe, D.D., author and educator, b. New York. 1850; 
was educated at the Buffalo Med. Coll., the Northwestern Univ., and the Garrett Bib- 
lical Institute. He entered the Genesee Conference of the M. E. Church in 1878 ; was 
president of the Blue Mountain University, 1879-1881, and Vice-Chancellor of the 
U.S. Grant University, 1891. He has published Man a Revelation of God and Researches 
in Philosophy. 

ACLAND, JoHn Dykes, an English officer in the American revolution, commanding 
grenadiers at the battle of Stillwater, Oct. 7, 1777. He was shot in both legs by a 
storming party under Arnold. His wife was Harriet, daughter of the Earl of Ilchester, 
and showed great heroism in forcing her way to him after the fight. She wrote an 
account of the campaign. In 4778 Acland returned to England, where he resented 
remarks disparaging to Americans by Lieut. Lynch, who challenged him to a duel, at 
which A. contracted a cold of which he died. 


ACLIN’IC LINE, an imaginary line around the earth between the tropics, where the 
needle has no inclination. It is called the magnetic equator, and is about 90° from the 
magnetic poles. The line is variable and irregular; in the western hemisphere it is s, 
and in the eastern n. of the geographical equator. 


AC'NE, (probably from Gr. akme, an efflorescence) is an important skin disease. It is 
placed by some dermatologists in the order pustule, and by others in the order tuder- 
cula, which includes solid, hard elevations of the skin, much larger than papule. The 
sebaceous follicles of the skin (q.v.) are the primary seat of the affection. Their natural 
secretion accumulates in their interior, and there is, at the same time, a tendency to 
inflammation of the follicle and surrounding tissue. It is by no means rare to find on 
the face and shoulders of young persons about or above the age of puberty a number of 
black spots, each of which is placed on a slightly-raised pale base. These black points 
are called comedones. Pressure at the base occasions the expulsion of a little, elongated, 
spiral, white mass, with a black point or anterior end, commonly but erroneously 
regarded as a worm.* Interspersed are other spots, with the base more raised and 
inflamed, which become more or less perfect pustules, each of which rests on a com. 
paratively large red base. In some of the inflamed follicles coagulated lymph (to use 
the old phraseology) is thrown out, and a small hardened mass is the result. According 
as one or other of these appearances preponderates, we have different varieties of this 
disease. When the pustule is the most striking feature, the affection is called acne sim- 
plex or vulgaris; when the black points abound, it is acne punctata; and when there is 
decided induration, it is acne indurata. 

As long as there is no inflammation, the treatment simply aims at favoring the escape 
of the contents of the sebaceous follicles, by rubbing the face and other affected parts 
with cold cream at bed-time, washing the next morning with soap and water, and gentle 
subsequent friction with a soft towel. When acute inflammation is present, and the 
pustules are very tender, there is no better application than tepid water, with or without 
a little gelatine in solution; and subsequently the ointment of the hypochlorite of sul- 
phur has been found useful by Wilson and others. Acne tndurata, which is the least 


*In the midst of the white mass of sebaceous matter, a parasite, acarus folliculorum is. however. 
often found, 


Accemate. 
Acoustics. 70 


tractable of the three forms, is sometimes benefited by the application of fly-blisters, 
In all these cases the state of the digestive organs must be carefully attended to. 

Acne rosacea is, according to some writers, a much more grave variety of acne; while 
others regard it as a special disease, to which they assign the name of rosacea, under 
which term it is described in this work. ‘ 


ACE/METZ, a class of Greek monks called watchers, who chanted service con- 
tinuously day and night, dividing like sailors into three watches. They originated in the 
5th c., near Constantinople, and established many monasteries. Some were denounced 


for favoring Nestorianism. 


AC OLYTES, a name occurring first about the 3d c., and applied to functionaries who 
assisted the bishops and priests in the performance of religious rites, lighting the candles, 
presenting the wine and water at the communion, etc. They were considered as in 
holy orders, and ranked next to sub-deacons. These services have, since the 7th c., 
peen performed by laymen and boys, who are improperly called A.; but in the Romish 
church, aspirants to the priesthood are still at one stage consecrated as A., receiving 
candles and cups as the symbols of the office. See ORDERS, HOLY. 


ACO’MA, a village in New Mexico, the Acuna of Spanish historians ; 35° 24’ n., 106° 
10’ w.; an old Indian t. built on a rock 400 feet high and reached only by spiral stairs 
cut in the stone. It has a church and missionary station. 

ACONCA’GUA, a province of Central Chili; 6000 sq. m.; pop. ’94, about 158,000. In 
the e. part are the Andes, with fertile valleys and many rivers running to the Pacific; 
there are copper, silver and gold mines. The w. part is artificially irrigated, and 
produces large crops of cereals and superior hemp. Kain is scarce, and natural vegeta- 
tion light. The province is divided into four departments: Andes, Ligua, Petorca and 
San Felipe. Capital, San Felipe d’Aconcagua, at the foot of the Andes, 55 m. n.e. from 
Valparaiso, 

ACONCA’GUA, the highest known mountain peak in the western hemisphere, n.e. 
of San -Felipe, 82° 39’ s., 70° w. The latest measure makes the height 6834 metres, or 
22,422 ft. (4.245 m.), 997 ft. higher than Chimborazo. The cone is an angular, serrated 
mass, bare of vegetation, and without sign of volcanic action. It is a grand sight 
from Valparaiso. 

AC'ONITE, (Aconitum), a genus of plants of the natural order ranwnculacee (q.v.), 
having five petaloid sepals, of which the upper one is helmet-shaped, and two hammer- 
headed petals concealed within the helmet-shaped sepal. The fruit consists of 3 to 5 fol- 
licles. .A. napellus, the common WOLF’s-BANE or Monxk’s-Hoop, often cultivated in 
flower-gardens for the sake of its erect racemes of blue flowers, is a somewhat doubtful 
native of England, but common in some parts of Europe. The roots are fusiform and 
clustered. The root and whole plant are very poisonous, containing an alkaloid called 
aconita or aconitine, one of the most virulent of all known poisons; but an extract of 
the leaves isa valuable medicine, administered in small doses for nervous and other dis- 
eases. An A., sometimes called A. stoerckianum, but generally regarded as a variety of 
A. cammarum (also known as A. paniculatum), was brought into great repute on the 
continent during the last c. by Dr. Stoerck, an Austrian imperial physician, and is still 
much cultivated for medicinal use. The same properties seem, in greater or less degree, 
to belong to a number, if not to all, of the species of this genus, and they contain the 
same alkaloid. The virulent kh poison of India, equally fatal in its effects whether 
introduced into wounds or taken into the stomach, is prepared from the roots of several 
species. The A, ferox of Nepaul, from which much of it is obtained, has been iden- 
tified by Drs. Hooker and Thompson with A. napellus. Two other Himalayan species, 
A. palmatum and <A. luridum, are equally employed in its preparation. A. album, or 
white-flowered monk’s-hood, a native of the Levant, and A. lycoctonum, yellow-flowered 
monk’s-hood, or wolf’s-bane, a native of the Alps, are not unfrequently seen in flower- 
gardens. A. wncinatum and A. reclinatum are found in the eastern United States. The 
former has blue flowers, the latter, white. The English winter A. is a species of helle- 
bore (q.v.). For blossom of A. napellus, see illus., FLowERs, vol. VI. 


ACORN-SHELL. See BALANws. 


AC'OR'US, a genus of plants of the natural order arowdew (see ARUM), or, according to 
other botanists, of the natural order orontiacew, which is regarded as a connecting-link 
between aroideew and juncee, The plants of this genus have a leaf-like scape, which 
bears upon its side a dense, cylindrical, greenish spike of flowers, with 6-partite herba- 
ceous perlanth and six stamina in each flower. To this genus belongs the SwEET Fac (A: 
cdlamus), which was long ago brought from Asia, and in the 15th c. was planted in the 
gardens of princes and rich men, but has now become naturalized in England, Germany, 
etc., growing in marshes and ditches. Its root (rhizome) is perennial, divided into long 
oints about the thickness of the thumb, has a bitterish acrid taste, and is very aromatic. 
tis a powerful medicine of transient tonic effect, occasionally used, especially in cases of 
weak digestion. In many places onthe continent it is to be found in every confectioner’s, 
cut into slices, and prepared with sugar. It is also used to correct the empyreumatic 


y 1 Accematee, 
Acoustics. 


odor of spirits, and to give them a peculiar flavor. It is called calamus root. In Britain 
it is chiefly employed by perfumers in the manufacture of hair-powder.—The other species 
of dak likewise aromatic, and are applied to the same uses. A. gramineus is cultivated 
in China. 


ACOS' TA, GABRIEL, a Portuguese nobleman, descended from a Jewish family; b. at 
Oporto, in 1587. After being educated in the doctrines of the Roman Catholic church, he 
became skeptical, and leaving Portugal, went to Amsterdam, where he adopted the Jewish 
faith and changed his name, which had been Uriel; but he soon wrote against the 
Pentateuch, disputed the doctrine of the soul’s immortality, and became involved in 
controversy with his rabbinical teachers. On account of his work, entitled Hvamen de 
Tradicoens Phariseas conferidas con a ley Escripta (Examination of Pharisaic Traditions 
compared with the Scriptures), 1624, he was charged with atheism by the Jews before a 
Christian magistracy. Having lost his property, and being sentenced to a seven years’ 
excommunication, he sought reconciliation with the synagogue,.and submitted to very 
ignominious chastisements, which were repeatedly inflicted as often as his religious 
doubts arose ; until, in a state of insanity, he ended his career by suicide about 1640, if 
me last story is credible. His autobiography was published in Latin and German (Leip. 

7). 

ACOS’TA, JOAQUIN, a military engineer and historian; born in Guaduas, Columbia, in 
1799; in 1834, with Cespedes the botanist, undertook a scientific expedition from the 
valley of the Socorro to that of the Magdalena, and seven years later visited the country 
from Antioca to Anserma; went to Spain, where he lived several years. His chief work 
is The Discovery and Colonization of New Granada. He also made a map of that republic, 
and furnished essays to-the Paris geographical society. He died in 1852, 


ACOS’TA, JosE pb’; b. 1539, d. 1600; was educated a Jesuit and made professor of the- 
ology; was sent as missionary to South America, and on return was superior of Valladolid 
and rector of the university of Salamanca, where he died. His work, The Natural 
History of the Indies, is high authority, and known in many languages. 


ACOUMETER or ACOUSIMETER, an instrument used to determine the degree of hear- 
ing ; consisting of a steel cylinder attached to a vulcanite column. The vibrations of 
the cylinder, when placed near the external ear, and struck with a small hammer, are 
better tests than a watch or human voice. 


ACOTYLED/ONOUS PLANTS (acotyledones of Jussieu), one of the great primary classes 
into which the vegetable kingdom is divided, according to the structure of the seed and 
whole development therewith connected. The class of acotyledones contains those plants 
which, in the Linnean system, form the class known as Cryptogamia. It consists 
partly of acrogenous plants (q.v.), as ferns and mosses, and partly of thallogenous plants 
(q.v.), aS lichens, fungi, and alge. It thus includes the vegetable tribes of lowest or- 
ganization, whose embryo exhibits no distinct seed-lobes (cotyledons), but is a mere cell 
or spore, with granular matter in its interior, and germinates indifferently from any 
point of its surface. See CRypTroGaMoUS PLANTS. 


ACOUS'TICS (Gr. akouo, I hear) is the science of sound. This part of physics is often 
treated in connection with the atmosphere—an arrangement that seems inappropriate; for 
the atmosphere is only the most common conductor of sound; and every substance, 
whether solid or fluid, is capable, as well as air, of sounding itself, or of conveying the 
sound of other bodies. A. is rather a part of the science of motion. All motion is either 
rectilineal, circular, or vibratory; and when a vibratory motion is quick enough to affect 
the sense of hearing—for which at least thirty vibrations in a second are required—it 
constitutes a sound. A definable, uniform sound is a note or tone, and the rapidity of 
the vibrations is its pitch; a confused indeterminate sound is a noise. The chief subjects 
treated of in A. are: 1. Musical sounds, or notes(q.v.). Here the question is concerning 
the absolute and relative velocities of the vibrations, and those modifications, called tem- 
perament, to which their original proportions are subjected for the practical purposes of 
music. 2. The origin of sound (q.v.), and the laws which guide the vibrations of sound. 
ing bodies, and which give rise to different phenomena in different substances. In all 
sounding bodies, it is elasticity that is to be looked upon as the moving power. The 
elasticity of a sounding body may arise from stretching, as in the strings of a violin or the 
head of a drum; or from its own stiffness, as in rods, bells, etc. 38. The propagation of 
sound, as well through the air and other gases as through solids and liquids; and the 
reflection of sounds or echoes. All elastic bodies conduct sound, many much more 
powerfully than air. In water the conducting power is four times stronger than it is in 
air; in tin, seven times; in silver, nine times; in iron, ten times; in glass, seventeen times. 
4. Perception of sound, or the structure and functions of the ear (q.v.). 

The ancients had made attempts to cultivate A. Pythagoras and Aristotle were aware 
of the way that sound is propagated through the air, but as a science independent of its 
application to music it belongs almost entirely to modern times. Bacon and Galileo laid 
the foundation of this new mathematical science; Newton showed by calculation how the 
propagation of sound depends upon the elasticity of the atmosphere or other conducting 
medium. He observed that a sounding body acts by condensing the portions of air that 
lie next it, and in the direction of the impulse. These condensed portions then spring 
back by their elasticity, and at the same time impel forwards the portions lying next them. 


Acoustics, 
Acri. 7 2 


Each separate portion of air is thus driven forwards and backwards; and thus all round 
the sounding body there is an alternate condensation and rarefaction of air, constituting, 
as it were, waves of sound. In determining the velocity of sound, Newton, Lagrange 
and Euler erred in their calculations; the best researches on_this subject are those of 
Laplace. Chladni first raised A. to an independent science. In recent times, compara- 
tively little has been done in this branch of physics. Savart has determined more exactly 
the number of vibrations in a second necessary to produce an audible sound; and Ca- 
gniard de Latour invented the sirene, and discovered many of the conditions under which 
both solids and fluids sound. The sounding of heated metais, when laid on cold metallic 
supports, has occasioned much discussion. See Hdinb. Phil. Journal. Faraday and Marx 
have examined the figures of sound; Wheatstone, the phenomena of sympathetic sounds; 
and Mr. Bell, the formation of vowel-sounds by the human voice. 
While the principles of A. are well known in theory, they are seldom carried out to 
a satisfactory result in practice. We allude more particularly to the many instances in 
which costly assembly halls and churches are defective as regards public speaking; it 
being seemingly a mere chance that new edifices of this kind exhibit proper acoustic 
qualities. In some cases, the sounds uttered cause echoes and reverberations, perplex- 
ing alike to a speaker and his auditory, and in others the sounds are dispersed at a high 
elevation and are lost. This subject urgently demands consideration in connection with 
architecture. Asa general rule, the ceilings of halls should be at a moderate elevation; 
the lowering of a ceiling and the removal of chandeliers have been known to improve 
the speaking and hearing properties; and the hanging up of flags and draperies has, in 
a variety of instances, had a similarly good effect. The whispering gallery of St 
Paul’s, London, offers an interesting example of one of the phenomena in acoustics. 
The velocity of sound has been accurately determined by ascertaining the exact 
time intervening between the flash and report of a gun, as observed at a given distance, 
and dividing the distance by the time. After many experiments in various countries, 
Van der Kolk assigned 1091 ft. 8 in. per second, with a probable error of 3.7 ft. as the 
velocity of sound in dry air at 32° Fahr. More recent experiments by the astronomer 
royal at the cape of Good Hope, give 1096 ft. To this velocity may be added 1.11 ft. 
for each degree Fahr. But air is not a perfect gas, and the variations of elastic force 
caused by a wave of sound passing through it are not uniform; so these measures, though 
approximately, may not be absolutely, correct. Furthermore, the rapidity of transmis- 
sion depends upon the loudness of the sound; and capt. Parry found, in the polar re- 
gions, that the discharge of a cannon at a distance of 2} m. was heard perceptibly 
sooner than the word ordering to fire, which, of course, preceded the discharge. There 
is also a gradual falling off in the speed of sound; and Regnault determined that a 
sound decreased in speed by 2.2 ft. per second in passing from a distance of 4000 ft. to 
one of 7500 ft. He also found that the velocity depended upon the pitch, the lower 
notes traveling faster than the higher ones; thus, the fundamental note of a trumpet 
travels faster than its harmonies. Sound travels faster in liquids than in air, and faster 
in solids than in liquids. In the river Seine, at 59° Fahr. the speed was 4714 ft. per 
second. Through iron, sound travels ten and a half times faster than through air. 
Experiments on telegraph wire produce almost identical results. Different metals trans- 
mit sound in widely different degrees. Wertheim assigned 16,822 for iron and 4030 
for lead, at a temperature of 68° Fahr. Except in a few cases, the loudness of a sound 
is less as the distance increases between the source of the sound and the ear. In an 
unlimited and uniform medium, the loudness of the sound proceeding from a very 
sinall sounding body varies inversely as the square of the distance. But to verify this 
fact it would be necessary to make a test at a considerable elevation above the earth’s 
surtace, the ear and source of sound being separated by air of constant density. As 
the density of the air diminishes, it would be found that the loudness of a sound at a 
iveu distance would decrease. The decay of sound due to this cause is observable in 
the rarefied air of high mountain regions. De Saussure found that the report of a pistol 
af a great elevation appeared no louder than would a small cracker at alower level. But 
it must be stated that when air-strata of different densities are interposed between the 
sound and the ear placed at a given distance, the intensity depends only on the density 
of the air at the source itself; whence it follows that sounds proceeding from the sur- 
face of the earth may be heard at equal distances as distinctly by a person in a floating 
balloon as by one situated on the surface itself; whereas any noise originating in the 
balloon would be heard at the surface as faintly as if the ear were placed in the rarefied 
air on a level with the balloon. This was exemplified by Glashier, the aeronaut, who, 
at an elevation of 20,000 ft. heard with great distinctness the whistle of a locomotive 
passing beneath him. The prolonged roll of thunder, with its manifold varieties, is 
partly to be ascribed to the reflection of the sound by mountains, clouds, etc., but is 
mainly due to the comparatively low rate of transmission through air. The explanation 
will be more easily understood by noting the case of a volley fired by a long line of 
troops. A person at a given point in the line would hear the sound of the nearest 
musket first, and of the others in the order of distance, and the effect would be a pro- 
longed roll, concluded by the musket most remote from the hearer though all were 


Acoustics, 
Acri. 


73 
fired at the same instant; and the roll would gradually decrease in loudness. If he 
stood exactly opposite the centre of the line, the reports from either end would reach 
him simultaneously and the effect would be more nearly a loud crash. If the soldiers 
formed a circle, the listener in the centre would hear a single explosion, since the report 
of every gun would reach his ear at the same instant, and the whole explosion would 
be equal to that of the sum of all the separate discharges. By varying the form of ar- 
ranging the troops, corresponding variations in the sound would be produced. Keep 
in view, then, the fact that flashes of lightning may be regarded as representing lines 
of troops, at the points and along the ranks of which explosions are generated at the 
same instant of time; then consider the variety of distance and position relative to the 
electric discharge of the listener, and we find no difficulty in accounting for the rolling 
peals of thunder. In a mountainous region this rolling is greatly augmented by rever- 
berations or echoes from the steep declivities. 


ACQUAVI'VA, at. of s. Italy, in the province of Bari, 16m. s. of the t. of Bari, in 
a healthy situation at the foot of the Apennines. It is surrounded with walls and 
ditches, has a handsome parish church, several convents, hospitals, etc. Pop. about 8000. 


ACQUAVI'VA, CLAUDIO D’, a general of the Jesuits; b. inItaly; he regulated the 
studies of the order, and prohibited the discussion of tyrannicide. His Ratio Studiorum 
is still considered authority. Born, 1552; d. 1615. 


AC'QUI (Lat. Aque Statielle), a walled t. of n. Italy, on the left bank of the Bormida, 
18 m. from Alessandria. It derives its name from its hot sulphur springs, which were 
known to the Romans, and which are much frequented by invalids. The t. is of great 
antiquity, and contains many remarkable ecclesiastical buildings. Pop. about 11,000. 


A'CRE, The word is identical with Lat. ager, Gr. agros, ‘‘a field;” the Ger. acker 
means both ‘‘a field” and a ‘‘ measure of land.” Most nations have some measure nearly 
corresponding; originally, perhaps, the quantity which one plow could plow in a day; 
uniformity, therefore, is not to be looked for. 

The English statute A. consists of 4840 sq. yards. The chain with which land is 
measured is 22 yards long, and asq. chain will contain 22 x 22, or 484 yards; so that 
10 sq. chains make an acre. The acre is divided into 4 roods, a rood into 40 perches, 
and a perch contains 304 sq. yards. The Scotch A. is larger than the English, and 
the Irish than the Scotch. 121 Ir. ac. = 196 Eng. nearly; 48 Sc. ac. = 61 Eng. The 
following table shows the values of the more important corresponding measures compared 
with the English A. The German morgen below are becoming obsolete, as the German 
empire has adopted the French metrical system. 


NGS acre te. eee Ge eet vel -00 my ALS MOTIONS an gccd duress 0-63 
Ebsatt foe rick Sat ce Bae PRAISE 1-27 Prussia | great morgen Sn eI is 1-40 
Trish BIPM a UM Par. ne aN grat ehcees ds Gare IaUasia, CLECIAGINMS. s,s cas dnikis'e ee aces AU 
BOTTA FOCI Ps Ate ea tee 1-42 MATOINIG, SIOTNAC. 2 enw oss ee.c ese a 0-93 
~ Baden, morgen or acre...... .... O-G0 POAXONY, TNOTCeN ss ca a. cc csc else acl OO 
Beigium, hectare (French)........ Pea erOPain se anegaunr es oo ae eee oe 1-06 
Denmark, tocnde sy oy aes 5-5 | Sweden, tunneland............... 1-13 
ite hectare (= 100 ares)......2-47 | Switzerland, faux................ 1-62 
arpent (common)........ 0-99 a Geneva, arpent......1-27 
LEEVarberyeyed | O10C8) exc) § Bia Se eA Faia SUS WeL bean y, SACCALLS Oost es 2k lea sss 1-22 
Hanover, Sans Bett Ba oT 0-64 | United States, English acre....... 1-00 
Holland, SLAPS UL OS 2-10} Witirtemberg, morgen ........... 2-40 
Naples; nog pias ir ces. Far 0-83 | Roman jugerum (ancient)......... 0-66 
PRolgnd> morgen te) psec Giles ne 1-38! Greek plethron (ancient)......... 0-23 
Dertugalsgeiraey Nese ees 1-45 


A'CRE, St. JEAN v’, or Acca, the biblical Accho, known as Ptolemads in the middle 
ages, is a sea-port on the coast of Syria, not far from the base of Mt. Carmel, and con- 
tains about 7000 inhabitants. The harbor is partly choked with sand, yet is one of the 
best on this coast. A. has often been the arena of warfare, and has suffered many 
changes of fortune. In 1110, it was taken by crusaders; in 1187, by the sultan Sala- 
din ; in 1191 was recaptured by the crusaders and afterwards became the seat of a bishop 
and of the Order of St. John; next, it fell into the hands of the Egyptians; and in 1517 
was captured by the Turks; in 1799, it was besieged by the French for sixty-one days, 
but was successfully defended by the garrison, aided by a body of English sailors and 
marines under Sydney Smith. In 1832, it was stormed by Ibrahim Pasha, son of the 
viceroy of Egypt, and continued in his possession till it was bombarded and taken, in 
1840, by a combined English, Austrian, and Turkish fleet. See Ecypr. 


ACRE’LIUS, Israren, {714-1800, b. in Sweden; studied at Upsal; was ordained in 
1743; appointed provost of the Swedish congregation on the Delaware; came tc America 
and was pastor of the church at Christiana. After several years he returned to Sweden, 
and received a pension and a church living. He wrote a description of the Swedish set- 
tlements in America, translated into English in 1874. 

A’CRI, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Cosenza, 13 m. n. e. of the t. of Cosenza, ina 
beautiful and healthy situation, with a fertile country around. Pop. 12,000. 


Acritochromacy. 
Act. v4 


ACRITOCHRO'MACY (Gr. akritos and chromatia, which, when associated, imply ‘‘ina 
bility to discriminate between colors”) is a term which seems likely to supersede color 
blindness, daltonism, achromotopsia, etc. 

AC’ROBAT, a word derived from the Greek, and nearly synonymous with rope-dancer. 
It literally signifies one who walks on tip-toe (akron, an extremity, and baino, I go); and 
is employed to designate those who perform difficult feats, vaulting, sliding, tumbling, 
and dancing on a slack or tight rope, stretched either horizontally or obliquely. These 
feats require great skill, suppleness, and steadiness. For a long time, acrobats were 
contented to divert and astonish only children or the most ignorant of the populace; 
but the extraordinary skill of some recent performers has given this perilous art a great 
celebrity. Within the nineteenth century, Farioso, Madame Saqui, and Signor Diavolo 
have excited admiration by their marvellous agility; Blondin was even more widely 
known. ‘The acrobats of antiquity appear to have closely resembled those of our own 
day. 

ACROCERAU'NIA, in ancient geography a promontory in the n.w. of Epirus, 
terminating in Montes Ceraunii, now cape Linqueeta ; lat. 40° 25’ n. The frequent 
striking of lightning at or near the mountain gave the name, which is equivalent to 
‘thunderbolt peak.” 

ACRO-CORIN THUS, a steep hill of 2000 ft., near Corinth ; the site of the Acropo- 
lis or citadel, and commanding a beautiful view. 


ACROG'ENOUS PLANTS (Gr., growing at the summit) are plants in which the struc- 
ture of the stem is acrogenous—that is, in which the vascular bundles are developed sim- 
ultaneously, and not in succession, the 
stem increasing by the coherence of the 
bases of the leaves and by elongation at 
the summit. In a transverse section of 
stem a circle of vascular tissue is found 
near the circumference, and the centre 
is composed of cellular tissue, some por- 
tion of which frequently disappears, so 
that the stem, although solid when 
young, becomes hollow in a more ad- 
vanced stage of its growth. Tree- 
ferns afford the finest specimens of the 
acrogenous stem. All A. P. have stom- 
ata, or breathing-pores, on the surface. 
In general, they have a distinct stem 
and leaves arranged with most perfect 
symmetry. Some plants, in which the 
distinct stem is absent, are ranked with 
A. P., because the thallus has the texture of leaves, and exhibits a higher organization 
than in thallogenous plants (q.v.). A. P. are all acotyledonous (q. v.); and under this 
designation are included ferns, equisetacew, lycopodiacee, marsileacew, mosses, and hepatica. 

AC'ROLEIN (C.H;COH) is a colorless, limpid, strongly refracting liquid, lighter than 
water, having its boiling-point at about 126° F. It constitutes the acrid principle produced 
by the destructive distillation of fatty bodies, and is in part due to the decomposition of 
glycerine. It is best prepared by distilling a mixture of glycerine and anhydrous phos- 
phoric acid, the object of the latter being to effect the removal of the element of four 
atoms of water from the glycerine (CsH;Os), which contains the elements of acrolein 
(C2H;sCOH) + those of 2 molecules of water(2H:0). In its state of vapor it is extremely 
irritating to the eyes, nostrils, and respiratory organs—a property to which it owes its 
name. The pungent smell given off by the smouldering wick of a candle just blown out 
is due to the presence of acrolein. When mixed with a solution of potash or soda, the ir- 
ritating odor disappears, and is replaced by one of cinnamon ; while a brown resinous 
substance is formed ; and certain oxidizing agents, as oxide of silver, convert it into acry- 
lic acid (C2H;COOH). 

AC’ROLITHS (Gr. acron, extremity; lithos, a stone), the name given to the oldest 
works of Greek plastic art, in which wood-carving is seen in transition into marble statu 
ary. The trunk of the figure is still, in the old style, of wood, covered with the usual 


temple vestments; but the extremities—head, arms, feet—which are meant to appear 
naked from below the drapery, are of stone. 


AC’RON, a physician of Sicily in the 5th c. B.c., who is said to have originated the 
practice of stopping pestilence by purifying the air with large fires, though this is doubt 
ful. He wrote several works on medical subjects, but none of them are extant. 


ACROP’OLIS, ‘‘the highest point of the city.” Many of the important cities of Greece 
and Asia Minor were protected by strongholds, so named. The A. occupied a lofty 
position, commanding the city and its environs; inaccessible on all sides except one, 
which had, for the most part, artificial defenses. It contained some of the most impor- 
tant public buildings, especially temples, besides affording a last refuge in case of a hostile 
attack, The A., like the castle of the middle ages, had formed the center or nucleus 


Section of Acrogenous 
stem, 


7 5 A ss gs needa me 


around which the town gradually grew. Among the most celebrated of the ancient 
A.s was that of Argos, whose name, Larissa, indicates its Pelasgic origin; that of 
Mesvenia, which bore the name of Ithome; that of Thebes, called Cadmea; that of Corinth, 
known as Acro-Corinthus; but especially that of Athens, which was styled pre-eminently 
the A. See ATHENS. 


ACROS TIC is a Greek term for a number of verses the first letters of which follow some 
predetermined order, usually forming a word—most commonly a name—or a phrase or 
sentence. Sometimes the final letters spell words as well as the initial, and the peculiarity 
will even run down the middle of the poem like a seam. Sir John Davies composed 
twenty-six Hymns to Astrea (Queen Elizabeth), in every one of which the initial letters of 
the lines form the words ExisanerHa Reeina, The following is one of the twenty-six: 

E v’ry night from ev’n to morn, 

L ove’s chorister amid the thorn 

I snow so sweet a singer; 

S osweet, as for her song I scorn 
A pollo’s voice and finger. 

B ut, nightingale, sith you delight 
E ver to watch the starry night, 

T ell all the stars of heaven, 


H eaven never had a star so bright 
A snow to earth is given. 


R oyal Astrea makes our day 

E ternal with her beams, nor may 
G ross darkness overcome her; 

I now perceive why some do write 
N ocountry hath so short a night 
A s England hath in summer. 


In the A. poetry of the Hebrews, the initial letters of the lines or of the stanzas were 
made to run over the letters of the alphabet in their order. Twelve of the psalms of the 
Old Testament are written on this plan. The 119th Psalm is the most remarkable. Itis 
composed of twenty-two divisions or stanzas (corresponding to the twenty-two letters of 
the Hebrew alphabet), each stanza consisting of eight couplets; and the first line of each 
couplet in the first stanza begins, in the original Hebrew, with the letter aleph, in the 
second stanza with beth, etc. The divisions of the psalm are named each after the letter 
that begins the couplets, and these names have been retained in the English translation. 
With a view to aid the memory, it was customary at one time to compose verses on sacred 
subjects after the fashion of those Hebrew acrostics, the successive verses or lines begin- 
ning with the letters of the alphabet in their order. Such pieces were called Abecedarian 
Hymns. See Hook's Church Dictionary. 


ACROTE'RION (Gr., the summit or extremity), a term in arch. for a statue or other 
ornament placed on the apex or at one of the lower angles of a pediment. Some under- 
stand by A. the pedestal on which such ornament stands. 


ACT, in the drama, is a distinct part of the general plot or action, and its conclusion 
is usually marked by a fall of the curtain. An act should be, in a certain sense, complete 
in itself, and at the same time should form a necessary part of the whole drama. As 
every dramatic plot naturally divides itself into three parts—the exposition, the develop- 
ment, and the conclusion or catastrophe—a division into three acts would seem most 
natural; but in practice it has been found inconvenient to inclose extended plots in such 
limits, and since the time of the ancient Greek tragedy, jive acts have generally been con- 
sidered necessary. In the first act, the general nature of the drama is indicated, the char- 
acters are introduced, and the action commences. The plot should rise in interest in 
the second, and reach its climax in the third act. In the fourth act, the conclusion or 
catastrophe should be prepared, but should by no means be anticipated so as to weaken 
the effect of the dénowement, which must occupy the fifth act. This is a rather difficult 
task; and, accordingly, many dramas fail in the fourth act. 


ACT, in English universities, is an exercise preparatory to receiving a degree. The 
student who ‘‘ keeps the act,’’ and who is called the ‘‘respondent,’’ reads a Latin thesis 
on some proposition which he has announced that he is to maintain. Three other stu 
dents, who have been named by the proctor as ‘‘ opponents,”’ then try, one after another, 
to refute his arguments syllogistically in Latin. The practice of keeping acts is still 
adhered to, as a form at least, at Cambridge. 


ACT, in law, has various meanings. In its more general acceptation it is used to 
denote the solemn accomplishment of some distinctive proceeding, as when a person in 
the U. S., when executing a legal instrument, declares it to be his act and deed. Formerly, 
in Scotiand, the word A. was frequently applied to the procedure in a litigated cause; 
and to this day the technical term to signify a plaintiff in Scotch pleading (which differs 
from that of England) is actor. By an A. is sometimes meant an act or proceeding, or 
rather the record of an act or proceeding, of a public nature—and in this sense it is used 
when we speak of an A. of Parliament (q.v.). This use of the word appears to be derived 
from the Romans, who employed acta to signify specially public official transactions, 
and oftener perhaps the records of such transactions. The Acta Diwrna was a kind of 


Action. 76 


official Roman gazette, giving an account of the public transactions and events of the 
day. The Germans use acten, and the French actes, to signify official or legal docu- 
ments, or papers generally. : Pere Sally 

But the word A. has at the present day several precise legal applications, the princi- 
pal of which we now proceed to mention and explain : 

Act or Gop is a legal expression, and signifies any natural or accidental occurrence, 
not caused by human negligence or intervention ; such as the consequences arising from 
storms, lightning, tempests, etc., and which are deemed fatalities and losses such as no 
party under any circumstances (independently of special contract) is bound to make good 
to another. It has been ruled in England that the loss must be immediate, and the 
necessary consequence of the accident. es 

Act or INDEMNITY is an annual act of parliament passed for omissions in taking the 
oaths and assurances required by law of persons admitted to any public office or employ- 


ment. 


ACTA (DiurNA, Poputi, URBANA, or PuBLICa), a sort of daily newspaper published 
at Rome, chronicling the important events of the day, giving summaries of the principal 
legal and political orations, the decisions of the courts, news from the army and the 
latest gossip of the town. They seem also to have contained accounts of the trans- 
actions of the assemblies of the people, also of births, deaths, marriages, and divorces, 
accidents, prodigies, and the like, all of which were preserved as sources of future his- 
tory. When Antony offered Cesar a crown on the feast of the Lupercalia, Cesar 
ordered it to be noted in the Acta Diurna. The Acta are frequently said to have been 
introduced by Julius Cesar, but others believe them to have existed long before Cesar’s 
time, and to have supplanted the Annales, which fell into disuse about the year 131 B. c. 
The Latin scholar Hiibner has advanced strong arguments in support of the former 
view, although it was the practice before Cesar’s time for scribes to compile a manu- 
script chronicle of public events in the city of Rome, which was often forwarded with 
private letters to absent friends. The Annales took note only of the most important 
events, Whereas matters of far less importance were included in the Acta Diurna. The 
material for the Acta was gathered by reporters called actuarii, and the Acta were 
exposed in public places to be read or copied by any who chose to do so. After 
a reasonable period of time they were taken down and preserved with other public docu- 
ments. Personsin Rome were accustomed to keen their friends who were sojourning out 
of town informed of the progress of events and of the news generally, as gathered 
from the Acta Diurna. A passage in Petronius (cap. 53) gives an imitation of the 
Acta. From this it would appear that the style was very simple, and that only the bare 
facts were stated. 


ACTA MARTYRUM. This name was given by the ancient church to the records of 
the lives and sufferings of the Martyrs which were kept for the edification of the faith- 
ful. The oldest extant refer to the death of St. Ignatius of Antioch, who died about 
the year 107. St. Augustine speaks of these records as being read to the people on 
their festival days. Eusebius, the church historian, collected the Acta Martyrum in his 
two works, De Martyribus Palestine, and Synagoge Martyrum. 


ACT#’A, a genus of plants of the natural order ranunculacee (q.v.), the type of the sub- 
order actaee, distinguished by the colored imbricated calix and indehiscent succulent fruit. 
The genus actea has four deciduous sepals, four petals, and a single baccate carpel.— 
A.spicata, the baneberry or herb christopher, is a native of the n. of Europe, found in 
bushy places in some parts of England. It isa perennial herbaceous plant, about 1 to2 ft. 
high, with triternate leaves, and the leaflets deeply cut and serrated, the flowers in 
racemes, the berries black and poisonous. The root is anti-spasmodic, expectorant, and 
astringent, and is sometimes useful in catarrh. Botrophis actwoides (actea racemosa of 
Linnzeus) is a native of the U. 8., whose roots are said to possess similar qualities, and are 
also reputed as a remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. 


ACTZ'ON, a mythical personage, a grandson of Cadmus. He was trained as a hunter 
by Chiron. Having once surprised Diana while bathing in a fountain, he was changed 
by the offended goddess into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing him, tore him in 
pieces. According to Euripides, Diana was jealous because Actzeon had boasted that he 
excelled her in hunting. 


ACTA ERUDITO’RUM, the first literary serial in Germany ; was begun 1682 by Otto 
Mencke, professor in Leipsic university, published monthly in Latin, and kept in the 
founder’s family until 1754, when change of management and neglect reduced its circula. 
tion and reputation. The last volume, completing the record of science to the close of 
1776, appeared in 1782. The whole set is in 117 vols, 4to. There have been many imita- 
tions in various countries, 


ACTA SANCTO RUM or Marryro, acts of saints or martyrs, the collective title given 
to several old writings, respecting saints and martyrs, in the Greek and Roman Catholic 
churches, but now applied especially to one extensive collection begun by the Jesuits in 
the 17th c., and intended to serve as a better arrangement of the materials found in ancient 
works. This great undertaking, which was commenced by the Jesuit Heribert Rosweyd 
of Antwerp, has considerable importance, not only in a religious and ecclesiastical point 


7 Action, 


ot view, but also with regard to history and archeology. After Rosweyd’s death, in 1629, 
J. Bolland was commissioned by the order of Jesuits to continue the work; and with the 
assistance of G. Henschen he prepared two volumes, which appeared in 1643. After the 
death of this editor (1665), the work was carried on by a society of learned Jesuits, who 
were styled ‘‘Bollandists,” until 1794, when its further progress was prevented through 
the invasion of Holland by the French. In recent times, the undertaking has been 
resumed; and in 1846 the fifty-fourth volume was published at Brussels. Several 
additional volumes have appeared since. The lives are arranged in the order of the 
calendar. A new edition of the first 54 vols. appeared in 1863-69. The sixty-fifth 
volume appeared in 1892. For notices of other and similar collections, see SAINTS, 
Martyr, and MARTYROLOGY. 


AC’TIAN GAMES. See Actium. 


ACTIN'IA, a genus of marine animals, belonging to the sub-kingdom ca@lenterata (see 
Sup KiIncpoMs, ANIMAL), and to the class actinozoa, of which latter group the genus is 
thoroughly typical. The animals included in this genus are famiarly known as ‘‘sea- 
anemones.” They are found attached by their bases to rocks and stones, and present the 
appearance of cylindrical fleshy bodies, possessing a mouth surrounded by numerous 
tentacles in the free extremity. These tentacles in the genus A. are of simple, tubu- 
lar conformation. They are perforated 
at their tips, and also possess sucker-like 
disks. The mouth leads into a stomach- 
sac, which (as in all ccelenterate animals) 
communicates freely below with the general 
body-cavity, and thus comes to resemble a 
pocket with the bottom cut out. The 
gtomach-sac is kept in its place by a series 
of vertical radiating plates, named lamella 
or mesenteries, to the faces of which the 
reproductive organs are attached. The 
actinide are capable of slow movements 
by expanding and contracting the muscu- 
lar bases of their bodies. ‘They may be 
cut and divided in various ways, with the result of producing new individuals by artificial 
Jission. Some species may attain a great age. 


ACTINISM, the property of the sun’s rays which produces chemical changes. See 
SPECTRUM. 


a, cavity of stomach ; b, 
surrounding chambers. 


ACTINOGRAPH (Gk., aktis, ray, beam, graphein, to describe), an instrument for meas- 
uring and recording the variations in the actznic or chemical force of the solar rays. By 
the actinic force is meant that power in the sun’s rays by which chemical changes are 
produced, as in photography. The intensity of the sun’s actinic rays is measured by an 
instrument called an actinometer. 


ACTINOM’ETER, an instrument to measure the heat of the sun’s rays; at first a 
common thermometer, the bulb blackened with nitrate of silver; then one with a large 
bulb filled with blue solution of ammonia and sulphate of copper, inclosed in a box 
with a plate-glass top, the expansion of the liquid to indicate the amount ofheat. Prof. 
John W. Draper of N. Y. next discovered that equal volumes of chlorine and hydro- 
gen form chlor-hydric acid in direct proportion to the actinic intensity of the light and 
the time of exposure... Subsequently Bunsen and Roscoe hit upon the same plan. There 
are other actinic reactions; as, in a solution of chloride of gold and oxalic acid, the gold 
precipitates on exposure to actinic rays. 


ACTION, in its large and general sense, means a judicial proceeding before a compe 
tent tribunal for the attainment of justice; and in this sense it is applied to procedure, 
whether criminal or cwil. In its more limited acceptation, it is used to signify proceed: 
ings in the czvi/ courts, where it means the form prescribed by law for the recovery of a 
right, or what is one’s due. In the law of England, the term A. used to be applied to 
proceedings in the courts of common law, as distinguished from those of eguity, where the 
word swt was used. What, in the courts of queen’s bench, common pleas, and 
exchequer, before the judicature act of 1878, was ealled action-at-law, was in the courts 
of equity called a suit in equity. See Common Law, Courts oF, and Equrry. 

In the Scotch law, which recognizes no distinction in legal administration between 
law and equity, the word A. is defined comprehensively as a demand regularly made 
and insisted on before the judge competent for the recovery of aright. Accordingly, 
while in Scotland there is, as in England, a remedy for every wrong, the law recognizes 
and gives effect to the right of a party to claim and to have declared a particular interest 
or right, even although that interest or right may not be withheld, or called in question. 
It is sufficient that it is doubtful, and that the ascertainment of it is necessary for the 
position and purposes of the plaintiff, or pursuer, as the Scotch law calls the active 
party. This procedure is known bythe name of an A. of declarator, which has been 
described as a suit in which something is prayed to be decreed in favor of the plaintiff, 
but nothing sought to be paid, performed, or done by the defendant. Lord Stair, in his 


Actium. 7 8 
Act of Settlement. 


Institutes of the Law of Scotland, says, ‘‘such actions may be pursued for instructing or 
clearing any kind of right relating to liberty, dominion, or obligation ; and he further 
observes, ‘‘there is no right but is capable of declarator.” Various attempts have 
been made to introduce this mode of proceeding into the practice of the law in England, 
but as yet without success. The idea of the declarator has been said to have been 
derived by the Scotch lawyers from the French legal system, according to whose forms 
the existing administration of the Scotch law was originally molded. In the institutes 
of Justinian there are, however, indications of the partial use of this form of A. by the 
Roman lawyers. : 

We may add that the word A. is derived from the Latin actéo (agere), and that the 
plaintiff in a suit or action was originally said to be the actor, which, indeed, in the ~ 
recorded pleadings of the Scotch courts, his counsel or advocate still is called. 

In general, it may be said that no action can be maintained by a citizen against a gov- 
ernment without the government’s ae consent ; except in rare special cases no suit can 
be brought by a citizen against the U. 8.; relief must be sought by petition, or in the 
court of claims. State courts do not ordinarily contest acts of foreign states or sover- 
eigns for anything done or omitted in their public character. Here negotiation takes 
the place of suit. Modern statutes have much simplified proceedings under this title, 
and many old forms have been abandoned. In N. Y. an effort has been made to 
avoid all distinctive forms; there every other than a criminal is a civil action, having 
no other specific name; the design of the code being to give by this action every kind of 
relief which can be sought in civil causes. 


AC’TIUM (now Azio), a t. and promontory on the w. coast of Greece, at the entrance 
of the Ambraciot bay, now the gulf of Arta, is memorable for the sea-fight which took 
place near it, 2d Sept., 31 B.c., between Octavianus (afterwards the emperor Augustus) 
and Marcus Antonius. These two had for some time ruled the Roman world between 
them—the former in the w., the latter in the e.; it now came to a struggle for the 
sole sovereignty. The two armies were encamped on the opposite shores of the gulf: 
Octavian had 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 260 ships of war; Antony, 100,000 
infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 ships. Antony’s ships were large and well provided 
with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy in their movements; Octavian’s were 
smaller and more agile. Antony was supported by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, with 66 
vessels, who induced him, against the opinion of his most experienced generals, to 
determine upon a naval engagement. The battle continued for some hours undecided; 
at last, Agrippa, who commanded Octavian’s fleet, succeeded, by a skillful maneuver, 
in compelling Antony to extend his line of battle, whose compactness had _ hitherto 
resisted all attempts of the enemy to break through. Cleopatra, whose ships were sta- 
tioned behind Antony’s line, apprehensive of. that line being broken, took to flight with 
her auxiliary fleet, and Antony recklessly followed her with a few of his ships. The 
aeserted fleet continued to resist bravely for some time, but was finally vanquished; the 
land-army, after waiting in vain seven days for Antony’s return, surrendered to Octa- 
vian. Asa memorial of the victory that had given him the empire of the world, and 
out of gratitude to the gods, Octavian enlarged the temple of Apollo at A., dedicated 
the trophies he had taken, and instituted games to be celebrated every five years. He 
also built, on the spot where his army had been encamped, the splendid city of Nicopo- 
lis (city of victory), near where Prevesa now stands. 


ACT OF PARLIAMENT is a resolution or law passed by all the three branches of the 
legislature—the king [or queen], lords, and commons. The expression is generally used 
to signify the record of an A. of P., and such records are strictly synonymous with the 
term ‘‘statutes,” or ‘‘statutes of the realm.” An A. of P. thus made is the highest legal 
authority acknowledged by the constitution. It binds every subject in the land, and 
even the sovereign himself, if named therein. And in England it cannot be altered, 
amended, dispensed with, suspended, or repealed, but in the same forms and by the same 
authority of parliament. In Scotland, however, a long course of contrary usage or of 
disuse may have the effect of depriving a statute of its obligation; for, by the Scotch 
law, a statute may become obsolete by disuse, and cease to be legally binding. It was 
formerly held in England that the king might in many cases dispense with penal statutes; 
but by the statute 1 W. and M. st. 2, c. 2, it is declared that the suspending or dispensing 
with laws by royal authority, without consent of parliament, is illegal. 

An A. of P. or statute is either public or private. A public act regards the whole 
community, but the operation of a private act is confined to particular persons and pri- 
vate concerns, and some private acts are local, as affecting certain places only. As the 
law till lately stood, the courts of law were bound ea officio to take judicial notice, as it 
is called, of public acts—that is, to recognize these acts as known and published law, 
without the necessity of their being specially pleaded and proved; but it was otherwise 
in regard to private acts; so that in order to claim any advantage under a private act, it 
was necessary to plead it, and set it forth particularly. But now, by the 13 and 14 Vict. 
c. 21, s. 7, every act made after the then next session of parliament is to be taken to be 
a public one, and judicially noticed as such, unless the contrary be expressly declared. 

_ Acts of P. are also sometimes described as declaratory, or penal, or remedial, accord- 
ing to the nature of their object or provisions. Declaratory statutes are where the old 


79 Actium, 
Act of Settlement, 


custom of the kingdom has almost fallen into disuse, or become disputable, in which 
case the parliament has thought proper (én perpetuum ret testimonium, and for avoiding 
all doubts and difficulties) to declare what the common law is and ever has been. Penal 
acts-are those which merely impose penalties or punishments for an offense, as in the 
case of the statutes relative to game. Remedial acts are such as supply some defect in 
the existing law, and redress some abuse or inconvenience with which it is found to be 
attended, without introducing any provision of a penal character. There is also a dis- 
tinction of Acts of P. as being either enlarging or restraining, enabling or disabling acts. 

An A. of P. begins to operate from the time when it receives the royal assent, unless 
some other time be fixed for the purpose by the act itself. The rule on this subject, in 
England, was formerly different; for at common law, every A. of P., which had no pro- 
vision to the contrary, was considered, as soon as it passed (i.e., received the royal 
assent), as having been in force, retrospectively, from the first day of the session of par- 
liament in which it passed, though, in fact, it might not have received the royal assent, 
or even been introduced into parliament, until long after that day; and this strange prin- 
ciple was rigidly observed for centuries. The ancient acts of the Scotch parliament 
were proclaimed in all the county towns, burghs, and even in the baron courts. This 
mode of promulgation was, however, gradually dropped as the use of printing became 
common; and in 1581 an act was passed declaring publication at the market cross of 
Edinburgh to be sufficient. British statutes require no formal promulgation; and in 
order to fix the time from which they shall become binding, it was enacted by the 33 
Geo. III. c. 18, that every A. of P. to be passed after 8th April, 17938, shall commence 
from the date of the indorsement by the clerk of parliament, stating the day, month, 
and year when the act was passed and received the royal assent, unless the commence- 
ment shall, in the act itself, be otherwise provided for. 

An A. of P. consists of various parts—such as the title, the preamble, the enacting 
sections and clauses, and sometimes certain forms or schedules added by way of appen- 
dix—and it is referred to by the year of the sovereign’s reign, and the chapter of the 
statutes for that year. The old acts of the Scotch parliament, before the union with 
England, are cited by the year in which they were passed, and the order of the number 
or chapter. See STATUTES, ScotcH STATUTES, and PARLIAMENT: 


ACT OF SETTLEMENT, a name given to the statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, by which 
the crown was limited to the family of the present sovereign, Queen Victoria. It was tow- 
ard the end of king William III.’s reign, when all hopes of other issue died with the 
duke of Gloucester, that, as we are told by Blackstone, the king and parliament thought it 
necessary again to exert their power of limiting and appointing the succession, in order 
to prevent another vacancy of the throne, which must have ensued upon their deaths, as 
no further provision was made at the revolution than for the issue of Queen Mary, Queen 
Anne, and King William. The parliament had previously, by the statute of 1 W. and 
M. st. 2, c. 2, enacted, that every person who should be reconciled to or hold com- 
munion with the see of Rome, should profess the Roman Catholic religion, or should 
marry a Roman Catholic, should be excluded from succession to, and be forever incapable 
to inherit, possess, or enjoy the crown; and that in such case the people should be 
absolved from their allegiance, and the crown should descend to such persons, being 
Protestants, as would have inherited the same, if the person so reconciled, holding com- 
munion, professing ormarrying, were naturally dead. To act, therefore, consistently 
with themselves, and, at the same time, pay as much regard to the old hereditary line as 
their former resolutions would admit, they turned their eyes on the Princess Sophia, 
electress and duchess-dowager of Hanover; for upon the impending extinction of the 
Protestant posterity of Charles I., the old law of regal descent directed them to recur 
to the descendants of James I.; and the princess Sophia, being the youngest daughter of 
Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., was the nearest of the 
ancient blood-royal who was not incapacitated by professing the Roman Catholic 
religion. On her, therefore, and the heirs of her body, being Protestants, the remainder 
of the crown expectant on the death of King William and Queen Anne without issue, 
was settled by statute 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2. And at the same time it was enacted 
that whosoever should thereafter come to the possession of the crown, should join in the 
communion of the church of England as by law established. 

This is the last limitation of the crown that has been made by parliament; and the 
several actual imitations, from the time of Henry IV. to the present, clearly prove the 

ower of the king and parliament to remodel or alter the succession, It is even made 
ane penal to dispute such power, for by the statute 6 Anne, c. 7, it is enacted, that if 
any person maliciously, advisedly, and directly shall maintain, by writing or printing, 
that the kings of this realm, with the authority of parliament, are not able to make laws 
to bind the crown and the descent thereof, he shall be guilty of high treason; or if he 
maintains the same by only preaching or advised speaking, he shall incur the penalties 
of premuntre. 

The Princess Sophia dying before Queen Anne, the inheritance, thus limited, 
descended on her son and heir, King George I.; and having, on the death of the queen, 
taken effect in his person, from him it descended to King George II.; from him to his 
grandson and heir, King George III.; from him to his son George IV., who was succeeded 


t of Uniformity. 
a of the Apostles, 80 


by his brother, William IV.; and from the monarch last mentioned the crown descended 
to his heiress, the daughter of his brother Edward, duke of Kent, the present sovereign 
Queen Victoria. 

‘‘ Hence,’ Blackstone remarks, ‘‘it is easy to collect that the title to the crown is at 
present hereditary, though not quite so absolutely hereditary as formerly ; and the com- 
mon stock or ancestor from whom the descent must be derived is also different. For- 
merly, the common stock was King Egbert, afterwards William the Conqueror, and 
now it is princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was vested by the new king and 
parliament. Formerly, the descent was absolute, and the crown went to the next heir 
without any restriction ; but now, upon the new settlement, the inheritance is con- 
ditional ; being limited to such heirs only of the body of the princess Sophia as are 
Protestants, members of the church of England, and are married to none but Prot- 
estants.” 


ACT OF UNIFORMITY is the name by which the English statute 138 and 14 Car. II. is 
usually described. By that statute it was enacted that the book of common prayer, as 
then recently revised, should be used in every parish church and other place of public 
worship in England, and that every school-master and person instructing youth should 
subscribe a declaration of conformity to the liturgy, and also to the effect of the oath 
and declaration mentioned in the act of 13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1. It further enacted that no 
person should thenceforth be capable of holding any ecclesiastical promotion or dignity, 
or of consecrating or administering the sacrament, till he should be ordained priest 
according to episcopal ordination, and with respect to all ministers who then enjoyed any 
ecclesiastical benefice, it directed that they should, within a certain period, openly read 
morning and evening service, according to the book of common prayer, and declare 
before the congregation their unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all things therein 
contained, upon pain of being ipso facto deprived of their spiritual promotions. By this 
statute, 2000 of the clergy, who refused to comply, were deprived of their preferments. 
Acts to secure uniformity were passed under Edward VI. (1549) and Elizabeth (1559). 


ACTON, Sir JoHN FrRaNcIS EDWARD, 1787-1811. He was a native of Besangon, son 
of Edward Acton, a physician. He served in the French and Tuscan navies, command- 
ing a frigate in the expedition against Algiers in 1774. For gallantry in rescuing some 
thousands of Spanish soldiers from slavery he was promoted, becoming commander-in- 
chief of the Neapolitan sea and land forces; next, minister of finance, and finally prime 
minister. His measures, prompted by his extreme hatred of France, were intolerant, and 
ultimately caused a reaction against the royal family of Naples, and in favor of the French 
party and the Carbonari. When the French entered Naples in 1806 he fled to Sicily, 
where he died, contemned by all parties ; though there is doubt about his responsibility 
for the ill treatment of political prisoners. He married, by papal dispensation, the 
daughter of his brother Joseph, who was also engaged in the Neapolitan service. 


ACTON, Lorp JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG, English historian, b. at Naples, 1854. 
He was brought under the influence of Dr. Dollinger, whose ‘‘ Old Catholic’’ views he 
adopted, zealously opposing the dogma of papal infallibility. He has edited and contri- 
buted articles to magazines and won a high reputation both for learning and for vigor of 
expression. In 1895 he was appointed regius professor of modern history at Cambridge. 


ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth book of the New Testament, the authorship of 
which is ascribed by tradition, and with the highest probability, to the evangelist Luke. 
Beginning with the ascension of Christ, it gives an account of the spread of the Christian 
church; confined, however, chiefly to the part taken therein by the apostle Paul. WNot- 
withstanding its title, little is said of the other apostles, with the exception of Peter. The 
narrative closes with the year 62 A.p., Paul being then a prisoner at Rome. The book 
has always been received as canonical, except by a few Manichean heretics; but its 
historical character has been impugned by the Tiibingen school. Spurious acts were put 
in circulation by early Christian sects. The introduction to the Acts of the Apostles 
connects it with the third gospel as written by the same author and addressed to the 
same person. That both were from the same hand is also to be inferred from the 
similarity of style, idiom, and diction. In modern times some writers have attempted a 
criticism invalidating both the external testimony on this point and the internal proba- 
bilities and proofs. A single specimen may be given of the reasoning on which they 
rely for dislodging this book from its place in scripture, or at least for lowering the 
estimation in which it isheld. ‘‘ According to the gospel ascribed to Luke, all the events 
related of Jesus after the resurrection took place, or seem to have taken place, on the 
day of the resurrection, or they may possibly have extended into the next morning, but 
certainly not later. The A. on the contrary states that Jesus was seen by the disciples 
for forty days after the resurrection.” This is a summary way of developing a contra- 
diction where none exists. The agecount of these events in Luke’s gospel is indeed brief 
and condensed, but it does not assert or imply that they all took place at once. Points 
in the narrative fairly admit, and rationally require, the supposition of intervals of time. 
The other gospels, also, declare or imply such intervals. The accounts of Matthew and 
Mark are more condensed than even Luke’s. John’s is much more extended. It marks 
off expressly several intervals, and says that one of them was a week long. All these 
accounts, therefore, taken together, prepare the way for the statement in the A. that 
the whole time between the resurrection and the ascension amounted to 40 days. The 
Greek title, it wil be observed, does not indicate that the book contains a complete 
history of the apostles of Christ in their work of proclaiming the gospel. It is not ‘‘ the 


81 Act of Uniformity. 
Act of Toleration. 


acts” (which indeed the English translation does make it), as if all were intended, but 
“acts” as only a part. This is in strict accordance with the contents. In the opening 
of the book, the names of the eleven apostles and of the twelfth (chosen to fill the place 
of Judas) having been given, the actions and words of Peter at once become prominent; 
then Peter and John are mentioned together, and soon Peter’s course only is given. 
After 12 chapters, of which the larger part of one relates to Paul’s conversion, the rest 
of the book is filled chiefly with this last apostle’s work and things connected with it. 
Jerusalem, the church, and the apostles there, scarcely appear except as connected with 
Paul. The narrative ends with the year 62 A.D. 

The contents of the book may be noted as follows: 

I. An exhibition of the ever-present, controlling, and administrative agency of the Lord 
Jesus, from his exalted sphere at the right hand of God, putting forth the powers of his 
risen life and giving organization to his spiritual and everlasting kingdom. We have 
his commands to the apostles, his direction of the choice of Judas’s successor, his sending 
down the Holy Spirit, his turning men from their sins and adding them to his church, 
his working of miracles by the instrumentality of the apostles, his sending Peter to open 
the door of faith to the Gentiles and Philip to guide the Ethiopian in his effort to under- 
stand the scripture, his delivering Peter from prison and Paul from his mad career. 

Il. A record of the gift and operations of the Holy Spirit. The Savior at the close of 
his work on earth promised that he would send from the Father the Spirit of truth to 
abide with his disciples, to reveal the truth to them and to convince the world of sin, 
righteousness, and judgment. The A. records the fulfillment of the promise and 
exhibits the work of the Holy Spirit in the minds and hearts of men of various nations. 
It thus becomes the connecting link between the gospels and the epistles which describe 
the spirit’s progressive work. 

Ill. The account of the planting and spread of the Christian church. Tt records the 
names of the apostles, the number of the original company at Jerusalem, and the 
beginning of the church there. It shows that the life of Jesus was appealed to among 
those who had witnessed it; that his Messiahship was defended in the hearing of those 
who had crucified him for asserting it; that the divine appointment of his death was 
proclaimed in the midst of those who had inflicted it as a malefactor’s doom; that his 
resurrection was affirmed in the face of those who had buried him and exercised official 
guardianship over his grave; that the first adherents to his religion were gained among 
the crucifiers themselves, including priests as well as the people; that the faith in him 
spread immediately among Jews and proselytes, then in Jerusalem, who belonged to the 
chief countries of the Roman empire, and to some beyond its bounds; and that, the 
Gentiles being speedily admitted by divine command to the full blessings of salvation, 
the church was rapidly extended into Judea, Samaria, Phenice, Cyprus, Syria, Asia 
Minor, Illyria, and Italy. 

IV. Conclusive evidence of the divine origin of Christianity. It shows that, advancing 
from a very small beginning, by the instrumentality of unarmed men, opposed by the 
power of the Roman empire; of private persons, opposed by the authority of the Jewish 
and pagan priesthoods; of unlettered men, opposed by all the culture of the times, it 
prevailed over the mightiest institutions, the most formidable barriers, the most malig- 
nant persecutions, and prevailed by the power of God. When the historian Gibbon was 
investigating the decline and fall of the Roman empire he found that ‘‘an inquiry into 
the progress and establishment of Christianity constituted an essential part of the 
history of the Roman empire.” ‘‘ While that great body,” he says, ‘‘was invaded by 
open violence or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinu- 
ated itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new vigor 
from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner of the cross on the ruins of 
the capitol.” His curiosity having been awakened ‘‘to inquire by what means the 
Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the established religions of the 
earth,” he ventures to give what he calls five secondary causes of the rapid growth of 
the Christian church. All these are vital portions of Christianity, and, as stated by him, 
they are seen to amount to this, that it was the prevalence of Christianity that promoted 
the triumph of Christianity, as a great conflagration is promoted by the spreading of the 
fiames. The book of A. supplies the necessary beginning to Gibbon’s account by 
showing how the fire was kindled, how the essential elements of Christianity were 
produced, His causes are: 1. ‘‘ The zeal of the Christians ~” and the A. informs us how 
the Christians came into existence and how their zeal was first produced and then 
“purified.” 2. ‘‘ The doctrine of a future life ;” and the A. declares the source whence 
the doctrine was obtained and ‘‘improved.” 38. ‘‘ The miraculous powers ascribed to the 
primitive church ;” and the A. explains how the primitive church began, and on what 
evidence the miraculous powers were so ascribed to it as to secure its triumph. 4. ‘ The 
pure and austere morals of the Christians ;” and the A. reveals how their morals came 
to be pure and austere, in the midst of an abounding corruption too horrible to be looked 
upon, and nowhere more fully revealed than in Gibbon’s own work. 5. ‘‘ The wnion 
and discipline of the Christian republic ;” and the A. demonstrates how the church came 
to be ‘‘a republic in the midst of the empire,” in what its ‘‘union’ consisted, how its 
“discipline” was maintained, and by what power ‘‘it became an independent and 
increasing state.” 


a qae 82 


V. The close of Scripture history in relation to the Jews, In the great interest awakened. 
by the book as recording the first preaching to the Gentiles, comparatively little notice 
is taken of the fact that it records also the last preaching to the Jews. The book opens 
with the preaching of the gospel to the Jews, the acceptance of it by some of them, and 
the bitter opposition made to it by the rest which at length drove away a large part of 
the Christians from Jerusalem and in a great degree brought the preaching to the Jews 
there to an end. When Paul came there after his conversion he began to preach 
zealously to the Jews, but they would not receive his word, and he was commanded by 
the Lord to leave the city. At Antioch, in Pisidia, he preached earnestly to Jews and 
Gentiles, but when the former contradicted and blasphemed he turned, by divine 
command, to the latter. A similar result was witnessed in Iconium, Lystra, Thessa- 
lonica, Berea, Corinth, and Ephesus. When, late in life, he went again to Jerusalem, 
as it proved for the last time, the opposition of the Jews was more furious than before, 
and after a narrow escape from death at their hands and an imprisonment, continuing 
more than two years, through their instrumentality, he was constrained to appeal unto 
Cesar. Three days after his arrival at Rome he sent for the resident Jews, and had a 
day appointed for making known the gospel to them, on which, from morning to 
evening, he expounded, testified, and persuaded concerning Jesus out of the law and the 
prophets. The result then was that some believed and others believed not; and again 
Paul turned to the Gentiles. With this narrative the A. ends, abruptly, as many say, 
with respect to Paul and the gospel, but appropriately with respect to the Jews. If no 
reason can be shown why Christian history should here be cut short, certainly it was 
necessary that Jewish history should here come to an end. For, in a little while after 
Paul’s imprisonment at Rome, Jerusalem was destroyed and the Jews were scattered 
abroad. And thus the A. completes the unity of the historical books of scripture 
whose constant and ultimate, though not always direct, reference is to the Jews. 


ACTS, SPURIOUS OR APOCRYPHAL, are treatises or sentences which purport to have 
been written by or concerning Christ, the apostles aud other disciples. Many of these 
are now known only through the statements of ancient authors. Others are extant. 
J. One class profess to be words of Christ, and are supposed by some writers to have 
been derived from early accounts concerning him, of which many had been written 
before the gospel of Luke (i. 1). Some of them, in all probability, were merely inaccu- 
rate quotations from the genuine gospels; others have no external testimony to establish 
their genuineness and no merit to make them worthy of regard. ‘The beautiful words, 
not recorded in the gospels, which Paul quoted to the Ephesians as words of Christ, 
‘“It is more blessed to give than to receive,” are not properly included in the class now 
described, for they are vouched for as genuine words of Christ, by an inspired apostle 
who had many ways of learning the truth about them, and have always had a place in 
an undisputed book of the New Testament. II. Many spurious treatises called Acts 
of the Apostles were written at now unknown dates. Of some of these little more is 
known than that they once existed; of others fragments remain, and several are extant 
entire. A selection was printed at London in 1821 under the title, Apocryphal New 
Testament. They abound in fabulous, puerile, and visionary statements which are 
unworthy of notice. III. Among the treatises of this general class, the A. of Pilate 
deserves to be singled out as probably genuine and valuable. It is well known that 
accounts of all important events that occurred at Rome were carefully preserved either 
in the Acts of the Senate or the Daily Acts of the People. In like manner it was the duty of 
the governors of provinces to send to the senate or the emperor reports of their adminis- 
tration, including accounts of the remarkable transactions that occurred in their region. 
These were called the ‘‘acts” of their government, and were not published for general 
perusal, but deposited among the archives of the empire, as are state papers now, for in- 
formation to historians. There is every reason to believe that Pilate sent such a report 
of his administration to Rome, and that it included an account of Jesus who was called 
Christ. And it is certain that the primitive Christians, in defending their faith, appealed 
to these A. of Pilate as to testimony which could not be denied. Justin Martyr, in his . 
first defense of the Christians, presented, 140 a.p., to the emperor and senate, having 
mentioned the crucifixion of Jesus and some of the events connected with it, says: 
‘“That these things were so done, you may know from the acts made in the time of 
Pontius Pilate.” And again, having recounted some of the miracles of Jesus, such as 
healing diseases and raising the dead, he adds: ‘‘ And that these things were done by him 
you may know from the acts made in the time of Pontius Pilate.” Tertullian, also, in 
his defense of Christianity, 200 a.p., says: ‘‘Of all these things relating to Christ, Pilate 
himself sent an account to Tiberius, then emperor.” See APOCRYPHA. 


ACTUARY. The actwarii, in ancient Rome, were clerks who recorded the acta of 
the senate and other public bodies. The term might therefore, so far as its etymology is 
concerned, be applied to men of business in general. But in the constantly increasing 
tendency to subdivide labor and specialize functions, there has arisen, in recent times, a 
distinct branch of business, embracing all monetary questions that involve a consideration 
of the separate or combined effect of interest and probability, especially as connected with 
the duration of human life; and it is to one who devotes himself to this department of 
business that the name of A. has been specially assigned. The investigations and calcu- 


8 3 aTwele 


lations of the A. supply the principles of operation for the numerous institutions now 
engaged in the transaction of life-assurance, annuity, and reversionary business. His 
functions might be briefly defined as the application of the doctrine of probabilities to the 
affairs of life. 

ACU'LEUS, in botany. See PRICKLE, 


A'CUPRESSURE, a mode of arresting hemorrhage from cut arteries. It is based on the 
principle of temporary metallic compression, and was first suggested to the scientific 
world by Sir James Y. Simpson, bart., in a paper read before the royal society of 
Edinburgh, Dec., 1859. The simplest mode of practicing it may be thus described: The 
needle is passed through the flaps or sides of the wound, so as to cross over and compress 
the orifice of the bleeding artery, just as in putting a flower in the lapel of one’s coat, one 
crosses over and compresses the flower-stalk with a pin pushed twice through the lapel. The 
middle portion of the needle—the only part of it which is in immediate contact with the 
fresh surface of the wound—bridges over and compresses the artery at its bleeding orifice, 
or perhaps a line or two more on its cardiac side. The head and point of the needle are 
exposed externally on the cutaneous surface of the flap or side of the wound. ‘‘ When 
passing the needle in this method,” says Sir J. Y. Simpson, ‘‘the surgeon usually places 
the point of his left forefinger or of his thumb upon the mouth of the bleeding vessel, 
and with his right hand introduces the needle from the cutaneous surface, and passes it 
right through the whole thickness of the flap till its point projects for a couple of lines or 
sofrom the surface of the wound, a little to the right side of the tube of the vessel. 
Then. by forcibly inclining the head of the needle towards his right, he brings the pro- 
jecting portion of its point firmly down upon the site of the vessel; and after seeing that it 
thus quite shuts the artery, he makes it re-enter the flap as near as possible to the left side 
of the vessel, and pushes on the needle till its point comes out again at the cutaneous 
surface. In this mode, we use the cutaneous walls and component substance of the flap 
as a resisting medium, against which we compress and close the arterial tube. But in 
some wounds, a neighboring bone or other firm unyielding texture forms the best and 
readiest point of resistance against which to pin and compress the artery by the acupres. 
sure needle.” Surgeons now seldom use acupressure. 


ACUPUNCT'URE (Lat., puncturing or pricking with a needle [acus]) is a very ancient 
remedy, and one practiced extensively in the east, for the cure of headaches, lethargies, etc. 
In Europe it is principally employed to relieve neuralgic pains, and these of chronic 
rheumatism, Steel needles are made use of, about 3 in. long, and set in handles. The 
surgeon, by a rotatory movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the tissues, 
and leaves them there from a few minutes to an hour. Their insertion is accompanied 
by no pain, except the first prick—a fact the quacks of the 16th c. did not fail to take 
advantage of. According to Jerome Cardan, they traveled from place to place practicing 
A., and before inserting the needle, they rubbed it with a peculiar kind of magnet, either 
believing, or pretending, that this made the operation painless. The relief to pain 
afforded by this simple operation is sometimes astonishing, and the wounds are so minute 
as to be perfectly harmless.—The needles are sometimes used as conductors of the galvanic 
current to deep-seated parts, and are sometimes made hollow—on the suggestion of Dr. 
Alexander Wood of Edinburgh—to allow of a small quantity of some sedative solution 
being injected into the tissues, by which even the terrible pain of tic-douloureux may be 
almost immediately relieved. See NEURALGIA. 


ACUTE DISEASES. See DIsEASE. 


ADA, a co. in s.w. Idaho, on Snake river, near the Oregon border ; organized in 1864 ; 
2500 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 8368, Mining is the principal business. Co. seat, Boise city, 
which is the capital of the state. 


A'DA, at. of the Austrian empire, in Hungary, 8m. s, of Zenta. Pop., 11,100. 


ADAFU'DIA, a t. of the Felattah country, w. Africa, about 400 m. s.e. from Tim- 
buctoo, in about 13° 6’ n. lat., and 1° 3’ e. long. It is situated in a dry, healthy, and fer- 
tile plain, and is surrounded bya mud wail. Pop. supposed to be about 24,000. A large 
trade is carried on, and slaves form a principal part ot the merchandise. 


ADA'GIO, a slow movement or measure of time in music, between largo, grave, and 
andante. In our more extended compositions of instrumental or chamber music, the second 
or third movement is generally marked adagio, and serves as a contrast with the rapid and 
energetic movement of the preceding and following parts of the sonata or symphony. 
The A. must be written in a measure of time which will afford scope for a flowing and 
expressive slow melody with a gracefully varied accompaniment. Without contrasted 
movement and a lively variety in the accompaniment, the slow air would have a monoto- 
nous or dull effect. A clear and expressive execution of the A. is a sure test of ability 
and good taste in the player or singer, as it demands a pure and beautiful intonation, a 
true reading and phrasing of the cantilena, even in its most minute details, and a care- 
ful attention to all points of effect. The finest specimens of the A. are found in the works 
of the old masters, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, and are as distinct in their features as 


Gate: 84 


were the composers in their personal characteristics. In recent works, our composers 
have generally succeeded better in their rapid movements than in the A. 


ADAIR’, a co. in s.w. Iowa, on the head streams of Nodaway river ; 576 sq.m. ; pop. 
90, 14,534. The surface is mostly level; the chief productions are agricu.tural. Co. 
seat, Greenfield. 

ADAIR’, a co. in s. Kentucky; 400 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 13,721, with colored. The 
surface is hilly, with good timber and fertile soil; there is plenty of water power, with 
several factories ; chief products, corn and tobacco. Co. seat, Columbia. 

ADAIR’, a co. in n.e. Missouri, on Chariton river; 570 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 17,417, with 
colored. The chief products are corn and tobacco, Co. seat, Kirksville. 


ADAIR’, Sir RoBeRtT, 1763-1855 ; b. in London ; son of a sergeant-surgeon to George 
III. and a relative of Charles James Fox. He entered parliament in 1802 as a whig ; in 
1806 Fox sent him to Vienna, and in 1808 Canning sent him on a special mission to 
Turkey, where he concluded the treaty of the Dardanelles. He remained English repre- 
sentative in Turkey until 1811. In 1831 he was sent to the new kingdom of Belgium, 
and was prominent in later peace negotiations. In 1835 he retired with the rank of 
privy councilor. At the age of 82 he wrote memoirs of his residence at Vienna and 
elsewhere abroad. 


ADAL’ and ApreL. The name Adal is applied by geographers to the flat country lying 
between Abyssinia and the Red sea, from Massowah, in n. lat. 15° 40’, to the bay of 
Tajurra, lat. 11° 80’... Adel would seem to designate the coast-country from Tajurra to 
cape Guardafui, part of which is known as the country of the Somauli. 


AD’ALBERT, a French bishop and missionary to the German heathen, about the 
middle of the 8th ec. St. Boniface charged him with heresy in giving his own hair and 
nails as relics, and he was condemned to execution, but died in prison. His few dis- 
ciples were called Adalbertines. 


AD ALBERT, Saint, d. 997, ‘‘the apostle of the Prussians.”” He was educated at 
Magdeburg ; in 983 chosen bishop of Prague; failing to convert the Bohemians, he 
retired to a monastery near Rome; went back in 998, but again retired in discourage- 
ment ; in 995 he baptized the future St. Stephen, the first king of the Hungarians ; at 
last went as a missionary to Poland and Prussia, and was murdered by the natives. 


AD’ALBERT, d. 1072. He was made archbishop of Bremen in 1048 by Henry III., 
whom he accompanied to Rome, where he became a candidate for the papacy, barely 
missing the election. Leo IX. made him his legate in the north. During the minority 
of Henry [V., A. and Archbishop Hanno, of Cologne, usurped the administration of the 
empire, but he became obnoxious to the princes, and they succeeded in separating him 
from the emperor ; however, he soon after regained his influence and kept it as long as 
he lived. 


AD’ALBERT, HEINRICH WILHELM, 1811-73; b. Berlin; prince, and cousin of the 
emperor of Germany. He went into the artillery service in the army of Prussia when 
young, but having a taste for travel he visited most of the countries of Europe, and 
crossed the ocean to Brazil. In 1848 he was charged with organizing the German navy, 
and made admiral. In 1856 he made a voyage in the Mediterranean, and was slightly 
wounded in a fight with pirates off Morocco. He became commander of the marine of 
Prussia, and when the German empire was established was continued inspector-gen. of 
the new marine. He was under medium height and in no way conspicuous, unless for 
carelessness in dress ; but he was sharp withal, and jovial. In 1850 he made a morgan- 
atic marriage with Baroness von Barmin (Thérése, the dancer, and sister of Fanny 
Elssler). They had ason who died young. 


ADA'LIA, anciently Aftalia, the chief seaport on the s. coast of Asia Minor, inn. lat. 
36° 52’, e. long. 30° 45’. The streets rise like the seats of a theatre, up the slope of the 
hill behind the harbor. Pop. 13,000. 


ADAM (of Bremen), an old historical writer, whose work, entitled Gesta Hammenbur- 
gensis Keclesie Pontificum gives a history of the archbishopric of Hamburg from 788 a.p, 
to the death of the archbishop Adalbert in 1072. This work has great historical value; 
in addition to its notices of ecclesiastical affairs, it gives accounts of the northern Slavonie 
tribes, which the author collected during a visit to the Danish king Svend Estrithson. A. 
was canon and magister scholarum at Bremen from 1067 to the time of his death, which 
took place in 1076. 


ADAM, ADOLPHE CHARLES, composer, b. in Paris in 1803; d. there in 1856. In 
1817 he entered the conservatory, and studied composition under Boieldieu ; began 
writing piano fantasies and variations; wrote the operas of ‘‘ Pierre et Catherine ” in 
1829, and the ‘’ Postillon de Longjumeau,” in 1836, by which he is best known. His 
autobiography and souvenirs were published (Paris, 1860). See Adolphe Adam, sa vie, 
ete., by A. Pougin. 


A’DAM, AtBrecut, 1786-1862; d. Munich. He studied painting in Nuremberg, 
served in the Austrian campaigns against Napoleon, but subsequently served with 
Beauharnais, and painted the battle-scene of Lobau. He accompanied Eugéne in the 
campaign of 1812 as far as Moscow, and prepared drawings to illustrate Eugéne’s 


Adair, 
85 Adana 


military career ; painted several large war pictures—his last being the ‘‘ Battle of the 
Moskva,” for King Louis of Bavaria. 


ADAM, JmAN (1710-1765), was a Scotch poetess, who was born near Greenock, Scot- 
land. In her earlier life she was a teacher ; leaving that, after a time, she became a 
street vender, crying her wares on the street. She lived a joyless life, and died in the 
Glasgow poorhouse. She published a volume of religious poems in 1734. It is claimed 
for her that she is the author of ‘‘ There’s nae Luck aboot the House ;” but the quality 
of her poems does not seem to support the claim. 


ADAM, Mme. JutieTte. See LAMBER, JULIETTE. 


ADAM, RoBeERt, a distinguished architect, was born at Edinburgh in 1728. His father, 
William Adam, of Maryburgh, ia Fifeshire, was also an architect of no mean repute. 
After receiving a university education, Robert A. proceeded in 1754 to Italy, and thence 
to Dalmatia, where he devoted some time, in conjunction with Clerisseau, a French archi 
tect, to exploring and making drawings of the ruins of Diocletian’s palace at Spalatro. 
On his return to Britain he rapidly rose to distinction, was appointed architect to the 
king, and obtained extensive employment. The publication, in 1764, of the results of 
his labors at Spalatro, contributed to his reputation. # In opposition to the heavy style of 
architecture prevalent at the time, A. introduced a taste for lightness and decoration, 
which, however, tended to the opposite extreme of weakness and triviality. Those, how- 
ever, who form the lowest estimate of the general character of his designs, grant him the 
merit of having effected great reforms in British domestic architecture generally. In 1768 
A. was elected m.p. for the county of Kinross. During upwards of twenty-five years, his 
practice, in partnership with his brother James,was more extensive than that of any other 
architect of the time. In 1778, the brothers commenced to publish a series of engravings 
of their chief designs, which was continued for some years. Robert died in 1792, and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey. The most generally admired of his works is the 
register house, Edinburgh. Kedleston hall, near Derby, is regarded by some as his 
greatest work. Among his other principal works are the university buildings and St. 
George’s church, Edinburgh (both altered from the original design), the Glasgow infir- 
mary, the Adelphi buildings, London, the screen to the admiralty, Caen-wood house, 
Luton house (altered), Lansdowne house, etc. 


ADAMAN'TINE SPAR. See CorunDUM. 


ADAMANT. (Gr. a, neg., damao,T tame.) A term now used to express any substance 
of extraordinary hardness. The name was attached to a supposed stone, or mineral, as 
to the properties of which vague notions long prevailed. It was identified with the 
lodestone or magnet, and often used as synonymous with it by early writers. This 
confusion ceased with the 17th century, but the word, for a long time, had currency 
among scientific writers as a synonym with diamond. The use of the term to denote 
the lodestone seems to have been due to the early Latin medical writers, who apparently 
derived the word from the Latin adamare, ‘‘to have an attraction for.” 


ADAM and EVE. The narrative of the creation and fall of A. and E. is given in 
Genesis. To the scriptural account the later Jewish writers in the Talmud have made 
many tasteless additions. They tell us that the stature of A., when first created, reached to 
the heavens, while the splendor of his countenance surpassed that of the sun. The very 
angels stood in awe of him, and all creatures hastened to worship him. Then the 
Lord, in order to show the angels his power, caused a sleep to fall on A., and removed a 
portion of every limb. A. thus lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and complete. 
His first wife was Zilith, the mother of demons; but she fled from him, and afterwards 
E. was created for him, At the marriage of A. and E., angels were present, some play: 
ing on musical instruments, others serving up delicious viands; while the sun, moon, and 
stars danced together. ‘The happiness of the human pair excited envy among the angels, 
and the seraph Sammael tempted them and succeeded in leading them to their fall from 
innocence.—According to the Koran, all the angels paid homage to A., excepting Eblis, 
who, on account of his refusal, was expelled from paradise. To gratify his revenge, 
Eblis seduced A. and E., and they were separated. Adam was penitent, and lived ina 
tent on the site of the temple of Mecca, where he was instructed in the divine command- 
ments by the archangel Gabriel. After 200 years of separation, he again found E. on 
Mt. Arafat. Many other traditions of the Jews and the Mohammedans respecting A. 
ind E. may be found in Herbelot’s Bibliotheque Ortentale.—In the system of the Christian 
Gnostics and Manicheeans, A. is one of the highest zons.—According to the Calvinistic 
theology, A. was the covenant head or federal representative of the whole human race, who 
were thus involved in the consequences of his breach of the covenant (q.v.) which God 
made with him at his creation. This view is supported by reference to the parallel drawn 
between A. and Christ in Rom. v. and 1 Cor. xv., in the latter of which chapters Christ is 
called, in contradistinction to A., ‘‘the second man,” and ‘‘the last A.” 


ADAM pE LA HALLE, ApAamMauvRA, or ‘‘The Hunchback of Arras,” one of the 
wandering poets or trouvéres of the 18th ¢., b. in Arras Artois, about 1240, d. in Naples 
between 1285-’8. He was in the suite of count Robert of Artois in 1282, and Charles 
Anjou, whom he followed to Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Italy. A.’s works were 
superior to those of most of his contemporaries, and had enough of dramatic quality to 
secure for him a place among the founders of the drama in France. He had also much 
influence upon the formation of the French language, and his technical knowledge of 


Ad . 
Adams. 86 


music places him as a link between the déchanteurs and the early contrapuntists of the 
Flemish school. His compositions include chansons, motets, and his famous Rodin et 
Mariam. See Coussemaker’s @uvres conplétes du trouvere Adam de la Halle (Paris, 
1872), and Ambros’s Geschichte der Musik (vol. I1.). 


ADAMAW’A, the Mohammedan name of a country in central Africa, visited by Dr. 
Barth in 1851; in the British sphere of influence; on both sides of the upper Benue; 
capital, Yola, a city of 12,000 inhabitants. A. is a sub-kingdom, composed of a mix- 
ture of pagan tribes conquered by the Foolah chieftain Adama, who subdued the 
region when it was known as the kingdom of Fumbina. It is a fine country, well 
watered, generally flat, rising toward the s. to 1,500 ft. or more, with a few groups 
of mountains, which range from 3,000 to 9,000 ft. in height. It contains good graz- 
ing lands and is rich in cattle. Elephants are common; the ayu, an animal resem- 
bling a seal, lives in the rivers, feeding at night on the grass of their banks; and 
there is an indigenous ox, dark gray and less than three feet high. The standard of 
value is native cotton cloth 2} in. wide, length indicating price. It is under the pro- 
tectorate of the Royal Niger Company, which has a station at Yola, but it is governed 
directly by a native Foolah dynasty, which acknowledges the sway of the sultan 
of Sokoto. 

A'’DAMITES, a sect of fanatics who spread themselves in Bohemia and Moravia in 
the 15th and 16th c., but had no connection with the Hussites. One Picard is said 
to have been the founder of the sect about 1400. He styled himself Adam, the son 
of God, rejected the sacrament of the supper and the priesthood, and advocated the com- 
munity of women. After his death, his followers spread themselves in Bohemia under 
several leaders. They even fortified themselves on an island in a tributary of the Moldau, 
and committed depredations around. They were detested as much by the followers of 
Huss as by the Catholics. Ziska (q.v.) made war against them, and slew great numbers; 
but they were never entirely rooted out. Even as recently as 1849, when the Austrian 
government declared religious liberty for all its subjects, certain members of this sect 
appeared and endeavored to gain proselytes. The official investigation into their character 
which took place at that time represents their creed as a mixture of freethinking, quiet- 
ism, and communism. The members belong to the peasant or laboring class; and both men 
and women are generally industrious, temperate, and discreet in their ordinary course of 
life; but at their nightly meetings, at which they dispense with clothes, the utmost licen- 
tiousness is said to prevail.—As early as the 2d c., there was a sect of Gnostic tendency, 
called Adamites, who sought, by abstaining from all indulgence of the senses, to recall the 
state of innocence men were in before the fall. They therefore rejected marriage, and in 
order to exercise the virtue of continence went naked. They held that for those who 
had once attained the state of innocence all actions were alike indifferent—neither good 
nor evil, This doctrine led directly to the greatest licentiousness. Aberrations of this 
kind, under various disguises and modifications, have made their appearance from time 
to time in all ages of the world. 


ADAMNAN, Sarnt, a member of the early Irish church, to whom the world is deeply 
indebted for the information about that remarkable community which he left to posterity. 
His name was properly Adam, of which Adamnan is a diminutive. It is one of the 
peculiarities of that early church that the genealogies of its eminent members have been 
preserved with a minuteness scarcely rivaled in the days of peerages. He was born in 
the co. of Donegal about the year 625. In the words of Dr. Reeves: ‘‘ His father, 
Ronan, was sixth in descent from Conall Gulban, the head of one of the two great’ races 
of the northern Hy Neill, and in virtue of his birth claimed kin to St. Colomba and 
many of the sovereigns of Ireland. The father of Ronan was Tinne, from whom came the 
patronymic Ua Tinne, or grandson of Tinne, an appellative which is occasionally found 
coupled with A.’s name. Ronnat, the mother of A., was descended from Enna, son of 
Niall, whose race, the Cincl Enna, possessed themselves of the tract lying between the chan- 
nels of the Foyle and Swilly, which was called the Tir Enna, or land of Enna, and answers 
to the modern barony of Raphoe. He was, like many of the eminent Irish clergy, a states- 
man as well as an ecclesiastic, and we hear of his being sent on missions from his own peo- 
ple to Alfred, king of Northumbria. In the year 679, he was elected abbot of Iona. His 
rule over that community was not, however, destined to be peaceful and fortunate. The 
views held by the Irish church about the holding of Easter and the form of the tonsure 
are now pretty well known asa chapter in the history of the church. However little their 
own importance might be, they are significant as the object of a bitter contest in which that 
church resisted the rules promulgated from Rome. In his intercourse with the Saxon 
church, A. had adopted the Romish or orthodox views, as they are termed, and endeavored 
to put them in practice in his own community. He was thwarted in this object, and it is 
said that mortification at the failure caused his death. He d. in the year 704, on the 238d 
of Sept., which is the day of his translation in the calendar. He left behind him an account 
of the Holy Land, containing matters which he says were communicated by Arculfus, a 
French ecclesiastic who had lived in Jerusalem. It is valuable as the earliest information 
we possess of Palestine in the early ages of Christianity. But far more valuable is his Vita 
Sancti Columba, his life of St. Colomba, the converter of the Picts, and founder of Iona. 
Along with miracles and many other stories palpably incredible, this book reveals a great 


87 Aimee 


deal of distinctand minute matter concernin g the remarkable body to which both the author 
and his hero belonged: The standard edition of the book is that of Dr. Reeves, edited 
in 1857 for the Bannatyne society of Edinburgh, and the Irish archxlogical society which 
(with an English trans.) forms the 6th vol. (1875) of Scottish Historians. Nearly all the 
information to be had about the early Scoto-Irish church is comprised in that volume. 


ADAM’S APPLE (Lat., Pomum Adami). The projection seen nearly midway between 
the summit of the breast-bone and the base of the chin, in males particularly visible, 
but rarely observable in females, and then only late in life. The thyroid cartilage, the 
largest in the larynx, is itssource. Its name, ‘‘ Adam’s Apple,” is said to take its origin 
in the superstition that a portion of the apple given to our first parent stuck in his 
throat, and that the enlargement thus caused has been transmitted to the race. It is 
produced by the conjunction of the two quadrilateral plates of the larynx causing, by 
their union, an angle which projects forward. 

ADAMS, a co. of w. Illinois, on the Mississippi; 830 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 61, 888; drained 
by Bear and McKee’s creeks; the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the Wabash, St. 
Louis and Pacific railroads pass through the co. Co. seat, Quincy. 


ADAMS, a co. ine. Indiana, bordering on Ohio; 330 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 20,181. It is 
watered by the Wabash and St. Mary’s rivers; mostly wooded; surface level and pro- 
ductive. Co. seat, Decatur. 


ADAMS, aco. ins. w. Iowa, on the Nodaway river, and the Burlington and Missouri 
River railroad; 432 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 12,292. Itis an agricultural region. Co. seat, Corning. 

ADAMS, a co. in s.w. Mississippi, on the M. river ; 400 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 26,081, with 
colored. ‘The land is highly productive. Co. seat, Natchez. 


ADAMS, a co. in s. Nebraska, bounded n. by the Platte, and drained by the Little 
Blue river. Area, 552 sq.m. The white population in 1870 was but 19 ; 1890, 24,303. 


Co. seat, Hastings. 


ADAMS, a co. in s.w. Ohio, on the O. river; 488 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 26,098. It is 
hilly, fertile, and adapted to fruit, timber, and sheep raising. Co. seat, West Union. 


ADAMS, a co. in Pennsylvania, on the Maryland border ; 535 sq.m.; pop. 90, 33,486. 
South mountain is on its northern border, and the co. is mostly uneven. Copper mines 
have been worked with some advantage, and there are marble quarries. Co. seat, 
Gettysburg, which has railroad communication to the e. and n. 


ADAMS. a co. in s. eastern Washington, organized in 1883 ; 50 m. long, 30 m. wide. 
The land is well adapted to grazing and farming, and for vegetables and small fruits. 
Area, 1908 sq.m. Pop. ’90, 2098. County seat, Ritzville. 


ADAMS, a co. in central Wisconsin, on the W. river ; 690 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 6889. The 
surface shows chiefly forest and timber land, with abundant water power. Co. seat, 
Friendship. | 

ADAMS, a t. in Berkshire co., Mass., on the Hoosac river and the Pittsfield and North 
Adams branch of the Boston and Albany railroad ; pop. ’90, 9213. In the t. is Greylock 
mountain, 3505 ft., highest in Mass. The w. end of the Hoosac tunnel is 5 miles north 
at North Adams, which was formerly part of Adams, and is now accessible by an elec- 
tric road. The chief business is manufacturing cotton goods, paper, lumber, and build- 
ing materials. There are churches, high and graded public schools, national banks, 
Eye, 

ADAMS, CHARLES BAKER; b. Mass., 1814, d. St. Thomas, 1853. He graduated at 
Amherst and was a naturalist ; assisted Prof. Hitchcock in geological survey of N. Y. ; 
became tutor at Amherst, 1836; professor of chemistry and natural history in Middlebury 
college, Vt., 1888-47; professor at Amherst from 1847 till his death. In 1845-7 he was 
engaged in the geological survey of Vt. He went several times to the West Indies; wrote 
on conchology, and with assistance of Prof. Gray, of Brooklyn, published an elementary 
work on geology. 

ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS, LL.D., 1807-86 ; b. Boston; son of John Q. He passed 
ten years in Europe with his father, and learned Russian, German and French. In 1817 
he entered the Boston Latin school; graduated at Harvard: college in 1825; studied law 
with Daniel Webster, and was admitted in 1828, but did not go into practice. In 1829, 
married a daughter of Peter C. Brooks, and became a brother-in-law of Edward Everett. 
In 1831 he was sent to State legislature, serving three years in the house and two in the 
senate. In 1848, candidate for vice-president with ex-Pres. Van Buren on the freesoil 
ticket. In 1858, elected to congress; supported Lincoln with public addresses, in company 
with Wm. H. Seward. In 1861, appointed minister to England, and managed American 
affairs through the crisis of the war with much success. In 1871 he was one of the arbi- 
tratorsfor the U. 8. at Geneva. In 1872 he entered with great earnestness into the Liberal 
Republican movement, and was a formidable rival for the presidential nomination against 
Horace Greeley who finally received it. In 1876 he was the Democratic candidate for goy- 
ernor of Mass., but was defeated. Mr. A. wrote much for the North American Review 
the Christian Hxaminer, and the press generally ; but his main work was the biography 
of his grandfather, and editing the writings of both grandfather and father. 


Adams. ) 88 


ADAMS, Cnar_eEs Francis, jr., b. Boston, May 27, 1835; son of preceding. He grad. 
uated from Harvard, 1856, and was admitted to the bar in 1858; served with ability in 
the civil war, commanding a regiment of colored men, and was mustered out with brevet 
rank of brig.-gen. Identified with railroad development and arbitration, he became, 
1884, president of the Union Pacific railway. He published zhree Hpisodes in Massa- 


chusetts History (1891). 


ADAMS, CHar.LEs KENDALL, LL.D., b. Vermont, 1835 ; removed to Iowa, 1855 ; was 
graduated at the University of Michigan (1861), and became assistant professor of history 
in 1863, full professor, 1868. He followed the German method of instruction in history, 
and in 1869-70 established an historical seminary which proved of great value in pro- 
moting the study of history and political science. In 1881 he was made Non-Resident ° 
Professor of History at Cornell University, where he succeeded to the presidency on 
the resignation of President White in 1885. Among his works are, Democracy and Mon- 
archy in France (1874); Manual of Historical Literature (1882); and Manual of Histor- 
ical Literature (1889). He resigned the presidency of Cornell in 1892; and became 
President of the Univ. of Wisconsin. He has edited Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia. 


ADAMS, Epwin, b. Mass., 1834, d. Philadelphia, 1877 ; an American actor. He first 
appeared at the Boston National Theatre, Aug. 29, 1858, as Stephen in ‘‘ The Hunch- 
back ;” went through the country, acting Hamlet, in 1860; was with Kate Bateman, 
Henry Placide, and Jas. W. Wallack at N. Y. Winter Garden in 1860; reappeared in 
N. Y., in 1866, as Robert Landry in ‘‘ The Dead Heart ;” was in the company when Booth’s 
Theatre opened, Feb. 8, 1867, and played Mercutio and Hnoch Arden in that house. 


ADAMS, HANNAH, b. Mass., 1755, d. 1832; one of the earliest American female 
writers; author of Views on Religious Opinions, 1184; History of New Englund, 1799; Lvi- 
dences of Christianity, 1801; History of the Jews, 1812; all of which brought fame, but little 
money. Hers was the first body buried in Mt. Auburn cemetery. 


ADAMS, Henry, historian, b. in Boston, Mass. 1838; third son of Charles Francis 
Adams. His chief work, The History of the United States, 1801-1817 (9 vols. 1889-91), is a 
thorough and able treatise highly esteemed by historical scholars. Among his other 
works are the lives of Albert Gallatin and John Randolph, historical essays and a col- 
lection of Documents relating to New England Federalisin, 1800-1815 (1877). 

ADAMS, Henry CARTER; economist, b. in Davenport, Ia., in 1852. He was professor 
in the University of Michigan, statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commission and 
special agent of the 11th census, in charge of the department of transportation. His 
publications, besides the annual reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission (1889- 
91), include an Outline of Lectures on Political Economy (1881-86); Taxation in the United 
States 1789-1816 (1884) Public Debts and Relation of the States to Industrial Action (1887); 
Relation of American Municipalities to Quasi-Public Works, and Philanthropical and Social 
Progress (1893), 

ADAMS, Herbert BAXTER, historian, b. 1850, associate professor in John Hopkins 
University in 1883 and university professor in 1891. He has been active in the work of 
university extension, has edited the valuable series of Studies in Historical and Political 
Science of Johns Hopkins University, and written among other works Maryland’s Influence 
wn founding a National Commonwealth, and Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, 


ADAMS, Joun, the second president of the United States, was born, Oct. 19, 1738, 
in Braintree, Mass., in that part of the town now forming the town of Quincy. He was 
the great-grandson of Henry Adams, a Puritan, who emigrated from England to Massachu- 
setts about 1640. His father was a deacon of the church and selectman, a farmer of small 
means and a shoemaker, but he gave John a good education at Harvard, whence he went 
to Worcester and took charge of aschoo]. He wasambitious, and only lacked influence to 
get into the army ; then he thought of divinity, but the confusion and wrangling of sects 
dismayed him, so he settled on law. In 1764 he married Abigail Smith, daughter of the 
ininister at Weymouth, and a person above his social position. She proved a good wife 
and mother and made his home happy. Soon after marriage he went into politics with 
other opponents of the stamp act and parliamentary oppression. He was selected as one 
of the counsel of the town of Boston, the others being Jeremiah Gridley, the head of the 
bar, and James Otis, the famous orator. They were to present to the governor and 
council a memorial asking that courts might proceed with business though no stamped 
paper was to be had. As junior, Adams opened the business, taking the bold stand that 
the stamp act was void because parliament had no right to tax the colonies. The repeal 
of the act soon after ended the matter. About this time he began to write on ‘‘ Taxa- 
tion” in the Boston Gazette, and some of his articles were reprinted in a London paper. 
In 1768 he moved to Boston, and two years later was elected to the general court, though 
at the time he was retained to defend Capt. Preston in the Boston massacre affair, 
who was acquitted in spite of the great prejudice existing. In the general court he began 
to be a leader of the patriot party, and though he soon resigned was consulted upon all 
important matters by Governor Hutchinson. About this time he wrote articles on the 
independence of the judiciary and the payment of the salaries of judges by the crown. The 
destruction of the tea brought on the crisis and produced the congress of 1774, of which 


89 


Adams. 


A. was one of the five Massachusetts members. There he took active part in the discus- 
sion of colonial independence, and when a declaration was agreed upon he was chosen to 
put the resolutions in shape. Returning home he was chosen to the provincial congress, 
then in session, which had substantially declared war by appointing a committee of 
safety, seizing the provincial revenues, appointing general officers, collecting stores and 
beginning to form anarmy. After the adjournment of this congress his pen was again 
at work and the ‘‘ Novanglus” articles appeared in anwer to pro-British papers signed 
‘*Massachusettensis.”” This work was interrupted by the battle of Lexington, and A. 
hurried to the congress in Philadelphia, which body soon became the chief authority in 
the colonies. Adams was satisfied that reconciliation was impossible, though a majority 
in congress thought differently. The siege of Boston had begun, and Adams claims 
that he first suggested Washington for the chief command in order to secure the active 
help of the Virginia delegates ; but he insisted that Gen. Artemus Ward should be second, 
which place the Virginians wanted for Lee; Lee was made third in rank. While absent 
from congress some of his correspondence was made public, in which he spoke very 
freely of his colleagues, especially John Dickinson, who, with some others, became his 
personal enemy for life. He was a hard worker in congress, chiefly in committees; was 
on the naval committee, and his rules then written are the basis of our present naval 
code. Late in 1775 he was appointed chief justice of Mass., but never took the seat, 
resigning the next year. In congress freedom was slowly gaining ground; A. was in 
favor of the adoption of self-government by each of the colonies, then a confederation, 
and then treaties with foreign powers. May 18, 1776, he carried the first proposition, 
and the others naturally followed. <A resolution by Robt. H. Lee offered under instruc. 
tions of the Virginia convention, that the ‘‘ colonies are by right and ought to be free and 
independent,” was warmly supported by A. and carried by seven states to six. A. was 
put on the committee on the declaration and on foreign affairs, and was chairman of the 
congressional board of war, in fact the war department, where he gave the hardest labor 
for 18 months, and almost alone created such a war department as we had; and in this 
and other work he gained the reputation of ‘‘the clearest head and firmest heart of any 
man in congress.” Near the close of 1777 he was appointed commissioner to France to 
supersede Silas Deane. The French alliance was already made, and Franklin commis- 
sioned as ambassador. A. came home in 1779 in the ship with our first minister from a 
foreign power. He was made a member of the Mass. constitutional convention, but 
was immediately appointed minister to Great Britain to treat for peace, and returned to 
Europe in the same frigate that had brought himhome. Soon after arrival in London he 
went to Holland to negotiate a loan, and was made minister to that country while there. 
He secured a loan of $2,000,000. After peace, with which he had much to do, he was 
sent as minister to England, and arrived in London in May, 1785. He was civilly but 
coldly received, and his situation was anything but agreeable; so, at his request, he was 
recalled in 1788. While in England he prepared his Defense of the American Constitu- 
tion, a work which subjected him to the charge of anti-republican and even monarchical 
tendencies. Under the newly organized federal government he became vice-president, 
and gave probably more casting votes in the senate than all vice-presidents since, giving 
about twenty, nearly all to support Washington’s policy or on some important organic 
law. Up to this time A. and Jefferson had generally agreed, but differing views of the 
French revolution separated them widely—A. vehemently denouncing that outbreak as a 
great evil. The strife became so warm that when the second presidential election came 
on, the friends of Jefferson nominated George Clinton for vice-president against A., but 
failed to defeat him. With Washington, A. heartily supported the plan of neutrality, 
while the Jeffersonians were eager for discriminations against England. Washington 
declined a candidacy for a third term, and then, came our first partisan contest for presi- 
dent; Adams, Hamilton, Jay, Jefferson, and Thomas Pinckney were more or less in the 
field. In the electoral college A. barely prevailed, having 71 votes to 68 for Jeffer- 
son; (as the law was then the electors voted for two men without designating the office, 
the highest vote made the president, and the next highest the vice-president). A. 
charged Hamilton with dividing the vote of the north and east, and that, with other con- 
temporaneous troubles, broke up the federal party. Our French relations were in a crit- 
ical state when A. took the chair; our minister, James Monroe, had disregarded his 
instructions and led us into difficulty with the wily Talleyrand, and the exposure of this 
entanglement aroused a strong anti-French feeling and revived the old federal party; but 
some unlucky appointments by A., such as Vans Murray for minister to France, soon 
checked this resurrection. When the new commission reached France, Bonaparte was 
in power, and there was no further difficulty. When the election of 1800 came on, the 
federal party was only in fragments; the republicans (soon to be democrats) were strong 
and growing rapidly under such skillful leaders as Jefferson and Burr, A. was still pop- 
ular with the people, but his opponents loaded him down with the French troubles, the 
alien and sedition laws, and many sins of which he was not guilty; his private corre- 
spondence was exposed, and to all, as in Washington’s case, was added the charge that he 
selected his cabinet under British influence. There was no choice of president by the 
people’s election: Jefferson had 73 votes, Burr 73, Adams 65, Pinckney 64. After many 
ballots the house of representatives chose Jefferson for president and Burr for vice- 
president, and on the day of inauguration John Adams left office without waiting to see 


Adams. 90 


his opponent take the chair. Hehad no intercourse with his successful rival for thirteen 
years. A. at once quitted public life; he had been frugal and was not without estate, and 
his home was happy, until the death of his second son; his hope, however, was in his son 
John Quincy, whom he desired to see seated in the presidential chair. Few men have 
fallen so suddenly from high political importance to zero; in the last year of his term he 
received and wrote letters by thousands; the next year he received hardly a hundred. He 
lost the favor and got the spite of both parties. He was bitterly assailed long after he left 
office, and his misdeeds were even used in the campaign against his son in 1824. But 
though his official utterances were stopped, his pen was busy. He defended himself in the 
newspapers, and brought to light many important historical facts. After Jefferson left 
public life he and A. were reconciled and corresponded during the remainder of their lives, 
both dying on the same day, the day ofall in which they might desire to go—July 4, 
1826, the semi-centennial anniversary of the declaration of independence in which both 
had taken deep personal interest. When A. was in his 86th year he was chosen a dele- 
gate to the convention to revise the Mass. constitution, and did much to bring about a 
modification of sections respecting religion and support of churches, for with years he 
had grown liberal, even ahead of his time. In person he was above medium height, 
with a stout, well-knit frame, growing corpulent with age; large head, wide and expan- 
sive brow; a mild and even humorous eye; general aspect grave and imposing; he 
delighted in society and conversation and was a good talker; affections warm but not 
particularly demonstrative; anger viclent and soon cooled, and without malevolence; 
impatient of cant and of opposition to his well-established views. 


ADAMS, Jonn, the assumed name of Alexander Smith, one of the mutineers of the 
English ship ‘‘ Bounty ;” b. London, 1760 (?), d. Pitcairn Island, Mar. 29, 1829. Nine 
months after the mutiny A. and his sailors, with some men and women from Tahiti, 
landed on Pitcairn Island and formed a government, of which he was the head. In 1800 
he was the only surviving Englishman. He established worship and such a school as 
was possible. In 1808, Capt. Folger, an American, landed there and brought the world 
the first news of this strange settlement. A. had not heard a word from civilized coun- 
tries in 20 years. England never sought to punish him, and he died in peace, leaving a 
prosperous and religious people. See Prrcarrn ISLAND. 


ADAMS, JOHN, LL.D., 1772-1863 ; teacher and philosopher. He graduated at Yale 
1795; was principal of two or three academies; went to Ill., where he introduced valu- 
able modifications in school laws, and organized many Sunday-schools. He wrote on 
educating and training the young. 


ADAMS, JoHN Coucu, discoverer, simultaneously with Le Verrier, of the planet Nep- 
tune, was born near Launceston in Cornwall, 1819. He early manifested an aptitude for 
mathematics; and after the usual amount of school-training, he was sent to St. John’s 
college, Cambridge, where he attained the honor of senior wrangler, and became a mathe- 
matical tutor. In 1841, he undertook to find out the cause of the irregularities in the 
motion of Uranus, anticipating, indeed, his cwn and Le Verrier’s discovery—namely, 
that they are due to the influence of an unknown planet. Le Verrier did not commence 
his researches till the summer of 1845; but on the 10th Nov. published the results of his 
calculations, demonstrating the existence of an unknown planet, declaring it to be the 
cause of the known disturbance, and assigning to it almost the same place as A. had done 
in a paper which he left with the astronomer royal at Greenwich observatory in the 
previous Oct., but which he neglected to publish. Le Verrier has thus acquired, naturally, 
the whole honor of the discovery ; but the merit of A. is not less. The researches of the 
latter commenced earlier; his discovery, too, was earlier; and it was only unfortunate for 
the reputation of the young astronomer that he omitted to publish the results he had 
obtained. The council of the royal astronomical society showed that they appreciated 
the value of A.’s labors, by awarding equal honors to both. In 1858, A. was appointed to 
the chair of mathematics in St. Andrews, which, however, he vacated within a few months, 
on being nominated to the professorship of astronomy, Cambridge. He died in 1892, 


ADAMS, JoHNn Quincy,-the sixth president of the U. 8. of North America, and son of 
the second president, was born in Mass., July 11,1767. In his boyhood he accompanied 
his father on an embassy to Europe, and passed a considerable part of his youth in Paris, at 
the Hague. and lastly in London. Under the advantages secured while with his father 
abroad, John Quincy became one of the best educated men of his time. He graduated 
from Harvard in 1788, and studied law with Theophilus Parsons three years ; was admitted 
to the bar in 1791, and mixed law practice with writing for the newspapers, especially 
discussing French neutrality and Tom Paine’s Rights of Man. In 1794 Washington 
appointed him minister at the Hague; in 1797 he married the daughter of Joshua 
Johnson, formerly a merchant at Nantes. On Washington’s written advice, president 
Adams appointed him minister to Berlin, where he learned German and translated 
Wieland’s Oberon, but did not publish it, because Sotheby’s translation just then 
appeared. Jefferson recalled him, and in 1802 he was a member of the Mass. legislature. 
When only 36 years of age he was elected senator in congress, but soon afterwards 
resigned. In 1806 he was professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres in Harvard. About 
this time may be noted the first appearance of the sectional ideas which culminated in 
the late civil war of 1861-5. During a visit to Washington, A. had a conference 


91 Adams, 


with Jefferson in which he charged a portion of the federal leaders with a design of dis- 
solving the union and establishing a separate northern confederacy. This charge was 
often repeated, and for a dozen years it seriously affected the administration of the goy- 
ernment, reducing the statesmen of New England to a position of much less weight and 
influence in public affairs than they were entitled to or had enjoyed, and very probably 
restricting Mr. A. to his one term of the presidency. This idea was said to have orig- 
inated with certain federal members of congress because of the acquisition of Louisiana, 
and the threatened destruction, by additions of southern and southwestern territory, of 
the political influence of the n. ande. A. said that these members of congress were to 
have a meeting in Boston, at which Alex. Hamilton would be present, though he did not 
approve of their ideas. In 1809 Madison sent A. as minister to Russia, and during his 
residence there he was made associate justice of the U. 8. supreme court, but declined the 
honor. In Russia he had much influence, inducing the emperor to offer himself as 
mediator between our country and Great Britain. In 1813 he was, with Henry Clay, 
Albert Gallatin, and Jonathan Russell,a commissioner to negotiate peace with Great 
Britain, which was effected at Ghent after six months’ work, and signed Dec. 24, 1814. 
The next spring A. was made minister to England, and was there until Monroe called 
him home to be secretary of state, in which position he had important work in defending 
Gen. Jackson’s conduct in Fla. against Spain, in the Miranda expedition, and in the ques- 
tion of the La. boundary, in which the Sabine river was accepted asa compromise. Near 
the end of Monroe’s first term the strife between slavery and freedom began on the occa- 
sion of the bill admitting Missouri, sent to Monroe for his signature. He submitted two 
questions to his cabinet: 1. Has congress constitutional power to prohibit slavery in a 
territory? 2. Was the term ‘‘forever”’ in the prohibitive clause forever absolutely, or 
only during the territorial condition of the country specified? On the first question all 
the cabinet voted yea; on the second A. thought ‘‘forever’ covered state as well as 
territorial condition, but all the others held the other view. To harmonize matters, Cal- 
houn suggested the broader question, ‘‘Is the proviso as it stands in the bill constitu- 
tional?” And on this all voted yea. In 1824, Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay, all 
democrats, were candidates for president. In the college the vote was 99 for Jackson, 
84 for Adams, 41 for Crawford, and 37 for Clay. In the house A. was chosen, as it was 
charged, by the influence of Clay, whom he made secretary of state. As soon as A. was 
in office all the other factions of the democracy united against him and in favor of Jack- 
son; both houses of congress were against him for the latter part of his term, and he was 
assailed with the most unscrupulous and vindictive bitterness. For his second term he 
got only 83 votes to 178 for Jackson. He retired to Quincy, but not to idleness. A long 
political life had closed; a shorter and more important one was about to open. <A new 
party, the anti-masons, sent him to congress, and his district kept him there for seven- 
teen years, during which he was almost ever at his post and always at work. In 1834 
he was a candidate for governor of Mass., but was defeated by John Davis, who not long 
after beat him for U. 8. senator. Free from all parties and cliques, A. became the peo- 
ple’s champion, especially as to the right of petition, which the southern congressmen 
were ever anxious to restrict. Everybody soon knew that though he might oppose the 
purpose sought, A. would promptly present any respectful petition. This was fully 
tested in 1837, when*he astonished everybody by presenting a petition from actual slaves: 
and compelled its reception, notwithstanding the uproar which it created. By degrees 
he gravitated towards the abolitionists. Though not identified as one of them, he was 
always the champion of the right of petition. He secured the repeal of the notorious 
gag rule; he defended the slave mutineers of the Amistad, and was ready, anywhere and 
everywhere, to stand up for free speech. On the 26th Nov., 1846, when leaving Boston 
to take his seat in congress, he had an attack of paralysis, and was kept away four months; 
after that he was at his post, but seldom spoke. Onthe 2ist of Feb.,1848, came a second 
attack, while he was in his seat in the house; he was taken to the speaker’s private room, 
and d. on the second day after, his last intelligible words being, ‘‘ This is the last of 
earth; Iam content.” Like his father, he was a Unitarian in his religious views, though 
not extreme ; also, like his father, he kept voluminous diaries and journals. See Memoirs 
of A. edited by Charles F, A. (12 vols.) ; also Morse’s Life of A. (Boston, 1882). 


ADAMS, Joun Quincy, 2d, b. Boston, 1883; son of Charles Francis; graduate of 
Harvard. He was admitted to the bar in 1855; was on Gov. Andrew’s staff in the civil 
war ; in 1866 a representative in the legislature ; in 1867 democratic candidate for gov- 
ernor, and defeated. In 1869-70 he was in the legislature ; in 1871 he was an unsuccess- 
ful candidate for governor and representative. In 1872 was nominated for vice-presi- 
dent with Chas. O’Conor for president, by democrats who would not support Horace 
Greeley ; but O’Conor peremptorily refused, and A. would not stand without him. 
He made many able and elaborate speeches. He died Aug. 14, 1894. 


ADAMS, NEHEMIAH, D.D., 1806-78 ; a graduate of Harvard, and student of divinity 
at Andover. In 1829 he was settled over the First Congregational church in Cambridge, 
and in 18384 over the Union Congregational church in Essex st., Boston; author of Re- 
marks on the Unitarian belief, The Friends of Christ in the New Testament, Life of John 
Eliot, Christ as a Friend, and other religious books. After a winter in Georgia for the 
benefit of his health, where he lived with a rich planter, he wrote A South-side View of 
Slavery, praising its effect upon the religious character of the negroes. The work brought 


Adams, 
Adansonia. 99 


upon him severe animadversion. In 1869-70 he made a voyage around the world. As 
a writer he was greatly admired for the finish and delicacy of his style. 


ADAMS, SAMUEL, one of the leading men of the American revolution, was born at 
Boston, Mass., Sept. 27, 1722, belonged to a wealthy family, and, like John Adams, 
second president of the United States, was descended from Henry Adams, a Puritan emi- 
erant. He fitted for college at the Boston Latin school, and entered Harvard in 1736, 
His father, Captain Samuel Adams, hoped that he would enter the Congregational min- 
istry, but the young student had no such inclinations, and on leaving college in 1740 
entered a law-office. The law proving distasteful, Adams next entered a counting- 
house, where his industry was greater than his business ability and soon became a 
merchant himself, but failed. Subsequently he became a partner with his father in a 
brewery, and failed after the latter’s death. When a candidate for the degree of A.M. 
at Harvard college, he had maintained in his thesis the affirmative of the question ; 
Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth cannot be 
otherwise preserved ? 

A taste for politics was gratified about 1750 by his appointment as tax-collector of 
Boston. When the paper money question became prominent in the colony he was con- 
spicuous, and soon became an advocate for the people against parliamentary authority. 
Through him, under instructions of the town of Boston, was heard, in May, 1764, the 
first protest from America against lord Grenville’s plan for taxing the colonies. 

The patriotic party sent him as a representative to the general court, and during his 
nine years of service he acted as clerk, and drew up most of the papers. He is thus de- 
scribed in John Adams’s diary: ‘‘ Adams is zealous, ardent, and keen in the cause ; is 
always for softness, delicacy, and prudence, when they will do ; but is stanch and stiff 
and strict and rigid and inflexible in the cause.” While he was engaged in politics his 
wife (Elizabeth Checkley) supported the family. She died in 1757, and in 1764 he 
married Elizabeth Wells. He was spokesman of a committee to demand the removal of 
the troops after the Boston massacre, and by his boldness effected the purpose. Adams 
was a member of the first congress, and at first was conciliatory ; yet he signed the 
declaration of independence, and no one did more to effect the separation from England, 
as General Gage testified, when he excepted only ‘‘Jobn Hancock and Sam Adams” 
from an offer of pardon. 

Adams did not like the federal constitution, but Hancock persuaded him to support 
it in the Massachusetts convention, though he proposed several amendments, some of 
which were adopted. He took an active part in framing the constitution of Massachu- 
setts, and was for several years president of the senate of that state. He held the office 
of its lieutenant-sovernor from i789 to 1794, and of governor from that time till 1797. 
He then retired from public life, and died at Boston, Oct. 2, 1802, poor as he had lived. 
A.’s character was one of great courage and determination. He was conservative in re- 
ligion, being a strict Calvinist, yet without bigotry. {n political matters he was, at times, 
narrow-minded. He was prejudiced against Washington, whose conduct of the war and 
his ignorance of military matters led him to think weak and dilatory ; and the confidence 
reposed in Washington, as first president of the republic, seemed to Adams to savor of 
aristocracy. In home politics he inclined toward Jeffersonian views, and the French 
revolution was warmly approved by him. He is described as of usual size, muscular, 
with light blue eyes, fair complexion, erect and dignified, wearing a tie wig, cocked 
hat, and red cloak. He was poor till near the end of his life, when by the death of his 
son, a surgeon in the revolution, he received enough to live upon. He was the author 
of many state papers and political newspaper articles ; but an oration said to have been 
spoken by him in Philadelphia, Aug. 1, 1776, and printed in London, is reckoned spuri- 
ous. In this oration the English are called ‘‘a nation of shopkeepers,”’ an epithet which 
was quickly adopted by the first Napoleon. Adams left only a daughter, and none 
of his blood now bear the name. See Wells’s Life and Public Services of Samuel A. 
(1865). 


ADAMS, Tuomas, an English preacher in the early part of the 17th c., called b 
Southey ‘‘the prose Shakespeare of Puritan theologians.” He was minister at Wil- 
lington, Wingrave, and London, and ‘‘observant chaplain” to Sir Henry Montague, the 
lord chief justice. He wrote Heaven and Earth Reconciled, The Devil’s Banquet, and 
other works, and a great number of his sermons were printed. A. was a Puritan 
within the church of England, as distinguished from the non-conformist Puritans who 
left the church. Jeremy Taylor did not surpass him in brilliance of fancies, nor 
Thomas Fuller in wit. 


ADAMS, WILLIAM, D.D., b. Conn., 1807; son of John, tu.p. He graduated from 
Yale in 1827; studied theology at Andover and was ordained a Congregational minister. 
In 1834 he left his parish in Brighton, Mass., and took charge of the Central (now Madi- 
son square) Presbyterian church, in N. Y., where he continued more than forty years. 
Dr. Adams, renowned as a pulpit orator, was greatly prominent in many works of 
charity and usefulness. He was moderator of the general assembly of 1852, and took 
an active part in securing union between the old and new school parties in his church. 
Dr. A. published several sermons, addresses, and other works. He was elected pro 


7) 


8) B Adams. 
Adansonia- 


fessor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in the N. Y. University, but declined the 
position. Having resigned his pastorate in 1873, he became the President of the Union 
Theological Seminary (Presbyterian) in the city of N. Y. Hed. 1880. 


ADAMS, WILLIAM DAVENPORT, b. Brixton, Surrey, Eng., abt. 1850; son of W. H. 
D. A.; is well known as a journalist and as the editor of the Dictionary of English Lit- 
erature (1877), and of several collections of poetry. 


ADAMS, WILLIAM HENRY DAVENPORT, b. 1829: an English littérateur; began his 
life as a journalist, but of late years has almost wholly devoted himself to book-making. 
He has translated or adapted many works from the French of Figuier, Mangin, and 
Michelet, and compiled, written, or edited over a hundred volumes. 


ADAMS, WiLu1Am T. (Oliver Optic), b. Mass., 1822; a writer of works for the young; 
editor of Oliver Optic’s Magazne for Boys and Gir/s, and also a magazine and general 
writer. Hed. 1897. 


ADAM’S BRIDGE, a chain of shoals extending across the gulf of Manaar, between 
Ceylon and the peninsula of Hindustan. It forms a great obstruction to vessels proceed- 
ing through the channel. 


ADAMSON, Parrick, a Scottish prelate, and one of the most learned writers of his 
time ; was born in Perth in 1543. He was graduated from the University of St. An- 
drews, and went abroad as tutor in 1566. On the birth of James, son of Mary Queen of 
Scots, he wrote a Latin poem, in which he spoke of the young prince as king of France 
and England. This so offended the French court that he was arrested and imprisoned 
for six months, and was only released on the intercession of Queen Mary and some of 
the principal nobility. After his release he returned to his duties as tutor, and narrowly 
escaped death shortly after, during the massacre of Paris. He lived in concealment for 
seven months, during which time he wrote a poetical version of the Book of Job, and 
the tragedy of Herod, both in Latin. In 1573 he returned to Scotland and became min- 
ister at Paisley. On the death of Archbishop Douglas he was appointed Archbishop of 
St. Andrews, which brought him into continual trouble and discredit, and finally to 
great poverty and affliction. He died in 1592. 

ADAM’S PEAK, the name given by Mohammedans, and after them by Europeans, to 
a mountain summit in thes. of Ceylon 7420 ft. high (not, however, the highest of the 
group). The native name is Samanhela. The cone forming the summit is a naked mass 
of granite, terminating in a narrow platform, in the middle of which is a hollow, 5 ft. 
long, having a rude resemblance to a human footstep. Mohammedan tradition makes 
this the scene of Adam’s penitence, after his expulsion from paradise; he stood 1000 
years on one foot, and hence the mark. To the Buddhists, the impression is the s7?- 
pada, or sacred footmark, left by Buddha on his departure from Ceylon; while the Hin- 
dus claim it as the footprint of their god Siva. Over the sacred spot stands a wooden 
canopy, and multitudes of devotees, Buddhist, Hindu, and Mohammedan, frequent it. 


ADAN’A, a Turkish vilayet or province in the s.e. of Asia Minor, derives its name 
from its chief city Adana, containing 45,000 inhabitants. The city. is distant almost 
30 m. from Tarsus, on the way to Aleppo, commands the pass of the Taurus mountains, 
and carries on a considerable trade between Syria and Asia Minor. Pompey peopled 
the territory of Adana with pirates, The Syrian kings made the place a city, under the 
name of Axntiochia ad Sarum, and on the ruins of Antiochia the caliph Haroun er 
Rashid Inult Adana. The present inhabitants are mostly Turks, mixed with some 
Greeks on:! Armenians. 

AD ANSON, MicHe., a celebrated French botanist, b. at Aix, April 7, 1727. He soon 
left the clerical profession, for which he was educated, and devoted himself to the study 
of natural history. In his early career he entertained the ambition of superseding the 
Linnean system by a clearer and more comprehensive method of arrangement. When 
about twenty-one years old he went to Senegal in Africa, and, fearless of the unwhole- 
some climate, stayed there five years, afterwards returning to France with a large 
collection of specimens in natural history. Soon after his return, he laid before the 
French East India company his plan of a colony on the African coast, in which all colo- 
nial produce was to be raised without slave-labor. But his plan was neglected. He 
published, in 1757, his Histovre Naturelle du Sénegal, and, in 1768, his Hamilles des 
Plantes, in which he endeavored to give a new form to botany; but he could not pre- 
vail against the established Linnean system. His next undertaking was one on a vast 
scale—nothing less than a complete encyclopedia, for which he hoped to gain the pat- 
ronage of Louis XY. and the Academy ; but though his bold plan was regarded with ad- 
miration, he received little substantial encouragement. This, however, did not check 
his enthusiasm; he proceeded with the work until he exhausted his means. During the 
revolution he fell into very indigent circumstances. When invited to become a mem- 
ber of the National Institute,he answered that he was unable to attend for want of a 

air of shoes. Afterwards he received a pension, and until the time of his death, Aug. 
, 1806, he was earnestly devoted to the prosecution of his plan, too vast to be carried 
out by an individual. : 


ADANSO'NIA, a genus of the natural order sterculiacew (q.v.), sub-order bombace, 
named by Linneus in honor of the botanist Adanson (q.v.), and distinguished by a 


Ada tation. 
‘Addon 94 


simple deciduous calyx, a very long style, with numerous stigmas and a woody capsule 
containing a farinaceous pulp. The only known species, A. dagitala, the baobab, alvo 
called the monkey-bread tree, is a native of the tropical parts of w. Africa, but now in- 
troduced into the e. and w. Indies. It is the largest known tree—not indeed rising to a 
very great height, but exceeding all other trees in the thickness of its trunk (20 to 30 ft.). 
Even its branches (60 to 70 ft. long) are often as thick as the stems of large trees, and they 
form a hemispherical head of 120 to 150 ft. in diameter; their outermost boughs drooping to 
the ground. The leaves are digitate or 7-fid; the flowers are white and extremely large, 
on drooping peduncles of a yard inlength, The fruit (monkey-bread) is of the size of a 
citron. The bruised leaves (/alo) are mixed with the daily food of the inhabitants of 
tropical Africa; and Europeans in that country employ them as a remedy for diarrhea, 
fevers and diseases of the urinary organs. The pulp of the fruit, which is slightly acid 
and pleasant to the taste, is eaten with or without sugar; and the expressed juice mixed 
with sugar is much esteemed as a beverage, being very refreshing, effectual in quench- 
ing thirst, and regarded as a specific in putrid and pestilential fevers. The bark is said 
to be powerfully febrifugal. 


ADAPTATION, in biology, is the process by which an organism becomes modified to 
suit the conditions of its life. very change in a living organism involves A.; for in all 
cases life develops itself in a continuous adjustment of internal to external relations. 
But the term usually implies such modifications as arise during the life of an individual, 
when an external change directly induces some change of function and structure. All 
A. is limited, since an organism can vary from its congenital structure only to a certain 
limited extent. 


A'DAR, the twelfth month of the ecclesiastical and the sixth month of the civil 
Jewish year; according to the rabbins, from the new moon of Feb. to the new moon of 
March. On the 7th of A. comes the fast for the death of Moses; the 18th is called the 
fast of Esther, and by common usage is a festival in memory of the death of Nicanor. 
On the 14th and 15th occurs the important feast of Purim. 


ADDA, the Latin Addua, a river of Lombardy, rising in the Rhetian Alps above 
Bormio. It flows into the lake of Como; issuing from which below Lecco, it traverses 
the plain of Lombardy in a direction s.s.e., passing Lodi and Pizzighetone, and falls into 
the Po about 8 m. above Cremona. It formerly bounded the republic of Venice and the 
duchy of Milan. 


ADDAX. See ANTELOPE. 


ADDER, a common English name of the viper (q.v.), but also often more vaguely 
used for poisonous serpents of the family vipertde. Where the name occurs in the 
authorized version of the scriptures, it appears to be always in this vague sense; although 
the terms in the same places of the original may probably be more precise. A very ven- 
omous serpent of New South Wales (acanthopis tortor) is sometimes called the death or 
black adder. See illus., ANTELOPES, ETC., vol. I. 


ADDINGTON, a co. in the province of Ontario, Canada, near the e. end of lake Ontario; 
2000 sq. m.; pop. 91, 24,151. It is drained by the Napanee river and has several small lakes. 
Principal industries are lumbering, wool-growing and Gdairyiny. Chief town, Napanee. 


ADDINGTON, Henry (lord Sidmouth), 1757-1844 ; son of Dr. Addington, who was 
physician to the earl of Chatham, by reason of which the son became playmate and 
friend of the younger Pitt, who induced him to enter parliament in 1784. In 1789 he 
was elected speaker of the commons. When Pitt resigned he took the place of chan- 
cellor of the exchequer and formed a new ministry, but met so much opposition that he 
resigned in 1804, whereupon the king made him viscount Sidmouth. He was home 
secretary in 1812, and retired in 1824. 


ADDISCOMBE, See CADET. 


ADDISON, a co. in Vermont, on lake Champlain, drained by Otter creek and inter- 
sected by the Centra] Vermont railroad ; 734 sq.m. ; pop. 90, 22,277, The w. part 
is flat, and the e. mountainous: the soil is fertile, and there are manufactures of cotton, 
wool and paper, and marble quarries. Co. seat, Middlebury, 


ADDISON, Josrepu, the son of an eminent clergyman of the church of England, was 
b. at Milston, near Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the ist May, 1672. After a preliminary 
education at various schools, he entered the university of Oxford when only fifteen 
years of age, where he greatly distinguished himself, especially by the facility with 
which he wrote Latin verse. He was originally intended for the church, but various 
circumstances conspired to draw him aside into literature and politics; the principal of 
which were his acquaintance with Dryden, who honored the young poet with his patron- 
age, and his intimacy with lord Somers, whose favor he gained by dedicating a poem 
to him on one of king William’s campaigns. In 1699 he received a pension of £300 a year, 
and then set out on a continental tour. While in France he perfected himseif in the 
language of the country. On the outbreak of the Spanish war of succession he departed 
to Italy, where he penned his charming Letter to lord Halifax. Towards the end of 
1703, he returned home by way of Switzerland and Germany; but his expectations of a 


9 ~ Adaptation, 
9) Addison, 


‘*place” were disappointed, for the whigs were out of office. The battle of Blenheim, 
however, which occurred in the next year, presented a brilliant opportunity to him, 
which he did not fail to make the most of. The ministry wished the victory commemo- 
rated in verse, and A. was appointed to do it. Lord Godolphin, the treasurer, was so 
excessively delighted with the first half of the triumphal poem, that before the rest was 
finished he made A. acommissioner of appeals. The poet was now fairly involved in 
politics. He accompanied Halifax to Hanover, became under-secretary of state in 1706, 
and in 1709 went to Ireland in the capacity of secretary to the lord-lieutenant, where he 
also obtained the office of keeper of the records, worth £300 a year. In the same year 
his friend Steele commenced The Tatler, to which A. soon became a frequent contribu: 
tor. He also wrote a number of political articles in the Whig Hxaminer. On the 1st of Mar. 
1711, appeared The Spectator, the most popular and elegant miscellany in English litera- 
ture. With an interruption from 6th Dec., 1712, to 15th June, 1714, during part of which 
time The Guardian, asimilar periodical, took its place, The Spectator was continued to 20th 
Dec., 1714. A.’s fame is inseparably associated with this periodical. The quality of his 
genius is now determined by it rather than by the artificial rhetoric of his Cuto. He was 
the animating spirit of the magazine, and by far the most exquisite essays which 
appeared in it are by him. In 17138 appeared The Tragedy of Cato, the popularity of 
which, considering its total want of dramatic power, was amazing. It was generally 
understood to have a political as well as a poetical inspiration; but so prudently had A. 
expressed himself, that both parties, whig and tory, received its frigid declamation with 
rapture. It was translated into various European languages; and even the monarch of 
French criticism, Voltaire, held Shakespeare a barbarian in tragedy compared with our 
author. ‘‘All the laurels of Europe,” says Thackeray, ‘‘ were scarcely sufficient for the 
author of this ‘ prodigious’ poem.” Every one in England praised it except Dennis. A. 
was called the ‘‘ great Mr. A.” after that wonderful night in the theater, when, as Pope 
says, ‘‘ the numerous and violent claps of the whig party on the one side were echoed 
back by the tories on the other.” This enthusiasm was a delusion which time has effec- 
tually dispelled. In 1716, A. married the dowager-countess of Warwick, and in the fol- 
lowing year was appointed secretary of state. For neither of his new situations was he 
at all suited. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, in a letter to Pope, expressed her fear 
that ‘‘a day might come when he would be heartily glad to resign both.” He was so 
extremely timid and awkward in large companies that it was out of the question for him 
to attempt debating in parliament—a thing indispensable to one in his position. Hecon- 
sequently resigned in 1718. Then as to the other matter, Dr. Johnson sarcastically 
remarks that ‘‘ the lady was persuaded to marry him on terms much like those on which 
a Turkish princess is espoused—to whom the sultan is reported to pronounce: ‘ Daugh- 
ter, I give thee this man for thy slave.’”’ No one can doubt that this marriage was a mis. 
take on thepartof A. His health had been for some time in a very precarious state; and 
at length, after an illness of a few months, he died at Holland House, Kensington, on the 
17th June, 1719, in the 48th vear of his age, three years after what Thackeray calls ‘‘ his 
splendid but dismal union.” <A. had appointed Mr. Tickell his literary executor, who 
published his works shortly after in 4 vols. quarto. Besides those to which we have inci- 
dentally alluded, he wrote A Treatise on the Usefulness of Ancien’ Medals, Especially in 
Relation to the Latin and Greek Poets, which, however, excited little interest. He also 
left an unfinished work on The Evidences of the Christian Religion. But the most deiight- 
ful and original of all his productions is that series of sketches in The Spectator of which 
Sir Roger de Coverley is the central figure, and Sir Andrew Freeport and Will Honey- 
comb the side ones. Sir Roger himself is an absolute creation; the gentle yet vivid 
imagination, the gay and cheerful spirit of humor. the keen, shrewd observation, and 
fine raillery of foibles which A. has displayed in this felicitous characterization, render it 
a work of pure genius. But A. in prose is always excellent. He has given a delicacy 
to English sentiment and a modesty to English wit which it never knew before. Ele- 
gance, which in his predecessors had been the companion of immorality, now appeared 
as the advocate of virtue. Every grace was enlisted in the cause of a benign and beauti- 
ful piety. His style, too, is perfect after its fashion. There are many nobler and 
grander forms of expression in English literature than A.’s, but there are none compar- 
able to it in sweetness, propriety and natural dignity. ‘‘ Whoever wishes,” says Dr, 
Johnson, ‘‘to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not osten- 
tatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of A.” His various writings, but 
especially his essays, fully realized the purpose which he constantly had in view, ‘‘to 
enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality.” They materially helped 
to reform the manners of their time, and created, in adcition that class of readers, 
which has now become so prodigious in numbers, and on which all literature now depends 
for its support—the middle class. It must, however, be admitted that since the begin- 
ning of the present c. their popularity has undergone a considerable decline. The chief 
cause of this is that much in them relates to temporary fashions, vices, rudenesses and 
absurdities which are now out of date. Yet, after making every abatement, it is certain 
that there are in the collected works of A. so many admirably written essays on subjects 
of abiding interest and importance, on characters, virtues, vices and manners, which will 
checker society while the human race endures, that a judicious selection can never fail 
to present indescribable charms to the man of taste, piety, philanthropy and refinement. 


adfena: 
VRPT 96 


ADDRESS, Forms or. See Forms oF ADDRESS. 


AD ELAAR, Corp SIVERTSEN, one of the greatest naval commanders of the 17th c., 
was b. at Brevig, in .Worway, in 1622, and in his 20th year was employed in the naval 
service of Venice against the Turks. On one occasion he broke through a line of 67 
Turkish gaileys which surrounded his ship, sunk 15, and burned several others. Fred- 
eric III., by the offer of the then unheardof salary of $7200 per annum, engaged him 
as admiral of the Danish fleet; and, in 1675, under Christian V., he took the command of 
the whole of the Danish naval force against Sweden, but died suddenly at Copenhagen 
before the expedition set out. 


ADELAIDE, the capital of the colony of South Australia, is situated on the Torrens, 
7m. from Port Adelaide, with which it is connected by railway. The first settlement 
was made in 1836, and the survey of the town lands was completed in 1837. The Tor- 
rens, which is spanned by several bridges, divides the town into North and South Ade- 
laide. The streets of A. are broad and regularly laid out, especially in A. proper, to the 
s. of the river, where they all cross each other at right angles. Among the public build- 
ings are the post-office, the government offices, the governor’s house, and the town-hall. 
It is the seat of an Episcopal and of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has an unusual num- 
ber of churches; a university, three colleges, and a botanical garden, covering 124 
acres of ground. The t. is surrounded by a belt of permanently reserved land, half a 
mile in width, called the park lands, and beyond this are the suburbs. A. is abundantly 
supplied with water from two reservoirs 6 or 7 m. distant. The chief manufactures are 
woolen, leather, iron and earthenware goods. Its port (Port Adelaide) has a safe and 
commodious harbor. Pop. 1894, about 140,000. 

AD'ELAIDE, Eucénre Lovisn, 1777-1847 ; princess of Orleans and sister of Louis 
Philippe. During the revolution she was in England, and on her return in 1792 found 
herself proscribed as an émigrée. She went to the Netherlands for the protection of her 
brother, but he was compelled to flee. In 1793 she rejoined him in Switzerland, accom- 
panied by Madame de Genlis, her former governess, but having spent their money they 
took refuge in a convent. Ten years later she met her brother in Spain, and was with 


him until the restoration, using her influence to induce him to accept the crown. She 
died two months before his fall. 


AD'ELAIDE, SarnT, b. about 933, d. 999; queen of Italy and empress of Germany, 
daughter of Rudolph IT. of Burgundy. She was married to Lothaire II., son of Hugo, 
king of Italy; after Lothaire’s death his successor imprisoned her because she would not 
marry his deformed son, but she escaped and was protected by Otho the Great, who mar 
ried her, and crowned her empress of the west in 962. During his reign she exercised 
much influence in Germany, and also over her son, who succeeded him, and over her 
grandson during his minority. She was called ‘‘the mother of kingdoms,” and. was 
regarded as a saint, though not in the calendar, her day being Dec. 16. 


AD'ELSBERG, a district and market t.in Carniola, in the vicinity of which is a large 
stalactite cavern called the A. grotto, through which flows a rapid stream. This cavern, 
the largest in Europe, is divided into the old and the new grotto: the former is 858 ft. 
in length; the latter, 8550 ft. in length, contains some most remarkable stalactites, 


among which is ‘‘ the curtain” (vorhang), a white semi-transparent wall. Thet. of A. is 
22 m.n.e. of Trieste. 


ADELUNG, FRIEDRICH von, 1768-1843; a German philologist. He was tutor of 
the sons of emperor Alexander of Russia, Nicholas (afterwards czar), and Michael; also 
a councilor of state. He wrote The Relations between the Sanscrit and the Russian Law 
guages, and An Essay on the Sanserit Literature and Language. 


_ ADELUNG, Jou. Curisropn, a distinguished linguist and lexicographer, was b. 1782, 
in Pomerania, and d. 1806, at Dresden, where he had held the office of chief librarian. 
His chief works are his Worterbuch der Hochdeutschen Mundart (dictionary of high Ger- 
man), in which he took Dr. Johnson as his model; and his Mithridates oder aligemeine 
Sprachenkunde, a work on general philology. 

A'DEN, a peninsula and t. on the s.w. coast of Arabia. The most southern promon- 
tory of the peninsula, cape Aden, is in n. lat. 12° 47', and e. long. 45° 9’. This penin- 
sula, the area of which is 18 to 20 sq.m., is doubtless of volcanic origin, and consists chiefly 
of a range of hilis not exceeding 1776 ft. in height. It is joined to the mainland by a 
narrow, level and sandy isthmus. In a valley which forms the crater of a submarine 
volcano, stands the t. of A., which is also named from the neighboring promontory, Bab- 
el-Mandeb, or the gate of Mandeb. It was styled by the native Arabs Aden or Eden 
(paradise), on account of its fine climate and great commerce, for which it was cele- 
brated from the oldest times. It enjoys almost perpetual sunshine; a cloudy day is of 
rare occurrence; the heat is pleasantly tempered by the sea-breezes; and the inhabit- 
ants are generally healthy. Pliny the Elder seems to have known the native name of the 
place, for which he writes ‘‘Athana.” It was also known by the name of ‘“‘ Emporium 
Romanum.” Up to the time of the circumnavigation of Africa, A., so favorably situ- 
ated at the entrance of the Red sea, was the chief mart of all Asiatic produce and manu- 
factures, and even the Chinese traded here. Marco Polo and other voyagers of the 
middle ages told wonders of the riches and splendor of the place. In the course of time, 
however, it was reduced to a small village, which in i838 contained only about 600 


Add ° 
97 Address. 


inhabitants, including some 250 Jewsand about 50 Indian merchants. The Anglo-Indian 
overnment had long been on the outlook for a speedy route by steam from India to 

urope. The explorations on the river Euphrates afforded no satisfactory results, and 
ultimately the old commercial route by the Red sea was chosen. This, of course, gave 
to the shores and harbors of that sea a new importance, and the English soon saw the 
advantages of a position like that of A. About this time, a British vessel suffered ship- 
wreck off the coast of A., where the passengers were plundered and in other ways ill 
treated by the natives. A vessel was therefore dispatched from Bombay, in 1888, to 
compel the sultan of the country to make restitution, and also to learn on what terms 
the Arabs would be willing to cede A. to the English. Capt. Haynes, by fair promises, 
succeeded in gaining a cession of the country from the sultan, a weak and covetous old 
man. Afterwards, fearing the displeasure of some neighboring tribes, and partly moved 
by the suggestions of religious sheiks, the sultan repented of the transaction, but was 
held to his contract by force of arms; and on Jan. 11, 1839, after a few hours’ contest, 
A. fell into the hands of the British. Here they have now a strong garrison and fortifi- 
cations. In its medieval prosperity, A. had had a magnificent system of cisterns for 
collecting the rain-water from the circle of hills that surrounds it. Who built them is 
unknown; but it is conjectured that they had been begun about the 6th or 7the. They 
had been allowed to fall into disuse, and were filled with rubbish, and in ruins; but 
recently a considerable number have been excavated and restored by the British govern- 
ment. A. is of great importance from a mercantile and nautical point of view, having 
a position between Asia and Africa like that of Gibraltar between Europe and 
Africa. The population and resources of the place have rapidly increased since 
1838, and the opening of the Suez canal in 1869 gave it a great impetus. ‘The values 
of its imports and of its exports amount yearly to several millions of pounds. It 
had (91) a population of 42,000, gathered from every nation under heaven. Aden 
” n telegraphic station on the cable between Suez and Bombay, laid down in 


ADENITIS and ANGEIOLEUCI'TIS are the terms employed in medicine to indicate 
inflammation of the lymphatic glands and inflammation of the lymphatic vessels respec- 
tively. In most instances of inflammation in the absorbent or lymphatic system, the 
vessels and glands are simultaneously involved. Although there is plenty of evidence, 
from the examination of the dead body, that inflammation of the lymphatics may occur 
internally, it is only observed in the living subject in connection with the skin or an 
ulcerated surface. The disease usually originates in an open wound of almost any form, 
as a puncture, a cut, or a blister. This wound is directly infected by some morbid mat- 
ter, as, for example, some local inflammatory product, such as the putrid secretion of a 
sore; but more commonly by some irritating or poisonous matter from without, or some 
gaseous matter. The inflammation that is thus set up in the lymphatics always extends 
upwards from the wound, and may be traced by lines of redness following the course of 
these vessels, and not of the veins, and terminating where the inflamed vessels enter a 
gland. In the arm, for example, they never pass the armpit, in which the axillary glands 
lie. The tenderness along these inflamed tracts is excessive, and extends to the next 
gland, which appears to arrest the further progress of the poisoned lymph, by becoming 
itself inflamed. The degree of inflammation of the gland may vary from slight enlarge- 
ment with tenderness on pressure, to profuse suppuration. The suppuration may not 
take place till a week or more after the inflammation of the vessels has subsided, and may 
excite no rigors or other constitutional symptoms; and a patient may be quite uncon. 
scious that there is anything serious the matter with him, when half a pint or more of 
matter may be collecting in and around a gland in the armpit. The constitutional symp- 
toms attending an attack of acute inflammation of the lymphatic vessels (angeioleucitis) 
are often severe, and are thus summed up by Mr. Moore in his essay ‘‘ On Diseases of 
the Absorbent System” in Holmes’s System of Surgery: ‘‘Rigors, nausea and vomiting, 
heat of skin, thirst, dryness and coating of the tongue, with constipation, sleeplessness, 
and a feeling of languor, are usually the severest accompaniments of the disease. If the 
fever be typhoid, if there be profuse fetid sweats, severe muscular pains, high excitement, 
or dry burning heat of the skin, and marked delirium, the poison is no longer limited 
within the lymphatic channels, but has infiltrated the cellular tissues, and has tainted the 
blood. As the inflammation subsides, a cutaneous eruption or fetid discharge from the 
bowels comes on, and the general symptoms become those of exhaustion.” 

The following observations on the treatment of inflamed absorbents are mainly taken 
from Mr. Moore’sessay. Many of the ordinary duties of life perpetually expose manual 
laborers and others to this painful affection. In the way of prevention, the practice of 
smearing the hands with oil or grease before touching noxious fluids, is found to prevent 
the mischief which might arise from absorption by a cut or sore, and is a useful precau- 
tion in dissection and in post-mortem examinations; and there can be no doubt that the 
timely application of a layer of collodion or of court-plaster might avert many attacks 
of inflamed absorbents. When symptoms of this form of inflammation supervene, the 
wound should be thoroughly cleansed, by being laid more open, if all its parts are not 
freely exposed, and then put under a.stream of water, syringed, or soaked in a hot bath, 
as May seem most suitable. If recent or punctured, it should be sucked, and then freely 

at 


, 


Adenocele, 
Adipose. 98 


touched with a pencil of nitrate of silver. If flabby, it should be treated with a stimur 
lating lotion of sulphate of zinc or of copper; if fetid, it should be wrapped in a solution 
of Condy’s fluid, or in chlorinated lotions; and if sloughy, it should be covered with Peru: 
vian balsam and a poultice of linseed meal, charcoal, or yeast. A warm poultice of one of 
these kinds, frequently changed, is usually the most soothing application. At the same 
time, nitrate of silver should be two or three times drawn along the red tender lines indi- 
cating the course of the lymphatics, after which the arm should be enveloped in cotton- 
wool; and perfect rest in a comfortable position enjoined. Due attention must at the 
same time be paid to the general condition of the system, and especially to the condition 
of the intestinal secretions. 


ADENOCELE (Gr. adéné, a gland, and kéé, a tumor) is the term now employed in 
surgery to indicate a kind ofnew growth in the female breast, the tissue of which closely 
resembles the breast-tissue itself. It is synonymous with the terms ‘‘ chronic mammary 
tumor,” ‘‘ pancreatic sarcoma,” ‘‘mammary glandular tumor,” ‘‘ hydatid disease of the 
breast,” ‘‘serocystic sarcoma,” etc. The diversity of names indicates the diversity of the 
outward forms seen in these growths. See Tumors. 


ADER'NO (ancient Adranum), a t. of Sicily, 17m. n.w. from Catania. It is situated 
at the base of Mt. Etna, close to the Simeto, on which are some remarkable cascades 
near the town. It is surrounded by walls, is a very clean town, and is full of convents 
and nunneries, mostly founded by the Normans, so that bare walls of lava and grated 
windows appear everywhere, and the sound of bells is almost incessantly heard. Pop. 
about 16,000. 


AD'ERSBACH ROCKS, a remarkable labyrinthine group of sandstone rocks situated 
near the village of Adersbach, in Bohemia. The aspect of some parts of the group has 
been compared to that of a city ruined by aconflagration. One of the pinnacles rises to 
a height of 218 ft. The structure of the rocks has been produced, not by any commotion 
of the earth, but by the influences of rain, frost, and other atmospheric changes, wearing 
down the soft sandstone into many fantastic forms. During the thirty years’ war, the 
miserable people of Bohemia often found refuge in this locality. 


ADESSENARIANS (Lat., adesse, to be present), persons holding that there is a real 
presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but denying that this presence is effected by tran- 
substantiation. This sect existed in the sixteenth century. Their doctrine was a form 
of impanation (q.v.), viz., ‘‘ Non adesse in Eucharistia humanum seu carneum Christi 
corpus sumptum ex B. Virgine Matre sed corpus panacewm assumptum a verbo.” 


ADES'TE FIDE'LES, known as the ‘‘ Portuguese Hymn,” because the duke of Leeds, 
who first heard it in the Portuguese chapel, mistook it for a portion of the service. It. 
was composed by the author of ‘‘ Dulce Domum.” 


ADET, PIERRE AuGusTE, 1763-1832 ; a French politician and chemist, He was sent 
in 1795 as minister to the U.S., where he presented a tricolored flag to congress on 
behalf of the French nation. He also delivered the decree in which France complained 
that the U.S. treaty with England had violated neutrality, after which he published a 
flaming manifesto to the people and went back, or was recalled, to France, where, in 1809, 
he was a member of the deputies. He published Hlements of Chemistry. 


ADHE'SION is the species of attraction that is manifested between two separate bodies 
when their surfaces are brought to a considerable extent into close contact. It is nearly 
allied to cohesion (q.v.). A. is seen in the case of two solid bodies when their polished 
surfaces are laid on one another; but it acts more powerfully between solids and fluids, 
owing to their intimate contact. We have instances of this in the film of water adherin 
to any body dipped in that fluid, and in water running down the side of an incline 
vessel from which it is being poured. All solids and liquids do not exhibit this mutual 
attraction. Thus, though bright metals are wetted by mercury, glass and wood are not ; 
nor does water adhere to fat. Capillary action (q.v.) is a special manifestation of A. 
—The A. of gases to the surface of solids is described by Liebig as playing an important. . 
part in many processes. A more or less condensed atmosphere of gases surrounds every 
body, and every particle of a powdered or porous body; and gases, such as oxygen, have 
in this condition an intensified chemical action. Platinum in the state ef powder con- 
denses 800 times its volume of oxygen; and when hydrogen comes in contact with the 
oxygen in this state, the two gases combine, though, when free, they require the applica-. 
tion of flame before they will combine. 

ADHE'SION, in pathology, is when two surfaces of a living body become united. 
If they have been separated by the cut of a sharp instrument, and are immediately and 
accurately placed in apposition to each other, they may adhere at once without any 
apparent bond of union. But, generally, the blood-vessels of the part pour out, between 
the surfaces, a fluid, consisting of the watery part of the blood holding fibrine in solution. 
The liquid part of this is reabsorbed or escapes from the wound, leaving the fibrine, in ° 
which first cells are developed, and then blood-vessels: it is now a living tissue, and 
forms a uniting medium between the sides of the wound. 

Serous membranes, as the pleura, pour out this fluid when inflamed; and hence the 
adhesions so often the result of pleurisies.—If two granulating (see GRANULATIONS): 
surfaces be kept in contact, the opposite granulations may fuse together, and the wound 
unite by secondary adhesion, 


99 Adenocele, 
Adipose, 


ADHE’SION, in botany, means the union of parts in a plant which are separate in other 
plants, or in the younger states of the same plant. What we are accustomed to consider 
parts of different nature only seem so in consequence of the way in which A. occurs. A 
leaf is said to be stem-clasping when its base partially surrounds the stem; while a stem 
which seems to pierce through the leaf is said to be perfoliate; but they differ only in 
this, that in the former the lobes at the base of the leaf embrace the stem without adher- 
ing, while in the latter they not only clasp the stem, but grow together where their 
margins come in contact. The leaves of the pitcher plant, formerly thought to be special 
organs without analogy, are known to be leaves so rolled up that their margins have 
touched and adhered. Other leaves, growing from opposite sides of the stem, adhere 
because their bases are connate, as in the honeysuckle; and yet others grow in a whorl, 
or all round a stem upon the same plane, and adhere at their margins, forming a sheath 
in the calyx. All the sepals are often distinct, as in the buttercup; but they also often 
adhere by their edge and form a cup, as in the cherry. In the corolla the petals are 
either all separate, as in the rose, or adhere by their edges, as in heaths. In the rose, the 
stamens are all distinct from each other; in the geranium they slightly adhere at the base; 
in the mallow they adhere in a partial tube; in other plants they grow into a com- 
plete tube. Certain parts of the pistil are called carpels, each of which is a hollow body 
terminated by a stigma. These carpels are hollow, because they are formed of a flat 
organ doubled up so that its edges come in contact and adhere. Sometimes only one 
carpel is present, as in the cherry; sometimes several, as in the rose. In the nicella the 
styles of the carpels are all distinct; in the lily and the myrtle the styles adhere so com- 
pletely that there seems to be but one. In the apple the calyx seems to grow from 
the top of the fruit. This is because the carpels adhere to the inside of the calyx, which 
grows with the fruit, and leaves its extremities in a withered state near the top of the 
carpels. In the cherry no A. takes place between the carpels and the calyx; and, con- 
sequently, when the fruit is ripe there is no trace of the calyx upon the upper end of the 
drupe. In the raspberry the fruit slips like a thimble from the receptacle, because the 
carpels all adhere by their sides. 


ADIAN’TUM. See MAmENHAIR. 


ADIAPH’ORISTS, the name given to Melanchthon and those who agreed with him 
in submitting, in things indifferent, to an imperial edict. When, in 1548, Charles V. 
issued an edict called the interim, refating to disputed religious doctrines, the Protestants 
became involved in a controversy in which this name originated. 


ADIGE, after the Po, the most important river in Italy, rises in the Rhetian Alps. 
Various streamlets descend from these mountains, and, uniting at Glarus, form the 
Etsch, which is, properly speaking, the beginning of the A., and the name by which tne 
entire river is known in Germany. From Glarus it flows e. into the Tyrol; then, after a 
slight détowr to the s.e., it flows due s., past Trent and Roveredo, into Lombardy, and, 
passing Verona, takes a s.e. sweep, discharging its waters into the Adriatic, between the 
mouths of the Poand the Brenta. In ancient times (when it was called the Athesis), it had 
a more northerly embouchure. It is very rapid, and subject to sudden swellings and 
overflowings, which cause great damage to the surrounding country. The two most 
remarkable inundations on record are those which occurred in 1721 and 1724. During 
the Italian wars its banks were repeatedly the scenes of bloody engagements. Its length 
is about 250 m.; its breadth in the plain of Lombardy, 650 ft.; its depth, from 10 to 16 
ft. It is navigable as far as Branzollin the Tyrol, but the navigation is difficult on 
account of the swiftness of the current. The A. is a transit river for the trade of Ger- 
many and Italy. 


A'DIPIC ACID C,H.(COOH), is a dibasic acid of the oxalic series, having the general 
formula C,Hon-20,; and is obtained in the form of white, opaque, hemispherical nodules 
(which are probably aggregations of small crystals), by the oxidizing action of nitric 
acid on oleic acid, suet, spermaceti, and other fatty bodies. The name is derived from 
the Latin adeps, fat, and must not be confounded with that of a similar acid of the same 
group, known as sebacie acid. 

ADIPOCE’RE (Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a substance resembling a mixture of fat 
and wax, and resulting from the decomposition of animal bodies in moist places or under 
water. Human bodies have been found, on disinterment, reduced to this state. Lean 
beef kept under running water for three weeks, was found reduced to a fatty substance. 
A piece of a liver that has suffered what is called fatty degeneration, if immersed for 
some time in water, is said to become exactly like adipocere. 


ADIPOSE SUBSTANCES are fatty matters—stearine, margarine, and oleine being the 
most notable—present in some degree in most animal and in some vegetable organ- 
isms. They consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, combined in varied proportions; 
they crystallize at low and are fluid at high temperatures; are combustible; are insoluble 
in water, but soluble in each other, in ether, alcohol, naphtha, bisulphide of carbon, ete. 
They differ in their atomic construction, and in the temperatures at which they solidify; 
pure stearine is solid at 140° F., while oleine is fluid to near the freezing point of water. 
Stearine is most abundant in hard fats, as tallow; oleine in the more fluid fats or oils. 
These substances, combined with glycerine (q.v.), exist in adipose tissue, microscopic in 
the cells of the liver and of some cartilages, in the substance of the brain and nerves, in 
marrow, in chyle, milk, and the yolk of eggs, A healthy appetite craves a certain 


A Svenrk. 100 


amount of fat-producing food, furnished either by the animal tissues which contain it, or 
from vegetable sources, as nuts, olives, Indian corn, and other seeds. The larger propor- 
tion of fats is formed in the processes of digestion from the starch and sugar of the food 
consumed by men and animals. 


AD'IPOSE TISSUE is a peculiar kind of animal membrane or tissue, consisting of an 
aggregation of minute spherical pouches or vesicles filled with fat or 
oil. The tissue itself is organic and vital, the vesicles secreting the 
fatty matter from the capillary blood-vessels with which they are 
, surrounded ; the secreted product—the fat—is inorganic, and is de- 
void of vitality. The A. T. differs from cellular or filamentous 
tissue in having the vesicles closed, so that the fat does not escape 
even when fluid. A dropsical effusion, which infiltrates the fila- 
mentous tissues, does not affect the A. T. There is a considerable 
layer of A. T. immediately under the skin; also around the large 
ApIposE Tissuz, vessels and nerves, in the omentum and mesentery, around the 
safes te kidneys, joints, etc. See Fars, ANIMAL. 


ADIRONDACKS, a cluster of mountains in northern N. Y., terminating in the Cats- 
kills. The largest number and the highest peaks are in Essex co. Mt. Marcy, 5379 ft., 
is exceeded in this part of the country only by Mt. Washington. The A. cover about 
24° of lat. and 14° of long., the general direction being from n.n.e. to s.s.w. The peaks 
are conical, the slopes abrupt, and the scenery is wild and grand. The rivers Saranac 
and Ausable flow from them, n.e., and the Hudson, Cedar and Boreas to the s. In the 
tract are many ponds and lakes; Racquette Lake, very irregular in outline, being the 
largest. Some of these lakes are 1700 ft. above sealevel. The A. region once abounded 
in caribou, moose, deer, bear, panther, beaver, otter, and smaller game, and is now 
famous for salmon, trout, pike, and other game fish. Caribou are gone, and moose 
nearly so, but it is still a favorite hunting country. Of late years the A. region has been 
a popular summer resort for those who desire life in camp, or wild scenery. There is 
little agriculture, but a large business in lumber, white pine being the most important. 
Magnetic iron ore has been worked, but abandoned because of the cost of transportation 
to market. In 1892 the state of New York set apart an area of 2,807,760 acres for a 
public park under the management of officers appointed by the State Forest Com- 
mission. The main object in this arrangement was to protect the watersheds and pre- 
serve the forests, See NEw YORK. 


ADIT, a nearly horizontal passage opened for the purpose of draining a mine; it 
serves incidentally to explore the rock through which it passes; when filled with water, 
often used as a canal by which the products of the mine may be transported. Water 
raised from a depth greater than that reached by the A. is discharged through it, saving 
tue cost of raising still farther to the top of the shaft. An A. opens in Cornwall at the 
level of the sea, and extends inland about 30 m., draining the district of Gwennap. It 
meets some shafts at the depth of 400 ft. The ‘‘ Ernest August” adit in the Hartz, com- 
pleted in 1864, is 13 m. long. The Joseph II. A. at Schemnitz, in Hungary, is 10 ft. 
high, 53 ft. wide, extends 10 m. to the valley of the Gran, and is used as a canal and a 
railway. 

ADJECTIVE is the name of one of the classes into which grammarians have divided 
words. An A. is so called, not so much from its being added to a substantive, as because 
it adds to the meaning, or more exactly describes the object, than the simple substantive 
or general name does. The effect of an A. is also to limit the application of the name to 
which it is joined. Thus, when ¢all is joined to man, there is more meaning conveyed; 
there are more properties suggested to the mind by the compound name fall man, than 
by the simple name man, but tall man is not applicable to so many individuals as man, 
for all men that are not tall are excluded.—Nouns, or names of things, are often used in 
English as adjectives; thus, we say a silver chain, a stone wall. In such expressions as 
‘‘income-tax assessment bill,” ¢ncome plays the part of an A to taz, which is, in the first 
place, a noun; the two together then form a sort of compound A. to assessment ; and the 
three, taken together, a still more compound A. to dill, which, syntactically, is the only 
noun in the expression. This usage seems peculiar to English.—Languages differ much 
in their way of using adjectives. In English, the usual placc of the A. is before the noun. 
This is also the case in German; but in French and Italian it comes after. In these 
languages, again, the A. is varied for gender, number, and in the German for case. In 
English it is invariable; and in this simplicity there is a decided superiority; for in 
modern languages these changes in the A. serve no purpose. The only modification the 
English A. 1s capable of is for degrees of comparison. 

ADJECTIVE COLORS are colors which need to be fixed by some base or mordant to 
render them permanent. 


ADJUDICA TION is a technical term used in the practice both of the English and Scotch 
law, but with a totally different meaning in the two systems. In the law of England, the 
term A. is commonly used to denote the judicial determination at a certain stage of the 
proceedings in bankruptcy. The procedure is regulated by 32 and 33 Vict. c. 71. The 
petition prays that the trader may be adjudicated a bankrupt, and, after proof of the 
petitioning creditor’s debt, and of the act of bankruptcy, which must have been 
committed within twelve months before the issuing of the fiat, an A, is made by the 


Adi : 
1 01 Adivgurh, 


court that the party is bankrupt. Formerly, a trader might be adjudicated bankrupt 
summarily, and without previous petition for A.—namely, where, atter filing a petition 
for arrangement with his creditors, he appeared not entitled to the benefit of the arrange- 
ment. In iénsolvency, which differs from bankruptcy in this respect, that it is not 
confined in its operation to traders, or to any particular class of men, but applies 
to the community at large, the A. is made by the debtor delivering into the Lon- 
don bankruptcy court, if the debtor resides or carries on business within the district of 
that court, or in the bankruptcy court of the district within which he resides or carries 
on business, a declaration admitting his inability to pay his debts, which may be used as 
the ground of an A. by his creditors, if the court think it requisite; or if the creditors 
neglect to pass a resolution for liquidation or composition, or resolve in favor of bank- 
ruptcy; or if, after the passing of a resolution for liquidation or composition, the court 
shall for some sufficient cause adjudge the debtor bankrupt. This A. authorizes the dis- 
charge of the prisoner from custody as to all debts and sums of money due or claimed 
to be due to his several creditors. See INSOLVENCY. 

The distinction between bankruptcy and insolvency has for some time been generally 
disapproved in England; and it may now be held as practically abolished. The insolvent 
debtors court is abolished, and its jurisdiction transferred to the bankruptcy court. 
Insolvent persons can now be adjudged bankrupts in every case in which their creditors 
wish that, or the court think it proper. 

ADJUST'’MENT, in the law of insurance, is the ascertaining the exact amount of indem- 
nity which the party insured is entitled to receive under the policy, and fixing the pro- 
portion of the loss to be borne by each underwriter. The nature and amount of damage 
being ascertained, an indorsement is made on the back of the policy, declaring the pro- 
portion of loss falling on each underwriter; and on this indorsement being signed by the 
latter, the loss is said to have been adjusted. After an A. has been made, it is usual for 
the underwriter at once to pay the loss. Asaquestion of law, however, it does not appear 
to have been decided how far the A. is conclusive and binding upon the underwriters. In 
the opinion of some mercantile lawyers, the A. is merely presumptive evidence against an 
insurer, and it is, notwithstanding, open to the underwriter to show facts which, if 
proved, would have the effect of relieving him from liability. 


ADJUTANT, Ciconia argala, a bird closely allied to the stork, made by some natu- 
ralists the type of a separate genus, argala. Adjutant is the popular name given to it 
by the English in India—argala the native name. It is a native of the warmer parts of 
India. It is of large size, and has very long legs; in its erect attitude, it is about 5 ft. 
high; its extended wings measure 14 or 15 ft. from tip to tip; its head and neck are nearly 
bare; a sausage-like pouch hangs from the under part of the neck; the billis of enormous 
size. It is very voracious, swallows a cat or a leg of mutton quite readily, and is of great 
use in devouring snakes, lizards, and all sorts of offal. It sometimes catches birds upon 
the wing. The beautiful marabou feathers are obtained from the under side of the 
wings of this bird, and of another very similar species which inhabits Senegal. 

ADJUTANT, a regimental staff-officer appointed to assist the commanding cfficer of 
a regiment in the discharge of the details of his military duty. The title is also given 
to ofticers having similar functions attached to larger or smaller divisions of troops, to 
garrisons, and to the war department of the U. 8. government. Adjutants are also as- 
signed, as in the English army, to divisions of artillery. Formerly in England called 
aid-major, A post adjutant holds the office of adjutant with reference to the organization, 
of whatever character of the troops stationed at a post, garrison, orcamp. The adju- 
tant’s duties are unremitting, he receives orders and promulgates them to the several 
companies, inspects escorts and guards before proceeding to their duty, attends the 
drill of recruits, is accountable for the keeping cf the regimental books, and ought to 
note every infraction of the rules. In fact nothing that goes on within the limits of his 
command should escape his attention and observation. 


ADJUTANT-GENERAL, a military staff-officer, the chief assistant of a commanding 
general in the execution of his military duties, as in issuing and executing orders, re- 
ceiving and registering reports, regulating details of the service, and so forth. Heisa 
principal officer of the War Department (see ARMy ADMINISTRATION). Most of the 
individual states also have adjutants-general, performing similar duties with respect to 
the militia of their several states. In the British service the adjutant-general is an 
officer of the full rank of general, having a body of assistants at headquarters in London. 


ADJYGU'RH, at. of British India, in the n.w. provinces, province of Allahabad, 69 
m. w.n.w. from Rewah. It has a fortress, situated on a very steep hill, and accessible 
only by well-defended paths. The hill, which is of granite, is isolated, and separated 
from the n.w. edge of a plateau by a very deep and impassable ravine. Within the walls 
of the fort are two great masses of ruins of temples, resembling in architectural char- 
acter those of Southern India, and covered with the most elaborate sculptures. A. was 
for a short time the capital of a small Mahratta state, was taken by the British under 
lieut.-col. Martindell, in 1809, after an obstinate resistance, and restored to its previous 
possessors, who were Rajptits. Thenative line of rajahs became extinct in 1855. Except 
the summit of the hill, occupied by the fort, which is healthy, A. is very subject to 
malaria. The fort is 860 ft. above the town, which is 480 ft. above the sea. Pop. 
about 5000, 


Ad Latus. 9 
‘Aawiirals 102 


AD LA’TUS, a person who assists an official, such as interpreter for an ambassador 
who does not speak the language of a court. Sometimes, as in Austria, general officers 
act ad latus to corps or provincial commanders. 


ADLER, FEttx, b. Alzey, Germany, 1851; son of an eminent Jewish rabbi. He came 
to the U. S. when very young, was for a time professor at Cornell university, and in 1876 
organized in New York the society for ethical culture, at first composed only of young 
Jews of liberal tendencies, but which soon drew in large accessions from radical thinkers 
of other races. Mr. A. is a vigorous writer and speaker. He has published Creed and 
Deed (1876), and The Moral Instruction of Children (1892). 


AD’LER, GEORGE J., PH. D., 1821-68; a native of Germany. He came to the U.S. 
when 12 years old, and was professor of German in the N. Y. university from 1846 to 
1854, and a teacher and writer of books of education for some years later. Among his 
works are a German grammar, a reader and a dictionary of English and German, a Latin 
grammar, and various translations. His Letters of a Lunatic appeared but a short time 
before he became an inmate of the asylum for the insane in which he died. 


ADLER, HERMANN, PH. D., Chief Rabbi, b. in Hanover, in 1839; son of Nathan Marcus 
Adler; educated at University College, London; became principal of the Jews’ College 
in 1863, minister of the Jewish Synagogue at Bayswater in 1864, and chief rabbi, on 
the death of his father in 1891; author of several controversial works and articles in 
reviews. 


ADLER, NATHAN Marcvus, D.D., Chief Rabbi, was born in Hanover in 1805, 
and educated at the Universities of Gdéttingen, Erlangen, and Wurzberg. He was 
appointed Chief Rabbi of Oldenburg, 1829, and of Hanover and the provinces a year 
later, and, July 9th, 1845, Chief Rabbi of the United Congregations of the British 
Empire. He published several important Hebrew works, among them Nethina Lagér, 
a commentary on the Targum of Onkelos, besides several volumes of sermons, including 
ale on ee Jewish Faith, and his farewell sermon to his congregation at Hanover. He 

ied in 1890. 


AD/LERBERG, VLADIMIR FEDOROVITCH, Count; born 1790; a Russian statesman. 
In 1817 he was adjutant to the grand duke Nicholas, and later his especial com- 
panion: in 1852 he was minister to the court, in constant attendance on the emperor, 
and kept the position under Alexander II., retiring in 1869 on account of old age. 
Abe aaa postmaster-general, and was the author of many reforms in the service. He 

. 1884. 


AD'LERCREUTZ, Karu JoHANN, Count, 1757-1815 ; a Swedish general in the Finnish- 
Russian war in 1808, and one of the leaders who arrested Gustavus IY. in his palace. 
He was made lieut.-gen. in 1809, and count in 1814. 


AD'LERSPARRE, GeorG, Count, 1760-1835 ; a confidant of Gustavus III. of Sweden. 
He was in the campaign against the Russians in 1809, and one of those who arrested 
Gustavus IV., for which he received the public thanks of the diet and was promoted to 
high dignity. In 1831 he was fined for publishing secret state papers, and private corre- 
spondence with princes. 


AD'LERSPARRE, Karu AvuGust, Count, 1810-62; eldest son of Georg, and author 
of poems and novels and historical works. 


AD LIBITUM (in Ital., a piacere or a piacimento) is a musical term which implies that 
the part so marked may be performed according to the taste of the performer, and not 
necessarily in strict time. When there is an accompaniment to the music thus marked, 
it must strictly follow the A. L. time of the principal performer. Sometimes the 
words, colla parte, meaning with the leading part, are written over the accompanying 
parts. A. L. also frequently means that a part for a particular instrument or instru- 
ments, in instrumental scores or pianoforte arrangements, may either be played or entirely 
left out, thus: ‘‘ Overture arranged for the pianoforte as a duet, with ad libitum accom- 
paniments for the violin, flute, or violoncello.” 


ADME'TUS, a mythical king of Phere, in Thessaly, succeeding his father, Pheres, 
He was in the Calydonian hunt and the Argonautic expedition; Apollo was his herdsman 
for a year while banished from Olympus. He was husband of Alcestis, daughter of 
Pelias, and got exemption from death on condition that his father, mother or wife would 
voluntarily die in his stead; this Alcestis offered to do, but Hercules rescued her from 
Pluto and restored her to Admetus. 


ADMINISTRATION, in politics, in its widest sense, is equivalent to the executive gov- 
ernment of a state, as distinguished from its permanent constitution, and embraces not 
only the political ministry, but all the offices of judicature, etc. In a more restricted 
sense, as used in England, it designates the privy council (q.v.), and moreespecially thot 
select committee of it known as the cabinet or ministry (q.v.); while in the United 
States it is applied to the executive department of the federal government, e.g., ihe 
President and the members of his cabinet. 


d : 
103 reeircis 


Administration in American politics is a general term given to the federal or a state 
executive government. We speak of Washington’s A., meaning the federal executive 
government during the time in which he was president; and of the policy, acts, 
omissions, errors, etc., of the A. of the nation or of any state. The supporters of the 
officials at the time in power are called the A. party. The ‘‘ cabinet” is sometimes used 
as synonymous with the federal administration. 


ADMINISTRATION and ApMINistrator. An administrator, in the law of England, 
is the person to whom, in default of an executor named in the will, the ordinary or 
bishop of the diocese commits the administration or distribution of the estate of a person 
dying intestate. The appointment of administrators is made in the United States by a 
judge, called in many states a judge of probate. In New York the title of this officer 
is surrogate, the name being derived from that of the bishop’s deputy, to whom, in 
England, such matters were formerly intrusted. 


ADMIRABLE CRICHTON. See CRICHTON, JAMES. 


ADMIRABLE DOCTOR, a translation of the Latin, Doctor Admitrabilis, a title given 
to Friar Roger Bacon (1214-1292) on account of his extensive knowledge. 


AD'MIRAL, the title of the highest rank of naval officers. The word is generally 
supposed to have been derived from the Arabic emir or amir, a lord or chief (amir-ai- 
mumenim, ‘commander of the faithful;” amzr-al-omra, ‘‘commander of the forces’). 
Thus the early English form was amiral or ammiral (occurring once in Par. Lost); and so 
itis still preserved in French. In Spanish the word isadmirante or almirante,; in Italian, 
ammiraglio. 'The term seems to have been introduced into Europe during the crusades, 
and to have been first used in a definite sense by the Sicilians, and afterwards by the 
Genoese. About the end of the 18th c. it came into use in France and England. The 
first English admiral of the seas (amiral de la mer du roy d@ Angleterre) of whom there is 
record was William de Leybourne, 1286. His office, however, was not that of a com- 
mander, but embraced those general and extensive powers afterwards associated with the 
title of lord high admiral of England; that is, both the administrative functions now vested 
in the lords commissioners of the admiralty (five in number), and the judicial authority 
belonging to the present high court of admiralty. The office of lord high admiral was last 
filled by the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV. It had previously been in com- 
mission from 1708 to 1827. On his resignation in 1828, the office was again put in com- 
mission. See ADMIRALTY CouURT. 

In the British navy the admirals are distinguished into three classes: Admirals, vice- 
admirals, and rear-admirals; the admiral carrying his colors at the main, the vice-admiral 
at the fore, and the rear-admiral at the mizzen mast-head. In former times, each grade was 
subdivided into three sections, known as admirals (or vice or rear admirals) of the red, 
of the white, and of the blue, respectively. The flag hoisted by the admiral (thence called 
a flag-officer) agreed in color with his section; and all the ships under his command 
carried ensign and pendant of the same hue; but the distinction was otherwise without 
practical effect, andis now abolished. Admiral of the fleetis a higherrank, conferred at the 
will of the sovereign. The rates of full or sea pay of flag-officers are as follows: Admiral 
of the fleet, per day, £6; admiral, £5; vice-admiral, £4; rear-admiral, £3. An admiral 
commanding-in-chief receives £3 a day additional at home, and £4 10s. abroad as table- 
money. In 1896 there were sixty-eight flag-officers in the British navy: viz., three 
admirals of the fleet, ten admirals, thirty vice-admirals, and thirty-five rear-admirals; 
and on retired and reserve pay, three admirals of the fleet, six admirals, fifteen vice- 
admirals, and twenty-three rear-admirals. The admiral of the fleet takes rank witha 
field-marshal, admirals with generals, vice-admirals with lieutenant-generals, and rear- 
admirals with major-generals. 

The grades of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral in the United States navy were 
created by act of congress, primarily for the purpose of bestowing exceptional distinc- 
tion on the great captain of che civil war, David G. Farragut (q.v.). The first of the 
grades, rear-adiniral, together with the rank of commodore, was created in 1862, and 
congress limited the number of rear-admirals on the active list to nine. In 1864, the 
President was authorized to appoint one of the rear-admirals a vice-admiral, who should 
thus become the ranking officer in the service. Captain Farragut, under these laws, 
became the first commodore, first rear-admiral, and first vice-admiral, and on being 
advanced to the last grade, Commodore David D. Porter (q.-v.) succeeded him as ranking 
rear-admiral. In 1866, congress provided for an active list of one admiral, one vice- 
admiral, and ten rear-admirals. Farragut was promoted to admiral and Porter to vice- 
admiral. On the death of Farragut (1870), Porter became admiral, and Rear-Admiral 
Stephen Clegg Rowan was promoted to vice-admiral. With the death of Porter (1891) 
and Rowan (1890) the grades of admiral and vice-admiral became extinct under the act 
of 1866. In 1892 congress reduced the number of rear-admirals on the active list to six. 
Under the first two acts, the admiral ranked relatively with the general of the army, the 
vice-admiral with the lieutenant-general, and rear-admirals with major-generals. The 
ranks of general and lieutenant-general of the army were created for a similar object, 
and became extinct also on the death of Gen. Philip H. Sheridan (q. v.) in 1888. The 
pay of the admiral was $13,000 per annum, wherever stationed, and that of the vice- 
admiral was $9000 per annum at sea, $8000 on shore duty, and $6000 on leave or waiting 
orders. All rear-admirals receive $6000 for sea duty, $5000 for shore duty, and $4000 


Adonis: 104 


while on leave or waiting orders. The flag of the admiral was a rectangular blue 
field with four white stars, and was flown at the main; that of the vice-admiral 
was a similar field with three stars. Rear-admirals’ flags are generally of the same 
shape and color, carry two stars, and are flown at the mizzen, excepting that when 
several officers of this grade are together simultaneously the senior officer displays 
the regulation blue flag, the second in rank a red field, and the junior, a white 
field. A commodore by lineal rank assigned to a duty prescribed for a rear- 
admiral has the pay, honors, and flag of a rear-admiral while so employed, and at 
the end of the special service resumes the functions of his actual rank. Rear- 
tees on the retired list receive annually seventy-five per cent. of their sea pay, or 
4,500. 

ADMIRALTY COURT. This court—whose functions are now exercised by the 
probate, divorce, and admiralty division of the high court of justice, constituted in 
1873-5—was created to try and decide maritime causes. Formerly the maritime courts 
of England were divided into the ¢nstance court, a permanent institution, and the prize 
court, which lasted only during war, or until the litigations to which it had given rise 
were concluded. Whilst there was a lord high admiral, the judge of the Admiralty 
Court usually presided by virtue of a patent from him; but since the office has been 
entrusted to commissioners, the judge holds a direct commission from the crown. 
Questions of the utmost nicety in international Jaw fall to be decided by the maritime 
courts in time of war, and it was as an Admiralty judge that many of the most 
remarkable of Lord Stowell’s famous judgments were pronounced. Their civil jurisdic- 
tion now extends generally to disputes between part-owners of a ship, suits for mariners’ 
and officers’ wages, suits for pilotage, suits on bottomry and respondentia bonds, and 
relating to salvage, wrecks, collisions of ships, etc. In criminal matters the Admiralty 
Courts formerly took cognizance of piracy and other offenses at sea, and of certain 
felonies committed in the main stream of great rivers below the bridges, but their 
criminal jurisdiction may be now regarded as obsolete. Appeals lie to the court of 
appeal created by the judicature act of 1873-5. 


ADMIRALTY ISLAND lies on the n.w. coast of N. America, between 57° 2’ and 58? 
24’ lat. n., and 134° 52’ and 135° 80’ long. w. It is about 80 m. long, well wooded and 
watered. It is inhabited, and belongs to the U. 8. 


ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about 40 islands, to the n.e. of New Guinea, 
between 2° and 38° lat. s., and 146° 18’ and 147° 46’ long. e. They were discovered by the 
Dutch in 1616. The largest is about 50 m. long frome. to w. They abound in cocoa- 
nut trees, and are inhabited by savages. Germany established a protectorate here, 1885. 
See illus., New CALEDONIA, ETC., vol. X. 


ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION, in American practice, extends, in criminal cases, 
to offenses committed beyond any national jurisdiction and on the high sea, In civil 
matters it includes salvage, bottomry, hypothecation, seizures under the laws of trade; 
navigation or customs; prizes, charters, certain contracts between different states or 
foreign ports, contracts for conveyances, maritime contributions, pilotage, ship surveys, 
and in general all cases of trespasses, damages, assaults, etc., on the seas. The district 
court of the U. S. in which the action is brought has original jurisdiction. There are 
no admiralty courts so named. Cases may be removed to the circuit and thence to the 
supreme court. A suit in a civil case is brought by filing a libel, upon which a warrant 
for arrest or attachment may issue; or there may be a simple notice to appear; or there 
may be process for the arrest and seizure of the articles. Thereafter stipulations may be 
made or bail taken. Testimony may be given orally, but in cases of importance it is 
usually written. No juries are called; the decree of the court ends the matter. In a 
criminal prosecution under A. J. the proceedings are according to those at common law. 
With regard to jurisdiction, where a seizure has been made the court of that especial 
section has jurisdiction, though the act of seizing may have occurred in a different ~ 
district. In seizures out of special jurisdiction, or on the high seas, the court where the 
goods, persons or things may be landed has jurisdiction. A district court has also 
jurisdiction over all torts and injuries committed at sea or within ebb and flow of the 
tide. In one instance A. J. was held and admitted in a case of collision that happened 
in an inland state on a river more than 200 m. from the ocean. Any court having A. J. 
has the power to redress personal wrong treatment of a passenger at sea by the master 
of a vessel. Asa court of admiralty, the district court has, concurrent with common 
law courts, jurisdiction over maritime contracts without exception as to form or by 
whomsoever executed, such as charter parties for foreign transit, the wages of seamen, 
etc. Toa certain extent all these matters of jurisdiction apply to our lakes and navigable 
rivers. Seamen in port, if on tide-water, engaged in commerce, are within A. J.; but 
hands on ferries are not. Persons actually employed in the navigating of a vessel, such 
as pilots, engineers, firemen or deckhands, may sue for wages under A. J.; but waiters, 
musicians, and those who have no part in navigation, cannot. Congress has provided for 
extraordinary jurisdiction in admiralty in cases of seizure under the navigation, trade or 
impost laws of the U. §.; but the act reserves to all sailors the common law remedy, 
where the common law is competent to furnish it. A. J. extends over captures within 
the waters of the U. 8., or within a marine league of land; the civil jurisdiction extends 


105 saa: 


to seizures on land under federal laws, and suits for penalties and forfeitures incurred 
under such laws. But in the hearing of seizures on land the court sits as at common 
law, with jurisdiction distinct from that in case of seizure on navigable waters; and 
these common law seizures may be tried by jury. Suits to the lower limit of $100, 
instituted by the U. S. or an officer thereof, are within A. J. Under this provision the 
head of a department, as the postmaster general, may sue for money due the government. 
Lastly, actions by or against our consular representatives are embraced in A. J. 


ADMISSION OF NEW STATES, The Constitution of the United States says upon the 
subject of the admission to the Union of new states (Article IV., Section 3): ‘‘ New 
states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new state shall be 
formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state ; nor any state be formed 
by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the 
legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the Congress.” 

«The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regu- 
lations-respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and 
nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States or of any particular state.” 

The first definite regulations by Congress for the admission of new states were 
made in 1790, and the general precedents then established in the admission of Ver- 
mont (Feb. 18, 1791), the first state to be added to the original thirteen, have become 
part of the public usage. Before admission, a territory must have a population of at 
lease 60,000, and must have adopted a constitution, and made formal application to 
Congress for admission. After a bill has passed both Houses and become law, the 
President issues a proclamation to the effect that the new state is in the enjoyment of 
all the privileges of statehood ; and on the following 4th day of July, another star is 
added to the cluster on all the national flags. 

It must be remembered that no territory has any right to be admitted at a particular 
time. The whole matter is discretional with Congress. Thus, while Nevada was ad- 
mitted with a population of barely 60,000 (in 1890 it had dropped to 45,000) and Wyo- 
ming with 60,705, attempts to secure the admission of Utah with 207,905 (1890), New 
Mexico with 153,593 and Arizona with 59,620 were several times defeated. 


ADO'BE, sun-baked bricks, of fine sand and clay dust, made in the same manner as 
common bricks, but very smooth and hard. They are much used for building dwellings 
in Mexico and C. America. Adobe houses are generally of one story, warmer in winter 
and cooler in summer than wooden or stone buildings. 


ADOL'PHUS, or ApoupH, of Nassau, 1250-98; son of Walram, count of Nassau. 
He was the successor of Rudolph, count of Hapsburgh, supplanting the natural heir, and 
was crowned king of Germany, June 24, 1292. A. agreed for a large subsidy to assist 
England in her war with France, but failed to fulfill his part of the contract. For 
certain high-handed acts he was summoned before the college of electoral princes, refused 
to appear, and was formally deposed in June, 1298, when the crown was restored to 
Rudolph’s son. Both took the field in person, and A. was killed in the first battle. 


ADOL’PHUS, FreperRick, 1710-71; of the house of Vasa, and duke of Holstein- 
Gottorp. He was elected to the Swedish throne in 1748, but the royal authority was so 
circumscribed by the council of the states, or nobles, that he was only a nominal king. 
In 1769 he offered to resign, but, on some concessions by the nobles, was induced to 
retain the throne till his death, when his son Gustavus III. succeeded him. 


ADOL'PHOUS, Jonn, 1768-1845 ; an English lawyer, celebrated in criminal practice. 
He gained much credit in the defense of Arthur Thistlewood, charged with treason in 
the Cato street conspiracy, in London, 1820. He was the author of a History of England 
from the Accession of George IIl., and Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution. 

ADOL’PHUS, JoHn LEYCESTER, 1795-1862, son of John A., a barrister, and the author 
of a curious book, Letters to Richard Heber, esq., containing Critical Remarks on the Series of 
Novels beginning with Waverley, and an Attempt to Ascertain their Author, in which book he 
showed that no other than Walter Scott could have produced the novels in question. 


AD'ONAI, signifying ‘‘lord,” or ‘“‘ my lord,” or ‘‘ master,” a proper noun used by 
Hebrews where ‘‘ Jehovah” occurs in their scriptures, the latter being deemed the holy 
name, and not to be openly pronounced. It is said that the true pronunciation of the 
Hebrew letters for Yahve, or Jehovah, is lost. 


ADO'NIA, feasts in honor of Venus and Adonis. They lasted two days, one of 
lamentation, and one of mirth, typifying the death and resurrection of nature. 

ADON'IC VERSE, a dacty] and spondee, or dactyl and trochee, adapted to light, lively 
versification, as the famous hymn : 

‘** Plaudite ceeli ; 
Rideat Aither,”’ etc. 

ADONIS, a mythical personage, whose beauty as a child so attracted the love of Venus 
and Proserpine, that they quarreled about the possession of him. Jupiter, appealed to, 
settled the dispute by deciding that A. should spend part of the year with Venus, and 
part with Proserpine, so that he lived eight months of the year in the upper world, and 
_four in the under, A. was afterwards killed by a boar while hunting, and Venus, coming 


Adonis. 
Addin 106 


too late to his rescue, changed his blood into flowers.—A._ yearly festival was celebrated in 
honor of A., and consisted of two parts—a mourning for his departure to the under 
world, and a rejoicing for his return to Venus. This festival, widely spread among the 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, was celebrated with peculiar pomp at Alex- 
andria. Connected therewith were the gardens of A., as they were called. Before the 
festival, wheat, fennel and lettuce were sown in earthen and even in silver pots, and 
forced by heat; intended to indicate, doubtless, by their brief bloom, the transitoriness 
of earthly joy. The myths connected with A. belong originally to the e. They display 
a worship of the powers of nature conjoined with that of the heavenly bodies, and A. 
himself appears to be the god of the solar year. The similarity of the name to the 
Pheenician Adon, which signified ‘‘lord,” is unmistakable; and this word Adon was 
specially applied to the king of heaven, the sun.—In reference to the brilliant beauty 
ascribed to A., a beautiful man is called ‘‘an Adonis.” 


ADO'NIS, a genus of plants of the natural order ranunculacee (q.v.), in which the flower 
has 5 sepals and 95 to 10 petals without scales at the base, and the fruit consists of awnless 
pericarps. The species are all herbaceous—some of them annual and some perennial. 
Several are natives of Europe, but only one, A. autwmnalis, sometimes called pheasant’s 
eye, isa doubtful native of Britain. Its bright scarlet petals have obtained for it the 
name of los Adonis, their color having been fancifully ascribed to their being stained 
with the blood of Adonis. It is a well-known ornament of our gardens; in which also 
A. estivalis frequently appears, and A. vernalis, a perennial species common upon the 
lower hills of the middle and s. of Germany, with early and beautiful flowers. 


ADOP'TIAN CONTROVERSY, The, was an echo of the Arian controversy, and origi- 
nated about the end of the 8th c. in Spain, the country in which the doctrine of Arius had 
longest held out. Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, the learned bishop of 
Urgel, advanced the opinion that Christ, in respect of his divine nature, was doubtless 
by nature and generation the Son of God; but that as to his human nature, he must be 
considered as only declared and adopted through the divine grace to be the first-born Son 
of God (Rom. viii. 29), just as all holy men are to be adopted as sons of God, although 
in a less lofty sense. The flame of controversy thus kindled spread into the Frankish 
empire, the special domain of ‘‘ Catholic” Christianity, and gave occasion to two synods, 
one held at Ratisbon (792), and another at Frankfort (794), in which Charlemagne took 
part in person, and which condemned Adoptianism as heresy. The Catholic doctrine of 
the unity of the two natures of Christ in one divine person and the consequent impos- 
sibility of there being a twofold Son—an original and an adopted—was upheld by Alcuin 
and the other learned men of Charlemagne’s court. Ata subsequent synod at Aix-la- 
Chapelle, Felix, yielding to compulsion, recanted his opinions, without, as it would seem, 
being convinced. Elipandus adhered fanatically to his views, which were, in after-times, 
defended by Folmar (1160), Duns Scotus (d. 1808), Durandus (d. 1822), the Jesuit Vasquez 
(1606), and the Protestant divine Calixtus (1648). 


ADOP'TION (Lat. adoptio); a legal institution of muchimportance in both of the classi- 
cal nations of antiquity. A., in the strictest sense, in the Roman law, applied only to the 
case in which a person in the power of his father or grandfather was transferred to 
that of the person adopting him. Where the person adopted was already emancipated 
from the paternal power (patria potestas), and was regarded by the law as his own mas- 
ter (sud juris), the proceeding was called adrogation (adrogatio). A., however, was also 
used as a generic term comprehending the two species; and in Greece, where there was 
nothing corresponding to the paternal power of the Romans, this distinction did not 
obtain. At Athens the adopted child was transferred from his own family and parish or 
tribe (demos) into those of the adoptive father, whose property he inherited in the absence 
of legitimate children, and whose sacred rights he was bound to maintain. Only 
Athenian citizens could be adopted, so that not only the next of kin but the whole com- 
munity were interested in preventing fraudulent adoptions. With this view, registration 
in the demus of the adoptive father was requisite, in order to entitle the son to the rights 
of citizenship as a member of it. In Rome the adopted chiid assumed the name and 
became bound to discharge the religious duties of the adoptive father, which usually 
consisted in sacrifices to the penates or other divinities. These observances were for the 
most part connected with the gens or tribe to which the individual and his family 
belonged; and Savigny has even denied the existence of sacra peculiar to the family. A. 
was effected under the authority of a magistrate, the pretor at Rome, or the governor 
(preses) in the provinces. Adrogation originally required a vote of the people in the 
comitia curiata,; but under the emperors it became the practice to effect it by an imperial 
rescript. A patrician was sometimes adrogated into a plebeian family for political purposes. 
Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was so adrogated, in order that he might be eligible to a 
tribuneship of the people. Ifa father having children in his power was adopted, both 
he and his children passed into the power of the adoptive father. It was requisite that 
the adoptive father should have no children at the time, and no reasonable prospect of 
having any. He was also required to be older than the person adopted. Females could 
not be adrogated, nor, from their not sharing in the paternal power, could they adopt in 
any form. An opposite rule has prevailed where the institution has been received in 
modern times. A. was unknown to the law of the Teutonic nations; and though most of 


Adonis. 
1 0) 7 ‘Aaviin: 


the states of the continent have borrowed it from the Roman law, it has never existed as 
an institution either in England or Scotland. The patrimonial benefits of A. may, how- 
ever, be conferred by deed; and there is no illegality in any one assuming the name, 
arms, and other distinguishing characteristics, and corresponding responsibilities, of a 
person who does not belong to his family. In France A. is recognized only in a very 
modified form. 

As adoption was not possible under the common law of England, it never has 
obtained much recognition in law in the U. 8. It was at one time authorized by 
the law of Louisiana, but this was changed in 1808. There are, however, special 
acts in some states which recognize it. There are others in which it is permitted. It 
_is provided in Massachusetts that under a judicial decree any person may adopt the 
child of another as his own, and all the rights and liabilities of blood relationship will 
follow. In some states it must be evidenced by a written and recorded instrument. In 
others a judicial decree is necessary. An adopted child usually inherits from its adopt- 
ing parents, and vice versa ; but in Missouri, on the death of an adopted child, his estate 
goes to his blood relations. 


ADORATION, an act of homage or worship among the Romans, performed by raising 
the hand to the mouth, kissing it, and then waving it towards the adored object. Some. 
times the devotee kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods, and Saturn and Her- 
cules were saluted with the head uncovered. It was natural to extend to great men the 
A. first paid only to the deities, and Greek and Roman emperors were adored by bowing 
or kneeling, touching the imperial robe, and kissing the hand that did so. Eastern A. 
was to fall on the knees at a prince’s feet, striking the forehead on the ground, and kiss- 
ing the earth or floor. Such A. was refused by Conon to Artaxerxes, and by Calisthenes 
to Alexander the great. In England kissing the queen’s hand is a form of A. The 
kissing the foot or slipper of the pope is the form in Rome, an example set by the emperor 
Diocletian; but the Roman Catholic church makes a distinction between latria, a worship 
due to God alone, and dulia or hyperdulia, the A. paid to the Virgin, saints or martyrs. 


ADOR'NA, CATHERINE, or CATHERINE OF Bouoena, 1413-63; of noble descent. 
She was abbess of a convent in Bologna of the order of St. Clare, and was distinguished 
for her rapt and devout piety. It was claimed that she could prophesy and perform mir- 
acles, and a book of her Revelations was published in 1511. Her name is revered even 
among Protestants of the present day. 


ADOU'R, a river in France, rises near Tourmalet, in the department of the upper 
Pyrenees, waters in its course of 200 .n. the department Gers and the fertile part of 
the department Landes, and enters the Atlantic below Bayonne. It receives several tribu- 
taries, and is navigable to the extent of 80 m. Bagneres-de-Bigorre, celebrated for its 
hot baths, is situated on the Adour, 


A'DOWA, at. of Abyssinia, the capital of Tigré, 145 m.n.e. from Gondar. It is situ- 
ated partly on a slope and partly at the base of a hill, on the left bank of the Hasam, a 
feeder of the Atbara, which is a large branch of the Nile. The houses are of the con- 
ical form common in Abyssinia, regularly disposed in streets, and mingled with gardens 
and trees. A. is the chief entrepét of trade between the interior of Tigré and the coast. 
It has an extensive transit trade, in which gold, ivory and slaves are articles of impor- 
tance. Pop. estimated at about 3500. In the vicinity of Adowa, an Italian army suf- 
fered a disastrous defeat in March, 1896, at the hands of King Menelek of Abyssinia. 
See ABYSSINIA. 


A'DRA (ancient Addera), a sea-port t. of Spain, in the province of Granada, and 49 m. 
s.e. from Granada. It is situated on the shore of the Mediterranean, at the mouth of the 
Adra. The ancient Abdera, founded by the Pheenicians, was on a hill, at the base of 
which the modern t. stands, in a situation unhealthy on account of swamps. The portis 
not good, being much exposed to the w. The houses are generally of one story. There 
is one tolerably wide street, the rest are narrow and ill paved. From the watch-tower 
of A., in former times, a tocsin sounded the alarm on the approach of African pirates. 
Lead mines in the neighborhood give employment to many of. the inhabitants and trade 
to the port. Among the other exports are grapes, wheat, and sugar. Pop. 9000. 


ADRAS'TUS, a king of Argos, contemporary of Theseus,- father-in-law of Polynices, 
and leader of an expedition against Thebes to restore Polynices to the throne. This wag 
the ‘‘warof the seven against Thebes,” and was not successful, all the seven save A. 
being killed. Ten years later Thebes was captured and destroyed, in which conflict A. 
lost his son, and soon afterwards died of grief. 


AD’RIA, in the province of Rovigo, N. Italy, is situated between the river Po and the 
Adigé, contains about 15,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly remarkable as being one of the 
oldest cities in Europe. According to tradition it was founded by the Pelasgi, 1376 B.c. 
In the time of the Romans, A. wasone of the most frequented harbors in the Adriatic 
sea; but by the continual deposition of alluvium on the e. coast of Italy, it has been 
gradually separated from the sea, from which it is now almost 14 m. distant. 


A’DRIAN, a city in Lenawee co., Mich., the co. seat, on the Raisin river and the 
Wabash, Lima Northern, and Lake Shore and Mich. Southern railroads. There are 
many factories, including furniture shops and railway repair shops. It has good bank- 
ing facilities, many churches, several newspapers, public and private schools, and is the 
seat of Adrian college (Meth. Prot.) Pop. ’90, 8756. It contains the State Industrial 
Home for Girls, a public library and an opera house. 


RevenG 108 


A'DRIAN, Roman emperor. See HADRIANUS 


A'DRIAN, the name of six popes, none of them very remarkable. A. IV. was by 
birth an Englishman, the only one of that nation that ever sat in the papal chair. His 
name was Nicholas Brakspeare. He wasa native of Langley, near St. Albans, became first 
a lay-brother or servant in the monastery of St. Rufus, near Avignon, and in 1137 was 
elected abbot. His zeal for strict discipline raised a combination to defame his charac- 
ter, and he had to appear before Eugenius III. at Rome. Here he not only cleared him- 
self of all charges, but acquired the esteem of the pope, who appointed him cardinal- 
bishop of Albano in 1146. On the death of Anastasius in 1154, he was raised to the 
papal see. A. was at first on friendly terms with the emperor Frederic I.; but his 
high notions of the papal supremacy, which he carried as far as even Gregory VII., led 
to the beginning of that long contest of the popes against the house of Hohenstaufen, 
which ended in the destruction of the dynasty. He was about to excommunicate Fred- 
eric, when he died at Anagni, 1159. It was in A.’s time that the doctrine of transubstan- 
tiation (q.v.), advanced by Petrus Lombardus, was established. 


A’DRIANOPLE, the second city in the Turkish empire, was founded by the emperor 
Hadrian on the left bank of the navigable river Hebrus (now Maritza). The city 
has about 71,000 inhabitants, the half of whom are Turks. It was the scene of an 
important battle between the Goths and the Romans in 378 A. Dp. The former were 
victorious and broke through the Roman frontier, effecting a settlement within the 
limits of the Empire. The city was the capital of the Turkish sultan from 1366 to 1453.. 
The Russian-Turkish war was here concluded, Sept. 19, 1829, by the peace of A., 
which left the Porte in possession of Wallachia, Moldavia, and the conquests made 
by Russia in Bulgaria and Roumelia. On the other side, Russia got possession of 
the whole of the coast of the Black sea, from the mouth of the Kuban, in lat. 45° 15’, 
to the haven of St. Nichola, lat. 42°, with the territories of the Caucasus and the greater 
part of the pashalic of Akalzik. After the capture of the Turkish army defending the: 
Shipka Pass, in Jan., 1878, the Russians entered A. unopposed by the Turks. 


ADRIATIC SEA, a large arm of the sea, extending, in a n.w. direction, between the 
e. coast of Italy and the w. coast of the opposite continent, being connected with the 
Ionian sea by the strait of Otranto. In the n. it forms the gulf of Venice, and in the n.e. 
the gulf of Trieste; while, on the Italian side, it forms the bays of Ravenna and Tremiti, 
and the narrower and deeper gulf of Manfredonia. On the other side, the coasts of 
Illyria, Croatia, Dalmatia and Albania are steep, rocky and barren, and begirt with a 
chain of almost innumerable small rocky islands. The chief bay in this side is that 
of Quarnero, lying s. of the peninsula of Istria. 'The most considerable rivers flowing 
into the A.S. are the Adigé and the Po, which are continually depositing soil on the 
coast, so that places once on the shore are now inland. The extreme saltness of the A. 
is probably owing to the comparatively small quantity of fresh water poured into it by 
rivers. Navigation in the A. is safe and pleasant in summer, but in winter the n.w. gales. 
are formidable, on account of the rocky and dangerous coasts on thee. ‘Trieste, An- 
cona and Sinigaglia are the chief places of commerce. 


ADU’LE, an ancient t. on the Red sea, was the port of Axum, and is noted chiefly 
on account of an inscription, of some importance relative to the ancient geography of 
those regions, the monwmentum adulitanum, first published, in the 6th c.in the Topo- 
graphia Christiana of Cosmos Indicopleustes. The modern t. is called Zulla. 


ADUL'LAMITES, An attempt, in the year 1866, by the government of Earl Russell 
and Mr. Gladstone, to carry a measure which would have brought about a sweep- 
ing reduction of the elective franchise, gave occasion to a large number of the more 
moderate liberals to secede from the whig leaders, and vote with the conservatives. 
The designation of Adullamites was fastened on the new party, in consequence of Mr. 
Bright having, in the course of debate, likened them to the political outlaws who took 
refuge with David in the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2); a comparison taken up by 
lord Elcho, who humorously replied that the band congregated in the cave was hourly 
increasing, and would succeed in delivering the house from the tyranny of Saul (Mr.. 
Gladstone) and his armor-bearer (Mr. Bright). 


ADULTERATION OF FOOD, etc. The more important adulterations will be noticed. 
under the various articles. See also Foon. 


ADUL'TERY (Lat. adulteriwm) has been well defined as ‘‘the voluntary sexual inter- 
course of a married person with a person other than the offender’s husband or wife.” 
(Bishop on Marriage and Divorce, § 415.) By the Roman law, there was no A. unless 
the woman was married, and the same was the rulein Athens. It was in this limited 
form also that A. was recognized by the Mosaic law. By the canon law, the husband 
and wife were placed on the same footing; and this view has been adopted by all the 
nations of modern Europe. In the American state of New Jersey, it has been decided 
that a married man does not commit this crime in having connection with an unmarried 
woman. (Bishop, 27d.) But such has not been the prevalent doctrine evenin America; 
and it has never been doubted that the offense necessary to found the sentence of 
divorce is committed by unlawful sexual intercourse equally whether the particeps 
criminis were married or single. A. was recognized as a crime even before Moses (Gen. 


Adrian, 
1 0 9 Advent, 


XXxXviii. 24), and it is probable that in affixing to it the punishment of death (Lev. xx. 10), 
he followed the prevailing custom. A very remarkable law was introduced for the trial 
of A. by causing the woman suspected to drink the bitter waters of jealousy (Numb. v. 
26). In Rome, the Julian law, enacted in the time of Augustus (17 B.c.) revised the 
previous legislation on the subject, and imposed special penalties, consisting of forfeiture 
of goods and banishment, both on the adulteress and the paramour. The husband, in 
certain cases, was permitted to kill the latter, and the father might sometimes kill both. 
A constitution of Constantine, the authenticity of which has been doubted, made A.a 
capital offense on the man’s part. Whatever Constantine’s law was, it was confirmed 
by Justinian, who further condemned the wife to be whipped, and imprisoned in a con- 
vent for the rest of her days, unless relieved by her husband within two years (Novel, 
134, c.10). The offense was visited in Athens with punishments closely resembling 
those of the earlier Roman legislation. In many continental countries, A. is still treated 
as a criminal offense, but in none of them does the punishment now exceed imprison- 
ment for a limited period, which is frequently accompanied with a fine. Lord Coke 
says that by the law of England in early times, A. was punished by fine and imprison- 
ment (3 Jnst. 306). During the Commonwealth, it was made a capital offense (Scobel’s 
Acts, part ii., p. 121); but this law was not confirmed at the Restoration. In Scotland, 
the records of the court of justiciary show that capital punishment was frequently in- 
flicted. At the present day it is punishable in Great Britain only by ecclesiastical cen- 
sure; and even this may be regarded as in desuetude. But when committed by the wife, 
it was regarded as a civil injury, and, till the passing of the stat. 20 and 21 Vict. c. 85 
and 59, formed the ground of an action of damages for criminal conversation (commonly 
known as an action of crim. con.) by the husband against the paramour. No corre- 
sponding action was competent to the wife, either in England or America; and her 
only remedy consisted in obtaining a separation or divorce. In some of the United 
States adultery is made criminal by special law; in some it is not so recognized ; 
in some the act itself is not a crime, but open and continued A. is. Some statutes 
define the crime ; some only state the punishment; and this leaves a wide margin 
for interpretation by courts, giving rise to great diversity of opinions and deci- 
sions. Some hold that if one only of the parties be married, the other does not 
commit A.; some that a married man with a single woman does not commit 
A. because the act cannot impose spurious issue on a husband or wife. In Massachu- 
setts, in case of a married woman and an unmarried man, the latter is deemed guilty. 
In New York, in such case the man does not commit A., his offense being, as in Vir- 
ginia, only fornication. Connecticut and Iowa punish man and woman alike; but where 
no exact statute exists the general drift of opinion and decision is that a married person 
commits A., and an unmarried person only fornication; therefore criminal A. is the vol- 
untary sexual intercourse of a married person with another person who is other than the 
proper husband or wife. Living together without marriage is hardly reckoned to be A., 
and seldom interfered with unless the parties are otherwise objectionable. In several 
states no criminal prosecution can be commenced for A. except on complaint of the hus- 
band or wife of the person charged with the offense. See Divorce. 

AD VALOREM (Lat., according to the value). <A phrase used especially in reference 
to the amount of duty levied on imports, i. e., a certain per cent. on the value. In the 
tariff act of 1890, ad valorem duties were not as frequent as formerly, but a duty laid on 
the pound, bushel, or ton prevailed more largely. In some cases, notably in woolen 
goods there was a combination of both kinds of duty. 


ADVANCEMENT, in law, a gift by a parent to an heir, of all or a portion of that 
which he or she would be entitled to upon arriving at a certain age, or upon the death 
of the advancer. An A is legal only from a parent toa child. Any such gift is pre- 
sumptively an A., but the contrary may be shown. No regular form of an A. is needed. 
a a has the effect of reducing by its amount the distributive portion that would come 
o the receiver. 


_ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AssocrIATIONS FOR THE, well-known bodies of 
scientific men, especially in Great Britain and the United States. The English body 
Was organized in 1831, under the lead of David Brewster, and in three years grew from 
100 to 1400 members; its annual transactions form volumes of about 500 pp. each. The 
American association originated in 1847 at Boston, and was organized by geologists 
chiefly; but now embraces almost every prominent scientific man in the country. The 
association meets annually, changing its place from city to city. Yearly reports are pub- 
lished. See BrrrisH ASSOCIATION. 


AD'VENT, or Time of Advent (Lat., the approach or comin , a term applied, by th 
Christian church, to certain weeks before Chesanie In the Ges charch ine amend 
A. comprises forty days; but in the Roman church, and those Protestant churches in 
which A. is observed, only four weeks. The origin of this festival, as a church ordi- 
nance, is not clear. The first notice of A., as an appointment of the church, is found 
In the synod of Lerida (524 A.D.), at which marriages were interdicted from the begin- 
ning of A. until Christmas. The four Sundays of A., as observed in the Romish church 
and the church of England, were probably introduced into the calendar by Gregory the 
great. It was common from an early period to speak of the coming of Christ as’ four- 
fold : his ‘‘ first coming in the flesh;” his coming at the hour of death to receive his faith- 
ful followers (according to the expressions used by St. John); his coming at the fall of 
Jerusalem (Matt. xxiv, 30); and at the day of judgment, According to this fourfold 


Adventists. 110 
Advertisements. 


view of A., the “ gospels” were chosen for the four Sundays, as was settled in the west 
ern church by the Homilarzwm of Charlemagne. The festival of A. is intended to ac- 
cord in spirit with the object celebrated. As mankind were once called upon to prepare 
themselves for the personal coming of Christ, so, according to the idea that the ecclesi- 
astical year should represent the life of the founder of the church, Christians are exhorted, 
during this festival, to look for a spiritual advent of Christ. The time of the year when 
the shortening days are hastening towards the solstice—which almost coincides with the 
festival of the Nativity—is thought to harmonize with the strain of sentiment proper 
during A. In opposition, possibly, to heathen festivals, observed by ancient Romans 
and Germans, which took place at the same season, the Catholic church ordained that 
the four weeks of A. should be kept as a time of penitence; according to the words of 
Christ: ‘‘ Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” During these weeks, there- 
fore, public amusements, marriage festivities and dancing were prohibited, fasts were 
appointed, and sombre garments were used in religious ceremonies. The Protestant 
church in Germany has also abstained from public recreations and celebrations of mar- 
riage during A. It was perhaps a natural thought to begin the ecclesiastical year with 
the days of preparation for the coming of Christ. This was first done by the Nestorian 
church in the east in the 6th c.; the example was soon followed in Gaul, and afterwards 
became general throughout the west. 


ADVENTISTS, a denomination of Christians numbering in the United States and 
Canada about 100,000. In the early years of the 19th century many clergymen, among 
whom may be mentioned Edward Irvine of England, William Miller of New York, 
Joshua V. Himes of Massachusetts, John Couch of New Hampshire, Miles Grant of 
Boston, S. G. Mathewson of Connecticut, Josiah Litch, Joseph Wolf, Prof. N. N. Whit- 
ing and others, began to preach the second coming of Christ as being near, from the 
signs of the times and the fulfilment of the prophecies. ‘They were followed by many 
earnest advocates and enthusiastic persons who taught the same views. Mr. Miller in 
his chronological calculations from the prophecies, thought that Christ would come 
about the year 18438. In this Mr. Miller and his followers were sadly disappointed. 
The denomination does not now fix upon any definite date for the day of judgment to 
come but regards it as being near at hand. The Advent Christian denomination has 
organized churches and conferences in nearly all of the States, and in the provinces of 
Canada. They have several publishing houses, from which are issued weekly papers, 
books, tracts and other periodicals. The Advent Christian Publication Society of 
Boston issues weekly a large prophetic journal of 16 pages entitled the World’s Crisis, 
which is the leading paper of the denomination. The Western Publishing Association 
at Mendota, Ill., issues a weekly paper of 16 pages, entitled Our Hope, as well as other 
religious literature. This Publishing Association has under its control Mendota College, 
at Mendota, Ill. The Pacific Publishing House, of Oakland, Cal., issues weekly the 
Messiah’s Advocate and other publications. The American Advént Mission Society, 
incorporated in 1866, is doing very active work. The Advent Christian Association and 
General Conference of America was organized in 1860 and holds biennial sessions. It is 
composed of delegates from all the state conferences and provinces. The denomination 
in 1897 had 1500 ministers ordained and licentiate. 


AD’VENTISTS, SEVENTH Day, organized about 1844; they set no date for Christ’s 
second advent. They are known chiefly in Michigan, where they have a publishing as- 
sociation; and they have sent missions to several countries in Europe, Africa and Aus- 
tralia. At the general conference in 1877 they resolved that ‘‘the highest authority 
under God among seventh day adventists is found in the will of the body of that people, 
as expressed in the decisions of the general conference when acting within its proper 
jurisdiction.’’ In 1896 they reported 256 ministers and licentiates, 1258 churches, and 
45,109 members. 

AD'VERB. As an adjective is joined to a noun, so is an A., for analogous purposes, 
to a verb, an adjective, or another A. From the frequency with which adverbs are joined 
to verbs, they get their name. An A. cannot be the subject, the copula or the predicate 
of a proposition; and is, therefore, a secondary part of speech, logically speaking. Ac- 
cording to their signification, adverbs may be divided into—1. Adverbs of place, as 
where, towards ; 2. of time, as ever, immediately; 8. of degree, as very, almost; 4. of man- 
ner, as thus, wisely; 5. of belief or doubt, as perhups, no, etc.—It is commonly said that 
‘‘some adverbs admit of comparison;” as if in this respect they differed from adjectives. 
The truth is that adverbs admit of comparison under the same limitations, neither more 
nor less, that restrict the comparison of adjectives. Thus, soon is compared as naturally 
as hard. If now or thus cannot be compared, neither can wooden nor circular; and in both 
cases for the same reason—the sense forbids it. The laws of euphony prevent alike 
miserable and miserably from being compared grammatically, ie., by the addition of er 
and est; but both admit of logical comparison by the use of more and most.—A large 
class of adverbs in English are formed from adjectives by annexing the syllable Zy, which 
is just the word léke. Most languages have some such means of distinguishing the A. 
from the adjective, except the German, in which they are alike. Adverbs in general 
may be looked upon’as abbreviations of phrases; thus here = in this place, then = at that 
ume, wisely = like a wise man. Combinations of words that can thus be represented by 
a single adverb, and all combinations that are analogous, though they may have no single . 
word equivalent to them, are called adverbial expressions. 


Adventists. F 
1 1 1 Pa ivertiaetianta: 


ADVER’TISEMENT (Fr. avertissenent), the public notification of a fact. This is now 
commonly effected by means of the ordinary newspapers, or of newspapers, printers’ 
lists and other publications specially devoted to the purpose. Advertisements, both 
printed and written, are still posted conspicuously in public places, in which case 
they are commonly called bills or placards. In England, the most formal kind of 
A., and that which is employed in the case of royal proclamations and the like, 
is publication in the Gazette (q.v.); but so little is the Gazette read by private persons, 
that, as regards the customers, publication in it alone is not a sufficient notice of a disso- 
lution of partnership to free the partners from debts afterwards contracted in name of 
the company. Public notifications are frequently enjoined by statute; as, for example, 
under road and bridge acts, the bankrupt statutes, etc. In many other ways their legal 
effects are important. Advertisements by public carriers, railway companies, and the 
like, are equivalent to offers whereby the advertiser will be bound to those who send 
goods onthe faith and in accordance with the terms of the A. By advertising a general 
ship, for a particular voyage, the master places himself on the footing of a public carrier, 
and is bound to receive goods for the port to which the vessel is advertised to sail. 
merchant in such circumstances can insist on his goods being received, unless the ship 
be full, or the entire freight engaged. The contract of affreightment is completed by the 
A., and the shipping of the goods in conformity and with reference thereto. In 
the United States, advertising has grown to a very surprising extent within two 
or three decades, and is still growing, not only in the newspapers, but in boats, 
railway cars, and public buildings. Fences, rocks, and trees are covered with print 
and paint. So much was this the case along routes of travel that some years ago 
the legislature of N. Y. enacted a law against defacing natural scenery by such 
devices, and the advertisers then hired vacant spaces on conspicuous walls. ‘The shower 
of advertisements in the shape of small handbills is incessant, and they are put into one’s 
hands at every step, at church doors and in hotels, in public vehicles, thrust under pri- 
vate doors, and sent by millions through the mails. Large boats bearing on their sails 
huge advertisements sail up and down all the season before a crowded watering-place, 
and now and then a rain of advertisements comes from a wandering balloon. When 
daylight fails the magic lantern throws advertisements on large screens in conspicuous 
places in N. Y. and other cities. The eye and the ear are attacked by the indefatigable 
advertiser, and music, chord and discord, horns, bells, gongs and yells are used. In legit- 
imate newspapers the progress of advertising has been wonderful. About forty years 
ago an advertising agency was started in N. Y. and barely lived for the first dozen years; 
now such establishments are counted by scores, and some of them do business amount- 
ing to many hundred thousand dollars in a year. The city papers that in 1850 were of 
four pages of six columns each are now of eight, twelve, sometimes twenty pages, of 
which more than half the space is taken up by advertisements. One paper receives more 
money now for one week’s advertisements than it did from that source in the first three 
years of its existence, which period was about forty yearsago. It has printed eighty 
columns and nearly 4000 new advertisements in a single issue. Prices of advertising 
vary widely, graded if at all by the character as well as the extent of circulation, and by 
position in the paper. Rates may be generally stated at from two dollars down to twenty 
cents a line in city papers of large or fair circulation. ‘The highest prices are for the 
news column, or for a notice that appears to be the voluntary statement of the journal. 
In the matter of ‘‘wants,” those who want occupation are charged half rates or less, 
while employers pay about 40 cents a line, and the latter rate is the highest for the 
greater portion of regular advertisements. ‘The extent and apparent extravagance of 
American advertising astonishes Europeans. Not long ago one publisher would take a 
whole page on a given day of each of four or five city papers, in which he would repeat 
over and over again a single announcement that occupied only four or five lines. The 
cost to him was enormous, but he testified that it was a judicious outlay, for the mere 
notoriety of such prodigal expenditure led people to inquire about him, and his publica- 
tion (a literary newspaper) speedily rose from a few thousands to more than a quarter of 
a million of copies a week. Odd forms of beginning advertisements are not new, and 
are not so popular as they were a few years ago. Some journals debar pictures and very 
large type, and business announcements are usually plain and practical. It is impossible 
to learn the extent of the business. Some houses and companies do an immense amount, 
and some very little; but in general trade, such as dry goods, those who do the most 
business are the largest advertisers. For notice of meetings, lectures, amusements, the 
opera or the play of the night, for time of boats, trains, etc., the public in cities depend 
almost entirely upon the advertising columns of the morning and evening newspapers. 
When there was a duty of 3 per ct. on receipts for advertisements, in 1867, N. Y. city 
publishers paid $80,000, representing about $2,700,000 received for advertisements during 
the year. See Sampson’s History of Advertising. See NEWSPAPERS. 


ADVERTISEMENTS OF ELIZABETH was the name of a book of discipline issued 
by Archbishop Parker in 1566, having for its object the establishment of ‘‘ due order 
in the public administration of Common Prayer and using of Holy Sacraments” and 
prescribing the apparel of all ecclesiastical persons. It enforced the wearing of sur- 
plice and cap, and generally demanded rigid obedience to those more objectionable por- 
tions of the Act of Uniformity, which had not been strictly applied. The archbishop 


Ad i . 
einetaut 1 ] 2 


desired an official promulgation of the book, but Cecil refused to lend himself to the 
cause of Puritan persecution, and Parker issued the Advertisements upon his own re- 
sponsibility. Considerable controversy has arisen with regard to their validity, some 
holding, with Lord Selborne in the Ridsdale case, that the royal authorization gave 
them binding force, while others adopt the view of Mr. J. Parker in ‘‘ Ornaments 
Rubric,” that the Advertisements are simply archiepiscopal injunctions. 


ADVICE, See Bitu or EXCHANGE, 


AD'VOCATE (Lat. advocatus). An A. is generally defined ‘‘the patron of a cause,” 
though it does not appear that the “ patrons” who, in ancient Rome, assisted their clients 
with advice and pleaded their causes, were ever called by that name. Even in the time 
of Cicero, the term advocatus was not applied to the patron or orator who pleaded in 
public, but rather, in strict accordance with the etymology of the word, to any one who 
in any piece of business was called in to assist another. There can be no doubt, however, 
that the forensic orators and jurisconsults of the later period of the republic, who fol- 
lowed law as a profession, and received fees (honoraria) for their services, occupied a 
positien closely analogous to that of the A. of modern times, and thus it has been said that 
the profession is older than the name. The occupations of a jurisconsult and a forensic 
orator seem to have differed pretty much as those of a consulting and a practicing coun- 
sel do with us. They might be exercised separately, but were generally combined; and 
thus Cicero speaks of his master, Scevola, as ‘‘the most eloquent of the learned, and 
the most learned of the eloquent” (jurisperitorum eloquentissimus, eloquentium juris- 
peritissimus, De O7., i. 89). Ulpian defined an A. to be any person who aids another in 
the conduct of a suit or action (Dig. 50, tt. 13), and in other parts of the digest it is 
used as equivalent to an orator (see also Tacit. Annal., x. 6), so that the word would seem 
gradually to have assumed its modern meaning. The office of the A. or barrister who 
conducted the cause in public was, in Rome, altogether distinct from that of the 
procurator, or attorney or agent, who represented the person of the client in the 
litigation, and furnished the A. with information regarding the facts of the case. 
The distinction between these two occupations is still observed in Great Britain, but in 
many of the states of Germany, in Geneva, in the United States, and in some of the 
British colonies, as, for example,in Canada, they are united in the same person. In 
England and Ireland, advocates are called barristers, under which title will be found a 
statement of the duties and responsibilities which the A. undertakes to his client, and 
of the state of the profession in these countries. In Scotland, as in France, the more 
ancient name has been retained. 

In France, the avocat and avoué correspond very nearly to the barrister and attorney 
in England. The advocates do not form a corporation, in the technical sense, but are a 
free society or association (ordre), which has the power of protecting its members, and of 
exercising internal surveillance and discipline over them. Neither do they exercise any 
ministerial functions like those which public authority has conferred, under certain 
conditions and responsibilities, on avoués and notaries. The French A. is simply a free 
man, who has graduated in law, and possesses the privilege of addressing the tribunals. 
The advocates who practice in each court form a separate college, admission to which 
can be obtained only with the approval of those who are already members. Enrollment 
in the books of the college does not confer the title of A., for this title belongs to every 
licentiate who has taken the oaths before a court; but it gives the right of communicating 
(droit de communiquer) with the other members of the body, without which the exercise 
of the profession would be impossible. As a necessary consequence of this arrange- 
ment, erasure of the name of any individual from the list is equivalent to a prohibition 
to practice. The French A. possesses the same privileges as to irresponsibility for his 
advice, and for the facts contained in his instructions, which belong to members of 
the corresponding branch of the legal profession in Great Britain. As he has no 
action for his fees, they are required to be paid in advance. His functions correspond 
to those of the counselor-at-law in the U.S. The French advocates have, on several 
occasions, resisted, as an encroachment on their privileges, the attempt to compel 
them to grant receipts for their fees. It further belongs to the etiquette of the bar 
of France that, in communicating articles of process to each other, no acknowledg- 
ment shall be exchanged; and we are told, with honest pride, that during the many 
centuries that this custom has existed, not one single instance of its abuse has 
occurred, 

In Belgium, in Geneva, and also in those of the German states by which the code 
Napoleon has been received, the organization and discipline of this branch of the legal 
profession are similar to those which prevail in France. In the other German states, 
with the exception of Saxony, the formation of the advocates into a body has been per- 
severingly resisted by the governments. 


ADVOCATE, Lorp, called also king’s or queen’s advocate, is the public prosecutor of 
crimes in Scotland, senior counsel for the crown in civil causes, and a political func- 
tionary of great importance in the administration of Scottish affairs. He may issue 
warrants of arrest and imprisonment in any part of Scotland, is entitled to plead within 
the bar, and possesses many other discretionary and indefinite powers. He is a member 
of parliament and as first law-officer of the crown for Scotland, is expected to answer 
all questions relating to the business of Scotland, and to take the superintendence of 
legislation for that portion of the United Kingdom. 


Advice. 
113 iginetau, 


ADVOCA’TUS DIAB'OLI, the devil’s advocate. In the Roman church, when it is pro- 
posed that a deceased person shall be canonized, an examination of his past life takes 
lace. In this process, one party holds the office of accuser, or advocatus diaboli; and it is 
is duty to bring forward all possible objections against the proposed canonization; while, 
on the other side, the Advocatus Det (God’s Advocate) undertakes the defense. Hence the 
term A. D. has been applied to designate any person who brings forward malicious accu- 
sations. 


ADVOW'SON. The right of presentation to a church or ecclesiastical benefice in Eng- 
land. Advowsons are either appendant or in gross. Lords of manors were originally the 
only founders, and, of course, the only patrons of churches; and so long as a right of 
patrenses continues annexed or appended to the manor, it is called an A. appendant. 

uch rights are conveyed with the manor as incident thereto, by a grant of the manor 
only, without adding any other words. But where the property of the A. has been once 
separated from the property of the manor by legal conveyance, it is called an A. in gross, 
or at large, and is annexed to the person of its owner, and not to his manor or lands. 
Advowsons are further divided into presentative, coliative, or donative. The first is where the 
patron has the right of presentation to the bishop or ordinary, and may demand of him to 
institute his clerk, if he find him canonically qualified. This is the most usual A. The 
second or collative A. is where the bishop and patron are one and the same person. In 
this case, the bishop cannot present to himself, but he does by the one act of collation the 
whole that is done in common cases by both presentation and institution. The third or 
donative A. is when the sovereign, or a subject by his license, founds a church or chapel, 
and ordains that it shall be at the sole disposal of the patron, subject to his visitation only, 
and not that of the ordinary, and vested in the clerk by the patron’s deed of donation, 
without presentation, institution, or induction. 

EACUS, the fabled son of Jupiter and Egina, and king of Egina ; father of Telamon 
and Peleus. He was so renowned for justice that not only men, but the gods, sought for 
his decisions. After death, Pluto made him one of the judges in Hades. 


ED'ILES, Roman magistrates, who had the care of public buildings (edes), especially 
the temples, and also attended to the cleansing and repairing of the streets, the prepara- 
tions for funerals, public games and spectacles, the inspection of weights and measures, 
the regulation of markets, etc.—At first there were only two A‘., who were chosen from 
the plebeians, and styled #7. plebis; afterwards, two others, styled 7. curules, were 
chosen from the patricians (866 B.c.), and Julius Ceesar appointed a new order of &. 
cereales to take charge of the public granaries. 


EDUI, or Hepwr, a people of Celtic Gaul, between the Sadne and Loire. They were 
the first Gallic tribe that joined in the alliance against the Romans, who had relieved 
them from a German tyrant. They fought against Julius Cesar, but were overthrown. 
Bibracte (now Autun in Burgundy) was their chief town. 

ZEGE’AN SEA. See ARCHIPELAGO. 


ZGI'NA, now written Egina, an island forming part’of the kingdom of Greece, of 
about 40 sq.m. in area, in the ancient Saronicus Sinus, now the gulf of Egina. It is 
mountainous, with deep valleys and chasms; and the coast affords only one haven on the 
n.w. The modern t. of Egina stands on the site of the ancient t., at the n.w. end of the 
island. The island contains about 7000 inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in trade, 
navigation and agriculture. The soil produces the best almonds in Greece, with wine, 
oil, corn and various fruits. Partridges abound in such numbers that the people find it 
necessary to thin them by destroying their eggs. The most ancient name of the island 
was (Enone, and, according to tradition, the Myrmidons dwelt in its valleys and caverns. 
In ancient times, the people of 4. had considerable importance in Greece; and their 
fleet distinguished itself for valor in the battle of Salamis. Their prosperity excited the 
envy of the Athenians, who made the island tributary, and afterwards expelled altogether 
the original inhabitants. The language, manners, and style of art among the ancient 
people of AX. were Dorian. 


EGINE'TA, Pavuws, a surgeon of the island of Aigina, probably in the 7the. He 
was a man of great knowledge, and leftasynopsis of medicine, in seven books, of which 
the one on surgery is particularly interesting. He was the first writer to notice the 
cathartic properties of rhubarb, and the first physician. who deserved the title of 
accoucheur. 


ZEGINE’TAN SCULPTURES. The small island of gina holds an important position 
in the history of Grecian art. A severely natural character belongs to its works of sculp- 
ture, of which several have been discovered in modern times. On an eminence in the 
eastern part of the island stand the ruins of a temple, usually called the temple of Jupiter 
Panhellenius, but now believed to have been a temple of Pallas or Minerva. Among 
these ruins a series of statues were excavated by a company of Germans, Danes and 
Englishmen, which, in 1811, were purchased by Louis, then crown-prince of Bavaria, and 
are now the most remarkable ornaments of the Glyptothek at Munich. They are of vari- 
ous heights, and were evidently intended to decorate the tympana of the temple beside 
which they were found. The group that seems to have been designed for the hinder 
tympanum is superior in preservation, and represents a combat of Greeks and Trojans 
for the body of a fallen hero. The other group is the contest of Telamon with Laome- 


, 


ZEgir. 114 


4Epinus. 


don. The figures are true to nature, as in the old Greek style, with the structure of 
bones, muscles, and even veins, distinctiy marked; but the faces have that unpleasant, 
forced smile which is characteristic of all sculpture before the time of Pihidias. 


ZEGIR (Anglo-Sax., eager, ‘‘the sea’), a Norse god, presiding over stormy oceans, who 
entertains the gods in harvest time. The name survives in England, where a sudden 
wave or ‘‘ bore” running into a river from the sea is called an eygre, or eager. 


EGIS, the shield of Jupiter, which had been fashioned by Hephestus (Vulcan). When 
Jupiter was angry, he waved and shook the /4., making a sound like that of a tempest, 
by which the nations were overawed. The Al. was the symbol of divine protection, and 
became, in course of time, the exclusive attribute of Jupiter and Minerva. 

EGIS'THUS, a king of Mycenex, adopted son of Atreus. He was a cousin of Aga- 
memnon, whose wife, Clytemnestra, he seduced, and he was slain by Agamemnon’s son 
Orestes. If Greek writers are to be believed, the family relations of Mgisthus were 
abominable. 

E'GIUM, an ancient city of Greece, for a time the chief city in the Achzxan league. 
It was on the Salinus river. In Aug., 1817, an earthquake destroyed more than half of 
the houses of the modern town. 


E'GLE, a genus of plants of the natural order awrantiacee (q.v.), distinguished by a. 
five-toothed calyx, linear elongate mucronate anthers, and a many-celled fruit. 4. mar- 
melos, the tree which produces the dhel fruit of India, has ternate, petiolate, ovato-oblong 
leaves, and the flowers in panicles. It is found from the s. of India to the base of the 
Himalaya mountains. The fruit is delicious, fragrant and nutritious. In an imperfectly 
ripened state it is an astringent of great effect in cases of diarrhea and dysentery, and 
as such has lately been introduced into English medical practice. The root, bark and 
leaves are also used as medicinal. The Dutch in Ceylon prepare a perfumé from the 
rind of the fruit, and the mucus of the seed is employed as a cement for many purposes. 


ZEGOSPOT’AMI, or AXGospoTamos (Gr. goat-river), in the Thracian Chersonese, is 
famous for the defeat of the Athenian fleet by the Lacedemonians under Lysander, 
which put an end to the Peloponnesian war and to the predominance of Athens in 
Greece, 405 B.C. 


EGYP’'TUS, son of Belus, brother of Danaus, and king of Arabia, who conquered 
the region to which he gave the name Egypt. The poetic legend was that he had fifty 
sons, all but one of whom, Lynceus, were murdered by the same number of daughters of 
Danaus, whom they had married. See DANauvs. 


EL'FRIC, or AuFRIC, a distinguished Saxon ecclesiastic of the 10th c., regarding 
whose age, writings, and personality even, there has been a great difference of opinion 
amongst antiquaries. He appears to have been the son of the ealderman or eari of Kent; 
but early manifesting a devotional spirit, he entered the monastery of Abingdon, the 
members of which belonged to the Benedictine order. Towards the closé of the 10th c., 
he became a priest in the cathedral of Winchester. He was next appointed abbot of St. 
Albans, then bishop of Wilton, and finally archbishop of York, although others appear 
to think him that A. who was archbishop of Canterbury. 4i., archbishop of York, died 
in 1050; 4., archbishop of Canterbury, in 1005. The writer X., whether of York or of 
Canterbury, was a man of superior attainments for his time, of excellent character, and 
one whose religious convictions were less.disfigured by superstition than those of his. 
contemporaries. The principal works ascribed to 4. are—1. A Latin and Saxon glossary, 
printed at Oxford in 1659; 2. A Saxon version of most of the historical books of the Old. 
Testament; 3. A charge to his clergy; 4. Two volumes of Saxon homilies; 5. A Saxon 
grammar in Latin. 

E'LIA CAPITOLI'NA, the name given to Jerusalem by Hadrian, who expelled the 
Jews for rebellion, and colonized the city with Romans. The name continued until the 
time of the Christian emperors. 


ZALIA'NUS, CLavupius, an Italian writer early in the 8d c. His works are Varia 
Historia and De Animalium Natura, and are written in Greek. 


ELOTROPY, from Greek words meaning ‘‘ changeful” or ‘‘ turning,” signifies that 
change which takes place in the physical properties of a body, caused by change of 
position, e.g., the refractive property of a transparent body is not the same in all direc- 
tions. The exlotropy of Iceland spar is a fine illustration of this. lotropy is the 
opposite of isotropy (q.v.). 

ZEMILIAN PROVINCES. See Emiuian PROVINCES. 


EMILTIUS PAULUS, The most remarkable of this name was the son of the consul 
/#. P., who fell in the battle of Canne, 216 B.c. Young Amilius inherited his father’s 
valor, and enjoyed an unwonted degree of public esteem and confidence. In 168 B.c. he 
was elected consul for the second time, and intrusted with the war against Perseus, king 
of Macedon, whom he defeated in the battle of Pydna. During the war, his two younger 
sons died; and @. is said to have thanked the gods that they had been chosen as victims 
to avert calamity from the Roman people. 


ENE'AS, the hero of Virgil’s #neid, was, according to Homer, the son of Anchises 
and Venus, and was ranked next to Hector among the Trojan heroes. The traditions of 


JE gir. 
] 15 Enidue 


his adventures before and after the fall of Troy are various and discordant. Virgil gives 
the following version: Aineas, though warned by Priam in the night when the Greeks 
entered Troy, to take his household gods and flee from the city, remained in the contest 
until Priam fell, when, taking with him his family, he escaped from the Greeks, but in 
the confusion of his hasty flight, lost his wife Creusa. Having collected a fleet of twenty 
vessels, he sailed to Thrace, where he began building the city of Anos, but was terrified 
by an unfavorable omen, and abandoned his plan of a settlement here. A mistaken 
interpretation of the oracle of Delphi now led him to Crete; but from this place he was 
driven by a pestilence. Passing the promontory of Actium, he came to Epirus, and then 
continued his voyage to Italy and round Sicily to the promontory of Drepanum on the 
w., where his father, Anchises, died. A storm afterwards drove him to the coast of 
Africa, and landing near Carthage, he was hospitably received and entertained by queen 
Dido. His marriage with Dido was prevented by Jupiter, who sent Mercury with a 
command that Aineas must return to Italy. Accordingly, he sailed away, leaving the 
disappointed queen, who committed suicide. During his stay in Sicily, where he cele- 
brated the funeral of his father, the wives of his companions and seamen, weary of long 
voyages without certainty of finding a home, set fire to his fleet. After building the city 
Acesta, he sailed for Italy, leaving behind him the women, and some of the men belong- 
ing to his fleet. On landing in Italy, he visited the Sibyl at Cume, and received intima- 
tions of his future destiny. Then, sailing along the Tiber, and landing on the e. side of 
the river, he found himself in the country of Latinus, king of the Aborigines. Lavinia, 
the daughter of Latinus, had been destined to marry a stranger; but her mother had 
promised to give her in marriage to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. A war ensued, which 
terminated in the marriage of Aineas with Lavinia. Their son, AUNEAS SyLvius, as the 
ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and also of Romulus and Remus, was regarded as 
the founder of the Roman empire. It is hardly necessary to add that all these state- 
ments are merely mythical, having no historical basis. See Roms. 


ZENEAS SILVIUS. See Pius II. 


ENIA'NES, a tribe of upper Greece of uncertain origin, noticed by Plutarch. They 
made many migrations. Their chief t. was Hypata, remains of which exist at Neopatra. 
They are said to have belonged to the Amphyctionic council, and to have joined the con- 
federacy against Macedonia; but Strabo says that at this time they had no existence. 


#L0'LIAN HARP, a very simple musical instrument which produces harmonic sounds 
when placed in a current of wind. It is formed by stretching eight or ten strings of cat- 
gut, all tuned in unison, over a wooden shell or box, made generally in a form sloping 
like a desk. ‘The sounds produced by the rising and falling wind, in passing over the 
strings, are of a drowsy and lulling character, and have been beautifully described by the 
poet Thomson, as supplying the most suitable kind of music for the Castle of Indolence. 


#Z0'LIAN ISLES. See Lipari ISLANDS.’ 


E0'LIANS, one of the principal races of the Greek people, who were originally settled 
in Thessaly, from which they spread and formed numerous settlements in the northern 
parts of Greece and in the w. of Peloponnesus. In the 11th c. B.c., some part of them 
emigrated to Asia Minor, where they founded, on the n.w. coast in Mysia, and the 
adjacent isles, more than thirty cities; among them Smyrna, and Mitylene in the island 
of Lesbos, where the A®olian dialect of the Greek language chiefly developed itself in the 
forms employed in the poetry of Alcseus and Sappho. The Xolian shared the fate of the 
other Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, First oppressed by the Lydian kings, then 
deprived of their independence by the Persians, they became a portion of the great 
empire founded by Alexander, and, passing through a stage of subjection to the dynasty 
of the Seleucid, were ultimately absorbed in the Roman empire. 

ZLOL'IPYLE, or AZouiPILE a hollow metal ball with one or two inner tubes curved 
in opposite directions and connecting with surface orifices. Used, when filled with water 
or alcohol, to show the force of steam, or as a blow-pipe for lamp flame. The ancients 
thought it illustrated the origin of winds ; hence the name, from @olus and pila, a ‘‘ ball.” 


E'OLIS, district of Asia Minor, on the coast of Mysia, including Troas to the shore 
of the Hellespont. In the s. part there were twelve cities which formed the Molian 
league ; of them, Cyme and Smyrna were the most famous. 

E'OLUS, son of Hellen, brother of Dorus, and father of Sisyphus. He ruled over 
Thessaly, and is said to have been the founder of the AXolic branch of the Greek race. 

E'OLUS, god of the winds; a favorite of Juno. He was supposed to dwell in a vast 
cave in the Aolian islands, keeping the winds in bags, and letting them out as demanded 
by Neptune. 

E'ON, a Greek word signifying an age, and also eternity. The Gnostics spoke 
of Mons, in a peculiar sense, as powers that had emanated from God before the 
beginning of time, and existed as distinct entities or spirits. They were called Aong 
either as partaking of the eternal existence of God or because they were thought to 
preside over the various ages and transformations of the world. See GNosrics, 

EPI'NUS, Franz Utricu TuHeEopor, 1724-1802: a descendant of Johann; professor 
of medicine and natural philosophy; experimenter in electricity, and inventor of the 
electric condenser and electrophorus. He wrote a work to establish a new theory of 


. 


ZEpinus. 
AckodPasmicn: 1 1 6 


electricity, endeavoring to subject its phenomena to mathematical analysis. Catherine 
II., empress of Russia, made him teacher to her son Paul, and inspector-general of the 
normal schools which she proposed to establish. He discovered the electric properties of 


tourmaline. 

EPINUS, Joann, 1499-1553 ; a German Protestant divine, a disciple of Luther, in 
whose behalf he suffered arrest, although he had the most influence of any divine in n. 
Germany. He was a pastor in Hamburg, and one of the signers of the articles of 
Schmalkalden; was the author of polemical books, and was moderately upheld by 
Melanchthon. 

EQUI, an ancient warlike tribe of central Italy ; obstinate enemies of the early 
Romans, against whom they made alliances with the Volsci. They were defeated by 
Camillus, 389 B.c., and soon afterwards were quite subdued. Mt. Algidus was one of 
their strongholds, whence they raided on Rome. 


ERA'RIANS, a class in Rome having no social position now definable, and having 
no civil rights beyond the mere protection of the state. For bad conduct any citizen 
might be degraded to this condition, but not for life. Persons declared infamous became 
of this class, and it probably included itinerant retail merchants. They were taxed, but 
were not subject to military service. 


ERA'RIUM, the public treasury of ancient Rome, containing the money and accounts 
of the states, the standards of the legions, the public laws engraved in brass, the decrees of 
the senate, and other documents of importance. The temple of Saturn was the place of 
deposit. Besides this common treasury, replenished by general taxes and charged with 
ordinary expenditures, there wasa reserve treasury, maintained by a tax of 5 per cent on 
the value of manumitted slaves, which was not to be resorted to or ever. entered except in 
extreme necessity, In addition to the treasuries, the emperor had a ‘‘fiscus,” or separate 
exchequer. Augustus established a military treasury to contain all money for the main- 
tenance of the army. Later emperors had separate private 4., containing the moneys 
appropriated to their private use. 


A’ERATED BREAD is prepared by a process which insures rapidity of manufacture, 
purity, cleanliness and the prevention of waste. In ordinary bread-making, wheat-flour is 
moistened with water and worked into dough, to which common salt and yeast are added. 
The latter causes the flour to ferment or decompose, when carbonic acid is given off at 
every part; and when the fermented dough is placed in an oven, the bubbles of carbonic 
acid gas expand, and cause the formation of the spongy mass characteristic of good loaf- 
bread. The process of preparing A. B. consists in placing the flour in a strong inclosed iron 
box, and moistening it with carbonic acid water, prepared as stated under A. WATERS. 
The dough is then worked up by machinery for ten minutes or so inside the box, from 
which it is dropped into molds, which form, it into loaves. Itis then placed in an oven, 
when the carbonicacid, previously introduced with the water within the dough, expands, 
and forms a light palatable bread. The advantages which this method of working bread 
possesses are—1. There is a saving of the whole of the waste caused by fermentation, 
which admits of more bread being made out of a sack of flour than by the old process. 
2. The process, instead of occupying eight or ten hours, is completed in half an hour 
3. The cost of machinery and gas is less than that of yeast used in the old process. 4. 
The dough requires no handling to knead it and form it into loaves. 5. The bread isabso- 
lutely pure—it is simply flour, water and salt. Finally, should the whole of the bread 
in the kingdom be thus made, a very considerable saving would be effected in the con- 
sumption of flour. 


A'ERATED WATERS are employed largely as refreshing, refrigerant beverages to allay 
thirst during warm weather, and during feverish conditions of the animal frame. The 
2 = is 2 most common A, beverage is carbonic acid 

7 5 water, generally spoken of as soda-water, 
though it seldom contains any soda. It is 
prepared on the large scale by placing whit- 
ing, chalk, or carbonate of lime (CaCO3;) in 
a lead vessel with water and sulphuric acid 
(H.SO,), when the sulphuric acid combines 
with the lime to form stucco or sulphate of 
lime (CaSO,), and carbonic acid (CQOz) is 
evolved as gas. The latter is received in a 
reservoir, and is thereafter forced into water, 
so that the latter dissolves about five times 
its own volume of the gas. The water then 
constitutes a brisk sparkling liquid, with a 
pungent but pleasant acidulous taste. On 
the small scale, and for family use, carbonic 
acid water may be conveniently prepared in 
the apparatus known as the gazogene or seltzo- 
gene. The complete apparatus is seen at A, and dissected at Band C. In proceeding 
to use the vessel, the lower globe at B is filled with water by means of the long funnel 


GAZOGENE. 


11 7 Z®pinus. 


Aerodynamics, 


E, taking care that no water runs into the smaller and upper division. The powders, 


consisting of bicarbonate of soda (NaHCO,) and tartaric acid (C1H6Q6), are then placed 
in the upper globe by means of the small funnel D, and care is taken, by plugging up 
the tube communicating with the lower part by the stopper F, that no powder passes 
into the larger globe. The long tube, C,is then inserted into the globes, and screwed 
well in. The apparatus is inclined till water from the lower globe enters and fills the 
upper globe about one third; then it is placed erect, and allowed to be at rest for two 
hours, when, if the screw stop-cock at the upper part be opened, the carbonated water 
will flow out readily into any vessel placed to receive it. The explanation of the action 
which goes on in the vessel is that tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda have no action 
on each other so long as they are dry; but whenever water is admitted, the tartaric acid 
combines with the soda to form tartrate of soda and water (NasC,H.,0O.), and at the 
same time carbonic acid (COz) is given off, and descending the tube into the lower 
globe, dissolves in the water contained therein. Occasionally, bisulphate of potash is 
used instead of the tartaric acid, to save the greater expense of the latter.—The gazo- 
genes can likewise be used in the preparation of true soda-water, or eau de vichy, by 
adding a little carbonate of soda to the water in the lower globe before charging with 
carbonic acid. A. wine may be obtained by placing white wine with a little sugar-candy 
in the lower globe instead of water. Sparkling lemonade is procured when the carbonic 
acid water is run into atumbler containing a little syrup of sugar; and A. fruzt-beverages, 
when the water charged with carbonic acid is received in a glass containing about a 
table-spoonful of any of the fruit-syrups. 

The less common A. W., prepared on the large scale, are—1. A. soda-water (true 
soda-water), obtained by adding 15 gr. of crystallized carbonate of soda to each bottle 
before it is charged with the carbonic acid water; 2. A. potash-water, by employing in a 
similar way 20 gr. of bicarbonate of potash; 3. A. selters-water, when carbonate of soda 
and chloride of sodium (common salt) are dissolved in carbonic acid water; 4. A. carrara- 
water, when finely divided Carrara marble is dissolved in the acid-charged water; 5. A, 
lime-water, when other forms of lime than the Carrara marble are used; 6. A. maynesian- 
water, when magnesia, or the carbonate of magnesia, is used; and A. chalybeate-water, 
when a compound of iron is dissolved in the carbonic acid water. The latter beverage 
has lately been employed in medicine, as an easy means of introducing iron into the 
blood, and with good effect. A. Carrara and lime waters are now administered in cases 
where the bony structure requires to be strengthened, and A. magnesia-water is a very 
agreeable mode of giving a patient a dose of magnesia. The well-known effervescing 
draughts called soda-powders and seidlitz-powders are two other kinds of A. drinks. In 
the former, bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid are added to water in a tumbler, and a 
refreshing draught instantaneously prepared. Sezdlitz-powders contain tartrate of soda 
and bicarbonate of soda in one paper, and tartaric acid in the other; and when both are 
added to the water, effervescence ensues, and the liquid is then partaken of. 

A.W. likewise occur naturally. Water, asitisdrawn fromaspring, tastes differently 
from the same water after being boiled and cooled; and this is due to the unboiled water 
containing the gases oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid—especially the latter—dissolved 
init. Spring-water is therefore a natural A. beverage. Rain-water hasa mawkish, insipid 
taste, mainly because of the minute quantity of gas therein dissolved; but when that 
rain-water trickles down the mountain-side, and is dashed from ledge to ledge of rock, it 
absorbs and dissolves the gases from the air, and is thus naturally aérated. Many 
waters are aérated in a natural but peculiar way, which confers upon them important 
medicinal properties; and these will come before us under their more popular title of - 
mineral-waters. 


AEF'RIAL POISONS, See Missma. 


AE'RIANS, a sect founded by Aérius of Pontus, who opposed prayers for the dead, 
the keeping of Easter, and certain forms of church government, holding no difference 
between a bishop and a presbyter. 


AERODYNAMTCS is that branch of science which treats of air and other gases in 
motion. It examines first the phenomena of air issuing from a vessel, which correspond 
in many respects with those of water. See HypropyNamics. Much depends, as in the 
case of water, upon the nature of the orifice, whether a mere hole in the side of the vessel, 
or a tube or adjutage. Another subject of A. is the motion of air in long tubes, where 
the resistance of friction, etc., has to be ascertained. That resistance is found to be 
nearly in proportion to the square of the velocity, to the length of the tube, and inversely 
to its width. A. examines also the velocity of air rushing into a vacuum, of wind, etc. 
The instrument used for the latter purpose is called an anemometer. See Winp. Air 
is found to rush into a void space at the rate of from 1300 to 1400 ft. per second. One 
of the most important inquiries in A. is the resistance offered to a body moving in air, 
or—which is the same thing—the pressure exerted by air in motion upon a body at rest. 
The law may be stated, with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, as follows: The 
resistance or pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity. We might conclude from 
reason, without experiment, that such would be the case; for if one body is moving 
through the air four times faster than another of the same size, not only will it encounter 


Aeroe. if 7 8 


Aerolites. 


four times as many particles of air, but it will give each of them four times as great an 
impulse or shock, and thus encounter 4 X 4, or sixteen times as much resistance. 

This resistance is greatly increased by another circumstance, especially with great 
velocities. The air in front of the moving body becomes accumulated or condensed, and 
a partial or even entire vacuum is formed behindit. Witha velocity of 1700 ft. per second, 
for instance, the resistance is found to be about three times as great as the simple law of 
the square of the velocity would give. By the operation of these laws of resistance, a 
heavy body let fall with a parachute attached to it, comes, after a certain time, to move 
with a velocity approaching more and more nearly to a uniform motion. 


A'E’ROE, or ARROE, an island in the Baltic, 10 m. s. of Funen; 14 m., long and 5 
wide ; it has a port and is well cultivated ; pop. 12,400. It belongs to Denmark, and 
the capital, Aéroesjkobing, is a port of some shipping importance. 


AEROKLI'NOSCOPE, an instrument to show differences of barometric pressure at 
remote stations. It consists of a vertical axis 30 ft. high, turning on a pivot, carrying at 
the top a horizontal arm, of which the inclination can be varied according to the differ- 
ence of barometric pressure at different sides of the station; the amount of dip being 
indicated by a sliding rod held in position by graded notches at the lower part of the 
axis, each notch corresponding with one millimeter in pressure. It is used in the 
weather service. 

A'‘EROLITES (Gr. ger, air, and Uithos, stone), or METEORIC SToNnEs, FrREBALLS, and 
SHOOTING-STARS, are now Classed together as being mefély varieties of the same 
phenomenon. A. that fall during the day are observed to be projected from a small 
dark cloud, accompanied by a noise like thunder or the firing of cannon; at night 
they proceed from a fireball, which splits into fragments with a similar sound. It is 
believed that the dark cloud that accompanies the fall of A. by day would be luminous 
at night; and smoking, exploding fireballs have sometimes been seen luminous even in 
the brightness of tropical daylight. The connection between A. and fireballs is thus 
established. Fireballs, again, cannot be separated from shooting-stars, the two pheno- 
mena being sometimes blended, and also being found to merge into one another, both 
with respect to the size of their disks, the emanation of sparks, and the velocities of 
their motion. 

There are numerous records and stories in all ages and countries of the fall of stones 
from the sky, but until recent times they were treated by philosophers as instances of 
popular credulity and superstition. It was not till the beginning of the 19th c. that the 
fact was established beyond a doubt.—According to Livy, a shower of stones fell on the 
Alban mount, not far from Rome, about 654 B.c. The fall of a great stone at gospo- 
tami, about 467 B.c., is recorded in the Parian Chronicle (see ARUNDEL MARBLES), and 
by Plutarch and Pliny. It was still shown in the days of Pliny (d. 79 a.p.), who 
describes it as the size of a wagon, and of a burned color. In the year 1492 a.p., a 
ponderous stone, weighing 260 lbs., fell from the sky near the village of Ensisheim, in 
Alsace; part of it is still to be seen in the village church. An extraordinary shower of 
stones fell near L’Aigle, in Normandy, on the 26th April, 1803. The celebrated French 
philosopher, M. Biot, was deputed by government to repair to the spot and collect the 
authentic facts; and since the date of his report the reality of such occurrences has no 
longer been questioned. Nearly all the inhabitants of a large district had seen the cloud, 
heard the noises, and observed the stones fall. Within an elliptical area of seven m. by 
three, the number of stones that had fallen could not be less than two or three thousand; 
the largest were 17 lbs. in weight. These are only a few out of hundreds of instances 
on record. 

As was natural with objects of such mysterious origin, meteoric stones have always 
been regarded with religious veneration. At Emesa, in Syria, the sun was worshiped 
under the form of a black stone, reported to have fallen from heaven. The holy Kaaba 
of Mecca, and the great stone of the pyramid of Cholula, in Mexico, have all the same . 
history. : 

The existence of such bodies once admitted, led to assigning a meteoric character to 
strange ferruginous masses found in different countries, and which had no history, or 
were only adverted to in vague tradition. Of this kind is the immense mass seen by 
Pallas in Siberia, now in the imperial museum at St. Petersburg. The largest known is 
one in Brazil, estimated at 14,000 lbs. 

One constant characteristic of meteoric stones is the fused black crust, like varnish, 
with which the surface is coated. From the circumstance of this coat being very thin, 
and separated from the inner mass by a sharply defined line, it is thought to indicate 
some rapid action of heat which has not had time to penetrate into the substance of the 
stone. This view is favored by the fact that the stones are found in a strongly heated 
but not incandescent state when they fall. Their specific gravity ranges from two to 
seven or even eight times that of water.—As to their chemical composition, the predomi- 
nating element is iron, in a native or metallic state, generally combined with a small 
proportion of nickel. According to Humboldt, the A. that fell in the neighborhood of 
Agram, in Croatia, in 1751, the Siberian stone, and specimens brought by that philoso- 
pher from Mexico, contain 96 per cent of iron; while in those of Sienna the iron scarcely 
amounts to 2 per cent, and, in some rare instances, metallic iron is altogether wanting. 


er 9g Aeroe. 


Aerolites, 


A writer in the Quarterly Review, No. CLXXXIII., thus sums up the result of all the 
chemical analyses hitherto made: ‘‘ We find the actual number of recognized elements 
discovered in A. to be nineteen or twenty—that is, about one third of the whole number 
of elementary substances (or what we are yet forced to regard as such) discovered on the 
earth. Further, all these A. elements actually exist in the earth, though never similarly 
combined there. No new substance has hitherto come to us from without; and the most 
abundant of our terrestrial metals, iron, is that which is largely predominant in A.., 
forming frequently, as in some of the instances just mentioned, upwards of 90 parts in 
100 of the mass. Seven other metals—copper, tin, nickel, cobalt, chrome, manganese, 
and molybdena—enter variously into the composition of these stones. Cobalt and nickel 
are the most invariably present; but the proportion of all is trifling compared with that 
of iron. Further, there have been found in different A. six alkalies and earths—namely, 
soda, potash, magnesia, lime, silica and alumina; and, in addition to these, carbon, 
sulphur, phosphorus and hydrogen. Finally, oxygen must also be named as a con- 
stituent of many A., entering into the composition of several of the substances just 
mentioned. As respects the manner of conjunction of these elements, it is exceedingly 
various in different A. A few there are, especially examined by Berzelius and Rose, 
containing olivine, augite, hornblende and other earthy minerals, and closely resembling 
certain crystalline compounds which we find on the surface of the earth.” 

Besides those solid masses of considerable size, numerous instances are on record of 
showers of dust over large tracts of land; and it is remarkable that such dust has 
generally been found to contain small hard angular grains resembling augite. Stories of 
the fall of gelatinous masses from the sky are ranked by Humboldt among the mythical 
fables of meteorology. It has been supposed that such fables may have originated in 
the very rapid growth of gelatinous alge, as Wostoc (q.v.). 

Firebalis and Shooting-stars.—From the height and apparent diameter, the actual 
diameter of the largest fire balls is estimated by Humboldt to vary from 500 to 2800 ft. ; 
others allow a diameter of about a mile. Shooting-stars are much smaller, their weight 
varying from 30 grains to 7 lbs. In most cases of luminous meteors, a train of light 
many miles in length is left behind. One or two instances are on record where the train 
of the fireball continued shining for an hour after the body disappeared. The heights of 
shooting-stars are found to range from 15 to 150 m. at the points at which they begin 
and cease to be visible. Their velocities vary from 18 to 86m. in asecond. When it is 
remempered that the velocity of Mercury in its orbit is 26.4m. in a second, of Venus 19.2, 
and of the earth 16.4, we have in this fact a strong confirmation of the planetary nature 
of meteorites. 

One of the most remarkable facts connected with shooting-stars is, that certain 
appearances of them are periodic. On most occasions they are sporadic—that is, they 
appear singly, and traverse the sky in all directions. At other times they appear in swarms 
of thousands, moving parallel; and these swarms are periodic, or recur on the same days 
of the year. Attention was first directed to this fact on occasion of the prodigious swarm 
which appeared in N. America between the 12th and 18th of Nov., 1833, described by 
Prof. Olmsted, of New Haven. The stars fell on this occasion like flakes of snow, 
to the number, as was estimated, of 240,000, in the space of nine hours, and varying in 
size from a moving point or phosphorescent line to globes of the moon’s diameter. The 
most important observation made was that they all appeared to proceed from the same 
quarter of the heavens—the vicinity, namely, of the star v, in the constellation Leo; and 
although that star had changed greatly its height and azimuth during the time that the 
phenomenon lasted, they continued to issue from the same point. It was afterwards 
eomputed by Encke that this point was the very direction in which the earth was mov- 
ing in her orbit at the time. Attention being directed to recorded appearances of the same 
kind, it was observed with surprise that several of the most remarkable had occurred on 
the same day of Nov., especially that seen by Humboldt at Cumana in 1799, and by other 
observers over a great extent of the earth. The November stream was again observed in 
the U. S. in 1834, between the 13th and 14th, though less intense. Though often vague, 
and in some years altogether absent, this phenomenon has recurred with such regularity, 
both in America and Europe, as to establish its periodic character. 

Another periodic swarm of considerable regularity is that appearing between the 9th 
and the 14th of Aug., and noticed in ancient legends as the ‘‘ fiery tears” of St. Lawrence, 
whose festival is on the 10th of that month, There are other periodic appearances, and 
Humboldt gives the following epochs as especially worthy of remark: 22d to 25th of 
April; 17th of July; 10th of Aug. ; 12th to 14th of Nov. ; 27th to 29th of Nov. ; 6th to 12th 
of December. 

It remains to notice briefly the various opinions that have been advanced as to the 
origin of aérolites, and the theory of meteors in general. The hypotheses that have been 
formed in answer to the question—Whence come those solid masses that fall upon the 
earth?—are of two kinds; some ascribing to them a telluric origin, and others making 
them alien to the earth. Of the first kind is the conjecture that they may be stones 
ejected from terrestrial volcanoes, revolving for a time along with the earth, and at last 
returning to it. Anothertheory, which at one time found considerable favor, supposed 
that the matter of which aérolites are composed existed in the atmosphere in the form of 
vapor, and was by some unknown cause suddenly aggregated and precipitated to the 


A ronautics. 
Zischylus. 120 


earth. These conjectures are untenable in the face of the facts of the phenomena stated 
above, and are now completely given up. ; 

In seeking a source beyond the earth, the moon readily presented itself. Olbers was 
the first to investigate (1795) the initial velocity necessary to bring to the earth masses 
projected from the moon. This ‘“ ballistic problem,” as Humboldt calls it, occupied, 
during ten or twelve years the geometricians Laplace, Biot, Brandes and Poisson. It was 
calculated that, setting aside the resistance of air, an initial velocity of about 8000ft. ina 
second, which is about five or six times that of a cannon-ball, would suffice to bring the 
stones to the earth with a velocityof 35,000 ft. But Olbers has shown that to account for the 
actual measured velocity of meteoric stones, the original velocity of projection must be 
fourteen times greater than the above. It is against this lunar theory, that we have no 
proof of active volcanoes now existing in the moon; and with the improvement of the 
telescope, the probability of the contrary is increasing. It is, accordingly, giving place 
to the planetary theory, which we noticed at the outset. ) 

The discussion of hypotheses as to the genesis of the recognized planets out of por- 
tions of the gradually contracting vaporous mass of the sun; the continued discovery of 
hitherto unobserved planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter; the countless multi- 
tudes of comets that are observed traversing our system in all directions, and undergoing 
appreciable alteration both of consistency and orbit—all prepare us for the idea that mat- 
ter may exist in the inter-planetary spaces, in every variety of form and condition. To 
account for the phenomena of meteors as above described, we must suppose that there 
are both detached masses, each revolving in an independent orbit, and giving rise to spo- 
radic meteors; and also connected systems, forming rings or zones round the sun. The 
intersection of the earth’s orbit by such zones or streams would account for the periodic 
swarms of meteors; and if we suppose the asteroids composing it to be irregularly grouped, 
we see a reason why the same stream should not be always of equal intensity. There 
may even be periodicity in this respect too. Between 1799 and 1833—two of the most 
brilliant manifestations of the November stream on record—there elapsed 34 years; and 
the next brilliant appearances were in 1866 and 1867, as Olbers had predicted. 

What causes the luminous and ignited condition of aérolites? Terrestrial magnetism 
was at one time suggested as the exciting cause. It is now recognized, however, that the 
atmosphere extends, although in a very rare condition, to at least a height of 200 m., and 
the ignition is believed to be caused by friction between the rapidly moving body and the 
air. As to meteors unattended by aérolites, we may suppose that some are merely de- 
flected from their path by the proximity of the earth, are rendered luminous through a 
short arc, and continue their course with altered orbit, while the greater part are soon 
burnt up and fall to the earth in impalpable dust. See Mrerrors. See illus., METEOR 
oLoey, vol. IX. ; Microscopic PicTuREs, vol. IX. 


AERONAUTICS, the art of navigating the air. See BALLOON and FLYING FLIGHT. 


AEROPHYTES. See EPIPHYTES. 


AEROSTATIC PRESS, This is a machine used for extracting the coloring-matter 
from dye-woods and such like. A vessel is divided by a horizontal partition pierced with 
small holes. Upon this the substance containing the color is laid, and a cover, also per- 
forated, is placed upon it. The extracting liquid is then poured on the top, and the air 
being drawn from the under part of the vessel by a pump, the liquid is forced through the 
substance by the pressure of the atmosphere. 


AEROSTATICS, This branch of science treats of the equilibrium and pressure of air 
and other gases, and of the methods of measuring it by the barometer and other instru- 
ments. The expansive force or pressure of atmospheric air varies with time and place. 
In a medium condition of the atmosphere, and near the sea-level, barometrical observa- 
tions give the pressure or weight equal to that of a column of mercury, 30 inches high, or 
of a column of water about 34 feet high. This makes the mean pressure of the atmos- 
phere nearly 15 lbs. on every sq.in. This mean pressure of the atmosphere is generally 
taken as the unit or measure of expansive or elastic forces generally; any particular pres- 
sure is said to be equal to so many atmospheres. <A. also investigates the phenom- 
ena of the compression of gases; in other words, the relation between the pressure 
and the density and volume of agas. According to the experiments of Boyle & Mariott 
the volume of a gas at uniform temperature varies inversely as the pressure to which it 
is subjected. In the experimental testing of this law it is of course necessary, after 
compressing or expanding the gas, to cool it in the former case or heat it in the latter, in 
order to bring the gas to its original temperature. This law is assumed to be correct 
for the ideally perfect gas, and is very nearly correct for air. The density of a gas 
varies inversely as the volume, and on account of its weight and compressibility the 
density will also vary as some function of the height of the gas, At heights above the 
sea level taken in arithmetical progression the atmospheric pressure diminishes in 
geometrical progression. At 5000 feet the barometer stands at 24.7 in.; at 10,000 ft. 
20.5 in.; at 15,000, 16.9 in.; and at 5 miles, 8.9 in. This furnishes a means of measuring 
heights by the barometer (q.v.). Gay-Lussac found by experiment that the increase of 
pressure in a fixed volume of gas is directly proportional to its increase of temperature. 
For a perfect gas the expansion for 1° F, is equal to zA;-z and for 1° C. z4z of its bulk. 


Ae autics. 
121 achyius) 


These figures are sufficiently accurate for air and several of the more perfect gases. 
An extension of the law of uniform expansion leads to the theory that at —274° ©. the 
perfect gas would be destitute of volume and pressure, and would be absolutely deprived 
of heat. The absolute zero of temperature is therefore considered as —274° C. Absolute 
temperatures reckoned from this absolute zero have been found to greatly simplify 
mathematical formulas in regard to heat. 


ES'CHINES, an Athenian orator, second only to Demosthenes, whose contemporary and 
rival he was. Philip of Macedon was then pursuing his designs for the subjugation of 
the several Greek states to his own sway; and while Demosthenes advocated the policy of 
opposing him before it was too late, 42. was the head of the peace-party. AX. was a 
member of more than one embassy sent by the Athenians to deal with Philip; and 
Demosthenes accused him of receiving bribes from the Macedonian monarch, and of 
betraying the cause of Athens and of her allies. There is no proof that this was the case; 
and perhaps Au. was deceived by the wily Philip into believing that he meant no harm 
to the liberties of Athens, and that peace was the best policy for his countrymen. The 
result justified the sagacious fears of Demosthenes, and condemned the selfish, isolating 
policy of 42. When it was proposed to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown, for his 
patriotic exertions in defense of his country, Ai. brought an accusation of illegality against 
the proposer, Ctesiphon. Demosthenes replied, and Auschines being vanquished, and 
having thus incurred the penalty attached to an unfounded accusation, was obliged to 
retire from Athens. He finally established a school of eloquence in Rhodes, which 
enjoyed a high reputation. On one occasion, he read to his audience in Rhodes his 
oration against Ctesiphon; and some of them expressing their astonishment that he 
should have been defeated in spite of such a powerful display, he replied: ‘‘ You would 
cease to be astonished if you had heard Demosthenes.” The oration against Ctesiphon 
and two others are the only authentic productions of A“. that have come down to us. 
He was b. 389 B.c., and d. at Samos 3814 B.c. 


ESCHYLUS, one of the greatest names in the history of the Greek drama, the son of 
Euphorion, was born in the year 525 B.C., at Eleusis, a town of Attica, about six miles 
southwest from Athens. In the first Persian invasion, his brother was killed at the bat- 
tle of Marathon and he himself was severely wounded, and, during the second invasion, 
he took part in the battles of Salamis, Platea, and Artemisium. 

He was defeated by Simonides when they competed in elegies over those who fell at 
Marathon, and he contended, unsuccessfully, with Cheerilus, Pratinas, and Phrynichus, 
until in 468 B.C., he was awarded a prize for tragedy. Sophocles triumphed over him 
lin 468 B.C., but ten years later, he overcame Sophocles. He is reported to have won 
thirteen tragic victories. 

He visited Syracuse twice, and on the first occasion, made a prolonged stay at the 
invitation of Hiero, who was endeavoring to increase the literary importance of his capi- 
tal by gathering to it as many celebrities as possible. At the request of that king, 
fEschylus Wrote a local piece called the _Htneans in celebration of the founding of a 
city called AAtna on the site where Catana had anciently stood. The second visit of the 
poet to Sicily was made when he had been accused of treating with disrespect or of 
divulging the Eleusinian mysteries in his plays. He barely escaped conviction by the 
court of the Areopagus, and always cherished some resentment at what he regarded as 
an unfounded charge. 

He died at Gela in Sicily, 456 B.c. His death is said to have been caused by the fall of 
a tortoise on his head from the talons of an eagle that had mistaken the shiny bald spot 
for a rock convenient for cracking his prey. But the story is believed to have no better 
foundation than a mistaken interpretation of the scene inscribed on his monument. 
The citizens of Gela erected a splendid tomb to him, and the Athenians not only set up 
a statue to his memory, but offered a reward out of the public fund to any choregus who 
should present his plays. 

The period of productiveness in AAschylus extended over forty years, during which 
time he is said to have written ninety plays. The tragic plays were generally in groups 
of three, called trilogies, strung upon some connecting thread of motive and interest, 
and followed, in the presentation, by some satirical piece. Of such satirical pieces, 
ZEschylus is reported to have composed twenty, but they are included in the ninety 
referred to. There remain sixty titles conceded to be genuine, and many fragments, 
although only seven complete plays survive. Those remaining plays are the Suppliants 
(Supplices), the Persians (Persze), the Seven against Thebes (Septem contra Thebas), the 
Prometheus Bound (Vinctus) and the Oresteian trilogy, composed of the Agamemnon, the 
Libation Bearers (Cheephori) and the /urzes (Eumenides). 

The Suppliants was probably the earliest of the tragedies of Aischylus and has been 
attributed to the seventy-first or seventy-second Olympiac, about 496B.C. The daugh- 
ters of Danaus, the Danaids, are the ‘‘suppliants.” They are sought in marriage by 
their cousins, the sons of Hgyptus, whom they do not love. To escape this objection- 
able union, they have fled from Egypt to Argos in the hope of finding an asylum at 
the native place of the Argive Io, from whom they have descended. The succeeding 
piece of the trilogy was the Danaides, which records the marriage and the murder of 
the sons of Agyptus. The choice songs in the Suppliants are extremely fine. 

In order of time, the Persians is believed to have followed the Suppliants, and to have 
been produced in 472 B.C, It was the second piece of a trilogy preceded by the Phineus 


q seulapius. 1 9 2 


and followed by the Glaweus. The satyrical piece which completed the tetraiwgy was 
Prometheus Pyrphorus. The subject of the Persians was the battle of Salamis. The 
effect must have been indescribably thrilling since a large number of those in the audi- 
ence had taken part in the battle. The scene is laid at the Persian court and the chorus 
is composed of old men. In this play A%schylus advanced the dramatic art one step 
farther by introducing a second actor. He came in the person of the messenger who 
announced the disaster at Salamis. Previously never more than one speaking actor was 
present on the stage at a time, and if any dialogue occurred, it was carried on between 
that single actor and the chorus. <A ghost, too, makes its appearance in this play. The 
spirit of Darius rises at the invocation of Atossa, the mother of Xerxes, and accounts 
for the calamity that has overtaken the Persians. 

The Seven against Thebes was a favorite subject with the tragedians. This play of 
ZEschylus was brought out in 467 B.C., and, like all of his tragedies, was part of a trilogy. 
It was the third piece, the first having been called Laius and the second entitled Gidipus. 
‘The afterpiece was the Sphinx. The play presents the conflict between Eteocles and 
Polynices, the sons of Gidipus, who kept their father in strict confinement after he had 
blinded himself. Anger at this restraint led Gidipus to pray that, with the sword, they 
might divide the kingdom. To defeat the purpose of that prayer, the brothers agreed 
to reign alternate years, but Eteocles, the elder, once upon the throne, refused to sur- 
render control at the expiration of the first year. Polynices, having raised a large army 
at Argos, where he had married the daughter of king Adrastus, came to besiege Thebes, 
and he, with six other chieftains, arrayed themselves each before one of the seven gates. 

The Prometheus Bound, produced about 464 B.C., was the second part of a trilogy, 
and is supposed to have been followed by a Prometheus Unbound. The legend of the 
theft of fire by Prometheus is too well known to need repetition. The origin of the 
hero’s name has, at last, been revealed in the Sanskrit, where it has been found to 
designate a pointed stick which is used to generate fire by revolving it on a disk of 
wood. ‘The word is pramantha and sometimes pramathyus. That discovery has swept 
away as rubbish the fruits of much curious speculation. In the play, Strength and 
Force come upon the stage as assistants of Hephestus, and fasten Prometheus to 
a mountain of that Scythia in Europe which the Greeks used as a symbol of extreme 
distance. Io, transformed into a heifer, also comes to Prometheus and receives his sym- 
pathy, since she has suffered as much from the love of Zeus as had Prometheus from his 
hate. The meeting between Hermes and Prometheus is spirited in the extreme. 

The Oresteian tragedies, brought out in 458 B.C., are a complete trilogy, of which 
the whole has survived, although the satirical afterpiece has been lost. With this 
trilogy AMschylus ended his labors as a dramatist, and it exhibits his maturest work. 

The first division of the trilogy, the Agamemnon, opens on the eve of the fall of Troy 
and the transmission of the news to Argos by signal fires from height to height. Aga- 
memnon soon appears with Cassandra, foreboding evil and reluctant to enter the palace. 
Immediately on their entrance, they are slain by the treacherous Clytemnestra. 

The second piece, the Ldbation-Bearers, relates the filial devotion of Electra, the 
daughter of Agamemnon, who every day offers libation at her father’s grave. Her 
brother, Orestes, equally devoted to his murdered parent, appears with Pylades, his 
cousin, and accomplishes the slaughter of Clytemnestra and her paramour.. This act of 
Orestes, in taking the law into his own hand, is, like most human conduct, compounded 
of mingled good and evil. Theduty of avenging his father included slaying his mother, 
and thus he has exposed himself to the attacks of the Furies. 

Accordingly, the third piece of the trilogy, termed the Furies, exhibits the pursuit 
of Orestes by those tormentors. He is delivered from this danger by the interposition of 
Athene, who diverts the wrath of the hostile divinities by promising them a sanctuary. 

ESCULA’PIUS appears in Homer as an excellent physician, of human origin; in the 
later legends, he becomes the god of the healing art. The accounts given of his geneal- 
ogy are various. According to one story, he was the son of Coronis and the Arcadian 
Ischys. Apollo, enraged by the infidelity of Coronis, caused her to be put to death by 
Diana, but spared the boy, who was afterwards educated by Chiron. Inthe healing art 
4. soon surpassed his teacher, and succeeded so far as to restore the dead to life. This 
offended Pluto, who began to fear that his realm would not be sufficiently peopled; he 
therefore complained to Jove of the innovation, and Jove slew 4. by a flash of lightning. 
After this he was raised to the rank of the gods by the gratitude of mankind, and was 
especially worshipped at Epidaurus, on the coast of Laconica, where a temple and grove 
were consecrated to him. Here oriental elements, especially serpent-worship, seem to 
have been mingled with the rites and ceremonies. From Epidaurus the worship of the 
healing god extended itself over the whole of Greece, and even to Rome. According to 
Homer, 4. left two sons, Machaon and Podalirios, who, as physicians, attended the 
Greek army. From them the race of the Asclepiades descended: Hygieia, Panaceia, 
and Aigle are represented as his daughters. His temples usually stood without the cities 
in healthy situations, on hillsides, and near fountains. Patients that were cured of their 
ailments, offered a cock or a goat to the god, and hung up a tablet in his temple, record- 
ing the name, the disease and the manner of cure. Many of those votive tablets are 
still extant. The statue of the god at Epidaurus, formed of gold and ivory by Thrasy- 
medes, represented JK. as seated on a throne, and holding in one hand a staff witha 
snake coiled round it, the other hand resting on the head of a snake; a dog, as emblem 
of watchfulness, at the foot of the deity, Praxiteles and other sculptors represented the 


1238 peat 


sir. 


god as an ideal of manly beauty, and closely resembling Jupiter; with hair thrown up 
from the brow, and falling in curls on each side. The upper part of the body was naked. 
and the lower was covered by a mantle falling in folds from the shoulders. He had 
sometimes a laurel-wreath on his head, and a cock or owl at his feet; or was attended by 
a dwarf-figure named Telesphorus,—AscLEPIADES, the followers of 44., who inherited 
and kept the secrets of the healing art; or, assuming that A. was merely a divine sym- 
bol, the Asclepiades must be regarded as a medical, priestly caste who preserved as 
mysteries the doctrines of medicine. The members of the caste, or medical order, were 
bound by an oath—the Aippocratis jusjurandum—not to divulge the secrets of their pro- 
fession. In Rome, 292 3.c., when a fatal pestilence prevailed, the Sybilline books com- 
manded that Ai. must be brought from Epidaurus. Accordingly, an embassy was sent . 
to this place, and, when they had made their request, a snake crept out of the temple 
into their ship. Regarding this as the god /4., they sailed to Italy, and, as they entered 
the Tiber, the snake sprang out upon an island, where, afterwards, a temple was erected 
to 4i., and a company of priests appointed to take charge of the service and practice the 
art of medicine. Hippocrates is said to have descended from the Asclepiades of Cos, 


Z'SIR (plural of AS, or ‘‘ god”), the gods of the northmen of Scandinavia and Iceland. 
There were twelve chief gods or i., besides Odin (the ‘‘all-father’’), viz.: Thor, Baldur, 
Niord, Frey, Ty, or Tyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Héd, Vidar, Ull, Forseti, and Loki, or Lopt. 
The chief goddesses of Asgard, the Scandinavian Olympus, were: Frigg, Freyja, Nanna, 
Sif, Saga, Hel, Gefion, Eir, Hlin, Lofn, Vor, and Snotra. These names, considered in 
the primary old Norse signification of the words, in most instances allude to some char- 
acteristics; yet it is impossible to determine whether they personify merely certain 
physical powers of nature, or were originally the names of individuals in the prehistoric 
period. Probably they have a mixed origin, and combine real names with physical 
powers. The principal source of information concerning these gods are the ‘‘ Eddas” 
(q.v.), collections of the oldest songs and traditions of the people of Scandinavia. Thor, 
the son of Odin and Frigg (‘‘the vivifying’), is the strongest of the 42. He seems to 
have been a god of that Pheenician form of nature worship which was superseded in 
Scandinavia and northern Germany by the faith of Odin. From Thor’s hammer flashed 
lightning, and his chariot wheels made thunder as he went through the air, cleaving 
mountains, loosening frozen streams and pent-up rivers, and slaying giants and mon- 
sters. He was seldom in Asgard with the other A‘., but dwelt in his mansion Bilskirner, 
‘in the densest gloom of the clouds. With his hammer he consecrated the newly wed- 
ded, and the sign of the hammer was made by Northmen when they took an oath, or 
any serious obligation. The early Christian missionaries in Scandinavia, finding the 
faith in Thor too strong to be suddenly uprooted, tried to transfer many of his charac- 
teristics to their zealous convert, St. Olaf, who was said to have resembled the old Norse 
god in his comeliness of person, his bright red beard, hot angry temper, and personal 
strength; while some of the monks of a later period tried to persuade the Northmen that 
in Thor their forefathers had worshipped Christ, and that his mallet was a rude image 
of the cross. Slaves and thralls killed in battle were believed to be under the protection 
of Thor, who, as the god of the Finns before the spread of the As religion, was honored 
as their special guardian against the tyranny of their old masters. In Baldur the Norse- 
men honored the beautiful, the eloquent, the wise and the good, and he was the spirit of 
activity, joy and light. His name signifies the ‘‘strong in mind.” His wife Nanna 
reflected these attributes in a less degree. On his life depended the activity and happi- 
ness of all the Ai.,except Loki, the ‘‘ earthly fire ” or incarnation of evil; and hence Loki, 
from envy of the beauty and innocence of Baldur, accomplished his death, and afterwards 
hindered his release from the power of Hel, the goddess of death. As the death of Baldur 
was to be followed by the fall of all the Ai., the gods had caused all things to swear not 
to injure him. But the insignificant mistletoe was overlooked or thought unimportant, 
Loki secured an arrow of mistletoe, and when the gods were amusing themselves by 
shooting at the invulnerable Baldur, Loki gave this arrow to Hé6d, the blind god, and 
directed his aim so as to hit Baldur, who was killed. The death of this beneficent god 
signifies the fading of summer before the blind and fierce winter, her preordained 
destroyer. The myth continues: After Baldur’s death, the gods captured Loki and shut 
stim in a mountain, where he will remain until the earth and all therein and the gods 
themselves will be destroyed by fire (the powers of evil), the companion and liberator of 
Loki. Odin alone will survive, and then a new and purer world will arise in which 
Baldur will again appear, and Loki, or evil, be no more heard of. In the beginning of 
time, Loki, under the name of ‘‘ Lodthur,” or ‘‘ flame,” and as the foster brother of Odin, 
had united with the all-father in imparting blessings to the universe. Afterwards he left 
the council of the gods, and wandered into space, desolating and consuming with flame 
all things that came in his way. In the under-earth, where volcanic fires attest his 
presence, he consorted with evil giantesses and became the father of Hel, ‘‘ pallid death,” 
of Angurboda, ‘‘announcer of sorrow,” the wolf Fenrir, and the Midgard serpent, who 
ever threaten the destruction of the world. Loki assumes any shape at will. As sensu- 
ality he courses through the veins of men, and as heat and fire pervades nature and 
causes destruction. After the establishment of Christianity the attributes of Loki were 
transferred to satan; but in Iceland an zgnis fatwus is still known as ‘‘ Loki’s burning.” 
Niord and his children Frey or Fricco, and Freyja appear to have been honored in the 


fEsop. 
isthetics. 1 94 


north before the time of Odin. Niord is said to have lived in Vanaheim, and to have 
ruled over the Vanir, or elves of light, long before he became one of the KE. He is the 
god of oceans and controller of winds and waves, and to him sea-farers and fishermen 
raise altars and make prayers. Frey, his son, is the god of rain and fruitfulness, and_ his 
worship was accompanied with phallic rites. His sister and wife, Freyja, who holds a 
high rank among the 4i., is the goddess of love, but her influence, unlike her husband’s, 
is not always beneficent, and varies with the form she assumes in operating on the minds 
of men. Her chariot is drawn by cats, who are emblems of fondness and passion; and a 
hog, implying fructification or sensual enjoyment, attends upon Frey and herself. The 
Swedes paid especial honor to Frey, while the Norwegians worshiped Thor. Ty or Tyr 
was the Mars of the Norsemen. He is wise and brave, and gives victory, but he foments 
strife. His name lives, in our Tuesday (Ty’s day), and so does the name of Odin in 
Wednesday (Woden’s day), Thor in Thursday (Thor’s day), and Frey and Freyja in Fri- 
day, (Frey’sday). Tyr’s name signifies ‘‘honor,” and his worship was widely spread in 
the north. Bragi was the god of eloquence and wise sayings, the originator of the 
Skaldie poems; and when men drank Bragi’s cup they vowed to perform some great 
deed worthy of a skald’s song. At guilds and grave-feasts this Bragi cup was drunk; 
and at the funerals of kings or jarls the heir was not permitted to take the official 
place till ‘‘ bragarfull” was brought in, when, rising to receive it, he drank the contents 
of the cup and was led to the high seat of honor. Bragi’s wife was Idun, who guarded 
the casket of apples that gave to those who ate them perpetual youth. She was abducted 
by the giant Thiassi, and by Loki’s craft removed to the other world. Her release in 
spring seems analogous to the myth of Prosperine. Heimdal, personified by the rain- 
bow, is the god of watchfulness, the doorkeeper of the Ai. Vidar, the strongest of the 
gods except Thor, is the personification of silence and caution. Ull decides issues in 
single combat; Forseti settles all quarrels; lovers find protection in the goddesses Lofn 
and Vor, of whom the former unites the faithful and the latter punishes the faithless; 
Gefion keeps a watch over maidens, and knows the decrees of fate; Hlin guards those 
whom Frigg, the queen and mother of heaven, desires to free from peril. The queen her- 
self, as Odin’s wife and mother of the 4., knows but does not reveal the destinies of men. 
As goddess of the earth she is known as Frygga, the ‘‘ fertile summer earth,” and as 
Rinda, the ‘‘frost hardened surface.” Saga is the goddess of narration and history; her 
home is in Sockquabek, the abyss, an allusion to the abundant streams of narrative, from 
which streams Odin and Saga daily drink and pledge each other. Snotra is the goddess of 
sagacity and elegance, from whom men and women seek good sense and refined manners. 
The Norns and the Valkyrias are closely connected with the gods. The principal Norns 
are Urd, past time; Verdandi, present time, and Skuld, future time. They and the Valky- 
rias twist and spin the threads of destiny, and make known what has been decreed from 
the beginning of time. In the gods here mentioned the Northmen recognized the makers 
and rulers of the world that now is, from whom emanated the thought and the life that 
pervades and animates nature. With Odin and the &. the intellectual life of the northern 
people began; and although they ascribed to them human forms and acts, these were 
seldom without something higher and nobler than pertains to mortals; and while they 
recognized the existence of a state of chaos and darkness before the world began, they 
anticipated the advent of another state, in which the gods, like men, would receive their 
reward at the hands of a supreme All-father. See SCANDINAVIAN MyTHOLOGY, 


ESOP, an ancient Greek writer, whose name is attached to the most popular of the 
existing collections of fables. His history is very uncertain, and some critics have even 
denied his existence. First among these is Luther, in his preface to the German sop, 
1530. We are told, however, on the authority of Herodotus (ii. 184), Diog. Laertius (1.72), 
and Plutarch (Sept. Sap. Conviv., and De Sera Num. Vind.), that AXsop lived in the latter 
half of the 6th c. B.c.; that he was a slave at Samos; that, on receiving his freedom, he 
visited Creesus and Pisistratus, by the former of whom he was commissioned to distribute 
some money among the citizens of Delphi, and that on his refusal to pay it, in consequence 
of a dispute, he was thrown over a precipice by the infuriated mob. We are further 
informed that the Athenians erected a statue to him from the chisel of Lysippus. Whether 
this person was the author of the existing Asopean collection or not, we know, from 
Aristophanes, and other authorities, that fables bearing his name were popular in the most 
brilliant period of Athenian literature. The conjecture of Bentley, however, seems well 
founded, that these fables were transmitted entirely through oral tradition. Socrates 
(Phedo, p. 61) turned such of them as he could remember into verse, of which Diog. 
Laertius has preserved a specimen; and the same was done by Demetrius Phalereus, 320 
B.C. The only Greek version, however, of which any entire fables remain, and which, as 
shown by Bentley, has furnished materials to subsequent collections, is that of Babrius 
(q.v.), @ writer of some mark, who is supposed to have lived in the age before Augustus. 
Of the fables now bearing the name of A‘sop, there are three sets, the first from a MS. of 
the 13th c., published at Florence in 1809; the second a collection by Maximus Planudes, 
a monk of the 14th c., containing a life (supposed to have been the work of Planudes, till 
it was found in the earlier MS.) of Asop, full of fabulous particulars; and the third a 
collection published in 1610, from MSS. found at Heidelberg. All these are contained 
in the edition of Schneider, Breslau, 1810. The resemblance between some of the fables 


JE e 
1 2 5 Mathotied 


and the personal peculiarities attributed in common to sop and to the Arabian fabulist 
Lokman, have led some persons to conclude that the two men were identical ; and others, 
that the fables are all derived from the Jatakas or Birth-stories of Buddha. (See 
PuHa#pRvs.) The fables have been edited by Halm (1852), and by Eberhard (1872). See 
Bédier, Les Fabulistes Latins (1892). 


ESOP, Ciopius, a Roman actor contemporary with Roscius, excelling in tragedy. 
Cicero put himself under the direction of these two to perfect his own acting, and i, 
did many friendly services to Cicero during the latter’s banishment. 44. was noted for 
sinking his own personality in the character he represented. He made his last appear- 
ance in 55 B.c. at the dedication of Pompey’s theater, after which his voice failed him. 
He left a fortune to a worthless son—the 4. who dissolved a pearl valued at $40,000 in 
vinegar to have the satisfaction of swallowing the most expensive drink ever known. 


ZESTHET‘ICS, a term invented about the middle of the 18th ce. by Baumgarten, a pro- 
fessor of philosophy in the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, to denote the science of 
the beautiful, particularly of art, as the most perfect manifestation of the beautiful. It has 
the merit of being at once comprehensive and clear, and has therefore been pretty widely 
adopted, of late years, by critics both in France and England. See Arr. 

The beautiful (Gr. to kalon) was a favorite subject of contemplation amongst the 
ancients. The name of Plato is inseparably associated with it, but in his philosophizings 
he nowhere separated the beautiful from the good. Aristotle, again, from the immense 
acquaintance which he possessed with objects of art, deduced the most admirable laws 
and rules (canons of criticism), so that his poetics, according to Schiller, constitute a 
true rhadamanthine tribunal for poets. But the results he arrived at are regarded by the 
apriort school of estheticians as empiricism rather than science. Baumgarten they hold 
to be the first who considered the subject from the true scientific point of view, and there- 
fore entitled to be called the founder of the philosophy of art. All sensuous apprehen- 
sion, not in one form or manifestation only, but in every possible form or manifestation, 
was included in his view of the subject, and this conception he expressed by the word 
zesthetics, from the Greek aisthanomai, I feel, indicating not absolute or objective knowl- 
edge of things, but such as is conditioned subjectively by the play of our sensibilities. 
The term is thus not confined to the limits of the beautiful, though in point of fact we 
employ it in this partial signification. Beauty was, with Baumgarten, the result of the 
highest and purest esthetic perception, to the realization of which the finer portion of 
our nature aspires; and to trace which through the whole sphere of art was the work of 
zesthetic philosophy (stnnenerkenntniss). Kant subsequently, from his point of view, 
carried out this theory of the esthetic faculty in his critical treatise on the power of the 
judgment. Everything he conceived may be regarded esthetically as well as absolutely, 
in reference to ourselves as well as in reference to nature. An object may be in harmony 
with our sensibilities, as well as in harmony with the totality of material phenomena; or 
it may not be in harmony with the former, and yet truly accord with the latter. So, 
too, with the judgment. It may choose to apprehend things in their adaptation to man, 
or in what is cailed the teleological point of view—that is, their final end or objective 
adaptation to each other. Hence the zesthetical judgment considers objects as beautiful, 
agreeable, or useful; while the teleological judgment strives to reach their absolute 
design, and remains indifferent to personal predilections, Why certain objects excite in 
us a purely selfish interest, and others a purely unselfish pleasure, Kant does not venture 
to determine, for he never investigates the objective quality of the beautiful, but con- 
fines himself strictly to its influence upon the feelings and desires. Schelling was the 
first to undertake this inquiry after Schiller had paved the way for him in his treatise on 
esthetics. The latter, perhaps the most lucid and intelligible of German eestheticians, in 
a note to his twentieth letter on esthetic culture, explains his conception of the new 
science as follows: All things that can ever be objects of perception may be considered 
under four different relationships. A fact can relate directly to our sensuous condition 
—that is its physical quality; or to the understanding—that is its logical quality; or to 
the will—that is its moral quality; or to the entirety of our different powers, rather than 
to any particular manifestation of these—that is its esthetic quality. There is a culture 
for the health, for the understanding, for morality, and for taste or beauty; the last of 
which has for its Gesign to bring out the totality of our sensuous and spiritual powers in 
their greatest possible harmony. Schiller’s idea of the beautiful is necessarily as com- 
prehensive as his conception of the sphere of 4, He will not admit that it is the 
result of a mere limited experience, taught us through the operation of phenomena, ani- 
mate and inanimate, on our senses, but of pure abstract reflection. It is, therefore, a 
transcendental idea. It originates in the perfect union of matter and spirit. From this 
it follows, that ‘‘ beauty can be exclusively neither mere /fe, as some ingenious observers 
have maintained, nor mere form, as has been decided by some speculative philosophers 
and philosophizing artists” (for instance, Burke and Raphael Mengs). 

Passing over Schelling’s transcendental speculations, which are couched in a style not 
very intelligible to the English mind, we come to the theory of Hegel. Like that of 
Schelling, it also proceeds from the so-called metaphysics of the beautiful. It is the 
absolute ideal realizing itself. Nothing is truly beautiful except this. Nothing, there- 
fore, which exists can be termed such. Out of the sphere of the pure reason 


126 


we have only an eternal aspiration. In the finite mind, the absolute ideal is 
always striving to realize itself, but never completely succeeds. There is only a 
ceaseless approximation. Hegel then traces the growth and development of the beautiful, 
the first form of whose existence is natural beauty, and, as Vischer justly adds, the 
beauty unfolded in history. But this beauty, whether of nature or history, 1s rare, acci- 
dental, fugitive, and tarnished by intermixture with the not-beautiful. This deficiency 
or limitation arises from its being unconscious of itself. The beautiful is, so to speak, as 
yet in its infancy. It does not know either that it is or what it is. It first passes into 
self-recognition in the dawn of human intelligence, and its conscious realization of itself 
increases in proportion to the culture of the race or the individual. The highest finite 
realization of it is art; for though the form of art be material, it is matter shaped accord- 
ing to an idea, The artist looks on the form simply as the objective embodiment of the 
idea—every remnant of rude nature being stripped off. Form, though springing out of 
matter, is thus a deliverance from matter, and the particular arts may consequently be 
regarded as the gradual working of the mind out of materialism. The formative arts— 
architecture, sculpture, painting—are silent, heavy, still partly material. Music is an 
advance on these. It breathes ina higher region. The materialism of sound becomes 
all but ideal. Poetry is a further advance. It is the pathway of the intellect to pure 
thought. &sthetics, in this point of view, is a science, based on a knowledge of the 
historic development of the beautiful. It wanders through its whole kingdom, of which 
art is only a province, though, as has been seen, the richest and most valuable. 

Such was the aspect in which Hegel regarded the new science. He fused it into his 
historico-transcendental metaphysic, and so stirred up regarding it the old quarrel which 
had agitated the latter. Realists made their appearance, who vigorously assailed the 
principles of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, in their various applications to philosophy, 
theology and AS, The reaction was and is most conspicuous in the second of these, 
but has as certainly manifested itself in the others also. It is denied that the ideal 
conceived by man is superior to the real, as it is in itself. It is man who lowers it by his 
inadequate apprehension of its harmony and perfection. The greatest artist does not 
strive to outshine or even to reach the beauty of nature, but to surpass himself in it. The 
whole historic theory of Hegel is likewise rejected, after severe and searching criticism, 
from a rationalistic point of view. Hegel conceives the first efforts of art to have arisen 
from a longing on the part of the human spirit to emancipate itself from the thraldom of 
matter. This is the idealistic view of its beginning. Kugler, on the other hand, affirms 
that it arises from ‘‘the necessity which man is under to bind his thoughts to one firm 
spot, and to give to this memorial a form which may be expressive of the thought.” The 
origin of art is thus made retrospective, not prospective. This may be considered the 
realistic view of its beginning. 

In France, the founder of the eclectic school of philosophy, Victor Cousin, has. 
eloquently expounded the Platonic view of 44. In the second part of his treatise Du 
Vrat, du Beau, et du Bien (on the true, the beautiful, and the good), he has a chapter on 
‘‘the beautiful in objects,” in which, after discussing the principal theories of the materi- 
alists and geometricians, and pointing out what he conceives to be the errors and limita- 
tions of such theories, he proceeds to a consideration of physical, intellectual and moral 
beauty, endeavors to discover the quality or qualities in which they agree, from this rises 
to the apprehension of an ideal beauty whose realization he finds in God. ‘‘ God,” says 
Cousin, ‘‘in whom is combined absolute unity with infinite variety, is necessarily the real- 
ized ideal of all beauty.” ; 

Speculations on this subject in Britain have been mostly limited to the beautiful in form 
and color. British writers have not in general sought to discover the idea of the 
beautiful, but the beautiful itself. Their criticism may, and indeed does, seem meager and 
unphilosophical, but it is at least clear, and its purpose obvious. They have put to 
themselves this question: Are there, or are there not, constant qualities in certain objects 
which make them what we call beautiful? Does beauty arise from anything inherent in 
these, or does it depend upon accidents in us, such, for instance, as the complex and 
numberless phenomena of association? Is it objective or subjective? 

The first publication on this subject of any consequence—if we except Lord Shaftes- 
bury’s Characteristics, in which there is set forth a ‘‘rapturous Platonic doctrine” impos- 
sible to criticise, because unintelligible—was Dr. Hutcheson’s Inquiry, 1725. In this. 
work, the existence of an ‘“‘internal sense,” through which we either obtain a percep- 
tion of the beautiful or are made in some way conscious of its presence, was maintained, 

.The notion of a sixth sense has been very severely criticised by Jeffrey in his celebrated 
article on beauty. 

Certain explanations and modifications of this theory were made by the followers of 
Hutcheson, but nothing really new was brought out till Edmund Burke published his 
Treatise on the Sublime and the Beautiful, 1756. There is no work upon the subject so 
popular or so worthless. Every one has heard of it, large numbers have read it, and yet 
the fundamental principle is weak and absurd. He confounds the beautiful with the 
luxurious. ‘‘ All objects appear beautiful which have the power of producing a peculiar 
relaxation of our nerves and fibres, and thus inducing a certain degree of bodily languor 
and sinking!” 

Sir Joshua Reynolds, a contemporary of Burke, maintained a very remarkable theory 


Aesthetics. 


Lé Esthetics. 


of the beautiful, which he borrowed from the celebrated Pére Buffier, and illustrated at 

eat length. Beauty was conceived to be the mean between two extremes. This doctrine 
is open to the fatal objection that the most ordinary is therefore the most beautiful, and 
that, consequently, the greatest poem or the finest landscape must be that which is the 
most commonplace. Nevertheless, Sir Joshua does not hesitate to push his theory to 
extremities, declaring that if what we term the deformed or monstrous were only more 
common than what we call the beautiful, they would exchange names and sensations— 
a statement which may safely be left to refute itself. 

The next work on this subject that excited any measure of popular attention was 
Alison’s Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, 1790. The theory propounded by 
this writer is generally known as the theory of association. 'The most powerful exposi- 
tion of the association theory is that given by Jeffrey, in his famous article in the Hncy- 
clopedia Britannica, and in his critique on Alison in the Hdinburgh Review, 1811. Accord- 
ing to Jeffrey: ‘‘ These emotions (that is, those excited by the contemplation of certain. 
objects) are not original emotions, nor produced directly by any qualities in the objects 
which excite them; but are reflections or imagesof the more radical and familiar emotions. 
to which we have already alluded, and are occasioned not by any inherent virtue in the 
objects before us, but by the accidents, if we may so express ourselves, by which these 
may have been enabled to suggest or recall to us our own past sensations or sympathies.” 
In his defense of this theory, Jeffrey is obliged to consider those of Stewart and Payne 
Knight, the former of which is partly, and the latter entirely, opposed to his own. So. 
long as he confines his argument to association in connection with landscapes, it seems 
very conclusive; but when he comes to combat Payne Knight’s doctrine as to the intrinsic 
beauty of colors, it ceases to be satisfactory. This writer maintains that colors possess a 
primitive and original beauty, which may be enriched by association, but which does not 
depend upon it. Jeffrey denies this, and attempts to prove that our perception of the 
beauty of color, instead of being a ‘‘mere organic sensation,” arises from associa- 
tion alone. In the same way, he refuses to believe that there is any independent or 
intrinsic beauty in form; and conceives that architecture owes its beauty not to the 
essential harmony of its proportions, but to a variety of curious considerations on our 
part. He considers Alison’s analysis of this beauty, with special reference to Greek 
architecture, ‘‘ perfectly satisfactory.” It arises, 1, from the association of utility; 2, of 
security; 3, of the skill of the architect; 4, of magnificence; 5, of antiquity; 6, of 
Grecian greatness! To this it may be replied, that such associations increase, but do not 
create, our perception of the beauty of Greek architecture. 

The theory of association in this its primitive nakedness cannot be said to be held 
now by any who think onthe subject. It is felt to be more plausible and ingenious than 
sound or adequate. Ruskin, Prof. Blackie, and others have nearly destroyed its popu- 
larity. Prof. Blackie’s three essays on beauty, which are remarkable for the brisk and 
biting humor with which they assail the association theory, as well as for the passages. 
of fine eloquence which they contain, make a vigorous effort to indoctrinate the Saxon 
brain with the ideal speculations of Plato. Prof. Blackie is a Platonist in theory, but 
the elaboration of that theory is entirely modern and original. ‘‘ Beauty,” he says, 
*‘does not consist in one element, or in one power, or in one proportion, but in many 
elements, powers and proportions;” the principal of these are—order, congruity (or har- 
mony), actuality, perfection (in the Platonic sense—viz., the full result of a creative 
energy), expressiveness, smoothness, delicacy, and curvature. With reference to this last. 
principle, Prof. Blackie points to the fact that nature everywhere avoids angular lines, 
especially in the human figure, and most of all in the sex which has ever been considered 
the highest symbol of the beautiful. In the second volume of his Lectures on Meta- 
physics, the late Sir William Hamilton (lecture 46th) distinguishes beauty into absolute 
and relative. ‘‘In the former case,” he says, ‘‘it is not necessary to have a notion of 
what the object ought to be before we pronounce it beautiful or not; in the latter case, 
such a previous notion is required. Flowers, shells, arabesques, etc., are freely or abso- 
lutely beautiful. We judge, for example, a flower to be beautiful, though unaware of 
its destination, and that it contains a complex apparatus of organs all admirably adapted 
to the propagation of the plant. When we are made cognizant of this, we obtain, in- 
deed, an additional gratification, but one wholly different from that which we experi- 
ence in the contemplation of the flower itself apart from all consideration of its adapta- 
tions.” Sir William thus states his theory of free or absolute beauty: ‘‘In the case of 
beauty—free beauty—both the imagination and the understanding find occupation; and 
the pleasure we experience from such an object is in proportion as it affords to these. 
faculties the opportunity of exerting fully and freely their respective energies. Now, 
it is the principal function of the understanding, out of the multifarious presented to tt, 
to form a whole. Its entire activity is, in fact, a tendency towards unity; and it is only 
satistied when this object is so constituted as to afford the opportunity of an easy and 
perfect performance of this its function. In this case, the object is judged beautiful or 
pleasing.” Sir William concludes by defining the beautiful to be that ‘‘ whose ferm 
occupies the imagination and the understanding in a free, full, and, consequently, an 
fone activity.” One of the best modern writers on Al. is the French critic Taine 
(q.Vv.). 

There would seem, on the whole, to be a tendency at present towards an amalgama- 


e t e 
Mistivation. 128 


tion of what have hitherto been considered irreconcilable doctrines—towards the belief 
that there is an essential beauty in the harmony of forms and in the combination of col- 
ors, and that the keen delight which we experience in beholding them is incapable of 
being explained by any number of associations; while it is admitted, on the other hand, 
that many things are made beautiful by association, that all things have their beauty 
enriched by it, and that some things even have their intrinsic beauty called forth by it 
operating in the form of suggestion. See Lotze’s Outlines of Aisthetics (Eng. tr. 1887). 


ESTIVA'TION, in botany (from the Lat. estivus, belonging to summer), a term em- 
ployed to denote the manner in which the parts of the flower are disposed in the flower- 
bud prior to its opening. Sometimes the A‘. is valvate or valvulur, when the parts of the 
same verticil exactly meet together by their edges, like valves. But if the edges are 
turned in, the A. is ¢nduplicate; if they are turned out, it is reduplicate. In many flowers, 
the AE. is contorted or twisted; sometimes it is spirally zmbricated. In pentamerous flowers, 
it is very generally quincunaial, two of the parts being external, two internal, and one 
intermediate. In’ papilionace@ (q.v.), the other parts of the corolla are generally 
included in the standard or vexillum, and this is sometimes called veaillary AA. In 
poppies, the petals are generally crumpled together before flowering. The A®. of the 
calyx is frequently of a different kind from that of the corolla. Thus, in geraniacea, the 
ZB: of the calyx is imbricated, that of the corolla twisted. The manner in which the 
stamens and pistils are disposed in the bud is not so much taken into account in the char- 
acters of orders and genera, but is sometimes also noticed; thus, it is a character of 
rosacee that the stamens are curved inwards in 44. . 


E'THRIOSCOPE, an instrument to measure degrees of cold produced by radiation 
towards a clear sky ; useful in determining the amount of moisture present in the upper 
and inaccessible strata of the atmosphere. 


ETIOLOGY. See Brouoey. 


AETION, a Greek painter supposed to have lived in the 24 c. He was famous for 
beauty of coloring. Lucian describes his picture of the ‘‘ Marriage of Alexander and 
Roxana.” 


AE'TIUS, called ‘‘ the atheist,” lived in the 4th c. He favored the Arians, and was 
banished by Constantius, 356. He was a slave in early life; studied medicine and 
theology at Antioch ; became a deacon, and developed the doctrines called the Aétian 
heresy. He was made bishop by Julian, but late in life fell into immorality, and died 
without honor. 


AE'TIUS, a Roman general, b. near the end of the 4th c. He long defended Gaul 
from the barbarians; with Theodoric, he compelled Attila to raise the siege of Orleans; 
he followed the Huns to the plain of Chalons, and defeated them in a great battle, 
in which 300,000 men are said to have been slain. The emperor Valentinian became 
jealous of A., and slew him with his own hand. 454 4.p. An extant coin has the 
legend, ‘‘ Aétius Imperator Cesar,’’ which indicates that A. had seized or meant to 
seize the empire. 

ETNA. See ETNA. 


ETO'LIA, a district of ancient Greece, lying on the n. coast of the gulf of Corinth. 
The ancient AX. was divided from Acarnania by the river Achelous, and extended as far 
as the river Euenos. On the e. it was bounded by Locris and Doris; on the n. by 
Thessaly and Epirus; on the w. by Acarnania; and on the s. by the bay of Corinth. In 
later times these boundaries were considerably extended to the n. ande. The country 
had few cities, was generally wild and barren, and, according to Herodotus and Aristotle, 
was infested by lions on the banks of the Achelous and in other places. Here, accord- 
ing to the legend, Meleager slew the Calydonian boar (q.v.). The tolians make a great 
figure in the heroic age of Greece; but at the time of the Peloponnesian war, they were 
rude and barbarous. The Aitolian confederacy, first called into existence by the Lamian 
war (323 B.c.), became important in the time of the Achzean league (see AcHarA). The 
several states assembled annually in autumn at Thermum. This assemblage was styled 
the yanetolicon. At first they called in the aid of the Romans against the Achzean league; 
but as they saw that the Romans had designs against the independence of Ai., they next 
allied themselves with Antiochus of Syria, afterwards with Perseus of Macedonia. In 
189 B. c., they were compelled to share the fate of Macedon, and were subjugated by 
the Romans.— With Akarnania, A. now forms a province of the modern kingdom 
of Greece. The mountains in the n. e.—now styled Viena—form a wild offset of the 
Pindus chain, and slope steeply on the s.w. down to the central plains, partly covered 
with morasses and partly cultivated. §. of the lakes Apokuro (anciently, Trichonis) 
and Zygos (Hyria) rise a range of mountains—the Aracynthus mountain of the ancients 
—which fall on the s.w. to a broad coast-level, occupied by morasses and lagoons; but , 
on the s.e. side extend to the gulf, where the promontory of Antirrhion reaches to with‘n *’ 
2400 yards of the opposite cape Rhion, thus forming the strait of Lepanto (Naupactos). ° 
The chief rivers of AX. are the Aspropotamo (Achelous), in the w., and the Fidaris 
(Euenos), in the e. The people in the plains are employed in agriculture and fishing; 
while in the mountain districts some traces of the rude and martial character of ancient 
AX. may still be found. The chief towns are Missolonghi and Lepanto (q.v.). 


¢ fEsti ion, 
129 Affirmation. 


AFANASTIEFF, ALEXANDER NIKOLAIEVITCH, 1826-71; author of popular tales or 
folk-lore of the Russian people. He wrote Poetic Views of Nature entertained by the 
Ancient Slavs, and contributed largely to current literature. 


AYER, Domitius, a Roman orator, teacher of Quintilian; b. in Gaul 158 c., died 60 
A.D. He was made a consul by Caligula. 


AFFIDA’VIT, an oath in writing, or a written declaration made before a magistrate, or 
other person legally authorized to administer an oath, the truth of which is confirmed either 
by an oath sworn, or a solemn affirmation, such declaration to be signed by the party 
making it and duly attested by the authorized officer. Where evidence is required in Eng- 
land to be laid before a court or a judge, it is usually reduced to the form of an A., in 
place of being delivered orally, as in jury trial. An A. ought to set forth the matter of 
fact only, and not to declare the merits of the cause, of which the court is to judge (21 
Car. I.B. R.). The name and designation of the party making the A. are written at 
length, and he signs it at the foot. When the paper is shown to him, he is required to 
swear or affirm that its contents are true, and that the name and handwriting are his. 
Affidavits in all the English courts must be taken and expressed in the first person of the 
deponent. In the United States, all judges, justices, notaries, commissioners, and some 
special officers, have authority of law to take affidavits. All the states appoint com- 
missioners in other states (residents of such other) to exercise the power. By N. Y. law, 
affidavits may be taken anywhere for use in N. Y., if the person taking is authorized 
at the time and place to do so. Generally the authority of foreign officials to take A. 
must be certified or verified in court. When a judge takes an A. in court his signature 
must be authenticated. Our ministers and consuls abroad have power to take A., and 
so have British consuls and nearly all similar officers. No particular form of A. is 
prescribed. An A. of merit is one made by a defendant, which sets forth that he has 
stated his case to counsel and is by him advised that he has a good defense to the pend- 
ing action on its merits. This is required to protect plaintiffs from delay by frivolous 
shows of defense, but does not always effect the purpose. 


AFFILIATED COLLEGES, See CoLLEGIATE EDUCATION FOR WOMEN. 


AFFILIATION, or FI1arion, parentage, the relation between a child and its parents, 
also the ascertaining of parentage, the assignment of a child to its father or mother. It 
is generally used of the relation between a child and its father, but this appears to be 
due to the fact that there is seldom any need of it in the case of the mother, rather than 
to the exclusion of the mother from the meaning of the term. Presumption of the hus- 
band’s paternity lies in the case of a child born to the wife during the coverture, or 
within a competent time thereafter, whether or not conceived during the coverture ; but 
such presumption is rebuttable by proof that no cohabitation has taken place, or that it 
was physically or otherwise impossible for the husband to have been the father. In 
Scotland affiliation is the name of an action brought in the Sheriff Courts by the mother 
of a bastard, to recover aliment from its putative father. In French law the term refers 
to a species of adoption customary in some parts of France. Still another meaning of 
the word appears in ecclesiastical law, where it signifies a condition which prevented 
the superior from transferring the affiliated person to another convent. 


AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas), the relationship created by marriage between the husband 
and the blood-relations of the wife, and between the wife and the blood-relations of the 
husband. The relations of the wife stand to the husband in the same degree of A. in 
which they stand to the wife by blood or consanguinity, and vice versd. But between the 
relations of the two parties by A. there is no A. ‘Thus, there is no A. between the 
husband’s brother and the wife’s sister; and by our law, there is no impediment to their 
marriage. The question as to whether those who are related by A. stand in all respects 
in the same position as regards marriage with those connected by blood, is one on which 
much difference of opinion at present prevails. Marriage between a man and the sister 
of his deceased wife is at present forbidden in England by statute ; but an attempt is 
annually made in parliament to obtain its repeal. See MARRIAGE. 


AFFINITY. Chemical A., or chemical attraction, is the force which produces all 
chemical phenomena, It differs from the attraction of gravitation in acting, not between 
masses, but between atoms, and only when the atoms are at insensible distances. It 
differs also from cohesion, which unites the particles of the same substance, while A. 
unites atoms of different substances. The compounds thus formed are new bodies, 
often bearing no resemblance in appearance or other properties to the elements which 
combine to produce them, Thus, water results from the combination of two gases. 

The strength of chemical A. is different between different substances. Sulphuric 
acid combines with lime, and forms gypsum; but if potash is added, the sulphuric acid 
leaves the lime, and combines with the potash. Asa sort of choice is here manifested, 


it is called a case of elective A. These elective affinities, however, are often altered by a 
shange of temperature, or other accompanying circumstance. 

AFFIRMATION, a solemn declaration and asseveration made before an officer compe- 
tent to administer an oath and admitted in lieu of an oath from those who profess con- 
scientious scruples as to the permissibility of swearing. In most of the United States a 
witness may, at his own option, either swear or affirm, and with the same legal effect. 


1.—5 


AT iGreen: 130 

In the act of affirming the right hand is raised while the formula is spoken. In Eng: 
land affirmation as a substitute for swearing was first permitted in the case of the Qua. 
kers. A later statute has extended the privilege to all persons who refuse to be sworn 
from conscientious motives, and that of 1869 extended the right of making an affirma- 
tion in a court of justice to all on whose conscience an oath would not be binding. See 
OaTH. 


AFFO, IrENEO, 1741-1800; an Italian writer who left numerous works on history 
and antiquities; also literary and political works. He was eminent as a philologist. 


AFFORESTATION (from ad and forest), the act of converting open or partially 
wooded ground into forest or woodland. William the Conqueror and other early Norman 
kings afforested large districts for the purpose of obtaining game preserves. 


AFFRE, Denis Auaustvus, archbishop of Paris, who fell in the insurrection of June, 
1848; b. 1793. At the time of the restoration he was professor of theology at the 
seminary of St. Sulpice; and on account of his prudent and temperate character, was 
made archbishop of Paris by the government of Louis Philippe in 1840. Though not 
yielding a blind submission to all the measures of the government, he abstained from al] 
offensive opposition. When Louis Philippe became an exile, and a republic was pro- 
claimed, the archbishop kept aloof from political strife, but displayed earnest care for 
the public welfare. During the insurrection at Paris, 1848, he climbed upon a barricade 
in the Place de Bastille, carrying a green bough in his hand, as a messenger of peace, 
and wished to persuade the insurgents to lay down their arms. He had scarcely uttered 
a few words, when the insurgents and the troops commenced firing again, and he fell, 
mortally wounded by a musket-ball, coming apparently from a window above. He was 
carried by the insurgents into the house of a priest, and the next day was removed to his 
palace, where he died, June 27, 1848. He was the author of several theological writings, 
and of a work on Egyptian hieroglyphics. 

AFFRIQUE, SAINT, a town of the dep. of Aveyron, France, on the Dourdon, 87 miles 
east of Albi. It is the capital of an arrondissement, is situated in a beautiful valley, between 
two mountains, and is surrounded by meadows, orchards and vineyards. The streets are 
broad, but the houses are mostly old and mean. It has woolen and cotton manufactories 
and tanneries. There is a considerable trade in wool, and a principal article of trade is 
the celebrated Roquefort cheese, made from ewe-milk, chiefly in the mountain pastures 
around the neighboring village of Roquefort. Many thousands of cheeses are made 
annually, and are kept in cellars by the cheesemongers to ripen. The town successfully 
resisted the Prince de Condé in 1628. Pop. about 5000. 


AFFRONTEE, as a term of heraldry, applied to animals represented front to front, or 
facing the spectator directly, as the lion in the royal crest of Scotland. Its opposite 
term is addorsed, or back to back. 


AFGHAN, a bright colored blanket or covering of worsted. 


AFGHANISTAN’, the land of the Afghans, formerly known by the names of Drangiana 
and Ariana, lies between lat. 29° and 39° n., and in long. from 62° to 73° e. Afghan isa 
Persian name; the inhabitants style themselves Pushtaneh (plural of Pushtu). Their 
country is bounded on the n. by Turkestan; on the e. bya British sphere of influence, 
determined 1893-95; on the s. by Beloochistan; and on the w. by Persia. The pop. is 
variously estimated at from four to nine millions. In the n.e., the alpine region of the 
Hindu Kush, a wild mountain isthmus cleft by numerous ravines, and towering up into 
the clime of perpetual ice, unites the high masses of land in eastern with those in 
western Asia, and presents formidable obstructions to communication between the terri- 
tory of the Oxus and that of the Indus. In the e., the Suliman mountains abruptly 
divide the country from the flat regions of the Punjab and the plains of the lower 
Indus. There are only two passes leading through the highlands of A. to the Indus: 
that in the n., formed by the deep valley of the Cabul river, has strong positions of 
defense at Jelalabad and Peshawur, not far from the Khyber pass; while that in the s., 
the Bolan pass, forms a way of communication with Sinde. The Hindu Kush and Ghor 
mountains, which continue the range westward, forming the Paropamisus of the Greeks, 
have been little explored. The elevated terraces of Cabul and QGhiznee slope gently 
down towards the s.w. Though the climate has generally a continental character, yet 
the differences of elevation and unequal distribution of water render it various. The 
date-palm ornaments the oases in the sandy desert to the s.w., and in the deep sheltered 
valleys of the e. the cultivation of cotton and sugar succeeds; but the high terraces of 
Cabul and Ghiznee (8000 to 9000 ft. above the level of the sea) are exposed to a severe 
winter, with heavy falls of snow. The vine flourishes here in company with apricots, 
apples, pears, plums, cherries, and fields of European corn. Tulips, aromatic herbs, 
rhubarb, tobacco and asafcetida are extensively grown; and in the well-watered valleys, 
pomegranates and oranges, with a profusion of roses, display the luxury and splendor of 
an Indian clime. A. is rich in minerals; iron and copper especially are abundant. 

The Afghans are generally powerfully made; and though the features of the men 
may be styled harsh, the cheek-bones being high. and the nose very large, they are often. 


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expressive of candor, earnestness, and deliberation. The position of the Afghan language 
among those of the Indo-Germanic branch has been much discussed. A recent writer on 
the subject, Dr. E. Trump, says it is Indian rather than Iranian. The only authors in 
the Pushtu language are lyrists and ballad-writers, but the Persian is employed in prose 
composition, and the Persian authors are faniiliar to the educated Afghans. In religion 
they are Mohammedans according to the version of the Sunnites, and are strongly opposed 
to the Persians and the Sikhs, who belong to other sects. 

The Afghans have been identified with the inhabitants of a hilly country on the 
western slope of the Soliman mountains, mentioned by Herodotus. In the 11th c. they 
are referred to as a small clan in the same district, who, since that period, seem to have 
assimilated and absorbed populations surrounding them. They first appeared as an 
independent power during the internal discords of Persia after the death of Nadir Shah. 
Ahmed Khan, of the race of Abdalli (1747-73), took advantage of these feuds, and 
liberated A. from Persian rule. His success founded the Douranee dynasty. When his 
son Timur died, in 1793, a contest for the throne took place between the brothers 
Zemaun, Mahmud, and Shah Sujah, which ended in the success of Mahmud, who, 
however, was compelled to abdicate the throne in 1828, and died in 1829. The empire 
now fell into the hands of three brothers, of whom the oldest, Dost Mohammed, ruled at 
Cabul, the most important of the three divisions of the country, where he had a revenue 
of 1,400,000 dollars, and an army of 18,000 men. Still, the country was in an unsettled 
state; for Dost Mohammed was at war with Lahore in the e., and in the w. the Persians 
had invaded Herat. On the 1st of Oct., 1838, the governor-general of India (ord 
Auckland) declared war against A., on the grounds that Dost Mohammed had unlawfully 
attacked the British ally, Runjeet Singh; that the military operations of the Afghans 
had betrayed a hostile purpose towards India; and that Shah Sujah, as the rightful heir 
to the Afghan throne, had placed himself under British protection. The British forces 
advanced through the Bolan pass to Candahar, where Shah Sujah formally claimed 
possession of the country. On the 21st of July, the army encamped before Ghiznee, and 
after some hard fighting that fortress was taken. On the 7th of Aug., Shah Sujah, with 
the British forces, entered Cabul, and the conquest was regarded as complete. It was a 
gross mistake of the nature of the country and the character of the people. The land 
had been invaded, but was by no means conquered. Dost Mohammed had surrendered 
to the English; but his son, Akbar Khan, was actively engaged in a conspiracy, of which 
Sir Alexander Burnes and the envoy Macnaghten were not aware until it was too late. 
At the beginning of winter, when help from India was impossible, the outbreak took 
place at Cabul, when Burnes, Macnaghten and several] British officers were slain. It was 
then agreed that the invaders should leave the country; while, on the other hand, Akbar 
Khan and his confederates stipulated to provide an escort, and make other necessary 
arrangements for the retreat. Depending on these promises, the British army left Cabul 
on the 6th of Jan., 1842, in order to return by the Khyber pass into India; but neither 
escort nor provisions were supplied by the Afghan leaders, and the severity of the season 
increased the misery of the retreat. The fanatical tribes of the districts harassed the 
flanks and rear of the army, and slew women and children as well as men. Out of a 
host of 16,000—or, if we include women and children, about 26,000—only one man (Dr. 
Brydon) escaped to carry the dismal tidings to Gen. Sale, who still held his position at 
Jelalabad. Almost against his own will, the new governor-general, lord Ellenborough, 
sent other forces into A. Gen. Nott marched from Candahar to Ghiznee, which was 
again taken after a slight resistance, and then proceeded to meet the army which, under 
Gen. Pollock, had marched through the Khyber pass to Cabul. Here the force of 
Akbar Khan was defeated and routed, and the place was as far as possible desolated. 
The English officers and their ladies who had surrendered themselves as prisoners to 
Akbar Khan were restored to liberty, and soon afterwards the troops marched back to 
India. It was believed now that the Afghans were deprived of all power to confederate 
against the government of India; but this conclusion was too hasty, for in 1846 they 
formed an alliance with the Sikhs against the British; and the disturbances in the Punjab 
were not quelled without several sanguinary engagements. After the decisive battle of 
Gujerat (Feb. 21, 1849), the Sikhs were forsaken by the Afghans, and Dost Mohammed, 
with about 16,000 men, fled over the Indus. After this period, Dost Mohammed devoted 
his attention almost exclusively to the consolidation of his dominions. He died in 1868, 
appointing Shere Ali, one of his younger sons, as his heir. At first, the choice was 
acquiesced in by the sixteen sons of Dost Mohammed, a large number of whom were 
governors of provinces; but disputes followed, which for many years kept A. in a state 
of anarchy. See Casun. The British government of India had recognized Shere Ali at 
his accession, and when in 1868, after his long struggle with his brothers, he obtained 
possession of Cabul, and became de facto ruler of the greater part of A., direct assistance 
was given him to secure the position for which he had fought so hard. Sir John 
Lawrence, then Indian viceroy, sent him first two and afterwards four lakhs of rupees. 
with 3500 stand of arms. The next viceroy of India, lord Mayo, met the Ameer in 
state at Umballa, in March, 1869. It was then explained to him that her majesty’s 
government had no desire to interfere with the affairs of A., except to check civil war, 
and, by so doing, to secure the peace and prosperity of the country. This intimation 
Was accompanied by another large present. In the same year, the Ameer conceived the 


Afium. 1382 


Africa. 


idea of invading Bokhara (q.v.) and attacking the Russians, but was restrained by English 
advice. After 1869, Shere Ali endeavored to secure tranquillity in A. He was alive to 
the strife that had been occasioned by intrusting power to relatives, and he endeavored 
to replace the members of his family as much as possible by strangers. He also indicated 
very distinctly that he did not intend to select as his heir his son Yakoob—who, at an 
early age, had shown great ability as governor of Herat, and had, on many occasions, 
given his father most valuable assistance—but a younger son, Abdullah. The claims of 
Sakcob to share in the government of A. were ignored, and the result was that, in 1870, 
he headed a rebellion against his father; but in the following year a reconciliation was 
effected through the intervention of England. In 1869, it was settled between England 
and Russia that all the provinces between the Oxus and the Hindu Kush should be 
treated as part of A. In 1878, in consequence of new Russian diplomatic relations to A., 
Shere Ali was invited to receive a British mission. The refusal of the Afghans to admit 
the mission, which had advanced to the mouth of the Khyber pass, led, after some 
fruitless negotiations, to war. Hostilities began by the forcing of the entrance to the 
Khyber towards the end of November. There was sgme severe fighting in the passes, but 
the invaders were everywhere successful. Before the end of Dec., Jelalabad was occu- 
pied without resistance, and Candahar a little later. Shere Ali, who had fled, died early 
in 1879; and Yakoob Khan, proclaimed Ameer, made peace in May. It was provided that 
there should be a British resident at Cabul, and that Britain should defend A. against 
foreign aggression, the Ameer receiving a subsidy. The Kuram, Pishin and Sibi 
valleys became British territory, and the Khyber and Michni passes came under British 
control. But in Sept. of the same year the revolted troops of the Ameer surrounded 
and attacked the British residency. The resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari, and his staff, 
with almost the whole of their Indian guard, were slain after a desperate but bootless 
struggle. Measures were immediately adopted by the Indian government for punishing 
the outrage. The Ameer abdicated his sovereignty ; and, after some fighting, Cabul was 
reoccupied in the beginning of October. See GREAT BRITAIN. 

AFIUM-KARA’-HISSAR’ (Opium Black Castle), a city of Asia Minor, in the pashalic of 
Anatolia, 170 m. e. byn. from Smyrna. It stands near the Akar, partly on level ground, 
and partly on arising ground among rocks. Above the city towers an isolated rock of 
300 to 400 ft. in height, almost precipitous on most sides, and very steep on that by which 
alone it is accessible. The summit has in former times been fortified. The streets of 
the city are very narrow. Most of the houses are of stone, and well built. A great trade 
is carried on, the city being an entrepdt between Smyrna and Europe on the one hand, 
and Armenia, the countries on the Euphrates, and Persia on the other. The products 
both of Europe and the east are to be found in its markets. A principal article of trade 
is opium, produced in the neighborhood, and from it the city derives its name. There 
are here manufactures of felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Pop. about 25,000. 


AFRAGO’'LA, a t. in Italy, 5 m. n.e. of Naples, noted for manufactures of straw 
goods. Pop. about 6000. 


AFRA'NIUS, Lucius, a Roman poet and orator who lived about 100 B.c., praised by 
Cicero and Quintilian for the excellence of his plays. 


AFRICA, a continent of the eastern hemisphere, and the third in point of size of the 
great divisions of the globe, forms an extension of Asia, to which it has been attached 
since eocene times by the isthmus of Suez, and may be described as an irregular 
triangle, having its base on the Mediterranean and its apex at the junction of the 
Indian and Atlantic oceans. From Cape Blanco (87° 19’ 40’ n.) at Bizerta, Tunis, 
to Cape Agulhas (34° 51’ 15° s.) in Cape Colony, its length, divided almost equally 
by the equator, is about 5000 miles. Its extreme breadth, from Cape Guardafui (51° 
14’ e} on the Indian Ocean to Cape Verd (17° 32’ w.) on the Atlantic, is about 4500 
miles Including Madagascar and all adjacent insular groups, its area exceeds 
11,950,000 square miles, but its coast-line, which is broken by few projections besides 
capes Bon, Verd, Good Hope, and Guardafui, and by few indentations, is but little 
more than 15,000 miles in length. The most important gulf is that of Guinea on the 
western coast. The most important islands belonging physically to the mainland are 
ferba and one or two others in the Mediterranean, Socotra, Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia 
on the eastern side, and the Bissagos group on the Atlantic side. Perm, Dahlak, and 
some other so-called islands in the Red Sea are coral reefs, pierced here and there by 
volcanic cones. The Comoros group, between Madagascar and Mozambique, Annabon, 
St. Thomas, Prince and Fernando Po in the Gulf of Guinea and Madeira, the Canary 
and Cape Verd archipelagos are all of volcanic origin. Madagascar and the outlying 
Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodriguez, are believed to be surviving fragments of a Mio. 
cene continent now submerged beneath the Indian Ocean. 

Relief of the Land.—The interior is generally monotonous in character, and consists 
of two well-marked physical regions—a great southern tableland with a mean altitude 
of over 3500 feet, falling off toward the north to an elevated plain, with a mean alti- 
tude of about 1300 feet. Although there is an absence of vast Alpine regions, Africa 
has a greater mean elevation (1900 to 2000 feet) than either Europe (1000) or Asia (1659). 
The lowlands under 600 feet have their greatest extent on the northeast and west of the 
Sahara or Great Desert, including in the former instance the lower valley of the Nile 


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The rapid descent from the plateau to the northern plain is well illustrated by the 
Somerset (Victoria) Nile, which in its course of ninety miles between the Victoria and 
Albert Nyanza falls from 3800 feet to 1500 feet—no less than 2300 feet altogether. 

Orography.—Several mountain ranges intersect the southern plateau, among them 
the Lokinga or Mushinga mountains running east and west, and forming a district 
divide between the headwaters of the Lualaba (Congo) and the streams flowing south to 
the Zambesi. Further nerth another important watershed, between the Congo and the 
Nile basins, is formed by the Ulegga range, and its northern extension along the west 
side of lakes Mwutan Nzighé and Albert Nyanza, with eastern spurs dominated by the 
lofty and apparently volcanic Mfumbiro (10,000) and Gambaragara (15,000) which inter- 
vene between the Mwutan Nzighé and Victoria Nyanza. East of this basin rise the 
double-peaked Kilima-Njaro (18,881) and Kenia (18,000 ?), the culminating points of the 
whole continent. Here the Aberdare range (14,000) runs south and north between 
Kenia and Lake Naivasha in the direction of lake Baringo, found by Thomson to be 
a small land-locked basin 3217 feet above sea-level, commanded on the northwest by 
mounts Chibcharagnani (12,000) and Ligonyi (14,000). The whole of this newly discov- 
ered highland region, where the native reports of still active cones, such as the Dunyé- 
M’buro or ‘‘Smoky Mountains” have recently been confirmed by Fischer, seems to 
merge through the Kaffa hills northward in the Abyssinian uplands (10,000 to 15,000), 
which form the north-eastern limit of the great southern plateau. From this point the 
outer continental rim or coast-range stretches almost continuously through Gallarland, 
and along the eastern side of lake Nyassa, southward to the Nieuweveld system (8000 
to 10,000) at the southern extremity of Africa. These eastern coast ranges, spoken of 
by the early Portuguese explorers, under the collective name of Lupata, may in some 
respects be regarded as forming, if not a backbone, at least the border-chain of one 
great continental highland system. The corresponding western coast-ranges are both 
much lower and less continuous, being interrupted by wide gaps in Damaraland, and 
especially on the northwest coast, between the Senegal river and Morocco. ‘They ter- 
minate in the Cameroons (13,700), at the head of the Gulf of Guinea, and elsewhere 
often present the appearance rather of outer scarps than of ranges actually rising above 
the inner tablelands. 

The Atlas system (8000 to 12,000), stretching in the extreme northwest between cape 
Nun, over against the Cananis, and Cape Bon, over against Sicily, runs parallel to the 
Sierra Nevada on the opposite coast, with which it forms a distinct physical region. 
Sallust’s remark that this part of Africa belonged physically to Europe, has been 
amply confirmed by modern research, which clearly shows that even in pliocene times, 
Mauritania was still connected with Iberia at the strait of Gibraltar, and with Italy 
through a north-eastern continuation of the Atlas, of which Pantellaria, Malta, Gozzo, 
Sicily, and the Lipari group are surviving fragments, while the Balkan peninsula 
merged southward in the now flooded plains was frequented by the elephant and other 
large African fauna. At that time the Mediterranean appears to have formed three 
distinct basins, with acommon outlet to the Atlantic, not north as now, but south of 
the Atlas, through the depression still marked by the Kebir and Melghir sebkhas, and 
the valley of the river Draa. To this extent the Saharian region may have been flooded 
by marine waters, but that it ever, since eocene times, at least, formed an oceanic bed, as 
is often maintained, is an assumption that has been completely refuted by the measure- 
ments and geological researches of Oscar Lenz and other recent observers. We now 
know that the Sahara is a vast elevated plain, somewhat higher than the Soodan (see 
above), and that it consisted of well-watered and fertile lands, obliquely intersected by a 
great divide (the Tibesti highlands), whence flowed mighty streams, such as the Ighar- 
ghar, north to the Mediterranean, the Messawara, south to the Niger, and others east to 
the Nile. In some of the pools lying along the sandy beds of these rivers, the crocodile 
still survives, while the elephant, as well as the camel, formed part of the Mauritanian 
fauna within the historic period. In fact, the Sahara was what the Sudan still is—a 
thickly peopled land, abounding in natural products, diversified with broad belts of 
tropical forests. arable tracts, and grassy steppes, according to the nature of the soil, 
and greater or less abundance of moisture. This is also the general character of the 
great southern tableland, which, like the northern plain, has also in the Kalahari its 
desert zone, both corresponding to the arid regions of other continents. In its geologt- 
cal constitution Africa presents the appearance of great stability and antiquity. Unlike 
those of other continents, the seaboard is subject to scarcely any movements of 
upheaval and subsidence, except on the northeast coast between the Nile delta, and the 
gulf of Sidra (an area of subsidence), and parts of the Moroccan and Red Sea coasts 
(areas of upheaval). Earthquakes are confined mainly to the Atlas, which belongs 
physically rather to Europe than to Africa, and igneous disturbances are restricted on 
the west side to the bight of Biafra (the Cameroons, Fernando Po, and other adjacent 
islets). But on the eastern side the volcanic system is much more highly developed, 
stretching from the Comoro Islands through Masai Land (Kili-Njaro, Kenia, Elgon, 
etc.), northward to the Dandkil country, and the volcanic islets in the Red Sea. The 
lava-fields of the Masai plateau appear to be the most extensive on the continent and at 
many points present signs of recent activity. But elsewhere the old plutonic prevail 
over the more recent eruptive rocks, just as the older sedimentary do over the later 


134 


Africa. 


tertiary and quaternary formations. Both orders appear to be generally intermingled, 
and largely associated with semi-crystalline and metamorphic forms, such as the 
schists, gneisses, graywackes, and hornblendse, about Kilima-Njaro and many other 
places. The Kamasia mountain range (8000 to 9000) northeast of Victoria Nyanza, is essen- 
tially metamorphic (white striated feldspar, quartz, and black mica), while shales and 
flaggy sandstones form the geological basis of the east African carboniferous series, 
which extends in a narrow strip from near the equator continuously to the Cape. Hard 
granite forms the bed of the Orange river, and asbestos, soapstone, coal, iron, and copper 
were amongst the specimens collected by Farini in the Kalahari steppe. Metamorphic 
rocks, again, prevail in the Congo basin, where iron and copper ores also abound, and 
where plutonic systems succeed above Stanley Pool (Johnston), Syenite, and other 
granites, with old sandstones, are the characteristic features of upper Egypt and the 
Nubian steppe, while Abyssinia has also a granitic base underlying dolerites, trachytes, 
and crystalline slates. But here the eastern slopes, skirted or traversed by the great 
volcanic zone, are strewn with obsidian, pumice, and other recent lavas. 

A great diluvial plain stretches from this region through Senaar southward to the 
crystalline slates, associated with magnetic iron ores of the Baginze slopes, about the 
source of the Welle. Even the Sahara, long supposed to be a recent marine basin, is 
characterized by the absence of late sedimentary rocks and marine fossils, and by the 
prevalence of old sandstones, quartz, and carboniferous limestones, largely disintegrated 
by weathering. It also abounds in rich saline deposits, forming a chief article of 
trade with the neighboring Sudan, which is distinguished by the almost total absence 
of salt, the prevailing formations here being crystalline rocks, granites, diorites, slates, 
gneiss, again associated with sandstones in the higher ranges. In the Kong uplands, the 
sandstones overlie the granites, which in the Teggele group (Kordofan), pass over to 
porphyries and syenites, with gneiss interspersed with extensive diorite and auriferous 
quartz veins. Gold, mined by the ancient Egyptians at Mt. Elba, Red See. coast, occurs 
also in many other places, as in Upper Guinea, the lower Zambesi, and Transvaal ; and 
gold dust has at all times formed a chief article of export. But iron and copper are the 
characteristic metals, ferruginous ores abounding almost everywhere, and copper in 
Namaqualand and the Congo basin, Dar-fertit, and many other places. The basin of 
the Vaal is one of the richest diamentiferous regions on the globe. In this southern 
region, granites and crystalline slates form the substratum of an extensive series of 
fossiliferous rocks, descending from the outer river (Nieuweveld) down to the coast in a 
series of terraces (‘‘ karroos”), which are baked clay in the dry season, but flowery and 
grassy meads in the wet season. 

The hydrographic are drawn in bolder lines than the orographic systems. Here, also, 
a certain symmetry prevails, the two great southern basins of the Congo and Zambesi, 
balancing those of the Nile and Niger of the northern plain, while the secondary Orange 
and Limpopo in the extreme south find their counterparts in the Senegal and Draa of 
the Northwest. The Zambesi and Limpopo, together with the Rovuma, Juba, and a 
few other coast streams, flow to the Indian Ocean; all the others, together with the 
Cunene, Koanza, Ogoway, Volta, Gambia, Tensift, Muluya, and Mejerdah, to the At- 
lantic, either directly or through the Mediterranean. Nearly all are still entangled 
in the intricacies of the interior, hence are obstructed either along their middle or 
lower courses by formidable falls and rapids, such as the stupendous Victoria falls on 
the lower Zambesi, the Yellala and Isangala on the lower, and Stanley on the middle 
Congo ; the so-called ‘‘Six cataracts,” the Ripon, Murchison, and many others, all 
along the Nile above Egypt ; the ‘‘ Hundred Falls” of the middle Orange. Freest from. 
these impediments are both the Niger and its great eastern affluent the Benue, which lat- 
ter affords a clear navigable highway into the very heart of the Sudan. Here a scarcely 
perceptible water-parting, which might be easily canalized (Flegel) separates it from the 
Shari, which gives further access by water northward to lake Tsad, southeastward 
toward the Nile and Congo basins. In this still unexplored region, the Shari, with its 
numerous headstreams, approaches the Makua-Welle, which its discoverer, Schwein- 
furth, supposed to flow from the Monbuttu uplands northwest to the Tsad, but which 
the explorations of Lieutenant Van Géle, in 1889, proved to be identical with the 
Mobangi, the great northern tributary of the Congo. 

But apart from its great rivers, including the historic Nile, earliest seat of human 
culture, Africa possesses a magnificent equatorial lake system, elsewhere unrivaled 
except by the great North American lacustrine basins. These lakes are the crowning 
glory of modern African research, all having been revealed to science by English- 
speaking explorers (Livingstone, Speke, Grant, Burton, Baker, Stanley) since the 
middle of the nineteenth century. They are grouped toward the east side of the con- 
tinent between 15° s. and 4° n. lat., and all stand on the southern tableland, draining 
seaward through the Zambesi (Nyassa, with outflow Shiré), the Congo (Tanganyika 
With intermittent outflow Lukuga), and the Nile (Alexandra Nyanza, Victoria Nyanza, 
Mwutan Nzigé, and Albert Nyanza, with outflow Somerset Nile). The Alexandra 
(Akanyaru) drains northeastward through the Alexandra Nile (Kagera), to the 
Victoria, next to Superior (33,500 sq.m.), the largest fresh-water basin (26,000 sq.m.) 
on the globe. The Shimiyu, another influent from the south, may be regarded as the 
farthest headstream of the Nile, which thus rises about 5° gs. lat., flowing thence 


or 
Se Africa, 


northward to the Mediterranean for some 4800 miles, a course probably a few miles 
longer than that of the Missouri-Mississippi, the next longest in the world. Some 
confusion still prevails regarding the Albert Nyanza and Mwutan Nzigé, which were 
long taken as alternative names of a continuous sheet of water now known to form two 
distinct basins. Hence Mwutan Nzigé may be conveniently restricted to the southern, 
and Albert Nyanza still retained for the northern lake, which is nearly 2000 sq.m. in 
extent. The outflow of Tanganyika was also a somewhat doubtful point, until the 
surveys of Thomson, Hore, and Wissman made it quite certain that it drains westward 
through the Lukuga, at least intermittently to the Congo. This adds considerably to 
the drainage area of the Congo, which ranks next to the Amazon in volume, discharg- 
ing probably as much water as all the other African rivers together (Reclus). Since its 
identification by Stanley with the Lualaba, its farthest headstream appears to be the 
Chambeze, an eastern feeder of lake Bangweolo, rising in 10° s. lat., 33° e. long., and 
giving to the Congo system a total length of considerably over 3000 miles. 

The equatorial lake system is thus distributed among the three great fluvial basins 
of the Zambesi, Nile, and Congo. But scattered over the continent are several other 
lacustrine basins, varying greatly in size, which have no seaward outflow, but form 
independent, or, at all events, now isolated centres of inland drainage. By far the 
most extensive of these are lakes Tsad (Chad) and Ngami, symmetrically disposed on 
either side of the equator, and fed, the former by the Shari and Komadugu, the latter 
by the Tonka. Both vary greatly in extent with the wet and dry seasons, and there is 
good reason to believe that formerly both had emissaries, Tsad to the Benue-Niger, 
Ngami to the Limpopo basin. True Alpine lakes, such as those of the Swiss and 
Bolivian highlands, are represented only by the Abyssinian lake Tana (Tsana or 
Dembea, 6100 feet), which has an area of some 1200 sq.m. and a depth of over 300 feet. 
It is fed by numerous Alpine streams, amongst which is the Abai, farthest source of the 
Bahr-el-Azraq, or Blue Nile, which, after sweeping round the Abyssinian plateau, joins 
the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile at Khartoom. Before the discovery of the great lakes, 
Tsana was considered by many geographers as the chief reservoir and farthest source 
of the main stream. The great oceanic and inland hydrographic systems of the con 
tinent may now be tabulated thus : 


Seaward Basins. Area in sq.m. 
WEL Ceeeeeh Pane ree rine St erro Pe Aad eh aicluls <Gth ke wes a esate oeletea-wiebelt’s 1,500,000 
Gary Taser aha steele che ieed Print) Met Ee eho ab UC avid b Sie ail lola Wine ere gate e 1,350,000 
UNE PGKGie tes Me ANN, Perutle id waar car a hie ott toi wiel ghd Maageccteds lols ec eee 1,150,000 
RUE LCSE pee eae Cee ae ete reo lea tiele ald cla ttle epteeint b'sles 850,000 
PPAR Cioran a's acta earee paves Mie nilcis lec oie ww LjaleW a's we nals b tiuntctte.. os on 4,000 
AASTP IE (TCL SeMe CPE, ental IA Rte CATE Neat a wtcte) ade Lk tee a Path tce SiO we Rat aldo eels 200,000 
Benegal ies’. se o's SMD Beare Gere oat stettessas Chee ace Rata bkal cig etoile agers) Fe 160,000 
PSU Wat ee ty Be Ocha OL ais beagle ws Holeetnete lacs 5 Pee eo aa 150,000 
Smaller basins and dried-up areas of seaward drainage............... 3,000,000 

Meet ere VC net ae Ma aiy taro hae ts eet MMTENS ct Visit atti al cic: aalbres se clckele said « shes 8,760,000 

Inland Basins. 
gee id a Secures. hae HOS Pte GC RG GBDEL One et Annee 750,000 
IN Is hase ae etttasde Bap omtcs Coie aa eS aS At JA de ae eae 320,000 


Igharghar, Messawara, and other dried-up areas of inland drainage. ..1,850,000 


"EOLAL NAW STO «ts cle en a eae er ee ae WOT eEN EE Ahiotite Ce Re als ered 6S ets 2,920,000 


Climate.—Above all the great divisions of the globe, Africa is distinguisbed by the 
general uniformity of its climatic phenomena, a circumstance due to its massive form 
and intertropical position. In the region approaching nearest to the northern or south- 
ern equinoctial lines, rain falls throughout the year, thanks to the opposing trade-winds, 
which, by neutralizing each other, often preserve the stillness of the atmosphere and 
enable the local vapors to condense and precipitate themselves on the spot. In the 
northern hemisphere, a zone of two wet seasons stretches from the equator to the 15° 
lat. In summer, copious showers are caused by the moisture-bearing s.w. winds ; in 
winter, the northwest currents become in their turn the bearers of heavy rain-charged 
clouds to the southern plateau. But on both sides of the torrid zone, comprising about 
seven-tenths of the whole continent, the difference in the disposition of the winds causes 
a corresponding contrast in the rainfall. Here the trade-winds maintain their normal 
direction constantly, or with but slight temporary deviations. Blowing from the north- 
east in the northern, from the southeast in the southern hemisphere, they divert to the 
equator most of the vapors crossing their path, leaving elsewhere clear skies and arid 
lands. Thus it happens that Africa has two almost completely barren zones of rocks, 
gravels, marls, clay, and sand—the Sahara and Libyan desert in the north, Kalahari and 
other wastes in the south. This regular disposition of the climates is completed by the 
regular alternation of winds and rains in the zone of Mauritania and the Cape, both be. 
songing to the region of sub-tropical rains which fall in the respective winters of each 


Africa, 1 36 


hemisphere, Africa is thus aisposed from north to south in successive gray and more 
or less intensely green belts, whose limits coincide in several places with the isother- 
mals, or lines of equal temperature. The lines indicating mean annual temperatures of 
68° and 75° F., traverse in the north the Mediterranean seaboard and the Sahara respec- 
tively ; in the south, the Orange basin, and a zone stretching obliquely from Mozam- 
bique to the Cameroons ; while the area of greatest mean heat (82° F.) is comprised within 
an irregular curve enclosing the upper Nile basin between Khartoom and the Albert 
Nyanza north and south, lake Tsad, and Massowah (Massawah), west and east. But, 
through defective or incomplete observations, the general temperature has often been 
exaggerated. Nevertheless, owing to the far greater accompanying moisture, these 
relatively moderate heats are far more oppressive than those of the Beloochistan coast 
and other drier regions where the glass constantly indicates 115° and even 120° F. and 
125° F. For the same reason the climate, except on the Mediterranean, Saharian, Red 
Sea, and extreme southern coasts, is nearly everywhere malarious round the periphery 
of the continent—that is, on the low-lying and generally marshy coast lands between 
the outer rim and the sea. It is the samein the Chambeze, Malagarazi (Unyamwesi), 
Shari, and other inland districts, which are either constantly or periodically under 
water. But elsewhere, with due precautions, the continent cannot be regarded as in- 
salubrious; and the Sahara, for instance, is distinctly a healthy region ; although, ow- 
ing to rapid radiation, the hot days are succeeded by cool and occasionally even frosty 
nights. The mean annual rainfall ranges from under 4 inches in the Sahara to 60 and 
80 about the equator, and from 80 upward on the Guinea coast. 

Flora.—The continuous forest growths are confined mainly to the vast equatorial 
regions between the upper Zambesi and Sudan, and to some isolated tracts about the 
Abyssinian plateau, in the Moroccan Atlas, all along the Guinea coast, about the middle 
Limpopo and Zambesi, and in parts of Masailand and the upper Nile basin. ‘‘ From 
Sierra Leone to the river Ogoway, along the coast the one prevailing landscape is that 
of endless forest” (H. H. Johnston, The River Congo). In the extreme north, African 
and south European species intermingle with some local varieties, and here are found 
the olive, date, and cork, with seven other kinds of oak, besides the eucalyptus, intro- 
duced from Australia. Nevertheless, the graminacez are predominant, and vast tracts 
in Algeria and Tunis are covered with halfa (alfa), largely exported to England for 
paper-making. The papyrus still lingers in the upper Nile, although in the lower Nile, 
the lotus and other characteristic plants have been mostly replaced by cereals, cotton, 
tobacco, and other economic species. Beyond Egyyt the date gives place to the dim 
(see Doom palm) and deleb palms, wheat and rice to durrha; while in the forest regions 
of Sudan and Guinea, the prevailing species are the magnificent baobab (Adansonia), the 
banana, ebony, butter-tree, oil-palm, which yields the palm-oil of commerce, the 
musanga, mangrove, ground-nut, dragon-tree, acacias, mimosas and other gum trees, 
succeeded in Galla and Somaliland, by aromatic shrubs and the coffee shrub, supposed 
to take its name from the Kaffa country, south of Abyssinia. Another variety of this 
shrub is indigenous in Liberia, whence it has lately been introduced into Ceylon and 
other coffee-growing lands. Indigenous to Africa is also the cotton plant, which, like 
indigo, is widely cultivated in Egypt and Sudan, and which grows wild in many places 
as far north as 19° n. lat. But of all African floras, the most characteristic, as well as 
the richest and most diversified, is that of the Cape region south from the Orange river, 
consisting chiefly of grasses, shrubs, bushes, and lovely ferns and heathers, in greater 
variety than is found even in the richest European lands. 

Fauna.—Africa is the peculiar home of the large fauna, many of which, owing to the 
absence of great mountain barriers, freely roam from one end of the continent to the 
other, without undergoing any special modification of type. Such, among the car- 
nivora, are the lion, far finer than its Asiatic congener, and met everywhere, from the 
Atlas and Nubia to the Cape; the panther and leopard, but not the tiger; the hyena, 
fox, and jackal. The great herbivora are represented by the elephant, differing both 
from the Asiatic and from the smaller and now extinct Mauritanian variety, the 
rhinoceros, of which there appear to be at least three species, including the one-horned, ~ 
now known to occur in Nubia and perhaps also in Wadai; the buffalo, also, in several 
varieties ; the giraffe, elsewhere extinct, but here still ranging from north to south, a 
remark applicable also to the ostrich as well as to the hippopotamus, which, like the 
crocodile, frequents all the large rivers and lakes. Africa is also the special home of the 
gnu, and several other species of antelopes sometimes still met in countless herds on 
both sides of the equator. The monkey family is also spread over the whole continent, 
where it is represented by numerous types, including the small Barbary variety, the 
dog-faced baboon, the Galago lemur, the beautiful colobus of the eastern regions, 
besides the anthropoid chimpanzees and gorilla of the west equatorial districts. Peculiar 
also are such equide as the zebra, quagga, and pigmy Mauritanian ass, although the 
horse itself, like the camel, appears to have been re-introduced by the Arabs. Of land 
mammals there are altogether enumerated about 480 species peculiar to this continent, 
amongst which are 95 of the simian and 50 of the antelope family. 

Equally distinct is the avi-fauna, which besides the ostrich, includes the secretary, 
ibis, guinea-fow], weaver-bird, roller-bird, love-bird, waxbill, whydah, sun-bird, parrots, 
quail, and several other indigenous species. Reptiles and insects also abound, coms 


1 3 7 Africa, 


prising the huge python, many poisonous snakes, termites, locusts, and two little winged 
pests highly destructive to domestic animals — the tsetse fly, which ranges from Mozam- 
bique to Senaar, fatal to the horse, camel, ox, and dog; and the donderobo, s. of 
Kilima-Njaro, which attacks the ass, goat, and sheep. 

Inhabitants, — Recent authorities roughly estimate the population of Africa at about 
130,185,000, 11 to the sq. m., a density slight when compared with that of Europe, 
but still considerable, regard being had to the great extent of absolute desert, forest, 
and other waste lands. According to the nature of the soil and of the climate, the 
population is distributed wery unevenly over the surface, being massed somewhat 
densely in the Nile delta, in the upper Nile valley, and generally throughout the 
Sudan; less thickly over the southern plateau, and very thinly in the regions of 
Mauritania and Tripolitana; while large tracts, especially in the western Sahara, 
Libyan, and Kalahari wastes, are absolutely uninhabited. Of the whole number, 
only a small portion are recent immigrants from Europe, settled chiefly in the extreme 
north (Egypt and Algeria) and in the extreme south (Cape Colony, Natal, and the 
Boer states). The Semitic tribes of the north are intruders from Asia, some of which 
immigrated in remote or prehistoric times, for example the Himyarites in Abyssinia 
and Harar from South Arabia, some since the spread of Islam (over 30,000,000 nomad 
and other Arabs, chiefly along the Mediterranean seaboard, in western Sahara and 
central and eastern Sudan). All the rest, numbering about 95,000,000 altogether, may 
be regarded as the true aboriginal element. These are classed by Lepsius into two great 
physical and linguistic groups: Hamites in the north, Negroes in the south, meeting 
acd intermingling in the intermediate region of Sudan. But this broad grouping is 
inadequate to explain the present conditions, for there are probably more than two 
indigenous stock races, and certainly more than two stock languages in Africa, while 
the races themselves are intermingled in the southern plateau quite as much as, if not 
even to a greater extent, than in Sudan. The Arabic term Beled-es-Sudan, ‘‘ Land of 
the Blacks,” answers to our somewhat obsolete expressions, Nigritia, Negroland, which - 
is commonly regarded as the true home of the black race. Certainly more ideal negro 
peoples—that is, ideal in their departure from the European standard—are found in Upper 
Guinea, for instance, and among the Bari and Shilluk Nilotic tribes, than amongst the 
Bantus, as the Negro or negroid peoples of the southern plateau are now collectively 
called. Viewed as a whole, the negro family presents as profound deviations withir 
itself as do the Caucasic and Mongolic—that is, the two other great families of the east- 
ern hemisphere. The deviations are even greater if, in the typical Negro group are to 
be included not only the aberrant Hottentots of the extreme southwest, but also the 
pigmy peoples, suchas the Bushmen of the Kalahari steppe, the Obongos of the Gaboon, 
the Akkas, south of Monbuttuland, the diminutive Batwas, averaging only four feet 
three inches in height, discovered in 1886 by Dr. Ludwig Wolf in the Sankuru (Middle 
Congo) basin, and the equally small Wambutti dwarfs, encountered by Stanley in 1889. 

These western Negritos, scattered sporadically over the southern tableland, seem to 
stand in the same relation to their taller neighbors as the eastern Negritos (Andamanese, 
Malayan Samangs, Philippine Aitas, Javanese Kalangs) to their taller Papuan neigh- 
bors ; whilst their languages, such as that of the Bushmen, abounding in, to us, unpro- 
nounceable sounds known as “‘ clicks,’’ are said by some to form a sort of connecting 
link between articulate and inarticulate speech. 

Radically distinct from these idioms is the Hottentot, which itself differs funda- 
mentally from the Bantu, a vast linguistic family, current amongst nearly all the other 
peoples of the plateau, from the Ama-Khosas of Kafirland northward to the Wa-Gan- 
das of the Somerset Nile and the Duallas of the Cameroons. This wonderful Bantu 
group, comparable in extentas well as in complexity of structure to the Aryan, Finno- 
Tartar, Athabascan, and other widespread families in the other continents, gives a cer- 
tain unity to the Bantu populations, who could not otherwise be distinguished by any 
hard-and-fast lines from their northern Negro and Negroid neighbors in Sudan. Here 
the diversity of speech is as great as is the diversity of types produced by immemorial 
interminglings with the conterminous Hamite peoples. But certain relatively large 
linguistic | roups have already been determined, which have so far helped to diminish 
the prevailing confusion. Suchare the Mandingan, with many branches in Senegambia, 
the Sonrhai, of Timbuctoo and the middie Niger ; the Fulah and the Haussa, both 
widely diffused throughout western Sudan ; the 7ibbu (Tedaga and Dasaga), ramifying 
from s. Fezzan across the certral Sahara to Kanem, Bornu (Kantri), Wanyanga, and 
Dar-Fur (Baele and Zogh4wa) ; lastly, the Nuda, of Kordofan and the middle Nile to 
the Egyptian frontier, All these, except the Tibbu, while differing radically from each 
other, seem to be essentially negro forms of speech, although the true Fulahs are not a 
Negro, but apparently a Hamitic people (Krause), On the other hand, the Nubas, 
hitherto supposed to be related to them, are now known to be true negroes, whose type 
is preserved in Kordofan, and greatly modified in the Nile valley (Keane). The recent 
researches of Nachtigal have also helped to determine the hitherto doubtful position 
of the Tibbus (the Garamantes of the ancients), who occupy the whole of eastern 
Sahara, from about 12° e. long., and whose true home appears to be the Tibesti high- 
lands. Physically, they are not to be distinguished from their Tuareg (Hamite) neigh- 
bors, but the race has been gradually displaced southward to the Tsad basin, where 
their speech, fundamentally distinct from the Hamitic, has been adopted with consid- 


Africa. 188 


erable modifications by the Kanuri, Kanembu, and other true Negro peoples. Other 
large Negro groups are the Batta, of Adamawa ; the Nupe and Yoruba of the lower 
Niger ; the Mosgu (Masa), south of lake Tsad ; the Maba of Wadai; the Dinka, Shil- 
luk, Bari, and Monbuttu, of the upper Nile and upper Welle; lastly, the Zandeh 
(Nyam-Nyam) and Fan, occupying most of the still unexplored region between Sudan 
and the Congo and Ogoway basins. All these appear to be true Negroes, except the 
Fans, who have in recent times reached the western coast about the equator, and who 
are described as quite distinct (Hamites ?) from the surrounding black populations. 

The remainder of North Africa, except where encroached upon by the intruding 
Semites (see above), is the proper domain of the Hamites—that is, the African branch 
of the Caucasic family. Their physical type is essentially Mediterranean, often char- 
acterized by extremely regular features, and in places even by blue eyes and fair com- 
plexion (Aures uplands, Algeria). But their language bears no distinct relation to any 
other Caucasic form of speech, beyond a certain faint resemblance to the Semitic, sufti- 
cient to suggesta possible primeval Semitico-Hamitic organic tongue. It hasa geograph- 
ical range in the north analogous to that of the Bantu in the south, being spoken with 
great dialectic diversity by the Berbers (Imoshagh), in western Sahara (Tuaregs), and 
Mauritania (Shluhs, Kabyles, Mzabs), and in the east by the Gallas, Somalis, Masai (2), 
Afars (Danakil), Agau, and Bejas—that is, generally between the Nile basin and the 
eastern coast. But it is now extinct in Egypt, where Arabic is current, and where 
the old Hamitic speech is represented only by the liturgical language of the few sur- 
viving Christian Coptic communities. 

In its inhabitants, as well as its natural history, Madagascar forms a region apart, 
the dominant Hovas of the central plateau, the Sakalavas of the west, and the Betsimi- 
sarakas of the east coast being either of pure or mixed Malay stock. The Malagasy 
language, also, which is spoken with a certain uniformity all over the island, is an out- 
lying branch of the great Oceanic (Malayo-Polynesian) family, which stretches thence 
eastward to Easter Island. Nevertheless, there is evidently a considerable inter- 
mixture of black blood, due to the importation of slaves from the Mozambique 
coast, and possibly also to the presence of a Negro element in the island before the 
arrival of the Malay intruders from the eastern archipelago. 

The subjoined is a general scheme of all the African races : 


I. NEGRO AND NEGROID PEOPLES. 


Negritos (Pigmies) : 
Bushmen (San) ....60200c00e. Kalahari desert. 
Ba NEE Bs PRAIA S20Y Oe ey cies UE Sankuru river, Congo basin. 
OD0NG08 Fo scan alee ee eee Ogoway basin. 
ARNIS x arsiduteie shot aitc Huey ee South Monbuttuland. 


Hottentots (Khoi-Khoin) : 


WNGNGGUE Se serials nia eave peek Great and Little Namaqualand. 
FOPAQUG «oo ee eee eee ee eee Upper Orange, Vaal, and Modder rivers. 
Griqua (half-castes).......... Griqualand west. 

Bantus : 
Zulu-Kafirs, Basutos, Bechu- 

WIS Glvachas entice sieiee tees South from the Limpopo. 

Makua; “Matabele 0.08. etna Between Limpopo and Zambesi. 
Manganja, Watyau........... Lake Nyassa. 


Barotze, Barua, Balunda......Between Zambesi and Congo. 
Waswahili, Wanika, Wapo- 


[OTIO Sonata pie Nene ete sete aes East coast. 
Waganda, Wanyamwest, Wal- 

CHOU: Se hy seen ce © elon Lae Equatorial lakes. 
Ovaherero, Ovampo, Bacongo, 

Bate AIT AUOOr eet ee West coast. 


Sudanese Negroes : 


Kru, Fanti, Ashanti, Yoruba, 
IDE 3% Same marae ae Se EE fac Upper Guinea. 


SOnThdts. vs aoe eie We Senegambia. 
Haussa, Batta, Kanuri Bag- 

hirmi, Mosgu, Kanem...... Central Sudan. 
Maba, Nuba, Dinka, Shilluk, 

Bari, Monbuttu, Zandeh.,..Eastern Sudan. 


4 fa ipa pai 
His Weg UE. 
} nh rat Mira 
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i URBANA 


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fozambique negro. 6, 7, 8, 9. Bellows, bow, hatchet, bowl. 10. Inhabitants of Tripoli, 
ittentot. 16. Fish-basket. 17. Slaves transported. 18. Bushman village. 


19. Zulu 
nusicians and their wives. 


pam 


\ 
= 
ee ae 


poe ata LIBRARY wis “ae 
~ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS | : 
, ee 1° gay URBANA a 


Abert 1. ‘ he 7 wes % ai s yo hie) £7 a 
eh) aa fier | <3 - pase a, Ne 
bate 3 ; ‘ ES i4% i 3 rig) i oo; 
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139 Africa 


{I. Hamrric PEOPLES. 
Mixed and Doubtful Hamites : 


LUN Sc gate eae ot (So eae Ogoway basin, thence inland 
RIA Be no oY hee West and central Sudan. 
LYN RD Sekt 7 iy Ce .... Hast Sahara. 
AGQUE rattan 2 . eae Abyssinia. 
Di ise en es sos oss Masailand., 
ENGR eee sa Bc ores ves Egypt. 
True Hamites : 

RUPTUNe ests vaels ys ales Morocco. 
Berbers « Mzab, Kabyle........ Algeria, Tunis. 

PUTO etn a ord ales West Sahara. 
Gallas, Somali, Afar (Danékil), 

Peeps Mette aiidd ri 's-s3 pie s9-¢ Northeast coast. 
Ill. Semitic PEOPLEs. 

A ade ene ats ae ee Mauritania, west Sahara, central and west Sudan. 
TH ATEUT ULES cert m arate sons ioicse as ot (Amhara, Tigré, Shoa), 


Religion and Social Condition.—Speaking generally, the northern Hamites and 
Semites are Mohammedans and stock-breeders, the southern Bantus nature-worshipers 
and agriculturists ; all these factors intermingling in the intervening zone of Sudan. 
The chief exceptions to this statement are the Christian A byssinians (Monophysite sect) ; 
the Hottentots, who are mainly cattle-breeders ; and the Algerian Berbers, who prefer 
tillage to pasturage. A nomad existence prevails in eastern Sudan; a settled, in 
central and western Sudan. Throughout the whole of this region Islam continues to 
encroach on heathendom; it is now firmly seated on the upper Niger and upper 
Senegal ; it has already penetrated to various points of the Senegambian and Guinea 
coasts; it has spread with the conquering Fulahs to the southern limits of Ada- 
miawa, and has crept down the east coast from Somaliland to Zanzibar and Mozam- 
bique. Thus fully one-half of the continent has accepted its tenets, which have 
on the whole had a beneficent influence on the Negro peoples, by suppressing canni- 
balism and shaking their faith in the medicine man. Elsewhere progress is barred by 
the all-prevailing fetichism, intimately associated as it is with the baneful practice of 
witchcraft. Cannibalism, also, in its most repulsive forms holds its ground among the 
Monbuttus, Zandehs, and Fans, a central zone of anthropophagy apparently traversing 
the continent from the west coast along the equator nearly to the great lakes, and 
stretching northward to the upper Shari basin. On the other hand, slavery, while 
maintained by Mohammedanism as a necessary social institution, has by the interven- 
tion of the European powers, almost ceased to be an object of foreign traffic. But the 
Arab slave-dealer continues to widen his sphere of action in the interior, and has 
recently come into collision with the pioneers of European civilization, toward the 
eastern frontier of the newly founded Congo State. Christianity has been introduced 
at various points, and has made some progress amongst the Basutos and some other 
southern Bantus. 

Eaploration.—The word ‘‘ Africa,” of uncertain derivation, originally the name of a 
small tract on the n. coast still surviving in the /riga of the Tunisian Tell, was extended 
under Roman influences to the whole of the ‘‘dark continent.” It was the Ethiopia of 
Homeric and the Libya of later Hellenic times, terms vaguely applied to the region 
stretching away to the setting sun, and with undefined southern limits. But neither 
Greeks nor Romans ever extended their knowledge much beyond the northern verge of 
the Sahara. Exploration may be said to have begun with the expedition sent by 
Sankhara of the eleventh (Theban) dynasty to the land of Paint (Somaliland) as re- 
corded on the Wady Hammamiat inscription (2400 B.C.). After the circumnavigation 
attributed by Herodotus to Necho, son of Psametik I. (26th or Saite dynasty, 620 B.C.), 
and the naval expedition of the Carthagenian Hanno round the northwest coast, perhaps 
to the equator (300 B.C. 2), little was done for the seaboard till the fourteenth century 
A.D., when the Dieppe mariners claim to have founded ‘‘ Little Dieppe’ on the Guinea 
coast (1364), and colonized the Canaries under Jean de Béthencourt, and when Italian 
navigators had coasted the northwest side as faras Bojadoi, as clearly shown on Marco 
Pizzigani’s sketch map (1367), now in the Parma library. Our general knowledge of the 
periphery was nearly completed toward the close of the next century, when Vasco de 
Gama doubled the Cape and skirted the east coast northward to Magadosho in 2° n. lat. 
(1497-98). But long before this the spread of Islam in the seventh century followed in 
the eleventh (1050-78) by the tremendous irruption of nomad hordes from s.-western 
Asia, had converted the greater part of the northern plains into an Arab domain, which 
was revealed to science by the Arab writers of the next ensuing centuries. Thus a fair 
knowledge was acquired of their geographical, political, and ethnological relations in 


Africa. 140 


the three physical zones of Maghreb (Mauritania), the Sahara, and the Soudan by the 
works of Edrisi (12th c.), Yakat, Abu’l-Hassan, and Ibn-Khaldan (15th c.), the true 
pioneers of African exploration. Then followed 300 years of comparative inactivity, 
noted chiefly by the occupation of various points on the coast by the Portuguese, Dutch, 
and English. The Portuguese established relations with the powerful Bantu states of 
Congo on the west, and Monomotopa on the southeast side; the Dutch obtained a firm 
footing in the Hottentot country in the extreme south, while the English were attracted 
more especially to Guinea and Senegambia (Windham’s voyage to Guinea in the six- 
teenth century, followed by the journey of Jobson and Thomson, and occupation of 
Cape Coast in 1664). 

The modern epoch of geographical research, apart from political or commercial con- 
siderations, begins properly with James Bruce, who discovered the Abai source of the 
Blue Nile in 1770, and whose adventures in Abyssinia stimulated the foundation of the 
African Association (1788), which before the close of the eighteenth century had already 
sent out Ledyard, Lucas, Houghton, and Mungo Park to explore the Niger basin. 

In the nineteenth century the most various motives have co-operated in favor of an 
extended knowledge of this vast continent. The captains of English cruisers, employed 
to suppress the slave-trade, have supplied some valuable information ; the governors of 
the colonies and private merchants have contributed their share; and enterprising 
travelers from all sides of the coast have endeavored to strike out paths to the interior. 
The works published on Africa since the year 1800 are consequently very numerous. 
In 1802 to 1805 Lichtenstein traveled in the district north of the Cape of Good Hope, 
and first furnished information regarding the Bechuana tribe. The travels of Mungo 
Park from Timbuctoo to Bussa are familiar to every one. In 1809 Burckhardt was sent 
out by the African society, and his explorations, rich in manifold results, occupied the 
years 1812-1816. Tothe French weare indebted for much valuable information concern- 
ing Morocco, Algeria, and the neighboring parts of Sahara. The laborsof Oudney, Clap- 
perton, Denham, and Lander in the Sahara and Soodan are memorable by the discovery 
of lake Tchad and the course of the Niger. Since about 1840 our knowledge of South 
Africa has received many important additions from the missionaries stationed there, 
especially Moffat ; while David Livingstone, who, from 1848 to 1873, was engaged in 
trying to open the countries north of the Cape of Good Hope, penetrated in 1849 as far 
as lake N’gami, in 20° s. lat. ; and in 1853, ascending the Leeambye (Zambesi) north- 
ward for several hundred miles, succeeded in crossing the continent to Loando on the 
west coast. Having retraced his steps to the point of the Zambesi from which he had 
started, the adventurous traveler next followed that stream till he reached the east coast, 
at Quilimane, in 1856. From 1859 to 1863 was spent in various explorations of lake 
Nyassa and the neighboring regions. Again setting out in 1866, he found, in the region 
s. of lake Tanganyika, the river Chambezi. This river, which is specially known by 
this name ere it falls into lake Bemba or Bangweolo, is known between that lake and 
lake Moero as the Luapula, and farther on in its course as the Lualaba ; and was by 
Livingstone traced through these lakes and as far as 4° s. lat. Livingstone’s belief was 
that this basin, now known to be the upper Congo, contained the headwaters of the 
Nile. In 1871, along with Stanley, he found the river Rusizi flowing into the north of 
lake Tanganyika. His last enterprise consisted in further exploration of these regions, 
and new efforts to find the Nile sources. He died at Tala, beyond lake Bemba, in May, 
1873. Burton and Speke, crossing the Border mountains from Zanzibar, in 1857, dis- 
covered lake Tanganyika ; and the former, then journeying to the northeast, discovered 
the southern part of the great Victoria Nyanza, which he supposed to be the head 
reservoir of the Nile. A second expedition, undertaken by Speke and Grant in the end 
of 1860, penetrated as far north as Gondokoro on the White Nile, and added vastly to 
our knowledge of the eastern equatorial regions of Africa. At Gondokoro, Speke 
and Grant were met by Mr. (Sir Samuel) Baker. Baker, accompanied by his heroic 
wife, pushed on to the south, and discovered, in 1864, west of the Victoria, another 
great lake, which he called the Albert Nyanza. He returned in Sept., 1873, from a 
second expedition—of a military character—undertaken in 1869, at the expense of the 
pasha of Egypt, to suppress slavery in the upper regions of the Nile. The geography, 
language, and manners of the inhabitants of Abyssinia, Senaar, and Kordofan have also 
during late years been greatly illustrated by the efforts of various European travelers. 
The researches of Drs. Barth, Nachtigal, and others (1850-1874)—investigating the same 
central division of the continent as Clapperton and Denham—and Dr. Schweinfurth’s 
travels (1868-1871) in unexplored regions, have enriched our store of knowledge regard- 
ing this land of mystery. In 1874-5, Lieut. Cameron surveyed the lower half of lake 
Tanganyika, and walked across tropical Africa from east to west, all but determining 
the source of the Congo. Next came Stanley, who after exploring the Shimiyu, farthest 
southern headstream of the Nile, circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza, and discovered the 
Mwutan Nzighé, which he took for Baker’s Albert Nyanza, but which is now known to 
be a distinct basin, draining possibly to Tanganyika (1875-76). Then striking the Lua- 
laba at Nyangwe in the end of 1876, he forced his way down the stream, and arriving 
at the mouth of the Congo in the autumn of 1877, demonstrated that the Lualaba and 
Congo are identical. In 1877-79 Serpa Pinto crossed from Benguela to Durban in 
*atal, In 1880 Mr. Joseph Thompson explored the route between Nyassa and Tan: 


141 Africa, 


ganyika ; and in 1884 he made his memorable journey from Mombasa by Kilima-Njaro 
and Kenia across Masailand to the Victoria Nyanza. In 1884 Mr. H. H. Johnston 
ascended the main peak of Kilima-Njaro to a height of 16,200 feet. Dr. G. A. Fischer, 
in his attempt to reach Emin Pasha, reached north to lake Baringo (1885-86). In 1885 
Grenfell discovered the U-banghi, the great northern tributary of the Congo, which he 
navigated to within 200 miles of the farthest point reached by Dr. Junker (22° 40’ e. 
long.) penetrating westward down the Welle-Makua (1886). It thus seems all but cer- 
tain that Schweinfurth’s Walle flows not to lake Tsad through the Shari, but through 
the U-banghi to the Congo. 

In 1887 Emin Pasha (q.v.) reported by letter repeated exploration of the Albert 
Nyanza (q.v.). Meanwhile Stanley’s expedition was on its way to the Congo to rescue 
him. This last expedition of Stanley, extending over the period June, 1887--Dec., 1889, 
and performed at great expense of lives and money, resulted in the discovery of a south- 
western extension of lake Victoria Nyanza reaching to within 155 miles of lake Tan- 
ganyika; also that the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanza lakes are connected by the 
Semliki river, and in the identification of the Ruwenzori range, with the ‘‘ Mountains of 
the Moon” of the old maps. The intricate water-system south of the Middle Congo has 
also been unraveled, especially by Pogge, Wissmann, and Ludwig Wolf (1881-86), who 
have made it evident that the Kwango, Kassai, Sankuru, and lake Leopold, all belong 
to one magnificent hydrographic system flowing through the Kwa to the Congo at 
Kwamouth, and including Livingstone’s Kassabi (1854). It was on the Sankuru that 
Dr. Wolf made the acquaintance of the pigmy Batwas, the smallest known race of 
mankind. The Ogoway system, first discovered by Du Chaillu (1850), ascended by 
Walker to Lope (1873), and surveyed by Compiégne and Marche to Ivindo (1874), has 
been completely elucidated by De Brazza, Mizon, and Rouvier during various expedi- 
tions between 1877-86. The Alima, supposed to be one of its head-streams, has been 
followed to the right bank of the Congo; and the Ogoway itself, reported to be one of 
the great continental basins, proves to be a coast stream of secondary importance. 
After visiting it in 1874, Dr. Oscar Lenz transferred the scene of his operations to the 
north, crossing from Morocco to Timbuctoo in 1880, and doing excellent surveying 
work on the route across the western Sahara. The same route had been followed by 
Chaillié in 1828, himself preceded (1826) by Laing from Tripolitana, and followed by 
Barth (1853), these, besides Mungo Park, being the only European travelers that have 
reached the ‘‘ Queen of the Desert” during the present century. Again moving south- 
ward, Lenz ascended the Congo to Nyangwe, and crossed the continent from the 
mouth of that river to the Zambesi delta in seventeen months (1885-86). He had been 
preceded altogether by nine others—Livingstone, Loanda to Quilimane, 1854-56 ; 
Cameron, Zanzibar to Benguela, 1873-75 ; Stanley, Zanzibar to Congo mouth, 1874-77 ; 
Serpa Pinto, Benguela to Natal, 1877-79; Matteucci and Massari, Suakin to Niger 
delta, 1880-81; Wissmann, Loanda to Zanzibar coast, 1881-82; Arnot, Natal to Ben- 
guela, 1881-84; Capello and Ivens, Mossamedes to Zambesi delta, 1884-85 ; Gleerup, 
Congo mouth to Zanzibar, 1884-86. 

The headwaters of the Lomami, one of the great southern tributaries of the Congo, 
were visited in 1889 by Alexander Delcommune, a Belgian, and in that same year Dr. 
Zintgraff made an expedition into the interior of the Cameroons. 

These have all been routes from east to west or west to east, no one having yet 
succeeded in crossing the continent along the line of the meridian from north to south. 
In 1886, Dr. Holub attempted the route from the Cape northward, and in 1887 had 
penetrated farthest in this direction, having advanced some distance beyond the Zam- 
besi. The regions that remain to be explored are chiefly : (1) The upper Zambesi and 
the space between that river and the headwaters of the Congo—that is, both slopes of 
the Lokinga water-shed. (2) The region between the Congo and equatoriallakes. (8) The 
much larger region between the Congo and Shari basins, and thence westward to the Bight 
of Biafra. (4) Most of Som4li, Kaffa, and Galla lands, especially between Thomson and 
Fischer’s farthest n. and Schuver’s farthest s.—that is, between 1°-10° n. lat., and stretch- 
ing from the upper Nile to the Indian ocean. (5) Much of the region enclosed by the 
great northern curve of the Niger. (6) The Libyan desert. 

The Partition of Africa.—In 1890-91, by various compacts between England, France, 
Germany, and Portugal, such desirable portions of Africa as had not previously been 
claimed by other nations, were divided among these four._powers. This territorial divi- 
sion did not take, in the case of all territories, the form of actual annexation ; but rather 
in the mapping out of the country into ‘‘ spheres of influence,” within each of which 
only the power to which it had been assigned should thereafter be paramount. These 
spheres of influence are of somewhat indefinite extent; and in the case of the Anglo- 
Portuguese division, there still remain territories that are indispute. The new arrange 
ment and general partition are indicated in the maps of ArricA and CENTRAL AFRICA. 
See also the articles Conco FREE STATE, GERMANY, GREAT BriTAIN, HINTERLAND. 

The ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT was signed July 1st, 1890, at Berlin, by the Ger- 
man Chancellor and the British Ambassador, and consists of 12 articles. In return for 
territorial concessions by Germany in Africa, England in the twelfth article cedes to 
Germany the island of Heliyoland (q.v.) in the North Sea. 


Afvivcander. 
Airican Languages. 142 


The ANGLO-FRENCH AGREEMENT was signed at London, Aug. 5th, 1890, by Lord 
Salisbury and the French Ambassador. It consists of two declarations. In the first, 
France recognizes an English protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba, and, in the second, 
England recognizes a French protectorate over Madagascar, and establishes the French 
sphere of influence from Algiers, south, to a line from Say on the Niger to Lake Tsad. 
The native government of Madagascar refused to recognize the French protectorate, and 
in 1895 France sent an expedition to enforce it. In January, 1896, Madagascar became 
a French dependency. 

The ANGLO-PORTUGUESE AGREEMENT is based upon a convention made on August 
20th, 1890, and further modified on Nov. 14th, but the British South Africa Company 
asserts a right to considerable territory south of the Zambesi and west of Sofala, includ- 
ing Mashonaland and Manica, over which Portugal claims exclusive jurisdiction. 

The respective shares of the European powers in Africa are hard to determine, because 
they change from year to year. The extent of unappropriated territory is rapidly dimin- 
ishing and now comprises about 1,500,000 square miles. The following are rough esti- 
mates in square miles of the African possessions of European states: 


POTEU Gs la reres po ota v0 fain bisls Oe eres 900,000 | Congo Free State (Belgian) .....850,000 
S Pal treeie e eeeieee sa erese ces ectene eae 250,000 1. Thalys. 2 ete teetan it ee eee ek. 600,000 
TPA TCC eWeek vere Spee Gs 9 « «sane oo 5,000,000 | Great Britaiice.. ws. cece oe 02,200,000 
(SPINA Yate tare ns o's ceive seeabte 890,000 


Bibliography.—See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography (1880); Barth, Travels 
(1857); Burton, Lake Regions of Central Africa (1860); Krafft, Travels (1860); Living- 
stone, Travels (1860), Hapedition to the Zambest (1865), and Last Journals (1874); Baker, 
Albert Nyanza (1866), and Ismadiia (1874); Schweinfurth, 7’he Heart of Africa (1874) ; 
Cameron, Across Africa (1877) ; Chaillé-Long, African Travels; Holub, Seven Years in 
South Africa (1881); Thomson, To the “Central African Lakes and Back (1881), and 
Through Masai Land (1885) ; also Cust, The Modern Languages of Africa (1883) ; Rowley, 
Religions of the Africans; Rohlf, Climatology and Hygiene of Hast Africa; Artes 
Africe (Industrial Arts of Central Africa); Smith, Zoology of South Africa (1887) ; 
Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (1850); Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia 
of South Africa (pub. by British Museum) ; Lambert, 7’ he Fishes of Zanzibar ; Harvey, 
Thesaurus Capensis (Flora of South Africa); Oliver, Mora of Tropical A frica (1868). 
For the recent political divisions, see the Statesman’s Year Book for 1891 and 1892 ; Cres- 
well, Our South African Empire (Lond., 1885); Little, South Africa (1884); Mohr, Nach 
den Victoria Fallen des Zambesi (1875) ; Pringle, A Journey in Hast A frica (1886) ; Roche, 
On Trek in the Transvaal (1878); Mackinnon, South African Traits (1887); Statham, 
Blacks, Boers, and British (1881) ; Mackenzie, Austral Africa (1889); Stanley, How I 
Found Livingstone (1872); id., Through the Dark Continent (1878) ; id., The Congo and 
the Founding of tts Free State (1885); id., In Darkest Africa (1890); Petermann and 
Hassenstein, Inner Africa (1863) ; Trollope, South Africa (1878) ; Serpa Pinto, How I 
Crossed A frica (1881); Baines, T’he Gold Regions of South Africa (1877); Du Chaillu, 
Equatorial A frica (1861) ; id., The Aspingt Kingdom (1870); Arnot, Garenganze (1889) ; 
Blyden, Sterra Leone and Liberia (1886) ; Horton, Climatology and Mineralogy of West 
Africa (1888); Fischer, Mehr Licht im Dunkeln Welttecl (1885) ; Johnston, Africa (1878) ; 
id., Kilimanjaro (1885) ; Schmidt, Sanszbar (1885) ; Latimer, Hurope in Africa in the 
XIX Century (Chicago, 1895). 


AFRICANDER, or AFRIKANDER is a name given to children born of European parents 
in South Africa. 

The AFRICANDER-BonpD is an association whose aim is to increase the political in- 
fluence of the Dutch population in South Africa. It first came into prominence after 
the war in the Transvaal (q.v.) 


AFRICAN INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION, founded in Belgium under the following 
circumstances: In 1876 the King of Belgium had called a conference of geographers 
and explorers of all nations in his palace at Brussels. He opened the congress in person, 
pointing out the growing interest taken in the civilization and exploration of Africa, 
advocating a closer union between all explorers for the furtherance of their common 
efforts, and suggesting the organization of stations for scientific purposes at the bound- 
aries of the unexplored parts of Africa. An international commission was accordingly 
established, with the king as its president. They concluded that the best way to bring 
Africa in communication with the world was to pierce straight across from e. to w. and 
leave settlements along the line. This line was established in s. Africa, about 450 m. 
from Zanzibar. But in Aug., 1877, Stanley concluded his march of 6900 m. from the e. 
to the w. coast of n. Africa, and arrived at the mouth of the Congo with the discovery 
that that river was the most magnificent waterway on the continent. For a distance of 
115 m. from its mouth it was open to the largest steamers; a second section of 250 m. 
was not navigable, owing to rapids and cataracts, but beyond Stanley Pool it presented 
an unbroken waterway for over 1000 m. through a rich and populous country. Stanley 
declared that whatever power could possess itself of the river would absorb the trade of 
the whole of the enormous basin behind, which extends across 18 degrees of longitude 
and covers 14 degrees of latitude. A new conference of geographers, explorers, and 
capitalists was convened, 1878, at Brussels, resulting in the formation of the A. I. A., 
under the presidency of the King of Belgium, for the purpose of opening this great 


143 Africaiuder. 
e African Languages. 


waterway to European commerce, A series of exploring stations were to be established, 
and a road was to be built along that portion of the river which was unnavigable, so as 
to connect the two navigable sections. The King of Belgium subscribed $250,000 per 
annum out of his own private purse for the prosecution of the work. Through the 
energy of Stanley great progress was made, and in the spring of 1882 the members of the 
association practically had the vast field of industry all to themselves. But meanwhile 
complications had arisen. The Portuguese government revived certain ancient terri- 
torial claims to all the w. coast of Africa between 5° and 8° s. latitude. These claims, 
which had been practically abandoned before the announcement of Stanley’s discoveries, 
were based on discovery, possession, and treaties with the natives and with European 
powers. At the same time the French government entered upon a scheme for buying 
up territory from the natives, and M. de Brazza appeared on the banks of the Congo 
distributing tricolor flags, and asserting that he had obtained from their recipients the 
cession of tracts and territory to France. The Dutch nation claimed possession of the 
lower part of the river by virtue of the trading posts that they had established there. 
Angry disputes arose. At length it was decided, by the mutual consent of all the great 
powers, including the U. 8., to leave the final adjustment of the difficulties to an inter- 
national conference in Berlin. The conference opened at Berlin, 1884, Nov. 17, with 
Prince Bismarck in the chair, and ended its labors, 1885, Feb. 26. Fifteen states were 
_represented. As a result of mutual compromises, it was declared that the immense 
regions forming the basin of the Congo river and its tributaries shall be neutral territory, © 
that perfectly free trade shall exist there, that citizens of any country may undertake 
every species of transportation within its limits, that the Powers exercising sovereign 
rights over neighboring territory are forbidden to exercise monopolies or favors of any 
kind in regard to trade, and that they shall bind themselves to suppress slavery. The 
King of Belgium was made sovereign of the new state. See Conco FREE STATE. 


AFRICAN LANGUAGES. Many classifications of the native languages of Africa have 
been made at various times by those who have endeavored to study them comprehen- 
sively. Among these the most noteworthy (until 1880) was that of Mr. Prichard, as 
follows : 


I. Dialects of Negro-Land. 

IL, Syro Arabian (Hebreo-African), including the Libyan and Atlantic 
peoples from Mt. Atlas to the Arabian Gulf ; and the Galla and tribes 
east and south of Abyssinia. 

III. Bantu. 
IV. Hottentot-Bushman. 


A more satisfactory and scientific division is that of Prof. F. Miller, set forth in his 
Universal Ethnology, and adopted by Mr. Cust in his valuable Modern Languages of 
Africa (1888). 

Prof. Muller had the advantage of being deputed as a member of the Scientific Ex- 
pedition of the Austrian frigate Novdéra, and in the linguistic portions of the Report of 
that expedition, in his Universal Hthnology, and Outline of Philology, he goes over the 
whole subject of the ethnology and languages of the world. His classification of the 
African languages is the following : 


I. Shemitic. 
II. Hamitic. 
III. Nuba-Fulah. 
IV. Negro. 
V. Bantu. 
VI. Hottentot-Bushman. 


The marking off the third additional division is the special feature of this classification, 
which removes a great many difficulties. 

Lepsius, in the preface to his Nuba Grammar, published in 1880, gives us the result 
of lengthy investigation and long experience. It is diametrically opposed to the results 
at which F. Miller arrived. Why he delayed so long the publication of this work is 
not clear. Setting the Semitic on one side, as obviously intruders from Asia, he con 
siders the Hamitic and Bantu elements as the sole factors, since the Hottentot-Bushman 
must be included in the Hamitic subdivision, and the great Negro intermediate zone is the 
diversified product of the collision and mutual influence and mixture of the Hamitic 
and Bantu. In very much of his argument he appears to follow Bleek, Logan, and those 
who preceded him chronologically, in enunciating such views ; but no one has worked 
them out so fully as Lepsius. In his Standard Alphabet, published in London and Berlin 
(1862), he made a general division of languages upon another principle, the main feature 
being the existence or absence of literature, which is not a permanent barrier, as in one 
generation a language passes under proper culture from being unwritten, to becoming 
the vehicle of a copious literature ; but to this division, based upon a transitory char- 
acteristic, he unites another, the existence or the contrary of grammatical gender, one of 
the most deep-rooted of all divisions. 

Waritine.—The use of a written character, and the necessity for it, imply a degree 
of civilization to which the majority of the inhabitants of Africa have never risen. 


African. 
Agape. J 44 


And yet to Egypt the world is indebted for the one alphabetic character, which in differ- 
ent forms has become the property of civilized mankind. When, therefore, one states 
that, so to speak, there are no written documents to record the past in Africa, one is 
reminded that in Egypt the most ancient documents in the world have been conserved. 
It will be convenient to notice each division of the subject separately. 

In the Semitic family some Phenician inscriptions have survived in Egypt and the 
North of Africa. The Arabic character is used exclusively throughout the North of 
Africa, in a peculiar form called the Maghribi; through the central tracts it is the 
medium of religion, commerce, and social intercourse to the Mahometans ; and far to 
the South is used by the Malay immigrants. The Mahometans of Shoa write the 
Amharic language in Arabic character. The Hurari use the same character for their 
language. The character used by the Arabs of the East Coast is an antiquated form, 
and most unsuited to the sounds of the Swahili language. In Bornu the Arabic alpha- 
bet is called A? Warash. The written characters of the old Ethiopic, or Giz, and that 
of the Amharic are a Syllabary, read from left to right, which change was wrought 
under Greek influence. There are seven orders of letters of separate form to represent 
the consonant and vowel. The Amharic has some additional characters. D’Abbadie 
states that they amount to at least two hundred and sixty-seven varieties. The same 
character is used for the Tigré, and has been adopted, perhaps unwisely, for some of 
the Hamitic languages. 

In the Hamitic group we have among the written characters no longer used, the cele- 
brated Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic, and Coptic, the three former being at one and 
the same time ideographic, syllabic, and alphabetic, and the last alphabetic only. Noth- 
ing more need be said of these here. Of the old Libyan or Numidian form of writing, 
specimens are found in inscriptions brought casually to light and not yet satisfactorily 
interpreted. It is the mother of the existing local character called the Tifinag, the lan- 
guage being called Tamashek, and the tribe using it the Tuwarik of the Sahara, a 
subdivision of the Berber family. Oudney first noticed them in 1822. Richardson, the 
African traveler, drew attention to them in 1847, and an account by him was published 
by the British Foreign Office. In the highways of the desert are found blocks of stone 
entirely covered with this character. The Arabs were entirely ignorant of their mean- 
ing. Inthe houses are similar scribblings on the walls. Attempts have been made 
with some success to translate them. They are read from right to left, and forma 
syllabary. Hanoteau in his Grammar of the Kabdil and Tamdshek Languages ; Halévy 
and De Saulcy in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Paris ; Letourneux in the Report 
of the Florence Oriental Congress ; Faulmann in his book on Written Characters, have 
noticed this character. 

In the Nuba-Fulah group must be noticed the ancient Nubian written character in 
the ruins at Meroé and Napatain Nubia. No satisfactory interpretation has as yet been 
made, and the language employed is only presumed to be the ancient form of the mod- 
ern Bishari. In one instance there is a Greek transcript. It is only provisionally 
grouped here ; if proved to be the vehicle of a Hamitic language, it must be transferred 
to that group. 

In the Negro group is one indigenous written character only, that of the Vei, on the 
West Coast near Cape Mount. Dodlu Bukere, a native of the tribe, who had learned 
the Roman character, was the inventor of this character about the year 18384. The writ- 
ing was afterwards used for Mahometan purposes ; but in its invention Mahometanism 
had no share. It is quite original, independent both of the Arabic and the English char- 
acter. Itis syllabic, and there are upward of two hundred forms. Books have been 
written in it to a considerable number ; but it has not been adopted by any Christian 
mission, nor is it likely to have a prolonged existence. It has been noticed by a great 
many writers, and has received a notoriety greater than it deserved. Forbes, Koelle, 
Freeman, Hanoteau, and Steinthal have all mentioned it; it must be recollected that, 
though the forms are original, the idea of a syllabary and an alphabet was borrowed 
from European sources. 


AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. American Methodists from the begin- 
ning of their history, labored diligently for the conversion and elevation of colored 
people in the United States, both n. and s., thousands of whom are now in communion 
with the M. E. church. In 1816, a company of them, with the hope of being freer and 
more useful as a separate denomination, called a convention in Philadelphia, which or- 
ganized the African M. E. Church. Richard Allen, who had been a Methodist minister 
for 17 years, was chosen bishop, and was ordained by five presbyters. A second bishop, 
Morris Brown, was elected in 1828, and a third, E. Waters, in 1886. The doctrines and, 
with some unessential modifications, the government of the M. E. church are retained. 
The church has continued to grow, and many of its preachers have been able men. 
The abolition of slavery, with the kindred changes that accompanied it, has greatly 
enlarged its territory and added to its members. In 1864, preliminary measures for a 
union with the A. M. E. Zion church were taken by both parties, to be ratified at the 
next ppapeene their general conferences in 1868. The union, however, did not then 
take place. In 1876, a plan of union with the Independent Methodist Church was adopted, 
to be followed (it was hoped) by the admission of all the independent churches in Canada 
and the United States. The number of young men who are studying for the ministry is 
increasing. The Christian Recorder, the church newspaper, enlarged and improved, is 


145 African.” 


Agapee. 


prepared entirely by colored men. An educational department has been instituted, and 
the effort to supply the schools with competent teachers of the African race will be dili- 
gently prosecuted. In 1896 were reported 4680 ministers, and 615,854 members. 


AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL ZION CHURCH, a denomination which had its 
origin, in 1820, in the secession of the Zion Congregation (N. Y. city) from the M. E. 
Church. It was soon joined by other congregations. The next year the first annual 
conference met in N. Y., attended by 22 ministers, and reporting 1426members. At first 
each annual conference appointed its president. In 18388 Christopher Rush was elected 
superintendent for four years. In 1847 there were two general superintendents, four 
annual conferences (Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Baltimore), 75 traveling min- 
isters, about 200 local preachers and exhorters, 5000 members, 50 churches, and many 
congregations without churches, located in 11 states, the District of Columbia and Nova 
Scotia. The general conference of 1864 voted in favor of a union with the A. M. E. 
church (q. v.), which, however, has not taken place. The doctrines are the same as those 
of the M. E. church. The chief officers, at first styled general superintendents, but now 
bishops, are elected for four years, and may be re-elected. At the general conference 
in 1876 measures were adopted preparatory to a union with the colored M. E. church. 
In 1896 were reported 2561 ministers, and 492,888 members. 


AFZE’LIUS, ApAm, 1750-1836; Swedish naturalist, a pupil of Linnzeus, whose auto- 
biography he afterwards edited. He studied the flora of west Africa, 1792-94, and wrote 
many botanical papers for the Danish royal academy and the Linnzean society of London. 
Several species of Afzelia have been named after him. 


AFZE’LIUS, Arvip AvGuSsT, 1785-1871; a native of Sweden; first a school-teacher, and 
then parish priest for near half a century. He wrote poems in 1811, and Farewell to the 
Swedish Harp in 1848; translated Icelandic sagas, and with Geiger edited Swedish Folk 
Songs. His most valuable work is a History of the Swedish People, completed in 1870. 


AG'ADES, formerly a very important city of central Africa, but at present in a declin- 
ing condition. It is the capital of Air or Asben (q.v.), and is built upon the eastern edge 
of a great table-land, at an elevation of not lessthan 2500 ft., in lat. 16° 33’n., long. 7° 30’ e. 
It holds little intercourse with the northern cities, such as Murzuk, which, indeed, is 
never visited, except by pilgrims on their way to Mecca; but its merchants still frequent 
the markets of Katsena, Tasawa, Maradi, Kanoand Sokoto. 


AGADIR’, or Santa Cruz, a seaport in northern Africa, on the Atlantic, 30° 27’ n., 
9° 36’e. It was the Santa Cruz of the Portuguese in the 16th c. 


AGALAC’TIA (Gr. a, not, and galacté, milk), a want of the due secretion of milk. It 
may depend either on organic imperfection of the mammary gland, or upon constitu- 
tional causes. In the latter case, the secretion may often be excited by warmth and 
moisture, by the stimulus of the act of sucking, and if this fail, by the application of 
the leaves of the castor-oil plant to the breast. 


AGAMA, a genus of saurian reptiles, the type of a family called agamide. The aga- 
mas are allied to the iguanas, and have a lax skin, which they have the power of inflating 
with air. None of them are of a large size. They are found in warm climates, and are 
of various habits, some of them living in trees, and others confined to the ground. 


AGAMEM'NON, son of king Atreus, and brother of Menelaus. After his father’s 
death, he reigned in Mycenz, and married Clytemnestra, by whom he had three children 
—Iphigeria, Electra, and Orestes, afterwards celebrated in the Greek drama. When 
Paris, son of the Trojan king, Priam, seduced and carried away Helena, the wife of Men- 
elaus, A., with his injured brother, made a tour throughout Greece, exhorting all the 
leaders of the people to unite their forces in an expedition against Troy. Having gained 
their alliance, A. was appointed general-in-chief of the united forces assembled at Aulis 
in Beotia, where they were delayed some time. In the following campaign against Troy, 
which forms the subject of Homer’s Iliad, A. is described as a very stately and dignified 
character. After the fall of Troy, he returned home, taking with him Cassandra, the 
daughter of Priam. Shortly afterwards, he was murdered by Clytemnestra, aided by 
fEgisthus, in whose care he had left his wife and children. A tragical fate had always 
lowered over the house of A.; and the destinies of his children—Iphigenia, Electra, and 
Orestes—were the favorite subjects of the Greek drama. 

AGAMEN'’TICUS, Mount, a hill in York co., Me., 4m. from the sea; 673 ft. high ; 
noted landmark for sailors. Its exact situation is 43° 10’ 2” n. and 70° 41.2’ w. 


AGAMOGENESIS, reproduction without sex, a process of multiplication by division, 
budding, or gemmation, and the like, in which there is no union of sexual elements, but 
simply a more or less discontinuous growth. It is exceedingly common among the 
lower animals and plants, but is gradually replaced in the higher by the more special- 
ized method of sexual reproduction. The term is synonymous with Parthenogenesis (q.v.). 

AGANIP’PE, a fountain in Beotia, near Mt. Helicon, flowing to the river Permessus. 
The water was sacred to the muses, and gave poetic inspiration. There was a fabled 
nymph Aganippe, daughter of the river. 

AG APH were love-feasts, or feasts of charity, usually celebrated by the early Chris- 
tians in connection with the Lord’s supper. The name is derived from the Greek word 
aga», which signifies love or charity. At these feasts, the rich Christians presented their 
poorer brethren in the faith with gifts, and all ate together, in token of their equality 


gee 146 


before God and their brotherly harmony. ‘The meetings were opened and closed with 
prayer; and during the feast, spiritual songs were sung. At first, a bishop or presbyter 
presided, who read a portion of scripture, proposed questions upon it, and received the 
various answers of the brethren. Afterwards, whatever information had been obtained 
regarding the other churches, was read—such as the official letters of overseers, or private 
communications from eminent members; and thus a spirit of practical sympathy was 
engendered. Before the conclusion of the proceedings money was collected for widows, 
orphans, the poor, prisoners, and those who had suffered shipwreck. Then the members 
enibraced, and the feast was ended with a ‘‘philanthropic prayer.” As early as the 2d 
c., the custom of celebrating the A. and the Lord’s supper together had ceased, on account 
ot the persecutions. Justin, when writing on the latter subject, does not speak of the 
former; but Ignatius, on the other hand, seems to regard them as identical. Generally, 
the feast of the A. preceded the celebration of the Lord’s supper. But during the period 
of the persecutions, when the Christians had often to hold divine service before dawn, 
the A. were, for the most part, delayed till the evening. Later, a formal separation was 
made between the two rites. In the 3d and 4th centuries, the A. had degenerated into a 
common banquet, where the deaths of relatives, and the anniversaries of the martyrs, 
were commemorated, and where the clergy and the poor were guests; but with the 
increase of wealth, and the decay of religious earnestness and purity in the Christian 
church, these A. became occasions of great riotousness and debauchery. Councils 
declared against them, forbade the clergy to take any share in their celebration, and finally 
banished them from thechurch. At the same time, it must be admitted that the heathens 
ignorantly calumniated the practices of the Christians in these A., and that the defenses 
made by Tertullian, Minucius, Felix, Origen, etc., are eminently successful. The Mora- 
vians have attempted to revive these A., and hold solemn festivals with prayer and praise, 
where tea is drunk, and wheaten bread, called love-bread, is used. See LovE-FRASTs. 


AGAPEM ONE (Gr. love-abode), a conventual establishment of a singular kind, con- 
sisting of persons of both sexes, founded at Charlynch, near Bridgewater, in Somerset- 
shire, by Mr. Henry James Prince, formerly a clergyman of the church of England. 
The inmates belong to a new religious sect originating with Mr. Prince, and a Mr. Star- 
key, also a clergyman, and are sometimes called Lampeter Brethren, from the place where 
Prince was educated, and where, while a student, he formed a revival society. The ad- 
herents of the sect generally, of whom there are many in the south-western counties, are: 
known as Princeites or Starkeyites. The strange theories advocated by the founders of 
the sect, led to their dismissal from the church of England, but the heresy spread not 
only among the farmers along the coast of Sussex and Dorsetshire, but also among the 
educated classes. Community of goods being insisted upon, the leaders acquired con- 
siderable property, and fitted up in luxurious style a dwelling near Charlynch. Prince, 
who was styled ‘‘ The Lord,”’ affirmed in his publications that he was sinless, and was sent 
to redeem the body, ‘‘to conclude the day of grace, and to introduce the day of judg- 
ment.’’ ‘The Princeites, among other tenets, held religious objections to the increase of 
population, and claimed exemption from disease. See Hepworth Dixon, Spiritual Wives 
(1868), and The Newbery House Mayuzine (Nov. 1891). 

It would appear that a society, similar in its aims and character, though not conventual 
in its form, existed in England in the 16th and 17th cs. It was called the ‘‘ family of 
love.” Its founder is generally supposed to have been Henry Nicholas, a native of 
Minster, in Westphalia, but who lived a considerable time in Holland. He held himself 
to be greater than Moses or Christ, for the former only taught men to hope, and the latter 
to belueve, while he first announced the doctrine of love. He made his appearance 
about 1540. Others, however, are of opinion that the real father of this ‘‘ family” 
was one David George, a fanatical Anabaptist of Delft, in Holland, who died in 1556, 
and who imparted his ‘‘ damnable errors” to Nicholas, an old friend of his. In the reign 
of Edward VI., according to Fuller, Nicholas came over to England, and commenced the 
perversion of silly people in a secret way. By 1572, they had apparently increased in 
numbers considerably, for in that year one John Rogers published a work against them, 
entitled, The Displaying of an Horrible Secte of Grosse and Wicked Heretiques, naming 
themselves the Family of Love, with the Lives of their Authors, and what Doctrine they teach 
in Corners. In 1580, queen Elizabeth issued a proclamation for the hunting out and 
punishing of the ‘‘ damnable sect.” The family of love, ‘‘ or lust, rather,” as old Fuller 
has it, tried to insinuate themselves into the good graces of king James, by presenting a 
petition, casting aspersions on the Puritans. At length, the society expired from 
continual exposure to the effects of ridicule in prose and verse, as well as from its own 
intrinsic worthlessness. Their doctrines seem to have been a species of pseudo-spiritual 
sentimentalism, resulting in gross impurity. (See MuckKERs.) 

AGAPE’TZ, widows and virgins among the early Christians who devoted themselves: 
to attendance upon ecclesiastics. Immorality followed, and the early councils denounced 
the practice. 

AGAPE’TUS, a deacon of St. Sophia’s church at Constantinople, who presented to 


Justinian, in 527, a work on the duties of a Christian prince. It is highly valued, and: 
has been often reprinted, 


147 Ais 


AGARDE’, Artuur, 1540-1615, an English antiquarian. He was bred to the law, 
and became deputy chamberlain, holding the office 45 years, in which time he became 
proficient in antiquarian knowledge. Camden and Sir Robert Cotton were his personal 
friends, and with them he was among the first members of the royal society of anti: 
quarians. 


A’'GARDH, JAxos GroRG, b. 1813 ; son of Karl Adolph, and followed the same study. 
He was professor of botany at Lund in 1854, He much increased his father’s large 
collection, and wrote several botanical works. 


A'GARDH, Karu Apoupn, 1785-1859 ; a Swedish botanist. He was educated at) 
Lund. In botany he paid special attention to cryptogamia, on which he is authority. 
In 1812 he was professor of botany and rural economy at Lund, and lectured on general 
economics. He became a priest in 1816 ; went into politics in 1817, and was elected to 
the diet; in 1884 was made bishop of Karlstadt, and was the leading liberal in the diet. 
A. was author of several books and papers, chiefly on botany, and a memoir of Linnzus. 


AG'ARIC and AGAR’/ICUS. See MusHroom. 


AGA’SIAS, a Greek sculptor, supposed to have lived in the 4th ec. B.c. The 
‘‘ Borghese Gladiator,” one of his works, was found at Antium with the ‘‘Apollo Belve- 
dere,” and is now in the Louvre. It is a warrior on foot with head raised as if on guard 
against a horseman. Some suppose it represents Achilles, the invisible enemy being 
Penthesilea. 


AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER, b. Switzerland, 1835, son of Louis, and joined his father in 
Boston in 1848. He graduated at Harvard in 1855, and was in the U. 8. coast survey off 
California in 1859-60, studying the fauna of the Mexican coast. Subsequently he became 
largely interested in copper mining, and gave his attention successively to such scientific 
work as was involved in the positions of curator of the museum of comparative zoology, 
superintendent of the Anderson school of natural history, member of the scientific 
expedition to Chili and lake Titicaca, chief of the U. 8. dredging expedition in the West 
Indies, and one of the overseers of Harvard college. He is a member of a great number 
of scientific societies, and has written largely upon ichthyology. He was appointed an 
officer of the Legion of Honor in 1896. 


AG'ASSIZ, Louis JoHN Ropo.tpu, one of the most distinguished of modern naturalists, 
was born at Orbe, in the canton de Vaud, in 1807. After passing through the usual 
course of elementary learning at Biel and Lausanne, he prosecuted his studies at Zurich, 
Heidelberg, and Munich. rn early youth he had displayed a strong love of natural 
history; and at Heidelberg and Munich comparative anatomy was his favorite occupa- 
tion. In Munich he became acquainted with Martius and Spix, the well-known travelers 
in Brazil; and when Spix died (in 1826) his collection of 116 species of fish, collected in 
Brazil, was left in the care of A., who published it under the title Pisces, etc., quos collegtt 
et pingendos curavit Spiz, descripsit A, (Munich, 1829-31, with 91 illustrations in lithog- 
raphy.) Led by this work to study ichthyology more closely, A. next undertook a sys- 
tematic arrangement of the fresh-water fishes found in central Europe. Of this work, the 
first fasciculus, containing the family of the Salmonide, appeared at Neufchatel in 1889, 
with 34 illustrations, and descriptions in French, English, and German. A _ second 
fasciculus, prepared. by his friend Vogt, Hmbryologie des Salmones, was published in 
1840; and a third, Anatomie des Salmones, appeared in 1845 as a part of the third 
volume of the Memoirs of the Neufchatel Society of Natural History. Beyond this, the 
work was not continued. A. at the same time devoted his attention to the fossil 
remains of fishes, and during his stay in Paris (1831-82), examined several private and 
public fossil collections, The results of his studies were given in his work Recherches sur 
les Poissons Fossiles, published at Neufchatel, with 811 lithographed illustrations, (1833- 
42.) Meanwhile he had been invited to take the professorship of natural history at 
Neufchatel; and here he found two active young friends, Desor and Vogt, who afforded 
considerable aid in the completion of his works. With their assistance his work on fossil 
fishes was brought to a conclusion in 1842. During several visits to England, A. made 
himself well acquainted with the collections of fossils in this country; and in 1844 pub- 
lished a monograph on fossil fishes found in the old red sandstone of the Devonian 
system. His study of these remains led him to examine other fossils; and the results 
appeared in his works Description des Echinodermes Fossiles de la Suisse, and Monographies 
@ Echinodermes Vivants et Fossiles. In the latter work, Professor Valentin, of Berne, 
supplied the section on the ‘‘ Anatomy of the Sea-urchin.” A. next turned his attention 
to the mollusca, and produced his Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusca, which was soon 
followed by his Memoirs on the Muscles in Living and Fossil Mollusca. His work on 
Glaciers excited great interest, as it opened new views in geology. Theresults of further 
study were given in asecond work on The System of Glaciers; or Researches on Glaciers 
(Paris, 1847). In preparing this work, he was assisted by his friends Guyot and Desor. 
In 1846, A. went to the United States, where he was appointed to a professorship in Har- 
vard college, near Boston ; from which he was subsequently transferred (1852) to the chair 
of comparative anatomy in Charleston ; but this he resigned (1854), and returned to Har- 
vard. In Outlines of Comparative Physiology, A. upholds the doctrine of the successive 
creation of higher organized beings on the earth. An Essay on Classification, by A., was 


re 1 4 8 


ge. 


published (Lond., 1859); anda Journey in Brazil (1868). During the latter of these years, 
he was appointed a non-resident professor and lecturer in Cornell university, Ithaca, N. Y.; 
and, along with count Portalés, was intrusted with the dredging operations in the investi- 
gation of the Gulf Stream, undertaken by the American government in 1871. A. granted 
that Darwinism (q. v.) could be theistically interpreted; but opposed it, chiefly on scien- 
tific grounds. D. in 1878. See Marcou’, Life, Letters and Works of Louis Agassiz (1896). 


AGASSIZ ASSOCIATION, a society formed about 1879 by Harlan H. Ballard, principal 
of Lenox (Mass.) academy, for the purpose of interesting his scholars in the study, col- 
lection, and preservation of natural objects. Since 1880 the association has become a 
general organization, including very many young people in various parts of the world, 
and not a few professional scientists and teachers, who recognize its value as an educa- 
tional power. The parent chapter is that at Lenox. Branch chapters take their names 
from the towns where they are formed, and must consist of at least 4 persons. The 
payment of a small fee enables any one not connected with a chapter to become a cor- 
responding member of the parent chapter, and to share in the advantages of the associ- 
ation, among which are free correspondence and exchange with naturalists, and free 
assistance from specialists in any department of science. The badge is a Swiss cross. 
Prizes for original research are offered by the association. At the first general conven- 
tion, held at Philadelphia, Sept., 1884, 700 local branches and over 8000 members 
were reported. The membership afterwards increased to about 10,000, with 1000 
chapters. 


AG’ASSIZ, Mount, in Arizona, 70 m. n. e. of Prescott; an extinct volcano, 10,000 ft. 
above the sea-level. It is a favorite summer resort, and near it is the wonderful canyon 
of the Colorado. Another peak of this name in Utah is 13,000 feet high. 


AG’ATE, a mineral composed of layers of quartz, generally of different varieties or 
colors, intimately joined together. The layers are often concentric, and in the section some- 
times appear nearly circalar or elliptical, sometimes angular. Chalcedony, amethyst, 
common quartz, jasper, flint, etc., occur as layers in A. It takes a fine polish, and is 
much used for ornamental purposes. It is common in amygdaloids. Many agates are 
found in Scotland, and are sold under the name of Scotch pebbles. See illus., DIAMONDs, 
ETC., vol. IV. 


AG’ATHA, SAINT, a noble Sicilian lady of great beauty, who rejected the love of the 
proconsul Quintilianus, and suffered a cruel martyrdom in the persecution of Christians 
under Decius (251). She holds a high rank among the saints of the Roman Catholic 
church; her day falls Feb. 5. 


AGATHAR’CHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS, a Greek grammarian and geographer, who 
lived about 180 B.c. He was guardian of an Egyptian king, probably Ptolemy Soter II. 
A. was an orator, and wrote several works, of which only one remains. 


AGATHAR/CHUS, abt. 480 B.c.; a Greek painter ; said to be the first who applied the 
laws of perspective. He painted a scene for a tragedy by Aéschylus, and is called the 
first scene-pairiter. 


AGA'THIAS, surnamed Asrtanus; 5386-580 a.p.; educated at Alexandria and Con- 
stantinople; studied Roman law and practiced with success; wrote love verses and made 
an anthology of earlier poets; but his most valuable work is a history of the years 553 
to 558, in which he tells of the conquest of Italy by the Goths, of the earthquakes of 554 
and 557, the beginning of the Greek and Persian war, the rebuilding of St. Sophia, the 
exploits of Belisarius, etc. 


AGATH'OCLES, one of the boldest but most unworthy adventurers of antiquity, was 
b. at Therme, in Sicily, in 861 B.c. He rose from humble circumstances through the 
patronage of Damas, a noble citizen of Syracuse, and received a command in the expedi: 
tion against Agrigentum. After vards he married the widow of Damas, and became one 
of the most wealthy men in Syracuse. Under the rule of Sosistratus, he was obliged to 
flee into lower Italy, where he collected a band of partisans. Returning to Syracuse, after 
the death of Sosistratus, he zained the supremacy, confirmed it by a massacre of several 
thousands of respectable citizens, and took possession of the greater part of Sicily. To 
establish his power, and keep his army employed, he now attempted to expel the Cartha- 
ginians from Sicily; but in this undertaking he was defeated. His next plan was to. pass 
over to Africa with a part of his army and there attack the Carthaginians. This war he 
carried on with success for four years, or until 307 B.c., when disturbances in Sicily com- 
pelled him to leave the army fora time. On his return to Africa he found his troops in 
a state of mutiny against his son Archagathus, whom he had left in command, but 
pacified them by promises of large booty. Soon afterwards he suffered a serious defeat, 
and with deliberate treachery left his own son exposed to the vengeance of the disap- 
pointed soldiers. The son was put to death, and the troops surrendered themselves to the 
enemy, while A. escaped safely into Sicily, where, by fraud and cruelty, he soon recovered 
his former power, and was afterwards engaged in predatory inroads upon Italy. It was 
his intention to leave the throne to his youngest son, A.; but his grandson, Archagathus, 
made an insurrection, slew the royal heirs, and persuaded Menon, one of the favorites 
of the aged tyrant, to destroy him by means of a poisoned toothpick. This took piace 
in 289 B.c,, When A. was 72 years old, and had reigned 28 years. 


149 teeselee 


AG'ATHON, or AacaTuo, 447-400 3B.c.; a Greek tragic poet, contemporary and 
friend of Plato, Socrates, Alcibiades and Euripides; noted for personal beauty. After 
his first literary triumphs, in 416, a dinner was given to him, which Plato immortalized in 
his ‘‘Symposium,” the scene being in A.’s house. He was sometimes ridiculed for 
bombast and for effeminate tastes, appearing on the stage in female dress. 


AGAVE, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order amaryllidee (q.v.), and hav- 
ing a tubular perianth with 6-partite limb, anda triangular, many-seeded inferior capsule. 
They are herbaceous plants, of remarkable and beautiful appearance. There are a 
number of species, all natives of the warmer parts of America. By unscientific persons 
they are often confounded with aloes (q.v.); and A. Americana is generally known by 
the name of AMERICAN ALOE. The agaves have either no proper stem, or a very short 
one, bearing at its summit a crowded head of large, fleshy leaves, which are spiny at the 
margin. From the midst of these shoots up the straight, upright scape, 24 to 36 ft. high, 
and at the base often 1 ft.in diameter, along which are small, appressed, lanceolate 
bractex, with a terminal panicle, often bearing as many as 4000 flowers. In 8. America, 
these plants often flower in the 8th year, but in our hot-houses not until they have 
reached a very advanced age; whence arises the gardeners’ fable of their flowering only 
once in 100 years. After flowering, the plant always dies down to the ground, but the 
root continuing to live, sends up new shoots. The best known species is A. Americana, 
which was first brought from $8. America to Europe in 1561, and being easily propa. 
gated by suckers, is employed for fences in Italian Switzerland, and has become natural- 
ized in Naples, Sicily, and the n. of Africa. By maceration of the leaves, which are 5 to 
7 ft. long, are obtained coarse fibres, which are used in America, under the name of 
maguey, for the manufacture of thread, twine, ropes, hammocks, etc. This fibre is also 
known as pita flax. It is now produced to some extent in the s.of Europe. It is not 
very strong nor durable, and if exposed to moisture it soon decays. The ancient Mexi- 
cans employed it for the preparation of a coarse kind of paper, and the Indians use it 
foroakum. The leaves, cut into slices, are used for feeding cattle.—Another species, 
A. Mexicana, is particularly described by Humboldt upon account of its utility. When 
the innermost leaves have been torn out, a juice continues to flow for a year or a year 
and a half, which, by inspissation, yields sugar; and which, when diluted with water, 
and subjected to 4 or 5 days’ fermentation, becomes an agreeable but intoxicating drink, 
called pulque, 


AG'DE, an ancient French t. in the dept. of Herault, founded by the Greeks, and 
situated about a league from the Mediterranean sea, on the left bank of a navigable 
stream. To the n., under the walls of the t., flows the Languedoc canai. The mouth of 
the stream forms a harbor, which admits vessels of 400 tons burden. The coast-trade of 
A., in particular, is very brisk, while it is also the entrepot for the traffic of the s. and w. 
of France. It has, besides, considerable intercourse with Italy, Spain, and Africa. It 
carries on a large and prosperous trade in coal, wine, oil, grain, silk, etc., and manufactures 
soap and verdigris; but the general aspect of the place is sombre and forbidding, on account 
of the black basalt of which the houses are built, whence it has popularly received the 
name of the Black Town. It possesses a naval academy, and is noted in history as the 
place at which Alaric, king of the Goths, convened a council. Pop. ’91, 7889. 


AGE, in law, is that period of life at which persons are permitted legally to 
exercise certain rights which for lack of A. they had been restrained from. In general, 
@ person is ‘‘of age” on the day preceding the 21st anniversary of birth. The ‘‘A. 
of discretion” is at 14 years for males and 12 for females, at which point either may marry 
or elect guardians. At full A. (21) male citizens can vote and hold office, except in cer- 
tain specified cases, such as a representative in congress, who must. be 25 years of age,a 
senator 80, and the president 35. The ‘‘ military A.,” confined to males, is from 18 to 45 
years. In N. Y. no judge can hold office after he is 70 years of age; male citizens over 
21 and under 60 are subject to jury duty. In mythology and poetic fancy, the course of 
the world was divided into 5 ages: the golden A., when Saturn reigned, was a period of 
innocence and happiness; the silver A., under the rule of Jupiter, was the voluptuous 
period; the brazen A., when Neptune held sway, was a warlike interval; the heroic A. 
under Mars was also warlike and adventurous; while the iron A.,with Pluto as theruler, 
was one of human degradation and misery. In chronology we have many ages, the 
principal being the antediluvian and the postdiluvian. In anthropology there is the A. 
of stone, the A.of bronze, and the A. of iron, indicated by the use of these substances for 
tools in successive periods. In geology there are the azoic, the silurian, the Devonian, 
the carboniferous, the reptilian, the mammalian; and the A. of man, or the present A. In 
letters there are the A. of Pericles in Greece, the Augustan A. in Rome, the Elizabethan 
A. in England, and the Augustan A. in France under Louis XIV. There is the heathen 
as opposed to the Christian A.; the A. of the crusades; the dark A.’s, the middle A.’s and 
the A. of steam. The progress of mental activity has been divided into the A.of the 
supernatural, the A. of the metaphysical, and the A. of the positive. Physiologically 
human lifeis divided into infancy, youth, manhood, and old A. See CONSENT; INFANT, 

AG'ELNOTH, or ETHELNOTH, known also as ACHELNOTUS ; son of Egelmaer, arch. 
bishop of Canterbury in the reign of Canute. A. exercised great and salutary influence 
over that headstrong monarch, both to prompt and to restrain, counseling the policy 
that finally united the Danes and Saxons to oppose the Normans He also made peace 
in the church and ended the persecution raging between the Benedictines and the secu- 
lar clergy. He was made archbishop, and went to Rome in 1022 to receive the pall. On. 


keno pate 


hhis return he purchased at Pavia a relic, said to be the right arm of St Augustine rf 
Hippo. When Canute died he made A. promise to be faithful to his sons by Emma, 
and the promise was so well kept that Harold the usurper remained unconsecrated until 
after the death of A. 

AGEN’, the chief t. of the department of Lot-et-Garonne in France, is situated in a 
fertile region on the right bank of the Garonne. The town is old and gloomy in appear- 
‘ance; but carries on an active trade in woolen and linen fabrics, leather, colored paper, 
‘colors, cordage and sail-cloth. It forms the connecting-link of the intercourse between 
‘Toulouse and Bordeaux, and exports plums, brandy, hemp, flax and poultry. Close by 
it is the old-fashioned house in which Joseph Scaliger, the prince of scholiasts, was born. 
In ancient times A. was the scene of many a fierce martyrdom of the Christians, when it 
was under the ruleof Roman pretors. Afterwards it suffered the miseries of war, during 
the barbaric irruptions from Germany, to a most incredible extent, having been taken and 
plundered by Goths, Vandals, and Huns, in their turn. It was seized by the English, in 
their early French wars, and, at a later period, was twice taken by the Huguenots, in the 
religious contests of the 16th c. It has many interesting antiquities. Pop. ’91, 20,400. 


AGENDA (Lat., things to be done), a term applied by theologians to practical duties as 
distinguished from the credenda, things to be believed, or doctrines that must be accepted 
as articles of faith. Among writers of the ancient church, the term signified both 
divine service in genera! and the mass in particular. We meet with agenda matutina 
and vespertina, morning and evening prayers ; agenda diet, the office of the day ; agenda 
mortuorum, the service of the dead. It is also applied to church-books, compiled by 
public authority, prescribing the order to be observed by the ministers and people in the 
ceremonies and observances of the church. In this sense agenda occurs for the first 
time in a work of Johannes de Janua about 1287. The name was especially used to 
designate a book containing the formule of prayer and ceremonies to be observed by 
the priests in their several ecclesiastical functions. It was generally adopted by the 
Lutheran Church of Germany, in which it is still in use, while in the Roman Church it 
has been, since the sixteenth century, supplanted by the term rztwal (q.v.). 


AGE'’NOR, a fabulous king of Pheenicia, son of Neptune, twin brother of Belus ; 
father of Cadmus, and some say of Europa. When Europa was carried off by Zeus, A. 
sent his sons to find her, with orders not to return until they had done so. She was not 
found, and the sons settled in various countries. Buttman supposes A. to be the 
Canaan of Moses (Gen. x. 6). ; 


AGE OF REASON, A name given to a certain period of the French revolution, when 
Christianity was decried and Reason acknowledged as the only true Goddess. This 
movement was carried on by Hebert and his followers, professed atheists, who suc- 
ceeded in persuading many Christians to renounce their faith. The worship of Reason 
centres round the ceremonies held in her honor at Notre Dame, November 10, 1798. 
The Goddess, typified by a painted harlot, was placed on the altar and received the 
homage of her worshipers. A schism in the party of the Montagnards, to which the 
atheists belonged, led to their execution, which occurred March 24, 1794. 

AGENT (Latin, agens). One who is employed to act for another in some matter con- 
nected with the making of contracts. An agent is distinguished from a servant, in that 
the latter is employed merely to do work or services for a master, and is not generally 
authorized to make contracts, by which his employer shall be bound. One who is em- 
ployed to render specified services for another, and is also authorized to enter into con- 
tracts with third parties in connection therewith, is both an agent and aservant. An 
agency may be either, (1) general or (2) special. (1) A general agent is one who is em- 
ployed by his principal to manage and attend to all the affairs of a certain business or 
department thereof. One who holds himself out to the community as ready and willing 
to transact all the business of a specified kind for any one who may employ him, such 
as a commission merchant or insurance broker, is a general agent for the time being for 
those who employ him in that capacity. A general agent binds his principal by all his 
acts done within the scope of his business or employment. (2) A special agent is one 
employed to do some specific work for his principal, as such agent, and who is not given 
the general management of any branch of business. He can bind his principal only by 
acts done strictly within the scope of the authority given by the latter. If the principal 
either employ his agent as a general one, or by his acts or representations lead those who 
deal with such agent to believe that he isso employed and to act upon that belief, he 
will be bound by all the acts of the agent as such, whether he be in fact_a general or a 
special agent. One who knowingly deals with a special agent cannot hold the principal 
liable for the acts of such agent outside of the strict authority given him by such prin- 
cipal. See also, FacToR, BROKER, COMMISSION MERCHANT. 

AGES, a term employed to designate the epochs of civilization in the history of the 
human race. The old poets and philosophers described these in harmony with what they 
conceived to have been the moral and political condition of their ancestors. The idea of 
a succession of A. presented itself at a very early period to the Greek mind. The life of 
the race was likened to that of the individual—hence the infancy of the former might 
easily be imagined to be, like that of the latter, the most beautiful and serene of all 
Hesiod mentions 5 A.—the golden, simple and patriarchal; the silver, voluptuous and 
godless; the brazen, warlike, wild and violent; the heroic, an aspiration towards the 


151 Ferme 


better ; the iron, in which justice, piety and faithfulness had vanished from the earth, 
the time in which Hesiod fancied that he himself lived. Ovid closely imitates the old 
Greek except in one particular—he omits the heroic age. This idea, at first perhaps a 
mere poetic comparison, gradually worked its way into prose, and finally became a por 
tion of scientific philosophy. These A. were regarded as the divisions of the great world: 
year, which would be completed when the stars and planets had performed a revolution 
round the heavens, after which destiny would repeat itself in the same series of events. 
Thus mythology was brought into connection with astronomy. The golden A. was said 
to be governed by Saturn; the silver, by Jupiter; the brazen, by Neptune; and the iron, 
by Pluto, Many curious calculations were entered into by ancient writers to ascertain 
the length of the heavenly year, and its various divisions. The greatest discrepancy 
prevailed, as might naturally be expected; some maintaining that it was 3000, and others 
as many as 18,000 solar years. The Sybilline books compared it to the seasons of the 
solar year, calling the golden age the spring, etc.; and on the completion of the cycle, 
the old order was renewed. The idea of a succession of A. is so natural, that it has 
inwrought itself into the religious convictions of almost all nations. It is sanctioned by 
scripture, for it is symbolically adopted in the Apocalypse to a certain extent; it also 
manifests itself in the sacred books of the Indians, Modern philosophy, at least in Ger- 
many and France, has also attempted to divide human history into definite A. or periods. 
Fichte numbers five, of which he conceives that we are in the third; Hegel and August 
Comte reckon three, placing us in the last. : 


AGESILA'US, king of Sparta (899-360 B.c.), was elevated to the throne chiefly by the 
exertions of Lysander. Being called upon by the Jonians to assist them against Artax- 
erxes, he commenced a splendid campaign in Asia; but was compelled by the Corinthian 
war, in which several of the Grecian states were allied against Sparta, to leave his con- 
quest over the Persians incomplete, and return to Greece. At Cheeronea (394 B.c.), he 
gained a victory over the allied forces, and in 378 the war was concluded by a treaty of 
peace in favor of Sparta. Afterwards, in the Theban war, though hard pressed by 
Pelopidas and Epaminondas, he bravely and ably defended his country. He died in his 
84th year. A. is described as of smal. stature but commanding aspect, blameless in his 
private character, and, in public life, just, as far as his partiality for his own country 
allowed. His biographers are Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos. 

AG’GERHUUS, or AKERSHUUS, a department in s. e. Norway, 2012 sq. m., pop. ’91, 
about 100,000. The chief business is in iron, lumber, pitch, tallow, and hides. The 
district has many small lakes, and the scenery is beautiful. 


AGGLU'TINATE LANGUAGES, the name given to the Turanian tongues, because the 
pronouns are attached (glued on) to the verbs, and prepositions denoting case in the same 
way attached to substantives. See PurnoLogy; TURANIAN LANGUAGES. 

AGGREGATION, STATES OF ; the three states, solid, liquid and gaseous, in which 
matter occurs, depending upon the degree of cohesion that exists between the molecules 
or atoms of material bodies. In a solid state the molecules are fixed, and cannot be 
changed from their position without force; in the liquid state they move freely on each 
other, and the cohesion is so slight that the body has no fixed form; in the gaseous state 
they are affected by an elastic force that amounts to repulsion, tending to disperse them 
through increased space. A recent hypothesis, to which some facts seem to point, is 
that of a fourth state, called ‘‘ radiant,” in which matter is supposed to exist at a point as 
far beyond the gaseous as that is beyond the liquid. 


AGINCOURT. See AzincourtT, 


AG'TO, an Italian word, signifying ‘“‘accommodation,” was first used in Italy to denote 
the premium taken by money-changers in giving gold for silver, on account of the greater 
convenience of gold for transport. The same word is now used to denote the differenee 
between the real and the nominal value of money; also the variations from fixed pars or 
rates of exchange. It corresponds very nearly to the English word ‘‘ premium,” 


A’GIS, the name of several kings of Sparta. Mention is made of a king A. as early as 
about 1000 years B.c., who subdued the old inhabitants of Sparta, and made the Helots 
vassals or slaves. Of the others, A. I. reigned during the greater part of the Peloponne- 
sian war, from 420 to 397 p.c.—A. II. ascended the throne in 838 B.c. His hatred of the 
Macedonian supremacy led him to form alliances with several Persian satraps against 
Alexander the great. A., after extending his conquests to almost all the cities of Pelo- 
ponnesus, fell in battle 330 B.c.—A. III. came to the throne in 244 B.c., when the state of 
Sparta had fallen into a ruinous condition through long-continued war. Though only 
twenty years old when he began to reign, he boldly resolved to restore the old institutions 
and severe manners of Sparta; but intrigues and self-interest in the higher classes frus- 
trated his designs. The riches of the state were now in the hands of a few persons, 
while a great majority of the people were in extreme indigence. A., therefore, in accord- 
ance with the old laws of the state, proposed a redistribution of landed estates by lot- 
tery. The new ephorus, Agesilaus, who was rich in landed property, but burdened with 
many debts, astutely proposed that first all debts should be canceled, and next the lands 
should be divided. The first part of this plan was soon effected; but great hindrances 
were opposed to the carrying out of the remainder. Meanwhile, the disappointed people 
were easily persuaded that A. had endeavored to introduce measures inimical to the wel- 


ha h ° A 
Azonic. 152 


fare of the state. Pursued by his enemies, he fled for refuge to a temple, but was be- 
trayed by false friends into the hands of the magistrates, who immediately ordered him 
to be put to death by strangulation (240 B.c.). His mother and his grandmother, who had 
favored his measures, were barbarously executed in the same manner. Alfieri, the Italian 
poet, wrote a powerful tragedy on the fate of A. III. 


AGLA'OPHON, a Greek painter, who lived about 500 B.c. ; father of Polygnotus and 
Aristophon, also painters and his pupils. Quintilian praises A.’s pictures for simplicity 
of coloring. Another artist of the name, supposed to be a grandson, painted a portrait 
of Alcibiades. 


AGME’GUE, or GAGMEGUE, a name of the Mohawk Indians. They called themselves 
by a word signifying ‘“‘ she-bear.” The Algonquins called them Mahaquas, which the 
French made Moquis, Mohawks, or Mohocks. ‘They were usually at war with the French 
of Canada; but the Dutch kept them friendly, making a treaty in 1618 that lasted until 
the old French war, when they did good service for the English in Canada. In the revo- 
lution they sided with the British, and under the famous chief Thayendenega, or Brant, 
did much damage to frontier settlements. Soon after the peace they migrated from their 
old home in central N. Y. to Canada, where a small remnant still exists. Their language 
has been elucidated in grammars by Bruyes and Marcoux; and Brant translated the 
prayer-book and parts of the bible into their tongue. 


AGNA‘/NO, formerly a small lake near Naples, with no visible outlet. It has been 
drained, because it was thought to cause malaria. The lake was originally named 
Anguiano, from the number of snakes in the neighborhood. On the right of lake A. lies 
the grotto del cane—so called from the stratum of carbonic acid gas, some 18 inches deep, 
which always covers the floor, and which suffocates a dog (cane) or other small animal 
taken into it—and on the left are found the natural vapor-baths of San Germano, used for 
the cure of gout, rheumatism, etc., but inferior in virtue to the baths (stufe di Nerone) at 
Baiz. The volcanoes surrounding the lake have been extinct since 1198 A.p. Further 
on the left from A. lies the lake of Astron, which occupies the crater of an extinct vol- 
cano, and is surrounded by beautiful woodlands. 


AG'NATE (Lat. agnatus). Agnates, in the law both of England and Scotland, are per- 
sons related through the father, as cognates are persons related through the mother. In 
the Roman law, both of these terms had a somewhat different signification. Agnates, by 
that system, were persons related through males only, whilst cognates were all those in 
whose connection, though on the father’s side, one or more female links intervened. Thus, 
a brother’s son was his uncle’s A., because the propinquity was wholly by males; a sister’s 
son was his cognate, because a female was interposed in that relationship. With us the 
intervention of females is immaterial, provided the connection be on the male, or paternal 
side of the house. The reason for having thus changed the meaning of terms mani- 
festly borrowed from the Roman law, seems to be that in Rome the distinction between 
agnates and cognates was founded on an institution which has not been adopted in the 
Roman sense by any modern nation—that, namely, of the patria potestas (q.v.). Roman 
agnati are defined by Hugo to be all those who either were actually under the same pater- 
familias, or would have been so had he been alive; and thus it was that, as no one could 
belong to two different families at the same time, the agnation to the original family was 
destroyed, and a new agnation created, not only by marriage, but by adoption (q. v.). 
The foundation of cognation, again, was a legal marriage. All who could trace up their 
origin to the same marriage were cognati; and thus the term cognatus, generally speaking, 
comprehended agnatus. But though an agnatus was thus almost always a cognatus, a 
cognatus was an agnatus only when his relationship by blood was traceable through 
males. Justinian abolished entirely the distinction between agnates and cognates, and 
admitted both to legal succession and to the office of tutor of law, not only kinsmen by 
the father, though a female had been interposed, but even those by the mother (Woo. 118, 
c. 4, 5). As to the legal effects of the distinction in the modern sense, see SUCCESSION, 
GUARDIAN. 


AGNES, Saint, a Christian virgin, martyred by order of Diocletian, when about 15 
years old. The legend is that her beauty excited the son of a preetor, whom she escaped 
through miraculous blindness that fell upon him; and that his sight was restored in 
answer to her prayers. 


AGNESI, MARIA GmTANA, 1718-99, a woman remarkable for her varied attainments, 
was b. at Milan. In her ninth year she could converse in Latin, and gave a lecture in 
this language, in which she argued that a knowledge of the ancient languages was a. 
proper accomplishment in women. In her eleventh year she could also speak Greek 
fluently, and subsequently acquired with great facility several of the oriental languages, 
and also French, Spanish and German. She was jocosely styled ‘‘ the walking polyglot.” 
This precocious development of intellect was encouraged by her father, who invited 
parties of learned men to his house, with whom Maria disputed on philosophical points. 
Of her discourses in these parties, her father published some specimens entitled Propo- 
stiones Philosophice (Milan, 1738). After her twentieth year she devoted her mind to 
the study of mathematics, wrote an unpublished treatise on Conic Sections, and published 
her Instituziont Analitiche (2 vols., Milan, 1748). This work so extended her reputation 


Sate . 


1 hon, 
153 qaleannen 


that when her father was disabled by infirmity she took his place as professor of mathe- 
matics in the university of Bologna, by the appointment of pope Benedict XIV. It is 
said that af.er her devotion to the study of mathematics her cheerfulness vanished, she 
avoided society, and at last became a nun, and gave the whole of her time to attendance 
on the poor and the afflicted. Maria A. was a remarkable exception to the general rule 
of precocious intellect and short life, as she lived to the age of 81. 


AGNES SOREL, 1409-50 ; mistress of Charles VII. of France, and lady of honor to 
the queen, the virtuous Marie of Anjou, whose full confidence she long enjoyed. She 
had great influence over Charles, and is credited with rousing him from the lethargy 
into which he had fallen after the successes of Henry V. of England at Agincourt and 
elsewhere. Her death was sudden, and it is supposed that she was poisoned by the 
dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. She had three children by the king. 

AGNEW, CoRNELIuS REA, 1830-88, physician, author of valuable monographs on 
diseases of the eye and ear. He founded the Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital in 1868, 
became one of the trustees of Columbia College in 1874, and was a professor in the Col- 
lege of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. 

AGNEW, DANIEL HAYEs, M.D., 1818-92, professor of surgery at the university of 
Penn., and very widely known by his surgical inventions and by his works. 

AGNI, or AGnis, the Hindoo god of fire, represented with two faces, three legs, and 
seven arms. He is of deep red color, and the faces are said to represent fire in its two 
elements: beneficent and destructive; the seven arms represent the primary colors. He 
bears incense to heaven, and appears to be a mediator between men and the gods. 

AGNOETZ, a sect in the 6th c. which gave prominence“to the statement that, in his 
human nature, Christ was ignorant of many things, especially of the time of the day of 
judgment. An earlier sect of the same name denied the omniscience of God. 

A’GNOLO, Baccro pb’, about 1461-1543, b. Florence; architect of the villa Borgherini, 
and of the campanile of the church of San Spirito, in that city. He was the first to use 
frontons, or frontispieces, for windows and doors in private buildings. 

AGNO’MEN, among the Romans, a fourth name derived from some act, quality or 
event, as ‘*Cunctator’? added to Fabius, equivalent to ‘‘ Fabius the delayer.’”’ Pliny 
‘the younger ’’ is also an instance. 

AGNO'NE, at. of S. Italy, in the province of Campobasso, and 22 m. n. w. from the 
t. of Campobasso. It stands on a hill, and is said to occupy the site of the ancient 
Aquilonia. It is celebrated for its copper works. Pop. about 10,000. 


AGNOSTICISM, a word compounded from two Greek words signifying lack and know- 
ing, to express the doctrine taught of late, especially by Herbert Spencer, Huxley, and 
others—but clearly traceable in much of the ancient Greek philosophy, and frequently 
reappearing in speculative thought—that man from his very nature is incapable of form- 
ing trustworthy conclusions concerning the being of a God or his own relations to the 
infinite. His mental limitations, it is asserted, preclude him from any knowledge of the 
absolute, the unconditioned ; he can see things only as they appear to him, and not as 
they are—phenomena, not noumena, Knowledge is derived exclusively through the 
senses, and is simply the accumulated experience of the race ; hence everything which 
lies outside of the sphere of sense lies also outside of the grasp of the mental faculties, 
No philosophical basis of certainty is attainable on any subject which transcends the 
limits of human experience. In theology this school of thought seeks a middle ground 
between the dogmatic theist and the dogmatic atheist, claiming to avoid affirming with 
the one or denying with the other, and to be opposed equally to both. It teaches that 
the true philosophy is to find out what are the limitations of the human mind, and then 
to confine the activity of the mental faculties within the regions of the ‘‘ knowable,” 
shunning as useless all speculations concerning the ‘‘ unknowable.” MReasoners against 
this doctrine have pointed out that its difference from atheism is apparent rather than 
substantial ; and that if it give its principles their full development it cuts away its own 
foundation ; and, further, that, as presented by its advocates, it manifestly claims to 
know and to assert various things regarding its own ‘‘unknowable.’’ Its latest utter- 
ances show signs of modification at the hands of its cultured adherents. 


AG'NUS DE'I (Lat., ‘‘ Lamb of God”), one of the titles of Christ (John i. 29); also the 
name given to a certain prayer used in the Roman Catholic service of mass. The lita- 
nies generally conclude with the same prayer: ‘‘O Lamb of God, that takest away the 
sins of the world, have mercy upon us.” —The figure of a lamb bearing a cross, stamped 
upon an oval of wax, silver, or gold, is also styled an A.D. Such medals have been con- 
secrated by the popes since the 14th c., and are generally distributed among the faithful 
on the first Sunday after Easter. In the ancient church candidates for baptism received 
similar medals of wax and wore them as amulets, See AMuLET. In the Greek church, 
the cloth which covers the cup in the communion service bears the image of alamb, and 
is styled the A.D. 


AGON'IC LINE, the line of no variation of the magnetic needle. It passes from pole 
to pole in a curve differing widely from the meridian, as the aclinic line (line of no in- 
elination or dip of the needle) differs from the equator. The A. L. varies in position, 
constantly traveling westward in unison with the magnetic pole, at a rate that might 


Agnostici, . 154 


Agrarian. 


make a revolution around the earth in ahout 600 years. In 1580, the line ran through 
Sweden ; in 1620, through Holland ; in 1660, England ; in 1700, the w. part of Ireland ; 
it reached America in 1780, and now crosses the w. part of Ohio. 


AGONIS'TICI, an ascetic sect of Christians in Africa in the 4th c., who believed in 
neither labor nor marriage. They were mostly low and ignorant, living by beggary, and 
courting violent death as martyrdom. They disappeared after an invasion of the 
Vandals. 

AGONY COLUMN, in England, a term applied to that part of a newspaper, generally 
the second column of the advertisement sheet, headed by notices of losses and disap- 
pearances, mysterious communications and correspondence. 


AGOS’TA, or AuGuSTA, a fortified city of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 12 m. 
n. of that city. It stands on a peninsula projecting into the Mediterranean. It is said 
to oceupy the site of the Megara Hyblea of the ancients, but contains no ancient remains. 
The present city was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1229. It was the last place 
in Sicily to hold out against Charles of Anjou, but was betrayed into the hands of William 
L’ Estendard, one of his barons, in 1268, when it was sacked, and its inhabitants merci- 
lessly butchered. It remained desolate for years, but having been repeopled, and begun 
again to prosper, it was burned and razed to the ground in 1360 in another Sicilian war; 
and again was taken and burned by the Turks in 1551. Finally, in 1693, it was destroyed 
by an earthquake, when one-third of the inhabitants perished. Near A. was fought, in 
1676, a great naval battle between the French and the Dutch, in which Admiral De Ruyter 
was killed. The port is spacious, but of rather difficult access. Salt is the chief article of 
export. Oil, wine, cheese, fruit, honey, and sardines are alsoexported. Pop. about 13,000. 


AGOULT’, MAri—E CATHERINE SOPHIE DE FLAVIGNyY, Countess, 1805-76; a French 
authoress known by her signature of ‘‘ Daniel Stern,” daughter of vicomte De Flavigny. 
She was married in 1827; traveled in central Europe; wrote novels, 1841 to 1845, 
Herve, etc., which appeared in Za Presse of Paris. In 1848, she became a political 
writer, and published a history of the revolution of that year, in which she favored the 
cause of the people. She wrote, also, Three Days in the Life of Mary Stuart, Dante and 
Goethe, etc. She had a daughter by Franz Liszt, who justified her musical paternity by 
marrying first Hans Von Bulow, and next Richard Wagner. 


AGOU'TI (Dasyprocta agouti), a small quadruped nearly allied to the cavy or Guinea- 
pig, very abundant in some parts of the W. Indies and of 8. America. It is often 
very injurious to the fields of sugar-cane. It is gregarious. Its flesh resembles that of 
the hare or rabbit. Other species are found in the same regions, and even in the colder 
parts of 8. America. The pampas hare is dasyprocta patachonica. See illus., ANTE- 
LOPES, ETC., vol. I. 

A'GRA, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of the North-western Prov- 
inces, bounded n. and e. by the districts of Muttra, Minpooree and Etawah, s. and w. 
by the territories of Dhortpore, Gwalior and Bhurtpore. Its area is 1845 sq.m. The 
surface of the country is for the most part very level, the principal elevation of the 
Futtehpore Sikri hills, a sandstone range on the w. frontier, being about 700 ft. The 
principal rivers are the Jumna—flowing along the n.e. frontier, and its tributary the 
Chunibul (along the southern boundary), both of which are too deep in the channel to be of 
much avail for irrigation. The district generally is, in consequence, deficient in water, 
and the failure of the rains in some seasons (as in 1837, 1838) has been followed by 
severe famine. Pop. ’91, about 1,000,000; of the division of the same name, 4,767,720. 

AGRA, a city in the British n. w. provinces in India, is situated in the district of the 
same name on the right bank of the Jumna, 110 m. s. e. from Delhi, and 841 n. w. from 
Calcutta. The ancient walls of the city embrace an area of about 11 sq.m., of which 
about one half is at present occupied. The houses are for the most part built of the red 
sandstone of the neighboring hills. The principal street, running n.w. from the fort, is 
very spacious, but the rest are generally narrow and irregular, though clean: Some of 
the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timour, are on a scale of striking mag- 
nificence. Among these are the fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which are 
the palace and audience-hall of Shah Jehan, and the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, so 
called for its surpassing architectural beauty. Still more celebrated is the Taj Mahal, 
situated without the city, about a mile to the e. of the fort. This extraordinary and 
beautiful mausoleum was built by the emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favorite 
wife, Arjimand Banoo (surnamed Mumtaz Mahal). 20,000 men, says Tavernier, who 
saw the work in progress, were employed incessantly on it for 22 years. The principal 
parts of the building are constructed or overlaid outside and in with white marble; and 
the mosaic work of the sepulchral apartment and dome is described by various travelers 
in terms of glowing admiration. It is composed of twelve kinds of stones, of which 
lapis-lazuli is the most frequent, as well as the most valuable. Of British edifices in 
and near the city, the principal are the government house, the college (for the education 
of natives), the Metcalfe testimonial, the English church and the barracks. The climate 
at A., during the hot and rainy seasons (April to September), is very injurious to Euro- 
peans; but on the whole, the average health of the city-is equal to that of any other sta- 
tion in the n.w. provinces. A. is fortified and has a garrison; there is a military station 
in the neighborhood of the city. As administrative center of its district, and of the 
large ‘‘division” to which it gives name, A. is a place of great importance. The pop., 


155 Agnostici. 


Agrarian. 


according to the census of 1891, is 168,662. The principal articles of trade are cotton, 
tobacco, salt, sugar, and grain. It is a very important railway centre. This city 
is held in great veneration by the Hindoos, as the scene of the incarnation of Vishnu 
under the name of Parasu Rama. It first rose to importance in the beginning of the 
16th ¢., and from 1526 to 1658 it was the capital of the Mogul sovereigns. In that 
year, Aurungzebe removed to Delhi; henceforth A. declined. It was taken in 1784 by 
Scindia, and surrendered in 1803 to lord Lake, after a bombardment of a few hours. 
Among the spoils on that occasion was a cannon of 23 in. calibre, 114 in. metal at the 
muzzle; length, 14 ft. 2 in.; weight, 96,000 lbs. The balls, of cast-iron, weighed 1500 lbs. 
This stupendous piece of ordnance is said to have been wantonly reduced to fragments by 
blasting by some artillery officers in 1833 (Thornton’s Gazetteer of India). During the Sepoy 
mutiny, A. was one of the places in which the Europeans were shut up. At the outbreak 
the garrison consisted of the 44th and 67th regiments of B. N. infantry, the 8d European. 
fusiliers and a few artillery. The native regiments were disarmed in June, 1857, and the 
defense of thisimportant city devolved upon the Europeans. The ladies resorted at night 
to places of refuge appointed by the governor, while the gentlemen patrolled the streets; 
but matters growing worse both in the city and country, it was resolved, after a battle with 
the mutineers, to abandon the city and retire to the fort or residency. It was time; for some 
thousands of prisoners getting loose, began to fire all the Europea buildings in the city. 
Hardly a house escaped destruction; numbers of traders were ruined, and had to endure 
the misery of beholding their ruin from the fort. As the fort was both large and strongly 
defended, fugitives flocked in from all parts of the country, and the numbers soon swelled 
to 5846. Heroic sallies were occasionally made. Major Montgomery’s march to Allygurh, 
and his defeat of the rebels, though twenty times as numerous, was a feat worthy of 
Havelock. When Delhi fell, its rabble of defenders hurried off in the direction of A., 
which place was seriously threatened by them, but was relieved by the rapid and bril- 
liant march of Col. Greathed. 


AGRAM, the capital of Croatia, finely situated at the foot of a richly wooded range of 
mountains, is about 2 m. from the Save, in lat. 45° 49’ n., long. 16° 4’ e. King Bela IV. 
raised it in 1266 to the dignity of the royal town, in consequence of its having assisted 
him against the Tartars. It is the seat of a cathedral and of a university founded in 
1874. Pop. ’90, about 37,000. 
| AGRAPHA (literally, ‘‘ unwritten”), the extra-canonical sayings of Christ: such words 
and expressions as are not found in the Graphe or body of accepted writings of the 
Church, but which were current either as oral traditions or as literature which has been 
lost. That a vast number existed outside of the present gospels is plainly inferred from 
John xxi. 25; and those found in the works of the early Fathers are introduced and em- 
ployed as though they were derived from sacred records. Some specialists in Hebrew 
literature assert that even the Talmud contains sayings of Christ which, having become 
current among the Jews, were introduced without knowledge of their source. A work 
entitled Agrapha (Leipzig, 1890), compiled by Rev. Alfred Resch, gives 139 of these say- 
ings, seventy-five of which the author regards as genuine and attributes to a Hebrew lost 
gospel. 


AGRA’RIAN LAW. With the name of A. lL. used to be associated the idea of the 
abolition of property in land, or at least of a new distribution of it. This notion of the 
A. laws of the Romans was not only the popular one, but was also received by most 
scholars. The French convention, in 1793, passed a law punishing with death any one 
who should propose an A. L., understanding by the term an equal division of the soil 
among all citizens. Now, it would have been strange if the Romans, with whom 
private property was so sacred, could ever have been brought to sanction any measure 
of the kind. It was the German scholars, Heyne, Savigny, and especially Niebuhr, who 
first explained the true nature and character of the Roman A. laws. There are still some 
disputed points on this matter, but one thing seems made out—that those laws had no 
reference to private lands held in absolute property, but to public or state lands. 

Asthe dominion of Rome extended, a portion more or less of each conquered terri- 
tory was confiscated to the state,and became public domain. All laws respecting the 
disposition of these lands were called A. laws; which are therefore of various kinds. 
What made these laws be so long mistaken for an interference with private rights, and 
excited such opposition to them at the time, was the use which was made of the public 
domains while unappropriated. ‘‘It was the practice at Rome,” says Dr. Arnold, ‘‘and 
doubtless in other states of Italy, to allow individuals to occupy such lands, and to enjoy 
all the benefits of them, on condition of paying to the state the tithe of the produce, as 
an acknowledgment that the state was the proprietor of the land, and the individual 
merely the occupier. Now, although the land was undoubtedly the property of the state, 
and although the occupiers of it were in relation to the state mere tenants-at-will, yet it 
is in human nature that a long undisturbed possession should give a feeling of owner- 
ship; the more so as, while the state’s claim lay dormant, the possessor was, in fact, pro- 
prietor, and the land would thus be repeatedly passing by regular sale from one 
occupier to another.” 

The state, however, was often obliged to interfere with these occupiers of the public 
lands, and resume its rights. The very idea of a citizen, in ancient times, involved that 
of a landholder, and when new citizens were to be admitted, they had each to receive 
their portion out of the unallotted public domain; which was attended, of course, with 
the ejection of the tenants-at-will. It appears, also, that the right to enjoy the public 


Agricola. 156 

lands in this temporary way was confined to the old burghers or patricians. This, taken 
in conjunction with the tendency, strong at all times, of larger possessions to swallow 
up smaller, kept up an ever-increasing number of landless commons, whose destitution 
and degradation came from time to time to such a pitch that alleviation was necessary 
to prevent the very dissolution of the state. It is easy, however, to see what motive 
the patricians, as a body, had to oppose all such measures, since it was their interest, 
though not their right, to keep the lands unallotted. 

The enactment of A. laws occasioned some of the most memorable struggles in the 
internal history of Rome. Most of the kings of Rome are said to have carried an A. L., 
that is, to have divided a portion of the public land among those whom they admitted 
to the rights of citizenship. ‘‘The good king,” Servius Tullius, may be looked upon as 
the first victim of the hostility of the nobles to A. laws. About twenty-four years after 
the expulsion of the Tarquins, the distress of the commons called aloud for remedy, and 
the consul, Spurius Cassius, proposed an A. L. for a division of a certain proportion of 
the public land, and for enforcing the regular payment of the rent or tithe from the 
occupiers of the remainder. The aristocracy, however, contrived to defeat the proposal, 
and when the year of his consulship was out, Cassius was accused of trying to make 
himself king, was condemned, scourged and beheaded, and his house razed to the ground. 

The first important A. L. of a permanent nature, actually passed, was that proposed 
by the tribune, Licinius Stolo, and carried, after a struggle of five years, in the year of 
Rome 3888. The provisions of Licinius’s bill, or vegation, were- as follows: ‘‘ Every 
Roman citizen shall be entitled to occupy any portion of the unallotted state land not 
exceeding 500 jugera (see AcRE), and to feed on the public pasture-land any number of 
cattle not exceeding 100 head of large, or 500 head of small, paying in both cases the 
usual rates to the public treasury. Whatever portions of the public land beyond 500 
jugera are at present Occupied by individuals shall be taken from them, and distributed 
among the poorer citizens as absolute property, at the rate of seven jugera apiece. 
Occupiers of public land shall also be bound to employ a certain number of freemen as 
laborers.” 

This law produced for a time very salutary effects. But before the year 621, when 
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune, the Licinian law had been suffered to fali into 
abeyance; and although vast tracts had been acquired by the Italian, the Punic and the 
Greek wars, no regular distribution of land among the destitute citizens had taken place 
for upwards of a century. Numerous military colonies had indeed been founded in the 
conquered districts, and in this way many of the poorer Romans or their allies had been 
provided for; but still there remained large territories, the property of the state, which, 
instead of being divided among the poorer members of the state, were entered upon and 
brought into cultivation by the rich capitalists, many of whom thus came to hold 
thousands of jugera, instead of the five hundred allowed by the Licinian law.. Toa 
Roman statesman, therefore, looking on the one hand to the wretched pauper population 
of the meaner streets of Rome, and on the other to the enormous tracts of the public land 
throughout Italy which the wealthy citizens held in addition to their own private 
property, the question which would naturally present itself was—Why should not the 
state, as landlord, resume from these wealthy capitalists, who are her tenants, as much 
of the public land as may be necessary to provide little farms for these pauper citizens, 
and so convert them into respectable and independent agriculturists? This question 
must have presented itself to many; but there were immense difficulties in the way. 
Not only had long possession of the state lands, and the expenditure of large sums in 
bringing them into cultivation, given the wealthy tenants a sort of proprietary claim 
upon them, but in the course of generations, during which estates had been bought, 
sold and inherited, the state lands had become so confused with private property that in 
many cases it was impossible to distinguish between the two. Notwithstanding these 
difficulties, Tiberius Gracchus had the boldness to propose an A. L., to the effect that 
every father of a family might occupy 500 jugera of the state land for himself, and 250 
jugera additional for each of his sons; but that, in every case where this amount was 
exceeded, the state should resume the surplus, paying the tenant a price for the buildings, 
etc., which he had been at the expense of erecting on the lands thus lost to him. The 
recovered lands were then to be distributed among the poor citizens; a clause being 
inserted in the bill to prevent these citizens from selling the lands thus allotted to them, 
as many of them would have been apt to do. 

According to the laws and constitution of Rome, there was nothing essentially unjust 
in this proposal, which was, in private, at least, approved of by some of the most distin- 
guished men of the time. The energy of Gracchus carried the measure, in spite of the 
opposition of the aristocratic party, whose vengeance, however, could only be satisfied 
with the assassination of Gracchus and his brother. See Graccuus. The attempts to 
carry out the ‘‘Sempronian law,” as it was called, were attended with great difficulties, 
and although not formally repealed, it continued to be evaded and rendered inoperative. 
Various A. laws were subsequently passed, some by the victorious aristocratic party, in 
a spirit directly opposed to the Licinian and Sempronian laws. 

Besides A, laws having for their object the division among the commons of public 
lands usurped by the nobles, there were others of a more partial and local nature, for 
the establishment of colonies in particular conquered districts: these naturally met with 


157 Agricola, 


less opposition. Still more different were those violent appropriations of territory made 
by the victorious military leaders in the latter times of the republic, in order to reward 
their soldiers, and established exclusively military colonies. In these the private rights 
of the previous occupants were often disregarded. See Irish Lanp Laws. 


AGREDA, Maria DE (CORONEL), 1602-65 ; the superior of the convent of the Immac- 
ulate Conception in Agreda, Spain. She reported that she had had revelations from 
heaven, and that God had commanded her to write an inspired life of Mary, the mother 
of Jesus. Such a book was published ; but the church authority forbade the reading of 
it, and Bossuet pointed out some of its indecent portions. 


AGRICOLA, CuristopH Lupwie, 1667-1719; a landscape painter, who traveled in 
England, Holland, and France, and lived some time in Naples. His works are noted 
for skillful representation of varied phases of climate. In light and color he imitated 
Claude Lorraine. 

AGRIC'OLA (originally LANDMANN), Grore, 1494-1555 ; mineralogist, and the first 
to raise the study into a science. He studied at Leipsic and in Italy. In Bohemia he 
practiced as a physician, and, in 1531, was made professor of chemistry in a mining 
district of Saxony, where he pursued his favorite study. He published De Re Metallica, 
which gives minute descriptions of mining processes. 


AGRIC'OLA, GNZUS or GNEIUS JULIUS, a Roman of the imperial times, distinguished 
not less by his great abilities as a statesman and a soldier than by the beauty of his private 
character, was born at Forum Julii (now Fréjus in Provence), 37 A.D. Having served 
with distinction in Britain, Asia, and Aquitania, and gone through the round of civil 
offices, he was, in 77 A.D., elected consul, and in the following year proceeded as governor 
to Britain—the scene of his military and civil administration during the next seven years. 
He was the first Roman general who effectually subdued the island, and the only one who 
displayed as much genius and success in training the inhabitants to the amenities of 
civilization as in breaking their rude force in war. In his seventh and last campaign (84 
A.D.), his decisive victory over the Caledonians under Galgacus, at a place called Mons 
Graupius, established the Roman dominion in Britain to some distance n. of the Forth. 
After this campaign, his fleet circumnavigated the coast, for the first time, discovering 
Britain to be an island. Among the works executed by A. during his administration 
were a chain of forts between the Solway and the Tyne, and another between the Clyde 
and Forth. Numerous traces of his operations are still to be found in Anglesey and 
N. Wales, and in Galloway, Fife, Perthshire and Angus. The news of A.’s successes 
inflamed the jealousy of Dcmitian, and he was speedily recalled. henceforth he lived 
in retirement; and when the vacant proconsulships of Asia and Africa lay within his 
choice, he prudently declined promotion. The jealousy of the emperor, however, is 
supposed to have hastened his death, which took place at the early age of 55. His life, 
by his son-in-law, Tacitus, has always been regarded as one of the choicest specimens of 
biography in literature. 

AGRIC'OLA, JOHANN FRIEDERICH, 1720-74; a musical composer who studied under 
Bach. He was a superior organist, and held the office of kapellmeister under Frederic 
II. He wrote ‘‘Achilles” and other operas, and minor compositions. 


AGRICOLA, JOHN (whose true name was Schnitter or Schneider, but who was also 
called Magister Islebius and John LHisleben, after the name of his native town), b. 1492, 
was one of the most zealous founders of Protestantism. Having studied at Wittenberg 
and Leipsic, he was sent, 1525, by Luther, who highly appreciated his talents and 
learning, to Frankfort-on-the-Main, to institute there, at the desire of the magistrates, the 
Protestant worship. On his return, he resided asa teacher and preacher in his native 
town of Hisleben, till 1586. In 1537, he became a professor at Wittenberg, where the 
Antinomian controversy, already begun between him and Luther and Melancthon, broke 
out openly. See ANTINOMIANISM, The troubles in which he was thus involved obliged 
him to withdraw, 1588, to Berlin, where he was reduced to extreme want, and was thus 
induced to make a recantation, never altogether sincere. He then found a protector in 
the elector John of Brandenburg, who appointed him preacher to the court and general 
superintendent. He made great exertions for the spread of the Protestant doctrine in the 
Brandenburg states; but ere his death, which took place at Berlin, 22d Sept., 1566, 
he had become as much hated for his share in the drawing up of the Augsburg Interim 
(q.v.), as he had formerly been for his Antinomian opinions. Besides his numerous 
theological writings, his country possesses a truly national work of his, entitled Die 
Gemeinen Deutschen Spriichworter mit threr auslegung (common German proverbs, with 
their explanation; Hagenau, 1592; and a very complete but somewhat altered edition at 
Wittenberg, 1592). The patriotic feelings, pure morals and pithy language of this book 
have procured for it one of the first places among the German works of that age. 


AGRIC’OLA, MicHAEL, a Swedish scholar and reformer, who, in the latter part of 
the 16th c., translated the New Testament into the Finnish language. 


AGRIC'OLA, RupoLtpuxus, one of the most learned and remarkable men of the 15th 
c.,and a chief instrument in transplanting the taste for literature, just revived in Italy, 
into his native country of Germany, was born 1443, in the village of Baflo, near Groningen. 
His name was properly Rolef Huysmann (i.e., houseman or husbandman), which was 


Agricultural. 158 


Latinized by him into A., after the usage of the time. He was also called Frisius, and 
Rudolf of Gréningen, from his native place; and sometimes Rudolf of Ziloha, from the 
monastery of Silo, where he spent some time. Having been first a disciple of Thomas & 
Kempis at Zwolle, he went to Louvain, then to Paris, and thence to Italy, where, during 
the years 1476 and 1477, he attended the lectures of the most celebrated men of his age. 
Here he entered into a close friendship with Dalberg, who afterwards became bishop 
of Worms. He was the first German who distinguished himself in Italy in public 
speaking and lecturing, and this he did not only by his erudition, but by the elegance of 
his language and the correctness of his pronunciation. He likewise acquired reputation 
as an accomplished musician, and his pieces were popular throughout Italy. On his 
return to Germany, he endeavored, in connection with several of his former co-disciples 
and friends, among whom were Alexander Hegius and Rudolphus Lange, to promote a 
taste for literature and eloquence in Germany. Several cities of Holland vainly strove 
with each other to obtain his presence, by offering him public functions; but not even 
the brilliant overtures made to him by the court of the emperor Maximilian I., to which 
he had repaired in connection with affairs of the town of Gréningen, could induce him to 
renounce his independence. At length yielding, 1483, to the solicitations of Dalberg, 
who was now chancellor to the elector palatine, and bishop of Worms, he established 
himself in the palatinate, where he sojourned alternately at Heidelberg and Worms, 
dividing his time between private studies and public lectures, and enjoying high 
popularity. He distinguished himself also as a painter; and at the age of 40 set with 
ardor to learn Hebrew, in order to study theology. He went again, 1484, with Dalberg 
into Italy, and died shortly after his return to Germany, on the 28th Oct., 1485. His 
fame rests chiefly on the personal influence he exerted. His compositions, which are 
written in Latin, are neither so numerous nor so important as those of many of his 
learned contemporaries. The first nearly complete edition of them was that published 
by Alard (2 vols., Cologne, 1539). Consult Tresling, Vita et Merita, R. A. (Groningen, 
1830). 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. In addition to the study of the theory and practice of 
scientific agriculture, the more prominent subjects under this head are chemistry, 
geology, biology, elementary natural philosophy, meteorology, and agricultural eco- 
nomics. The theory and practice of agriculture should embrace field demonstrations by 
qualified instructors, besides lectures on the following subjects: (1) Definition of agri- 
culture: its relations to allied sciences. (2) Surface geology : soils—their properties ; 
nitrogen in soils ; the effect on soils of cultivation and the growth of plants. (8) Drain- 
age; irrigation; wet-warping; top-dressing; liming, etc.; paring and burning. 
(4) Implements and machines—construction and careful management. (5) Steam culti- 
vation. (6) The motive powers: Ist, man; 2d, horse; 3d, the mechanical powers. 
(7) Farm servants—labor and wages ; details of horse and hand labor. (8) Rotations— 
reasons for their adoption ; systems of farming. (9) Farm crops—selection and culti- 
vation ; insect injuries and diseases, and their prevention. (10) Grasses and other 
pasture plants—adulterations of seeds. (11) Management of permanent pastures— 
methods of making new pasture. (12) Weedsand means of destroying them. (18) Silage, 
and the system of ensilage. (14) Manures—farm-yard manure; special‘ manures and 
‘‘ artificials’—their uses and adulteration ; liquid manure and town sewage. (15) Farm 
buildings and fences, etc.—covered yards. (16) Live-stock—embracing cattle, pigs, 
horses, sheep, and poultry ; the principles of breeding; feeding and management ; 
cost of producing meat. (17) Dairying in all its branches. (18) Feeding stuffs—quali- 
ties and manure-values. 

It is the function of agricultural chemistry, the most important of the allied sciences, 
to discover of what elements cultivated plants are composed, and how plants may 
most effectively be supplied with the materials necessary for promoting their growth 
without permanently exhausting the soil. This subject will, in its various aspects, be 
discussed under the heads, VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY, MANURE, Sorts, ROTATION oF 
Crops, etc. The farmer should also know the elements of veterinary medicine (q.v.). 

However important the branching off of education into this special track, it is 
only of late years that adequate attention has been paid to it. The first agri- 
cultural school was founded by Fellenberg at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, in 1806. His 
pupils were taken from the poorest class of peasantry, of whom he truly observed, that 
having ‘‘no other property than their physical and mental faculties, they should be 
taught how to use this capital to the best advantage,” by a combination of ‘‘ discipline, 
study, and manual labor.” No fewer than 8000 pupils were trained in this school, 
which flourished for thirty years under the able direction of Wehrli. Since then, 
various institutions of the same character have sprung up on the continent. The French 
government makes large appropriations to support agricultural education, and one 
school at Grignon has an old royal palace with its domain of 1185 acres. One of the 
first duties undertaken by the new government of Marshal MacMahon, in 18738, was 
the nomination of a commission to reorganize the system of agricultural education. In 
Prussia, there is scarcely a province that does not boast its agricultural school and 
model farm; and, indeed, throughout Germany, as well as in Russia, we find edu- 
cational institutions supported by the state, in all of which, with some slight differ- 
ence of detail, agriculture is practically as well as theoretically taught. More re. 


159 Agricultural. 


cently, experimental stations have been established in various parts of the empire. In- 
deed the agricultural schools and field experimental stations in Germany are a credit to 
that country anda source of much attraction to visitors from other countries. 

Finland possesses two agricultural colleges and eight smaller schools subsidized by 
the state. There are also fifteen small dairy schools and two higher schools, these latter 
forming departments of the agricultural colleges. 

Denmark spends about $55,000 annually. Japan has an agricultural college on 
the island of Yezo and an experimental farm in the province of Shimdsa near 
Tokio. 

In Great Britain the only material support given is to a chair of agriculture at 
the normal school of science, South Kensington, a grant to the chair of agriculture 
in Edinburgh, and the payment of small grants to teachers in school and science class- 
es, who include agriculture in their instruction. The main centres where a full 
course of agricultural education, associated with a suitably arranged curriculum of 
study in the allied sciences can be obtained are (1) the University of Edinburgh ; 
(2) the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester (founded 1845) ; (8) the College of Agri- 
culture, Downton near Salisbury (founded 1880). There is only one degree associated 
with agriculture (instituted 1886), granted by the Edinburgh University. The chair in 
Edinburgh was founded and endowed in 1790. Practical agriculture is acquired by 
residence on a farm near Edinburgh, and by Saturday excursions to selected farms 
conveniently situated. In Aberdeen University a free annual course of lectures is given 
on agricultural subjects. Inthe University of Oxford, a professorship of rural econ- 
omy was established in 1796. There are agricultural schools at Aspatria, near Carlisle, 
and at Alvercot Priory. The Albert Institution at Glasnevin, near Dublin, a great 
agricultural coll. has existed since 1838, Similar institutions in Canada have met 
with success, among them, the Agricultural College and Experimental Farm, at Guelph, 
Ontario. 

The most important experimental station in England (a private one) is at Rotham- 
sted and was founded in 1848 by Mr. (now sir) J. B. Lowes. Several thousands of 
pounds are spent annually, and sir John set apart £100,000 to provide the means for 
continuing the work after his death. Woburn station, the next in importance, was start- 
ed in 1876 by the Royal Agricultural Society. 

In the United States the West Point Academy, established in 1802, was the first pro, 
vision by the general government for scientific education in any department ; the naval 
academy followed in 1845. Two years later, John P. Norton, agricultural chemist, 
just returned from Europe, agitated the question of agricultural schools, and one school 
was begun. In 1860 it was liberally endowed by Joseph E. Sheffield, and is now 
attached to Yale College as the ‘‘ Sheffield scientific school.” In 1852, a legacy to 
Dartmouth College, by Abiel Chandler, laid the foundation of a similar branch at that 
college. Congress was repeatedly asked to set apart lands for the support of agricul- 
tural colleges, and a bill was passed in 1858 for that purpose, but the president failed to 
sign it. In 1862, the effort was successful, and a bill became a law appropriating about 
ten millions of acres to all the states, to be divided according to the number of repre- 
sentatives from each state in congress. Meantime, New York and other states kept the 
question alive, and Michigan opened her agricultural college in 1857 ; and now, under 
one or another name, nearly all the states have colleges or parts of colleges in which 
scientific agriculture is taught. On the 2d of July, 1862, congress passed an act giving 
public lands to the several states and territories which should provide colleges for the 
benefit of agriculture and the mechanical arts, the amount of land to be equal to 30,000 
acres for each senator and representative in congress to which the states were then 
entitled. To guard against the loss of this fund by improvident investment, the act 
provides that all moneys derived from the land granted shall be invested in stocks of 
the United States or of the state, or some other safe stock yielding not less than five 
per cent. ; and that if any portion of the fund or the interest thereon shall be lost or 
diminished, it shall be replaced by the state, so that the capital shall forever remain un- 
diminished, except that a sum not exceeding ten per cent. on the amount received by any 
state under the act may be applied to the purchase of lands for sites or experimental 
farms, whenever authorized by the legislature. The general object and character of 
the colleges to be established is briefly stated in the fourth section of the act, which 
provides that the interest of the fund shall be inviolably appropriated by each state 
which may claim the benefit of the act, ‘‘to the endowment, support, and maintenance 
of at least one college, where the leading object shall be (without excluding other 
scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics) to teach such branches of 
learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the 
legislatures of the states may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and 
education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of 

6.0 

The states quickly availed themselves of these advantages, and the sums origi- 
nally obtained, amounting to many millions have remained unimpaired, with few excep- 
tions. Michigan obtained $8.38 per acre, but the land scrip of Maine was sacrificed at 
fifty-three cents per acre. In 1887 an act appropriating $15,000 to each state to estab- 
Hish experimental stations in connection with these colleges was passed, and has had 


160 


Agricultural. 

@ very stimulating effect upon the agricultural departments. In 1889 an act was 
pened appropriating from the sales of public lands to each state and territory for the 
more complete endowment and maintenance of colleges for the benefit of agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, $15,000 for 1890, and an annual increase by $1000 of the. amount 
of such appropriation thereafter for ten years, and the annual amount to be paid there- 
after to each state and territory was fixed at $25,000. The act forbade the payment of 
money for the support of institutions making distinctions of race or color in the ad- 
mission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges separately 
for white and colored students is held to be a compliance with the provisions of this 
act, and the funds must be equitably divided. The majority of these institutions have 
an officer of the army or navy detailed to act as professor of military science and tactics 
in accordance with a statute amended in 1888. 


AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1896. 


STATE. Name. Location. eon President. 
Alabama . .|Agricultural and Mechanical College . -|Auburn . . . . .| 1872 |William L. Broun. 
“ Southeast Alabama Agricultural School .| Abbeville. 
6 North Alabama Agricultural School . . . . .|Athens. re 1889 
fs State Normal and Industrial School for colored .;Normal ... . ... |W. H. Council. 
Arizona .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
versity Of ANZONAaS ee ees els ss .s| LUCHON Sy nee 1889 |Theo. B. Comstock. 
Arkansas . .|Arkansas Industrial University . . .. . . .|Fayetteville. . . 1871 |John L. Buchanan. 
t Branch Normal College of the University, for 
Colored {iq sete ae i ee es os ee, te Pine Lut are J. C. Corbin. 
California .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
versityjor Calitormia Si. a neeciee at cies a BCIkeley... cme me 1869 |Martin Kellogg. 
Colorado . .|Colorado Agricultural College ..... .|Fort Collins “ 1879 |Alston Ellis. 
Connecticut. .|/Storrs Agricultural School. ...... .|Storrs Station. B. F. Koons. 
se Sheffield Scientific School . . .... . . .JNewHaven. . . 1847 
Delaware . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Dela- 
ware ‘Colleges t., ttre) 508i piel tee ety) ae ae NC WALK Uke ea 5 1870 |Albert N. Raub. 
ss State College for Colored Students. . .. . ./Dover.... ... |Wesley Webb. 
Florida . .|Florida Agricultural College... .. .. .|LakeCity .. . |Oscar Clute. 
oe State Normal and Industrial College for Colored 
Students ce cee. wheels wie ets Ge yeotiTe) wares oan ballanhasseees T. De S. Tucker. 
Georgia .|State College of Agriculture and Mechanical 
Arts, University of Georgia . . atlas eePAbhenss 1872 |H. C. White. 
~ South Georgia Agricultural College . . . . .|/Thomasville. 1879 
se West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege Rp arem TEE as Pee eee ae aml tone ce 1881 
a Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural Col- 
LOZO 5 Pe ane eng enana Te ee ens | UME SLOG eevilLe 1880 
s Georgia Industrial College for Colored Youths .|College Station . |e ee Wer ieht. 
“ North Georgia Agricultural College . . .| Dahlonega oe 1871 |I. W. Waddell. 
ae Southwest Georgia Agricultural College SHOUGHDert” .5 6) sens 1879 
Idaho ;|\Universityof idaho: Meee ieee een.) Ser MOSCOWens eotee ee ... |Frank. B. Gault. 
Illinois . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
versity of Illinois. Set ee worn te Wet ors] UT DANG Sita) SMe ee re 1868 |A. 8S. Draper. 
Indiana .|School of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Veteri- 
nary Science of Purdue University . . . .|Lafayette. 1874 |James H. Smart. 
Iowa Iowa State College of Agricultural and Me- 
chanical /Artsa' etc fos Cie oe eens tet). | AINESs Sense een ues en 1COUme| Maule beardshear, 
Kansas. . .|Kansas State Agricultural College. . . . . .|Manhattan . 1863 |Geo. T. Fairchild. 
Kentucky . .|Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ken- 
PUCK YT AE. TALe eer eee ae) Po ae ees Lexington. 1866 |Jas. K. Patterson. 
se State Normal School for Colored Persons . .{Frankfort. ... [John 8, Jackson. 
Louisiana . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, State 
University: (fishy ee iat ere ete Baton Rouge 1874 |J. W. Nicholson. 
at Southern University and Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College for colored . . . . . . .|New Orleans H. A. Hill. 
Maine .|Maine State Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
LAGS acted etka Gace Dk Rae ole bl ee es OLTONO eemaenas 1868 |A. W. Harris. 
Maryland. . .|Maryland Agricultural College .|College Park 1859 |R. W. Silvester. 
Massachusetts .|Massachusetts Agricultural College .|Amherst . . 1867 |H. H. Goodell. 
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology . -|Boston . = 1865 |Francis A. Walker.* 
- Bussey Institution of Harvard University . .|Jamaica Plain. . .| 1861 |Charles W. Eliot. 
Michigan . .|Michigan State Agricultural College . . . . ./Agr. College Station.| 1857 |L. G. Gorton. 
Minnesota .|College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota ./Minneapolis. . .| 1867 |Cyrus Northrup. 
oe College of Engineering, Metallurgy, and the Me- 
chanic Arts, University of Minnesota ah os 
Mississippi ./Agricultural and Mechanical College of Missis- 
sippi “) 2... 3. aes LS A A ore College Stations) "1880's Stephens): ee: 
ss Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College. .|Westside. . . . .| 1872 /|T. J. Calloway. 
Missouri ./Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
versity or Missouri re ee ee ee ee COlum bide eee. 1870 |R. H. Jesse. 
af |Lincoln Institute, for colored . .|Jefferson City . »'. » 1. E. Page. 
Montana . ./Montana Agricultural College _.. . . ._. .|Bozeman. F 1893 |James Reid. 
Nebraska - .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni-| 
versity.of Nebraska. tin. 0). a coe) ok ce hi ey IIR COIT Syun ot Wet 1871 |Geo. E. MacLean. 
Nevada .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
Versity Of Nevada: 9%... .w oe en ee eee ONO 1874 |J. E. Stubbs. 
New Hampshire|New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Me- 
GRADICHATES Milnes uk ls cS, -pavdisoders gilsouectine | LLU LL DO peionn ania 1866 |C. S. Murkland. 
New Jersey ._ .|/Rutgers Scientific School, Rutgers College . .|New Brunswick . 1865 |Austin Scott. 
New Mexico. .|New Mexico College of Agriculture and Me- 
CHANICVATtS As epee tie tien ts, ga oe ee LOS LLL aaa 1889 |S. P. McCrea. 
New York. .|College of Agriculture, Cornell University . .|Ithaca . 1868 |J. G. Shurman. 
North Carolina .| North Carolina Coliege of Agricultural and Me- 
chanical rtarce ve tech eehi sh aise 8) cus Bee LES neue eae 1888 |A. A. Holladay. 
‘State Agricultural and Mechanical College for 
the !|Coloreds Raceline Jee a). eee. S| Greensborows Ua. |d-O Crosby: 
North Dakota . North Dakota Agricuitural College .. . . .|/Fargo. , 1890 |J. H. Worst. 
Ohio. . . . . Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Ohio oe 
State Universitysu Siig pee lia fis. Seu. Columbusy ger .aye 1873 | William H. Scott. 
Oklahoma .|Oklahoma Agricaltatal College . > . » .|stillwater 1890 |G. E. Morrow. 
Oregon . .|State Agricultural College of Oregon. . . . .|Corvallis . 1872 |John M. Bloss. 


* D. Jan. 5, 1897. 


} 6 1 Agricultural. 


AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1896. — Continued. 


Qo 


Organ- 


ized. President 


STATE. Name. Location. 


Pennsylvania .|Pennsylvania State College .... . . . .!State Coilege Station) 1859 |Geo. W. Atherton. 
Rhode Island . Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Me- 
CUAMIG AICS) ews ee > + + oe oe « of iO... es 6] 6 fOKN H. Washburn. 
S Agricultural and Scientific Department, Brown 


Shean Rn eae ete Te Midi lc) Suverts Uta eaXOMMOCNCOR far, Lal L8G E. ba_Andrews, 
South Carolina.|College of Agricultural and Mechanical Arts, 
University of South Carolina » + - . «Columbia. . . . .| 1805 |James Woodrow. 
s Clemson Agricultural College ... . . . .|/FortHill. . . . .| 1889 |E. B. Craighead. 
* Claflin University, Agricultural College and 
Mechanical Institute, for colored. . . . .JOrangeburg. . . .| 1869 |L. M. Dunton. 
South Dakota .|State Agricultural College of South Dakota . .| Brookings . . «| «... |Lewis McLouth. 
Tennessee . ./Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
versity of Tennessee. . . . . . . . . .{/Knoxville .. . .| 1869 |C. W. Dabney, Jr. 
Texas . . . .|Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas .|College Station . .| 1876 /L.S. Ross. 
bs Prairie View State Normal School, for colored ./Prairie View .. .| ... |L. C. Anderson 
Utah Se 4 UtaheAgricultural College... . 25520 21 G8ee.|Logan .8). 2800/1888 “1d. A Paul: 
Vermont . . .|/University of Vermont and State Agricultural 
CONec ere. s+. sles) ee ee DULUneLONe ese | 1805 Mere buckhan: 
Virginia . . .|Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College .|Blacksburg . . . .| 1872 |J.M. McBryde. 
: Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute, for 
Negroes and Indians. . . ‘Hamptons, ee al ses |i. 6: Frissel:. 


Washington. .|Washington Agricultural College and School of 
Science . . - .|Pullman ... . .| 1890 {Enoch A. Bryan. 


West Virginia .| Agricultural and Mechanical ‘Department, Uni- 


versity of West Virginia. . -|Morgantown .. .| 1867 |J. L. Goodknight. 
A West Virginia Colored Institute. ... ... . .jFarmStation ... .| ... |J.H. Hill. 
Wisconsin . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
Versity. of WISCONSIN wm Geeta. oe | Madisone.) 4 2 |) 1849 1 Charles\k. Adams: 
Wyoming. . .|Agricultural and Mechanical Department, Uni- 
VOIsityOLAVy VODMNG ements ALaMia. . 0. oe 4| 1867, 1Ay Ao oe onnson. 


Of all institutions, 14 were exclusively for colored students. The following shows 
approximately the number of students pursuing courses of a technical nature in the 
institutions endowed by the national land grant; agriculture, 2,712; mechanical engin- 
eering, 2,413; civil engineering, 1,107; electrical engineering, 1,349; mining engineering, 
165; architecture, 264; household economy, 321; veterinary science, 395; chemical engin- 
eering, 21; biology, 13; and military tactics, 7,741. The colleges for white students had 
a total of 8,289 acres of land under cultivation, valued at $1,517,912, and those for col- 
ored students, 1,342 acres, valued at $117,155. 

In South and Central America agricultural education is receiving attention. ‘The 
Argentine Republic has a school of agriculture. A practical agricultural school was 
opened at Santiago in 1885, and a college of engineering and agriculture was established 
in Ecuador in 1890. In the secondary ‘‘ colleges” for boys in Costa Rica there are 
courses in agriculture, and the same is true of some of the special schools of Brazil. 


AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Departments of agricultural colleges, 
established under the act of the U. 8. Congress of 1887, and intended ‘‘to promote 
scientific investigation and experiment respecting the principles and applications of agri- 
cultural science.’”? They conduct researches with regard to the physiology of plants and 
animals, the advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under varying series of crops, 
the analysis of soils and waters, and the chemistry of manures, foods, etc. The act of 
1887 appropriated $15,000 annually for each state for the purposes of such stations. The 
Officers of the stations report annually to Secretary of Agriculture, and publish bulletins 
giving a summary of the results of experiments. In 1893 there were 55 of these experi- 
ment stations in the United States, the best known being those at Auburn, Ala., Berkeley, 
Cal., New Haven, Conn., Champaign, Ill., La Fayette, Ind., Manhattan, Kansas, Am- 
herst, Mass., St. Anthony Park, Minn., Lincoln, Neb., New Brunswick, N. J., Geneva, 
N. Y., Columbus, O., the State College, Penn., Knoxville, Tenn., and Laramie, Wyoming. 


AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES are associations for the purpose of promoting the science 
and practice of agriculture. 

In the United States, where the land is mostly owned by those who farm it, these 
societies have sprung up in great numbers. Every state has its central society, which 
in its turn fosters a number of local associations. Indeed, in all the chief grain-produc- 
ing districts, each county boasts of its own society. These being all partly supported 
by state money, useful information is collected, published, and sold at a cheap rate in 
reports. Canada follows in the wake of her enterprising neighbors, and supports by 
grants of money a provincial show in each province, while the co. societies are numer- 
ous, and supply materials for the reports of the boards of agriculture at Toronto and Mon- 
treal. In Canada and the U. 8. the A. 8. are of a bighly popular character. Prizes 
are given, not only for animals, implements, and dairy produce, but also for fruits, 
Being more of a general nature, combining agriculture, horticulture, and domestic 
economy, such exhibitions are frequented by all classes. They are known as “‘ fairs.” 


AGRICULTURE (Lat., ager, a field, and colo, I till) has come by usage to mean the cul 
tivation and care of all vegetable and animal life supported by the earth for the benefit of 
man. It is sometimes considered as a science and sometimes as an art, and he who en- 
gages in it is sometimes called a farmer and sometimes an agriculturist. At least there 
can be made of agriculture the divisions of tillage, husbandry, grazing, dairying, feed- 


I —6 


Agriculture, 1 62 


ing, breeding, horticulture and arboriculture. Many other divisions of agriculture are 
referred to as a matter of usage. Agriculture as a science is based upon a group of sci- 
ences which in their growth have revolutionized it. The most important of these are 
included under the terms chemistry, botany, zodlogy and geology. 

With a few exceptions the spontaneous growth of nature affords only a limited food 
supply. This supply cannot be greatly increased by the products of the chase. The 
population of a given area remains small even after the wild animals have become the 
property of man, and these have been made the rude beginnings of agriculture found 
among a pastoral people. It is only after those plants yielding man an abundant sup- 
ply of food have been selected and made the object of cultivation that population aug- 
ments and civilization takes its rise. Man has selected certain animals and plants 
which, modified by locality and circumstances, have furnished him food and clothing, 
and have become almost inseparable from agriculture and civilization. Animals, too, 
have been his co-workers ; without the ox and the horse the development of agriculture, 
which supports civilization, would be impossible. In northern latitudes wheat, barley, 
oats, rye and the potato are the chief food plants. These crops are most productive 
when grown in summer in the temperate climates of the earth, being unsuited to the 
heats of the torrid zone. Their geographical limits, however, are greatly extended by 
growing them as winter crops on the borders of and even within the tropics. In these 
regions, however, rice, Indian corn, millet and other grains become far more productive 
of food than the already-mentioned cereals are in high latitudes, as they flourish during 
the heats of summer. Where heat and moisture are almost perennial in the tropics, the 
banana, the bread fruit tree and other herbaceous plants and trees are most productive 
of human food. 

Agriculture is one of the oldest of human employments, dating from long before 
the dawn of history. The inhabitants of the lake dwellings of Switzerland were, per- 
haps, the earliest tillers of the soil and stock-keepers about whom we know. Among 
their dwellings we find the bones of cows, pigs, sheep and goats, as well as of wild 
animals. Grain crushers were in every dwelling. Wheat, barley, millet and flax seem 
to have been cultivated. The Aryan (q.v.) peoples are believed to derive their name 
from a word which indicated that they were the users of the plow, and were thus dis- 
tinguished from other peoples. 

Most of our knowledge of the earliest agriculture clusters about the river valleys— 
that of the Nile in Egypt, and that made by the Tigris and the Euphrates. In Oriental 
agriculture the great need is water. In Egypt once a year the Nile came to the relief 
of man, gave him the water for a crop, and prepared the bed for the seed. It was 
claimed by Sir Isaac Newton that agriculture began in the Nile valley, and that the 
river taught men the art. The teeming population that anciently existed in that nar: 
row valley, the large army maintained, and the great engineering and architectural works 
constructed indicate a successful cultivation of the soil. Rainisrarein Upper Egypt, and 
fertility is maintained only by the water of the Nile, which annually overflows. The 
inundation, unless prevented by embankments, covers the whole land, and occurs at the 
hottest season. In ancient times the crops, or at least the winter crops, were sown 
upon the soft mud dressing left by the river. These crops consisted of wheat, barley, 
lentils, beans, flax, lupines, etc. The time of the maturity of these crops depended 
upon the amount of the overflow. They were generally ready for the harvesting by the 
end of April, and sometimes a month earlier. After these crops summer crops could be 
raised by means of constant watering. Among the summer crops were rice, indigo and 
durra. The latter was probably the most importantcrop. It was gathered in July, and 
was apparently the food of the poorer people. By means of watering three crops were 
sometimes raised. There were also a great variety of other crops considered by good 
authority to be much the same as those at present produced. .The ancient Egy ptians. 
were in the habit of covering their monuments and burial-places with representations 
of the occupations of life. These, as collected in the works of Rawlinson and Wilkin. 
son, give us full and accurate information in regard to their agricultural practices. 
Sometimes seeds were merely thrown upon the mud and trodden in. When it was nec- 
essary, as it generally was, to stir the soil, the tiller sometimes used a rude pick made 
of two pieces of wood tied together. From this pick there was an easy transition to a 
rude plow made by lashing together a pointed share, two handles and a pole. The 
yoke for drawing this was sometimes fastened to the shoulders and sometimes to the 
horns of oxen. It is evident that the plan was used in Egypt more than five thousand 
years ago. From the representation it appears that the sowing was always broadcast, 
and that the harrow and the rake were unknown. Wheat heads were cut from the 
standing stalks, gathered in baskets, and carried to the threshing floor, where the grain 
was trodden out by oxen. Durra was pulled up by the roots and was bound in bundles 
after the soil had been brushed off. The dry heads were broken by drawing the stalks 
between sharp points. The inundation of the country and the necessity of retaining 
water for irrigation led to extensive systems of dykes and sluices. A vast amount of 
labor was expended in providing irrigation by means of the shadoof and other simple 
contrivances. For clothing the Egyptians produced flax in large quantities, cotton in 
small quantities, and wool. Sheep were not esteemed for food, but they gave two fleeces 


1 63 Agriculture, 


a year. The evidence is conclusive that there were large herds of cattle, some without 
horns, and that flocks and herds were most carefully tended. 

Of Babylonian agriculture there are few records. As in Egypt, a dense population 
was supported. The Euphrates overflowed, but did not do the work of the Nile. In 
all the region irrigation turns desert lands into fruitful fields. Of such fields said 
Herodotus : ‘‘ This is of all lands with which we are familiar by far the best for growth 
of corn. When it produces its best it yields even three hundredfold. The blades of 
wheat and barley grow there to full four fingers in breadth ; and though I well know 
to what a height millet and sesama grow, I shall not mention it, for I am well assured 
that to those who have never been in the Babylonian country what has been said re- 
specting its productions will appear incredible.”’ 

The scriptures are full of allusions to the operations of the husbandman in Palestine 
as wellas in Egypt. The operations in the two countries necessarily formed striking 
contrasts, the crops in the former being dependent on the rains for growth, in the lat- 
ter upon the inundations of the Nile. The Hebrews, before their sojourn in Egypt, 
had been a semi-pastoral people, and they must have learned something of Egyptian 
agriculture during the years of bondage. Their laws were those of an agricultural peo- 
ple. Land was practically inalienable. Extensive plains of fertile soil yielded the 
finest wheat. The hill-sides were covered with vines and olives, often planted in ter- 
races formed with much labor to afford a large mass of soil in which the plants might 
flourish in the almost rainless summer. The valleys were well watered, And afforded 
pasture for numerous flocks. Of the smaller cultivated plants, millet was the chief 
summer crop, but it was cultivated to only a limited extent, being confined to those 
spots that could be artificially watered. Wheat and barley were the chief cereals, as 
the winter rains were sufficient to bring them to maturity. Little is known of early 
Grecian agriculture or of the fifty writers on agriculture referred to by Varro. Hesiod 
(700 or 800 B.C.) was a poet who, in his Works and Days, mingled agricultural directions 
and thrifty proverbs. We learn that the Grecians knew of the value of scarecrows, 
and when these failed, had a sure charm produced by carrying atoad about the field by 
night and then burying him in the middle of it. The plow was much like the Egyp- 
tian, as was the mode of threshing wheat. Unlike the Egyptians, they had the harrow. 
Summer fallows were in use, and the ground received three plowings: one in the 
autumn, another in the spring, and the third immediately before sowing the seed. 
Manures were used and soils were combined for fertilizing purposes. The land doubt- 
less was better wooded, better watered, and had agricultural possibilities greater than 
those of to-day. 

Roman agriculture has received special attention since so much was written about it 
by the Romans themselves, and since they carried it into other countries where it modi- 
fied or dominated agricultural customs. When Rome was only a colony on the Tiber, 
land was divided among the citizens in small allotments. There was a domain of pub- 
lic land which was continually extended by the conquests of neighboring States and the 
partial confiscations that followed. Although land in the conquered territory was 
sometimes granted to the poorer citizens, there were large tracts of public lands that 
were either cultivated or allowed to remain in pasture. The common conditions were 
that the occupants paid one tenth of the produce of the corn lands, one fifth of the prod- 
uce of vines and fruit trees, and a moderate rate per head for cattle pastured. The 
occupants were merely tenants at will, and theoretically the state could resume or sell 
the lands at any time. Yet the right of possession was good against all until the lands 
had been resumed ; and in process of time there came to be families so long in posses- 
sion that they could not be dispossessed. Only the wealthy had the cattle or slaves 
that made such occupation possible. The burdens upon these occupiers of the public 
lands were much less than those upon the small farmers who owned their farms. Thus 
at least two classes of cultivators were in existence, the small proprietors and the 
wealthy tenants holding the lands of the state. An addition to the strife between these 
two classes was the pressure brought to bear in the interest of the landless. Even after 
the Romans became masters of all Italy little more than four acres was assigned to each 
citizen, and the domain lands increased enormously. Attempts were constantly made 
to restrict the extent of land that could be occupied by the wealthy, but generally with- 
out effect. (See AGRARIAN Law.) A great deterioration and a consequent agricultural 
change took place during the century that followed the first Punic War (ended B.c. 
241). The place of the small farmer was taken by the planter, who cultivated a great 
extent of territory, using slave labor. The small proprietors either sold their no longer 
profitable farms, or were driven from them by the large land-holders. In Sicily, the 
first province, and in the others successively, the ownership of the land was vested in 
the Roman people. From these provinces came the tribute of grain that made grain- 
raising unprofitable in Italy. Hence the large estates were gradually given over to 
the keeping of flocks and the raising of cattle. Among the Roman writers upon agri- 
culture were Varro, Columella, and Pliny. Earlier than these in time and more cele- 
brated was Cato the Censor (d. 150 B.c.), who gives us not only the most minute par- 
ticulars regarding the management of the slaves on his large Sabine farm, but also all 
the details of husbandry, from plowing to the reaping and threshing of the crop. 


Agriculture. 1 64 


Among the agricultural works in Latin were those of Mago the Carthaginian. The 
translating had been done by order of the Senate, and Columella speaks of Mago him- 
self as the attthor of husbandry. 

The chief grain cultivated by the Romans was wheat, but barley was cultivated to 
a considerable extent. Land given to grain was fallowed for the whole of every alter- 
nate year. One third of the fallow was manured and sown with some green crop, as 
cattle food. Fallow received from four to five furrows before the wheat was sown in 
the fall. The crop of wheat ripened about the middle of June, but the summers were 
too dry to allow of millet and other summer crops being raised with certainty. Rye, 
hemp, flax, beans, turnips, lupines, vetches and lucerne are also mentioned as occasion- 
ally cultivated. Meadows were highly esteemed, and irrigation to some extent adopt: 
ed. Cattle were fed on the plains in the winter and driven toward the Apennines as 
the snows melted in spring and when the pastures below became parched by the heat. 
The Romans carried their agriculture into the ruder countries conquered by them. 
The vine growing wild in Sicily was carried into Gaul, where it was acclimated with 
difficulty. To the rude Britons the Romans taught agriculture so successfully that be- 
fore the period of occupation was over they were exporting large quantities of grain. 

The deterioration of Roman agriculture was accelerated by the overthrow of the 
Roman Empire. The conquering nations had advanced but little beyond the pastoral 
stage. During the following period of the Dark Ages the two influences working for 
the benefit of agriculture in Western Europe were from the Saracen in Spain and the 
religious houses in the other countries. The Saracens irrigated and tilled with untiring 
industry. Introducing the plants of Asia and Africa, they cultivated rice, cotton and 
sugar, and covered the rocks of Southern Spain with fruitful vines. In general through- 
out Western Europe land was cheap, and many worthless tracts were given to the 
church. In some of the religious orders labor with the hands was imposed upon the 
members. ‘They studied the works of the Roman writers upon agriculture, and soon 
had the best cultivated lands in those couutries through which their influence extended. 
Charlemagne encouraged the planting of vineyards and orchards. On the whole, the 
Crusades helped the agriculture of Western Europe. In the latter part of the Middle 
Ages the people of the low countries of Western Europe came to be as distinguished for 
their agriculture as for their commerce and manufactures. They plowed in green 
crops; those of Holland developed dairying ; the Flemings gained the reputation of 
being the oldest practical farmers. Also in the plain of Northern Italy, watered by the 
Po, agriculture was in an advanced condition. A large part of it of great natural fer- 
tility drew forth the praises of Polybius, who visited it about fifty years after it came 
into the hands of the Romans. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, under the 
influence of irrigation, the region became a garden, supporting a large population and 
exporting grain. Inthe England of the same period the agriculture showed alternations 
of indolence and bustle, of feasting and semi-starvation. In August, 1317, wheat was 
twelve times as high as it was in the following September. Rye was the bread stuff of 
the peasantry. Little manure was used. Oxen, not horses, were used for teams. In 
the fourteenth century serfdom disappeared from England, and the tenant farmer be- 
came established. ‘* Between 1389 and 1444 the wages of agricultural laborers doubled ; 
harvests were plentiful; beef, mutton, pork became their food ; sumptuary laws against 
extravagance of dress and diet attest their prosperity’’ (Prothero). Laborers without 
food could earn a bushel of wheat in two days and a half; of rye in a day and a half. 

By the beginning of modern history the fruitful lands of Western Asia and South- 
eastern Europe, swept by wars and desolated by conquest, had been placed under the 
ban of the Turk. The conquest of the Moors in Spain and their subsequent expulsion 
caused an injury to the agriculture of the peninsula not since repaired. The discovery 
of the New World showed two grades of agriculture carried on by those who had never 
seen the horse and were practically without domestic animals. Even the careful tillage 
of the ancient Peruvian had no influence upon Europe and little upon the America of 
succeeding centuries, The great contribution of America to the world’s agriculture 
was the three plants, the potato, tobacco and Indian corn ormaize, Inthe region north 
of Mexico the labor of planting and caring for the scanty crops was performed by the 
women, who broke the ground with the rudest possible implements. 

The leading English agricultural writer of the sixteenth century was Sir Anthony 
Fitzherbert, who published his Book of Husbandry in 1523. In this century agriculture 
became more profitable, enclosures were made, and the rights of common were greatly 
restricted. Turned from the former wool exportation, the farmers began to raise wheat 
in large quantities for exportation. A law in the middle of the century practically 
prevented grain exportation, and turned wheat lands into pasturage. The resulting 
high price of food and destitution on the part of laborers brought another reaction, and 
a replowing of grazing lands. The sixteenth century saw the end of villeinage. In 
1595 laborers without food, during the summer months worked six days for a bushel of 
wheat, four days for a bushel of rye, and three and one half days fora bushel of barley. 
Gardening, greatly neglected in the first part of the seventeenth century, received due 
attention in the latter part. Deep drainage, too, began to be talked about. From the 
middle of the seventeenth century to the nineteenth England looked to Flanders for the 
perfection of careful tillage. From Flanders of the seventeenth century Sir Richard 


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Weston brought turnips and red clover, and Arthur Young afterward called hima 
greater benefactor than Newton. By the end of the century turnips and clover were 
extensively cultivated in alternation with wheat. The eighteenth century saw revolu- 
tions in English farming. One came when Lord Townsend established the Norfolk 
system. Under this system of first, wheat ; second, turnips ; third, barley ; fourth, grass, 
one half of the land was constantly under grain crops and the other under cattle crops. 
Large numbers of sheep and cattle were fattened on the turnips, and the consumption of 
roots on the land increased the yield of the barley. The Norfolk system was a success 
from the beginning. The rental of certain farms increased fivefold, and farmers in special 
cases made handsome fortunes. Susceptible of many modifications, it has had much to 
do with the improved agriculture of England, 

Another revolution came from the breeding experiments of Bakewell, commenced in 
1750. To mention a single point, it had taken three or four years to prepare sheep for 
the market ; those bred by Bakewell were prepared for the market in two years. Be- 
sides making a reputation and a fortune for himself, he made for others a way since 
followed in breeding. 

English agriculture of the first part of the nineteenth century was marked by the 
influence of Arthur Young, who traveled much, carefully observed, experimented 
somewhat, and wrote industriously. He was one of the first to make experiments in 
regard to nitrogen and in regard to ammonia, previously supposed to be injurious to 
vegetation. Of his works, one has recently beenrepublished. Assecretary of the Board 
of Agriculture, established in 1793, he was concerned in the discussion of all the agri- 
cultural questions of the period. Jethro Tull, whose book on Horse-hoeing Husbandry 
appeared in 1731, was almost in touch with the methods of the nineteenth century. 
His theory was that seeds should be sowed in drills and the spaces between the drills 
kept thoroughly cultivated. He asserted that the plant lives upon minute particles of 
soil, and obtains food from the air when the soil is brought to dust. He invented a 
drill and a horse-hoe. He did not succeed in obtaining a large crop ; but modifica- 
tions of the method have since been made, and nearly thirty-six bushels to the acre 
secured. Considering that Tulldid not have the aid of agricultural chemistry, he could 
not more nearly have touched hands with the scientific observers of to-day. In one 
respect there is an approach to his position. The supposed proof that plants cannot 
take nitrogen from the air has been questioned since 1880. At present it is generally 
accepted that certain (if not all) plants do acquire the plant food nitrogen from the air. 
(See Experiment Station Record, III., 111.) The theories of Tull may acquire fresh - 
interest through the present discussion of the relations of the physical properties of 
the soil to the cultivation of plants. 

The white colonists of North America had much to discourage them as agricultur- 
ists, and in New England the additional drawbacks of long winters and a rocky soil. 
The colonists in Virginia found both Indian corn and tobacco, the latter fitted to be- 
come an article of export. The New England settlers brought with them English 
modes of farming. From the Indians they learned how to raise corn, breaking the soil 
with a hoe and manuring with fish. Corn was the great product to be depended upon, 
although other grains were cultivated, and cattle and sheep increased slowly fed first 
upon the native grass, then upon herd grass specially fitted for New England soil. 

Potatoes began to be raised in the first part of the eighteenth century. The South- 
ern colonists, more favored by nature, made less actual progress than those of the North. 
An important part of the little written upon agriculture was the volume of essays pub- 
lished by Jared Eliot (q.v.), 1735. Even as late as 1790, as we learn from McMaster’s 
History of the American People, little progress was made. In New England and New 
York, as well as farther South, barns were small, implements rude, and carts more 
common than wagons. In Georgia the hoe was more often used than the plow ; in 
Virginia the poor whites threshed their grain by driving their horses over it. Through- 
out the South it was the common practice to grow crops without rotation, and in gen- 
eral manure was thrown away. A little later came the invention of the cotton gin and 
the beginning of the reign of cotton, with a demand for fresh fields and a disregard of 
careful tillage. Early in the century the importation of the Spanish merino sheep 
changed the farming of the North, and greatly increased the production of wool. 

Most marked changes have taken place in the agriculture of the past fifty years, no 
small part of which has been connected with the development of agricultural chemistry. 
That development began early in the century with Sir Humphry Davy, who in 1813 
published Hlements of Agricultural Chemistry, a work translated into French and Ger- 
man. It was followed in 1840 and later by the works of Liebig. It has been continued 
in the researches and experiments of the laboratories of Europe and America, For 
English-reading agriculturists the experiments most prominent are those carried on 
since 1843, at Rothamsted, in England, by Sir John Lawes and Dr. Gilbert. (See War- 
rington’s Lectures on Rothamsted Haperiment Station, Depart. of Agriculture, 1892.) 
Among the results of the study of agricultural chemistry have been an extensive use 
of chemical fertilizers, selected with reference to soil and crops and a comparative inde- 
pendence of the fixed rotations. Researches, however, are not confined to agricultural 
chemistry. As carried on in the 320 experiment stations of the world they are arranged 


Agriculture. 1 66 


to attack one after another the pests and the problems that confront the farmer. (See 
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.) 

One of the features of the agricultural history of the past fifty years has been the 
extensive introduction of machinery. Sowing machines, cultivators, and all the ma- 
chines that displace the hoe are of comparatively recent invention. As early as 33 A.D., 
according to Pliny, the Gauls used a cart with projections in front which cut or tore 
off the heads of grain; but until recent times little effort was made to invent or intro- 
duce labor-saving machinery, owing to popular prejudice. The threshing machine 
was not invented until 1786, and though an attempt was made early in the century to 
construct reaping machines, but small success was made until the time of Bell, Hussey 
and McCormick. (See Reaprna.) In the hay harvest horse power is applied by means 
of the mowing machine, the hay tedder, the rake, and machines for loading and unload- 
ing the hay. Another class of machines like the one for threshing deal with the gath- 
ered crops. The use of a system of machinery like that applied to dairying has made 
great changes in certain lines of agriculture. From horse power, too, there has been a 
partial change to steam power. About the year 1850 the steam plow began to be used 
in England. One special advantage in the minds of English farmers was the depth to 
which the soil could be turned, while the engine was utilized for many purposes on the 
large estatesof that country. The great advantage of steam farm machinery in America 
has been for operations like that of threshing. Improved farm machinery in America 
has made possible the rapid settling of the new States and the successful gathering of 
their immense harvests. It has made possible the great farms where the furrow is 
plowed for miles and the line of harvesters sweep across wheat fields covering thou- 
sands of acres. Machinery has destroyed the advantage that might be possessed by the 
country with cheap labor, when pitted against the country with cheap land. It is 
claimed that on the largest farms of the West, by the use of improved farm machinery, 
wheat can be produced at an expense of $5 per acre, or less than half the average cost 
per acre of the United States. The agricultural history of the half century has shown 
the risks that attend the production of a staple that must compete for the markets of 
the world. There has been a lowering of cotton as the result of over-production ; but 
the product open to the greatest competition igs wheat. In England, from 1851 halfway 
t» the present, wheat and dairy products rose in value, being at times more than 50 per 
cent higher than in 1851. In England, in the fall of 1894 the price of wheat was as 
low as 52 cents per bushel, which was less than 50 per cent of the price of 1851. The 
lowering of prices has increased the pasturage by millions of acres, has thrown out 
vrheat land until the average production has become 28 bushels per acre, and has 
lowered rents in some cases more than 50 per cent. In the years 1895 and 1896 
the price of wheat rose, and in the U. S. No. 2 winter wheat was quoted at 948 in 
the Chicago market in November, 1896. In the United States the average product 
for 24 years is 12.4 bushels per acre. There is a movement in agriculture to pro- 
vide for local demands, to take advantage of growing centres of population, to strive 
for excellence and exact system in place of haphazard methods. The evaporator has 
broadened the fruit market. The canning industry has utilized fruits and vegetables 
and saved the agricultural balances in sections. Cold storage, rapid transportation, and 
the refrigerator car have reduced risks and shortened apparent distances. New Zea- 
land is in the markets of London. Canadaand the United States have a profitable apple 
trade with England. The expenses of transportation have been reduced to a fraction of 
the previous cost, and thus the wheat lands of Dakota have been laid alongside those of 
both New England and Old England, with gain for the one and with loss for the 
others. In dairying there has been one of the triumphs of recent agriculture. Spe- 
cialization, with scientific method and improved machinery, has brought excellence with- 
out the destruction of the market. Dairy products, in contrast with others, are higher 
than they were fifty years ago. Carried on largely as co-operative undertakings, 
creameries and cheese factories (see DArRy) have increased in Europe and America. A 
large industry in England, dairying on the co-operative basis has been on the increase 
in France. The Netherlands, famous for its careful agriculture, is a leading dairy. 
country, exporting on an average 115,000,000 lbs. of butter and 64,000,000 lbs. of 
cheese. Switzerland, although furnishing a market for 2,000,000 lbs. of butter, on an- 
average provides other markets with 33,000,000 lbs. of cheese. Denmark no longer 
competes for the wheat trade, but has become one of the most successful of dairy coun- 
tries, one in which second-grade products are practically unknown. The amount of 
butter exported has steadily increased, and in 1891 was 100,000,000 lbs. England took 
nearly all of this, and in addition more than as much more from Canada, the United 
States, and other countries. 

The past fifty years has been a period of careful cultivation, though with many ex- 
ceptions in America. Thorough drainage and deep plowing, established in England, 
have been also made American. The storing of green crops in silos has become com- 
mon. A great amount of intelligent work has been given to securing plants and trees, 
like the Russian fruit trees, suited to local conditions in cold climates. In the vicinity 
of the large cities market gardening has been a profitable branch of agriculture, and 


lard 
167 Agriculture. 


has been the culmination of careful cultivation. Somewhat similar to it has been an 
industry which has developed in the United States under the name of “ truck farming,’ 
and is carried on in places remote from markets. <A large part of the vegetables con- 
sumed in the large American cities come from places from 500 to 1500 miles distant. 
According to a census bulletin, issued in 1891, in the United States upward of $100,000,- 
000 of capital is invested ; 500,000 acres are given to it ; more than 230,000 persons are 
employed, and the annual return is $76,000,000. The South Atlantic States are largely 
interested in this “‘ truck farming,’’ which, under favorable conditions, is generally 
very profitable. 

n speaking of the agriculture of the United States, besides branches touched upon, 
reference should be made to tobacco grown widely and a leading crop in fifteen states ; 
to the sugarcane grown chiefly on the alluvial lands of the Mississippi ; to rice grown 
profitably in the swamps of certain Southern States ; to the successful tropical and 
sub-tropical products of Florida and California ; and to the immense flocks and herds of 
the ‘‘ ranches’”’ in the mountain region and on the great plains of the western half of 
the continent. 

In the West since 1880 irrigation has been employed on 4 large scale in an attempt 
to reclaim land within the arid belt, a region extending from the centre of Kansas and 
Nebraska to the furthermost Pacific coast range of mountains. In that region of scanty 
rainfall irrigation may be practised by taking a water supply from the large streams 
flowing from the mountains. Within a small area water may be obtained from the 
““underflow’’ by means of artesian wells. While the results of surveys show that only 
a comparatively small part of the belt can be irrigated, in certain localities thousands 
of acres are being made profitable. In two valleys of Arizona (the Salt and the Gila) 
more than 450 miles of irrigating ditches were opened in the ten years 1880-1890. In 
the single county of San Bernardino, Cal., irrigation increased the number of acres 
under cultivation from 18,400 in 1880 to 144,950 in 1890. (See IRRIGATION; ARTESIAN 
WELLS, and also SPECIAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.) 

In the agriculture of Europe the sugar-beet has become a prominent industry in 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, France and Russia, and of some importance in Belgium 
and the Netherlands. Germany grows more than one third of the product, and the 
four countries more than nine tenths of it. The vine is of importance in all the Medi- 
terranean region and in favored localities like those along the German Rhine, where 
vineyards have given an average net return of more than $100 per acre. Italy gives to 
the vine 9,000,000 acres ; and France, with lowest acreage in 1891, and larger before and 
since, gives on an average 5,000,000 acres. France, also dating its progress from the 
Revolution, has become one of the richest of agricultural countries, and previous to 
1874 was the greatest wheat-producing country of the world. It is marked for its small 
farms and thrifty agricultural class, more than half of whom are land-owners. Germany, 
the greatest potato-producing country of the world, is also a country of varied agricultural 
production. Belgium, secure in its past record, is successfully conservative in its pres- 
ent. Austria-Hungary, less than half a century from practical serfdom, has a govern- 
ment that fosters agriculture, and presents the sharp contrasts illustrated by the steam 
cultivator on large estates and the wooden plow on small farms. Russia, only thirty 
years from serfdom, shows agricultural methods in sharp contrast with an immense 
agricultural production. 

The garden of Italy is the Lombard plain, with its more than 1,600,000 acres of irri- 
gated land and its careful systems of cultivation. In Spain, despite vines, oranges, 
olives, and the possibilities of irrigation and a succession of crops, agriculture looks 
backward to the time of the Moor. ” 

China, with an agriculture unchanged from legendary times, and India are countries 
in which rude implements are overbalanced by irrigation and garden-like cultivation. 
With rice as a principal food product, they support a dense population, have a great 
variety of crops, and are increasing factors in computing the world’s supply. 

Australasia and probably South America must be carefully considered in all agri- 
cultural estimates for the future. There are agricultural possibilities, too, in Mexico, 
with its three annual harvests in one part of the country and its grain production, 
although, from want of transportation, products are sometimes three times as high in one 
section as in another. 

The following tables, compiled from the returns and estimates of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, are for the most part averages covering several years. In 
many cases countries are known to produce cotton and other articles, although not even 
estimates that are trustwortby can be made of the quantity of the product. Of these 
averages those for wheat are the most trustworthy ; those for cotton are probably the 
least so. An examination of the tables shows how small, in comparison with the sup- 
ply, is the market for agricultural products, and how extensive is the field from which 
that supply can be drawn. On the averages of the table the world’s wheat product is 
about 2300 million bushels, while the estimates are 2393 million bushels for 1892, and 
2385 million bushels for 1893. The United States supplies the cotton for more than 
half of the civilized world ; India, Egypt and Brazil supply most of the remainder. 
China produces large quantities, and Russian Asia an increasing supply. 


EES ok 168 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF THE WORLD. 


MILLION BUSHELS. MILLION Pounps. 
Wheat.; Corn. | Rye. | Barley.| Oats. |Potatoes || Cotton. |Tobacco.| Wool. 
FRICA 
British ATTICS ascents 4 3 MeTe a eds Bae ee P aya 129 
BOY Ditches oh ae sequen 10 13 aes 10 ae Sok 805 ays! 3 
French Africa ........ 22 oa ke me 85 wee A rap be 
Several Countries....... + ar Ae Par weer RN: 150 
AMERICA : ; 
Argentine Republic..... 29 19 % ap ae as + Pie nie site 377 
EAZ ILS te a cence Sincere Seve Byelss Atrag ns ae aha tte acer" 1445 eN orate ee 
Gariada 2 rere aes 40 6 2 22 90 ont. ro ad 12 
Chile’ Ewa. Sikes 15 1 ie; 3 at Pe see fetes ike 
MO@XiCO Nolen « 10 79 Saae ite ost Ee este NO Case 
South America, parts of] .... Aine eset Sroe's ee Hie Cp Pace IN Onoabe 51 
United States. 2.0.2... 440 |1,681 25 55 595 170 8,262 499 281 
ASIA: 
China, ¢... spent Anak b- « (Data|inmost|cases w\anting) 570 |Nodata| .... 
Ibi CU OR AR Aedes 255 Brees er niet Pe er 1,285 | No data 72 
JAPAN eee eee oes: 14 1 22 82 hetis: 2 138 41 Ae 
Western Asia.......... 146 aa Hey Derek: ENE A Dees | 48 ae, 121 
Several Countries ...... ae aoc eye: oe ee x No data 53 ee 
ATISUTS ASI aes ict ces 36 c awit 3 17 16 17 4 550 
EUROPE : 
Austria-Hungary....... 161 110 122 98 154 409 Sever: 134 54 
bee eens Mahi. s 18 ate 17 4 27 mee monte q 4 
iBulcaridecs eee ond she ¢ F fe) 
Turkey ce tee ieee gsf| *t | 20 22 94 estimate vee 5 
Cyprus and Malta.. Ace 1 ee pe 2 yas {P54 5 
Denmark.oh ees... Soles > Roe 17 23 31 13 Sone Sete siekte 
BEanCes phe siestedsanaess 3809 pay 69 51 246 897 Sorte 44 104 
JENNY cs nap wale ates 93 Ae 228 101 300 892 nee 91 55 
(Greece tte: acts (OPS Ge il Bagh Q ae byline t ae 17 he 
TtalVuphde co meattees cs apts 122 81 4 9 17 2 B33: 10 26 
Nethonanis Jaspeube. 6 rote li 5 12 63 Atte 6 oon 
Norway and Sweden.. yl ences PH | 19 63 69 a 2 3 
Porvugalatearstiaeett ia 8 14 5 2 1 8 dee 10 
ROUNTATIA eee ed eee 50 61 4 19 8 2 Page ff pats 
IRUSSIAN aaeiciw ates: Rig 242 20 723 154 576 464 on ware 292 
Sorgia eines tee ocean § clei 2 3 2 negra t 3 
Spain! 28 4 eT BRU) org 22 | 2t 49 7 ip NOoy wad dy, 66 
Switzerland sccectente 3 2 2 1 5 oat Be 4 ee 
United Kingdom ... ... 78 2 2 £0 167 228 Sm Ra 147 
Total (about), includ- 
ing other coun- 2,300 {2,800 {1,318 804 2,327 |Doubtful||Doubtful)/Doubtful| 2,500 
TYICS Piste dee cleave 


MARKETS OF THE WORLD FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 


MILLION BUSHELS. MILLION PounDs. 
Wheat.| Rye. | Barley.| Oats. | Corn. |Potatoes |} Wool. | Cotton.|Tobacco. 

Austria-Hungary........- aah, Bases 1 Racers 5 32 186 17 
Belgian) Vise esse 19 1 (é a 355 2 89 49 20 
Canada ti. P20. stelae ta tlooniaans are, Ac fe « ats 2 8 26 12 
Denmark. so pteictujscls <eehtetrs oie 2 2 2 Ane 
HYance oes ats sole demnies vee 37 2 16 14 289 246 49 
Germany....-... Sale es etter hy 19 29 19 14 9 213 883 76 

taly CGI SOS ROS) Pind 2 pas 18 124 34 
ARES a5 age sivsteretefieicke srejahers) | Maite reteys note o sate BOE: 29 
IN EtHerIANOS jewelers elves ace 9 8 4 8 AC 4 26 29 
Norway and Sweden... are 2 12 1 Rata eet ever 6 30 11 
HUUSSIas See eae eee oat Acie Stic seh m4 Ot: Wiese cit 27 aaeet 
Spain and Portugal........ 10M te. oa ayahed rie 1 ies 6 119 42 
SWILZCRlANGs <6 <5 ahyoeicaren che 11 ee 1 3 1 1 4 53 12 
United Kingdom........ son 106 it 36 48 61 5 239 1,491 55 
United States <2. 22.2220. 9 ar 10 is Sit 3 89 seid roo 


Agricultural socvetves for the purpose of promoting the science and practice of agri- 
culture began with one established in the north of Italy in the beginning of the last cen- 
tury. In 1723 a “‘ society of improvers in the knowledge of agriculture in Scotland” was 
instituted, but was short-lived, as was another founded in 1755. In 1783 the Highland 
and Agricultural Society was formed, and in 1834 it was incorporated by a royal char- 
ter. Originally designed for the improvement of the Highlands, it extended its opera. 


Agri 
169 Aarimenvey 


tions over the whole of Scotland. Its capital enables it to carry on experiments, conduct 

competitive trials and offer large prizes. The Royal Agricultural Society of England, 

founded in 1838, has over 10,000 members, holds annual shows, and publishes a quarterly. 

It has the income of a permanent fund of about $175,000 besides the annual dues, and 
undertakes many duties which in other countries are undertaken by the government. 

The society has conducted competitive trials of farm machinery, conducted a chemical 
laboratory, and carried on work in connection with all the departments of rural econ- 
omy. In the journal of the society have appeared the details of the experiments of 
Lawes and Gilbert during the past fifty years; and the journal itself has represented 
during fifty years the best to be obtained by an English reading agricultural public. 
In Ireland agricultural interests are looked after by the agricultural department of the 
Irish Land Commission and by a department of the Royal Dublin Society, chartered in 
1749. The annual horse show, held by the society in Dublin during the month of Au- 
gust, is of marked importance. This society in 1887 absorbed the Royal Agricultural 
Society, founded in 1841. A British Board of Agriculture was established in 1889. It 
has four departments: (1) veterinary ; (2) statistical, intelligence and educational ; 
(8) land ; (4) ordnance survey. Most of the countries of continental Europe have agri- 
cultural societies, although the governments generally exercise a careful supervision 
over the agricultural interests. ‘Thus, in Germany there is a minister of agriculture as 
there isin France. The Austro-Hungarian Empire bas two ministers of agriculture, 
one for each of the countries. In the latter country the National Agricultural Society, 
with government aid, keeps the Hungarian herd book. Parts of Canada—for instance, 
Ontario—are provided with societies and boards of agriculture. In the United States a 
number of agricultural societies (q. v.) were formed toward the close of the eighteenth 
century: one in South Carolina and one in Philadelphia in 1784, one in New York in 1791, 
and one in Massachusetts in 1792. There have been many associations for the purpose 
of holding “‘ fairs’ for regions differing in size from one town to several States. There 
have also bcen numerous societies of those interested in a special branch of agriculture ; 
for instance, dairying, fruit-growing, stock-breeding, the breeding of merino sheep, 
etc. During the past twenty-five years the oJder States have in some form made 
efforts to collect and disseminate agricultural information. A general form has been a 
board of agriculture, with a salaried official called a secretary. As a rule each state 
now publishes an annual report. An additional value has been given to these reports 
since the establishment of the agricultural experiment stations (q.v.) in connection 
with the land grant colleges. ‘The large number of the publications of the United 
States Department of Agriculture (q.v.) now represents the work of a body of trained 
specialists. See CULTIVATED PLANTs, Domestic ANIMALS, DRAINAGE, VEGETABLE 
CHEMISTRY, MANURE, ROTATION OF Crops, SOILS. 

Among the great number of works on agriculture, reference may be made to the fol- 
lowing : Loudon’s, Morton’s and the American Encyclopedia of Agriculture ; Rogers’ 
History of Agriculture and Prices in England ; Prothero’s Pioneers and Progress of Eng- 
lish Farming ; Flint’s American Farmer ; Harris and Griffith on Manures ; Storer on 
Agriculture in its Relations to Chemistry ; Johnson’s How Crops Grow ; French, Waring 
and Miles on Drainage ; Miles on Stock-breeding ; Gurler, Robertson and Grotenfelt on 
Dairying ; Stewart on Feeding Animals ; Weed’s Insects and Insecticides ; Fuller and 
Roe on Small Fruits ; Thomas on Fruté Culture ; Henderson on Garden ; Gregory on 
Squashes, etc.; Bailey on Horticulture. 


AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF, was established in 1862, though the first distri- 
bution of seeds, etc., was made by the Commissioner of Patents in 1836. The 
first garden was established in 1858. The object of the department is to acquire 
and disseminate among the people of the United States the latest and best in- 
formation on the subject, and to introduce into the country new and desirable 
seeds, plants, etc. The divisions of the department are seeds, propagating garden, 
pomology, ornithology, forestry, and library. Monthly reports of the state of 
the crops and kindred subjects are issued. The department has a fine building at 
Washington, with museum, chemical laboratory, etc. In 1888 the department was 
made an executive department, the head of which is a member of the cabinet. The 
first one to occupy this position was Norman J. Colman, of Missouri. 

AGRIGEN’TUM (Gr. Akragas), the modern Girgenti, at. on the s. coast of Sicily, in 
jat. 37° 17’ n., and long. 18° 28’ e., founded by a colony from Gela (582 B. c.), and, in the 
earlier ages, one of the most important places in the island. In its palmy days, it is said 
to have contained 200,000 inhabitants. After being at first free, and then subject to 
tyrants, it was demolished by the Carthaginians (405 B. c.), but very soon rose again. 
In the course of the Punic wars, it was compelled to submit to the Romans. From 825 
to 1086 A. D. it was in the possession of the Saracens, from whom it was conquered by 
count Roger Guiscard. The modern Girgenti has about 18,800 inhabitants, is the cap- 
ital of the province of the same name, and exhibits numerous and splendid ruins, which 
afford inexhaustible materials for pictorial representation. 


AG'RIMONY (Agrimonia), a genus of plants of the natural order rosacee (q.v.), sub. 
order potentillee. The calyx is five-cleft, without bracts; the hardened tube at length 
invests two carpels, and is covered with hooked bristles. —The Common AGRrImony (A, 
eupatoria) is a native of Britain and other parts of Europe, growing in borders of fields, 
on waysides, etc. It has an upright habit, attains a height of 2 ft. or more. and has 
interruptedly pinnate leaves, with the leaflets serrate and downy beneath. The flowers 
are small and yellow, in close racemes. The whole plant has a pleasant, slightly aro 


Agrionia,. lod 
Agua: 1 ( 0 


matic smell, and is bitter and styptic. A decoction of it is used as a gargle; the dried 
leaves form a kind of herb tea; and the root has some celebrity as a vermifuge.—Very 
similar to this is A. suaveolens, a native of Virginia, Carolina, etc. It has a very agree- 
able fragrance. 


AGRIO'NIA, Beeotian festivals in honor of Dionysus, in which women pretended 
for some time to search for the god, but suddenly desisted, saying that he hid himself 
among the muses. The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas having despised the 
rites of the god, were seized with frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children; and 
that the A. were celebrated in expiation of the offense. 


AGRIP’PA, CoRNELIUS HENRY, a remarkable character of the 16th c., distinguished 
as writer, philosopher and physician, who united great ability and extensive acquire- 
ments with quackery, was born of a noble family at Cologne, 1486. He led an adven- 
turous and unsettled life, quite in the spirit of his times. As early as 1509, he was 
appointed teacher of theology at Dole, in Franche Comté, and attracted great attention 
by his lectures; but having by his bitter satires on the monks drawn upon himself the 
hatred of that body, he was accused of heresy, and obliged to leave Déle. He next 
taught theology for some time in Cologne, occupying himself at the same time with 
alchemy, and then went to Italy, where he took military service under Maximilian L., 
and was knighted. He was afterwards made doctor of laws and of medicine, and gave 
lectures at Pavia, until, burdened with debt, he fled to Casale. After a time he was 
appointed syndic of Metz; but in 1520 he was again in Cologne, having excited the hos- 
tility of the inquisition and of the monks by his defense of a witch. His old enemies, 
the monks, persecuted him still in Cologne, so that he went to Freiburg in Switzerland, 
where he began to practice as a physician. In 1524, he went again to Lyons, and there 
he gained such a reputation that the mother of Francis I. chose him as her physician. 
As he declined to prophesy the issue of the campaign that Francis I. undertook in 1525 
in Italy, he lost his post and went to Holland. Here he wrote his celebrated book, De 
Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum (Cologne, 1530), a biting satire on the sciences as they 
then existed. An accusation against him having been brought before Charles Y., on 
account of this book, he again became a fugitive, and repaired to Lyons. He there found 
the hatred he had early excited in France not yet extinguished, and was imprisoned; but 
being liberated, through the exertions of his friends, he retired to Grenoble, where he 
d. (1535). A.was a clear-headed man, and had the merit of successfully combating many 
of the prejudices of his age. His book, De Occulta Philosophia, containing a systematic 
account of the cabbala (q.v.), directly contradicts the above work. A complete collec- 
tion of his writings appeared at Lyon, 2 vols., without date (about 1550). See Life of A., 
and analysis of his works, by H. Morley (1856). 


AGRIPPA, Herron, I., son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the 
great, was educated at Rome. He lived there in a very extravagant style, giving splen- 
did entertainments, especially to the princes of the imperial family, and scattering his 
money lavishly in gifts to the freedmen of the emperor, until his debts rendered itunsafe 
for him to remain longer in the city. He then took refuge in Idumea. From this period 
almost to the death of Tiberius, he suffered a variety of misfortunes, but having formed 
a friendship with Caligula, the latter, on his accession to the throne, gave him the tetrarch- 
ies of Abilene, Batanza, Trachonitis and Auranitis. After the banishment of Herod 
Antipas, he received his tetrarchy also—namely, Galilee and Perea. Claudius, whom 
A. helped to secure the possession of the empire, added to his dominions Judea and 
Samaria, and he was thus the ruler of a more extensive territory than even Herod the 
great had been. His government was mild towards the Jews, with whom he was remarka- 
bly popular; but he severely persecuted the Christians. He caused James, the brother of 
John, and the head of the church at Jerusalem, to be beheaded, and Peter to be thrown 
into prison. He d. of a peculiarly loathsome disease at Ceesarea, in Palestine, while 
celebrating games in honor of the emperor, in the 55th year of his age, and the 44th of the 
Christian era. The account given of this in the Acts of the Apostles substantially agrees 
with that of Josephus. 


AGRIP’PA, Heron, II., son of Agrippa I., was at Rome when his father died, and 
only 17 years of age. Claudius, therefore, resolved to detain him for some time, and in 
the meanwhile retransformed the kingdom into a Roman province, but presented him with 
the little territory of Chalcis when his uncle Herod, who was its ruler, died. In 53 «.D., 
he left Rome, and received from the emperor nearly the whole of his paternal possessions, 
which were subsequently enlarged by Nero. Like his father, A. was fond of fine 
buildings, a taste which he probably acquired by his long sojourn at Rome. He spent 
great sums in adorning Jerusalem, Berytus, and other cities; but he was not prudent in 
the distribution of his favors, or just in his treatment of the high-priests, so that he failed 
to secure the good-will of the Jews. He did all in his power, however, to dissuade them 
from rebelling against the Romans; but when he found his advices and warnings 
neglected, he abandoned his countrymen, and joined the imperial troops. When Jeru- 
salem was taken, he went with his sister to live at Rome, where he was made pretor, 
and where he died in the 70th year of his age—the last of the Herods. It was before him 
Paul made his memorable defense. 


171 ree 


AGRIP'’PA, Marcus Vipsantus (63-12 3.c.), a Roman, who, though not of high 
birth, rose to an exalted position through his own talents. He first espoused Marcella, 
the niece, and then Julia, the daughter of Octavius. He was eminent both in war andin 
peace; and as a general, counselor and friend of the emperor, did good service to him 
and to the Roman state. As a general, he laid the foundation for the sole dominion of 
Octavius, and commanded his fleet in the battle of Actium (31 B.c.). He was generous, 
upright, and a friend to the arts; Rome owed to him the restoration and construction of 
apie aqueducts, and of the Pantheon, besides other public works of ornament and 
utility. 


AGRIPPINA.—I. The daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, by his wife Julia, was one 
of the most heroic and virtuous women of antiquity. She was married to Cesar 
Germanicus (see GERMANICUS), whom she accompanied in all his campaigns. She openly 
accused Tiberius before the senate of having hired the murderers of her husband; and the 
tyrant, who hated her for her virtues and the esteem in which she was held by the 
people, banished her to the island of Pandataria, near Naples, where she voluntarily died 
of hunger (33 A.D.). The antiquarian museum at Dresden possesses four excellent busts 
of her.—II. A very different character was AGrIpprIna, the daughter of the last 
mentioned, one of the most detestable women that have lived. Inher second widowhood, 
she induced the emperor Claudius, her own uncle, to marry her, and espoused his 
daughter, though already betrothed to another, to her son Nero. In order to bring the 
latter to the throne, she ruined many rich and noble Romans, excluded Britannicus, the 
son of Claudius by Messalina, and finally poisoned the emperor, her husband. She then 
endeavored to govern the empire through her son Nero, who was chosen emperor; but 
her ascendency proving intolerable, Nero caused her to be put to death (60 a.D.). She 
enlarged and adorned her native city, Cologne, which received from her the name 
of Colonia Agrippina. 


AG'TELEK, Cavern of (in Hungarian, Baradia, i.e., a suffocating place), one of the 
largest and most remarkable stalactitic caverns of Europe, is situated near the village of 
Agtelek, in the co. of Gomor, not far from the road from Pesthto Kaschau. It opens 
at the foot of a mountain with an entrance scarcely 34 ft. high by 5 ft. wide. It consists 
of a labyrinth of caverns communicating with one another, many of which it is difficult, 
and even dangerous, to explore, when the streams that flow through them are high. 
Numerous stalactitic structures occur in all the caverns, which, from their singular shape, 
have given rise to the various names of ‘‘the Great Church,” ‘‘ the Mosaic Altar,” ‘the 
Image of the Virgin,” etc. The largest and most imposing of these caverns, situated about 
200 paces from the entrance, is called the Flower-Garden. It is 96 ft. high, 90 ft. wide, 
and runs nearly 900 ft. in a straight line. 


A’GUA, VoLCAN DE, a conical volcanic mountain, 18 m. s.w. of Guatemala, 15,000 
ft. above sea-level. Its crater is about 450 ft. by 350 ft. It ejects stones and hot water. 
Near by are the volcanoes of Pacaya and Fuego, and the three often present a magnificent 
spectacle. Agua has twice destroyed the old town of Guatemala. 


AGUA'DO, ALEXANDER Marra, Marquis de Las Marismas del Guadalquiver, one of 
the wealthiest bankers of modern times, was b. at Seville, 1784, and d. 14th April, 1842. 
He was descended from a Jewish family, and in his youth bore arms asa soldier. Dur. 
ing the Spanish war of independence, he fought with distinction on the side of Joseph, 
Tose in the French army to the rank of colonel, and acted as aide-de-camp to marshal 
Soult, but retired in 1815, and began a commission business at Paris. In this he soon 
realized such wealth as enabled him to found a bank. Good-fortune, energy and bold- 
ness, with a singular talent for concerting schemes, advanced him in a short time to be 
one of the first bankers in Paris. He also obtained a political reputation by negotiating 
the Spanish loans of 1828, 1828, 1830 and 1831. In these operations, the Spanish govern- 
ment frequently invested him with unlimited powers, which he dexterously employed to 
save his country from national bankruptcy. Ferdinand VII. conferred on him the title 
of Marquis de Las Marismas del Guadalquiver. His services were also recompensed by 
privileges in mining and in executing public undertakings. All the Spanish bonds issuing 
from his house received the name of Aguados. It was through A. that the Greek loan 
of 1834 was effected. He was naturalized in France in 1828, and at his death left a 
fortune of above 60 million francs, of which he had invested part in landed property; the 
castle of Chateau-Margaux, celebrated for its wine, belonged to him. His distinguished 
collection of pictures gave occasion to Gavard for the publication of the Galerie A. 
(Paris, 1837-1842). 


A'GUAS CALIEN’TES, a t. in Mexico, cap. of the state of Aguas Calientes. It is situ- 
ated in n. lat. 21° 53’, and w. long. 101° 45’, in a plain 6000 ft. above the sea-level, and on 
a stream of the same name, which is tributary to the Rio Grande de Santiago. It contains 
a pop. of 32,400; and besides the cultivation of fields and gardens, the manufacture of 
woolen cloth is very considerable, and is carried on by the factory system. The t. is on 
the Mexican Central r.r., and the highway from Mexico to Sonora and Durango is here 
crossed by that from San Luis Potosi to Guadalaxara. The environs abound in hot 
springs, from which the t. takes its name. Pop. of state of A. C., 1893, 140,000. 


AEiihoehel, eye 


A'GUE (febris intermittens) is the common name for an intermitting fever, accompa- 
nied by paroxysms or fits. Each fit is composed of three stages, the cold, the hot and 
the sweating stage. Before a fit, the patient has a sensation of debility and distress about 
the epigastrium; feels weak and disinclined for exertion; the surface of his body becomes 
cold, and the bloodless skin shrivels up into the condition termed goose-skin (cutis anser- 
ina). A cold sensation creeps up the back, and spreads over the body; the patient shiv- 
ers, his teeth chatter, his knees knock together; his face, lips, ears and nails turn blue; 
he has pains in his head, back and loins. This condition is succeeded by flushes of heat, 
the coldness gives place to warmth, and the surface regainsits natural appearance. The 
warmth continues to increase, the face becomes red and turgid, the head aches, the 
breathing is deep and oppressed, the pulse full and strong. The third stage now comes 
on; the skin becomes soft and moist, the pulse resumes its natural force and frequency, 
and a copious sweat breaks from the whole body. 

These paroxysms recur at regular intervals. The interval between them is called ‘‘an 
intermission.” When they occur every day, the patient has quotidian A.; every second 
day, tertian,; and when they are absent for two days, guartan. Allages are liable to this 
disease; and a case is on record of a pregnant woman having a tertian A.which attacked 
her of course every other day; but on the alternate days, when she was well, she felt. 
that the child also had A., although the paroxysms did not coincide with her own. 

The exciting causes of this disease are invisible effluvia from the surface of the earth 
(marsh miasmata). A certain degree of temperature seems necessary—higher than 60° 
Fahrenheit—for the production of the poison. It does not exist within the arctic circle, 
nor does it appear in the cold seasons of temperate climates, and seldom beyond the 56° 
of n. lat. (Watson). It also requires moisture. In England A. is almost exclusively con- 
fined to the eastern coast; and the extension of drainage has rendered A. far more rare 
than before. James I. and Oliver Cromwell died of A. contractedin London. The Pon- 
tine marshes to the s. of Rome have long been notorious as a source of aguish fevers. Peat 
bog or moss is not productive of malaria, as is seen in parts of Ireland and Scotland. 
Neither is A. ever seen among the inhabitants of the Dismal Swamp—a moist tract of 
150,000 acres on the frontiers of Virginia and North Carolina in North America. The 
treatment of aguish fever consists generally in calomel given in purgative doses, followed 
by preparations of cinchona-bark, and in applying, during the paroxysm, external warmth 
to the body. See Manaria. 


AGUES'SEAU, Henri FRANCOIS D’, a distinguished lawyer and chancellor of France, 
and pronounced by Voltaire to have been the most learned magistrate that France ever 
possessed, was born at Limoges, 1668 a.p. He received hi3 earliest education from his 
father, and afterwards devoted himself to the study of law; became avocat-général at 
Paris in 1690, and at the age of 32, procurewr-général of the parliament. In this office he 
effected many improvements in the laws and in the administration of justice. He dis- 
played great benevolence during a famine which occurred in the winter of 1709, applying 
all the means in his power for the alleviation of the calamity. Asa steady defender of 
the rights of the people and of the Gallican church, he successfully opposed the decrees 
of Louis XIV. and the chancellor Voisin in favor of the papal bull Unigenitus (q.v.). 
During the government of the duke of Orleans he became chancellor, but in the follow- 
ing year fell into disgrace by opposing Law’s system of finance, and retired to his 
country-seat at Fresnes. When, however, the ruin induced by Law’s system produced 
a general outcry of dissatisfaction, A.was reinstated, in order to appease the people. But 
his well-meant efforts could not retrieve the desperate state of affairs. A.was afterwards 
exiled a second time, in consequence of his opposing cardinal Dubois; and though he (in 
1727) obtained from cardinal Fleury permission to return, yet he did not again resume 
the office of chancellor till 1787. He resigned in 1750, and d. Feb. 9, 1751. His works, 
consisting of pleadings and speeches at the openings of the parliament, occupy 18 vol- 
umes (Paris, 1759-89; Paris, 1819). 


_AGUILAR’, Grace, 1816-47 ; an English authoress of Hebrew parentage, and a writer 
chiefly of religious fiction, such as The opie and Home Influence. She wrote in defense 
of her faith The Spirit of Judaism, and other works. The ‘‘ Women of Israel” gave her 
a testimonial shortly before her death. 


AGUILAR’ DE LA FRONTPRA, at. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Cordova, 
occupying the summits and slopes of several low hills on the left bank of the Cabra, 26 
m. 8.s.e. from Cordova. Many of the houses are of three stories, and the t. is remark- 
able for the whiteness of its houses and the cleanness of its streets. It has three fine 
squares, and a dismantled Moorish castle. The chief trade is in corn and wine. Many 
of the inhabitants are employed in agriculture, and in the breeding of oxen, horses and 
mules. Pop. 12,500. 


AGUIR'RE, or AGUIRRA, JOSE SAENZ DE, 1630-99; a Spanish ecclesiastic and author, 
of the Benedictine order; abbot of St. Vincent, professor of theology in the university of 
Salamanca, and secretary to the Spanish inquisition. He was made cardinal about 1686, 
in reward for a work in which he supported the papal authority against the four articles 
of the Gallican church. He wrote a Collection of the Councils of Spain, and left unfinished 
a Treatise on the Theology of Anselm. 


Ague. 
a 7 + AO 


AGUIR/RE, Lorre DE, about 1508-61, a Spaniard noted for his crimes. He went to 
Peru with Ursua in search of the mythical El Dorado; induced Ursua to assume kingly 
authority, and then killed him to seize the power, afterwards killing many who displeased 
him. He was finally deserted, and captured and executed by the Spanish authorities of 
Venezuela. 


AGUL’HAS, CaPk (meaning needles), the most southern point of Africa, lies about 100 
m. e.s.e. of the cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34° 51’ s., long. 19° 55’ e. In 1849, a light- 
house was erected on it, at an elevation of 52 ft. above high-water. The A. bank extends 
along the whole southern coast of Africa. It is 560 m. in length, and, opposite the cape 
ot Good Hope, as many as 200 in breadth. 


AGUR’, at. of India, in the territory of Gwalior, the possessions of Scindia’s family, 
on the route from Oojein to Kota, 41 m. n.e. from Kota. It stands in an open plain, 
1598 ft. above the sea, is surrounded by a rampart of stone, and has on one side of ita 
large and fine tank. 


AGUSTI'NA, the ‘‘maid of Saragossa,” d. June, 1857, at a great age. In youth 
she was a peddler of cool drinks to soldiers. During the siege of Saragossa by the French, 
in 1809, she distinguish i herself by heroic participation in several severe encounters, once 
snatching the fuse from a falling cannonier and firing the gun at the enemy, from which 
act she got the name ‘“‘ La Artillera.” She was made sub-lieut, in the Spanish army, and 
presented with many decorations. Byron immortalized her in Childe Harold. 


AGYNIA‘NI, or AGynrAns, a Christian sect at the end of the 7th c., who condemned 
marriage, and declared a true Christian life to consist of the renunciation and mortifica- 
tion of all physical appetites and passions. 


A’'HAB, the son and successor of Omri, was king of Israel from 918 to 897 B.c. He 
married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon; through whose injurious influ- 
ence the Pheenician worship of Baal was introduced, the king himself seduced to idolatry, 
and the priests and prophets of Jehovah cruelly persecuted. Yet the prophets retained 
their influence over the people; and Elijah dared openly to attack the priests of Baal, and 
reprove the wickedness of the king with the most severe threateningsof punishment. A. 
prosecuted three wars, with various success, against Benhadad, king of Syria; but in the 
last campaign he was killed by an arrow. His whole family was afterwards extirpated 
under king Jehu. 


AHAN'TA, a portion of the gold coast of Africa, rich and fertile. England has 
stations at Axim and other places ceded by the Dutch in 1872. Prussia undertook to 
colonize A. in 1688, but in 1718 sold out to the Dutch West India company. 


AHASUE'RUS is the name, or rather, perhaps, the title, by which several kings of 
Media and Persia are mentioned in scripture. 'The best known of these is Esther’s hus- 
band (see ESTHER), who is probably the same as the Persian king Xerxes; the Hebrew 
form of his name (Achaschverosch) pointing to the old Persian form of the name Xerxes 
(Khschyarschan). 


AHAZ, son of Jotham, and 11th king of Judah, reigning 741-725 B.c.; weak-minded 
and corrupt. In his time Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Syria, undertook to 
capture the kingdom of Judah, and besieged Jerusalem but did not take the city, though 
they carried away many captives. Incursions were made by the Edomites and Philis- 
tines, and Ahaz asked help of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, who drove out the invaders 
but took heavy toll from Ahaz, compelling him to appear at Damascus as a vassal, while 
his kingdom was brought to the lowest point of political degradation. The conduct of 
Ahaz was that of a heathen; he broke up the sacred vessels, and closed the doors of the 
temple; he sacrificed to Syrian deities, and caused his son to pass through the fire to 
Moloch. He was succeeded by his son Hezekiah. 


AHAZI'AH, son and successor of Ahab, and 8th king of Israel, reigning less than two 
years, 897-96 B.c. He followed his father’s idolatry, worshiping Baal and Astarte. On 
his accession the Moabites first revolted, refusing to pay tribute; and before he was 
ready to go against them he fell from a window of his palace. He sent messengers to 
his god to know the result of his injuries ; but the messengers met Elijah, the prophet 
of Jehovah, who sent them back with word that the king would surely die. 


AHAZIAH, son of Jehoram and Ahab’s daughter ; 6th king of Judah; reigned one 
year, 884 B.c. He was idolatrous and wicked, and was slain by Jehu. 

AHIM'ELECH, a Jewish high-priest, who, induced by David, supplied the latter’s 
hunger with the shew-bread of the tabernacle, which was forbidden except to the priests ; 
for which Saul caused Doeg to slay A. 


AHITH’OPHEL, probably grandfather of Bathsheba, and by her introduced at David’s 
court. He was a wise man in spite of his name (which means “‘ brother of foolishness”), 
and David’s most trusted counselor until his defection in Absalom’s case, which caused 
the king much sorrow. His advice showed the way of success to Absalom’s party, but 
Hushai’s counsel for delay prevailed, which A. believed would be fatal‘to the rebel 
cause ; and he went home, ‘‘ put his house in order and hanged himself,” the only de- 
liberate suicide recorded in the Old Testament. 


Ahlefeld. it 74 


Aide. 


AHL’EFELD, CHARLOTTE SOPHIE LOUISE WILHELMINE VON, 1781-1849, a German 
novelist. She married A. 1798, and separated from him in 1807. She was praised by 
Goethe for her precocious literary talent. She published several sentimental novels 
under the name of ‘ Eliza Selbig,’’ and others under her real name, and wrote a volume 


of poems. 

AHLEFELDT, EvisA DAVIDIA MARGARETA, countess, born in Denmark, 1790, a 
German woman noted for her patriotism and her love of letters. She was the wife of 
a German officer, von Litzow, whom she accompanied on his campaign, She dis- 
tinguished herself by her care of the wounded on the battlefield. She afterward 
separated from her husband, and lived for a time with the author Immermann. 


AHL'FELD, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, born in 1810, a German pulpit orator, for a long 
time a pastor at Leipsic. Among his published writings are Lrzdhlungen fiir das Volk 
(1881) and Hin Kirchenjahr in Predigten (1883). He died in 1884. 

AHL’QUIST, AuGusT ENGELBERT, b. 1826, a Finnish philosopher and poet, professor 
of Finnish literature at Helsingfors. He was distinguished for ethnographic investiga- 
tions, especially of the dialects and races of the Uralo-Altaic family. He wrote a gram- 
mar of the nearly extinct Wot language. In 1847 he started a Finnish journal, and he has 
translated some of Schiller’s works into Finnish, and written poems. He died in 1889, 


AHL'WARDT, THEODOR WILHELM, b. 1828, son of Christian Wilhelm A., the Hellenic 
philosopher. In 1861, he became professor of oriental languages in Greifswald univer- 
sity. He is an authority on Arabic literature and history. 


AHMEDABAD’, or more properly AHMADABAD, the chief t. in the district of the same 
name, in the presidency of Bombay, is situated on the left bank of the Sabarmati, which 
flows nearly due s. into the gulf of Cambay. It was built in the year 1412, by Ahmed or 
Ahmad Shah, and underwent all the vicissitudes of government incident to the cities of 
Hindostan, till the year 1818, when it finally came under the power of the British. It 
was formerly one of the largest and most magnificent capitals in the east — in the opinion 
of a native writer, ‘‘the handsomest city in Hindostan; perhaps in the world.’’ Its 
architectural relics are gorgeous, even in the midst of decay. ‘The Jumna or Juma’ah 
Masjid, or great mosque, rises from the centre of the city, and is adorned by two superbly 
decorated minarets, ‘‘ each of which contains a circular flight of steps, leading to a gallery 
near the summit. Its domes are supported by lofty columns, regularly disposed; the 
concave of these cupolas is richly ornamented with mosaic and fret-work. The pave- 
ment is of the finest marble.’’ The mosque of Sujaat Khan is extremely elegant. There 
is likewise an ivory mosque, which has obtained that name from the circumstance that, 
although built of white marble, it is ‘‘curiously lined with ivory, and inlaid with a pro- 
fusion of gems, to imitate natural flowers, bordered by a silver foliage on mother-of- 
pearl.’’ There are also the Fire Temple and the Tower of Silence of the Parsis. A. once 
abounded in gardens, aqueducts, reservoirs, etc.; but these, especially the gardens, are 
now sadly defaced and injured. Its prosperity has been almost wholly destroyed by the 
rapacity of Mahrattas, although at one time it was famous for its manufacture of rich 
fabrics of silk and cotton, articles of gold, silver, steel, and enamel. ‘‘ It employed many 
artists in portrait-painting and miniatures,’’ and had extensive trade in indigo, cotton and 
opium. ‘The old city-walls, built in 1485, which had, in the course of ages, and through 
the assaults of enemies, become very dilapidated, were repaired in 1834 at an expense of 
250,000 rupees. Water was also conveyed from the river through the city by means of 
pipes. It is distant from Bombay 290 m. n.; in lat. 23° n., long. 72° 86’. Pop. ’91, in- 
cluding cantonments, 148,400. Area, dist. of A. in Guzerat, 3949 sq. m.; pop. 929,000. 


AHMEDNUG'GUR, or AHMADNUGGUR, an important t. in the presidency of Bombay, 
It was founded in 1494 by Ahmed Nizam Shah. During the reign of his son, Boorhan 
Nizam Shah, it reached a high degree of prosperity; but after his death it witnessed an 
incessant series of wars, confusions, and murders. In 1797 it fell into the hands of the 
Mahrattas; and in 1803 was surrendered, after a trivial resistance of two days, to gen. 
Wellesley. It was, however, shortly after restored to the Peishwa; but in 1817, the fort 
was again occupied by the British. The t. has increased rapidly since it came under 
British protection and rule. Its houses for the most part are built of sunburnt bricks, 
but it has many specimens of Moslem architecture. Its manufactures are carpets, cotton, 
silk, brass. An earthen wall surrounds the city, and it is guarded by a fort half a mile 
distant. It was once a splendid and populous city, but has greatly declined, although 
many relics of its former magnificence still remain. It also possesses a good supply of 
water by means of aqueducts. It is distant from Bombay 122 m. e., in lat. 19° 6’, long. 
74° 46’, There are several places of the same name in Hindostan. Pop., including 
cantonments, ’91, 41,700. Area of dist. of A., 6645 sq. m.; pop. 889,000. 


AHMEDPUR’, a t. of India, in the native state of Bhawulpur, and 36 m. s, w. from 
Bhawulpur, a few miles from the left bank of the Indus river. The houses are mostly 
built of mud; but there is a large and lofty mosque with four tall minarets. It formerly 
manufactured matchlocks, gunpowder, cotton, and silk. The pop., is estimated at 9800. 


AH’/MED SHAH, b. about 1724; hereditary chief of the Abdali tribes, and founder 
of the Durrani dynasty of Afghanistan. While a boy he was a prisoner with a hostile 
tribe, but in 17388 he was rescued by Nadir Shah, who gave him command of a body of 


a _ 


. a 


~ Ahl 
175 Ateooe 


cavalry. On the assassination of Nadir, in 1747, Ahmed, who had failed to capture a 
Persian treasure train, retreated to Afghanistan and persuaded the native tribes to make 
him their sovereign. He was crowned at Candahar, Oct., 1747, changing the name of his 
tribe tothe Durrani. By keeping his armies at work in foreign conquests, and interfer- 
ing but little in the local affairs of the tribe, he soon consolidated his power; and having 
acquired the koh-i-noor—the famous diamond—and much captured treasure, he had the 
advantage of great wealth. In 1748 he took Lahore, and in 1751 became minister of the 
Punjab, and soon subdued all Kashmir, The great mogul having retaken Lahore, he 
went against him in 1756, entered Delhi in triumph and gave the city to pillage for a 
month. He took for one of his wives a princess of the royal family, and gave another to 
his son Timour, whom he made governor of Punjab. He had scarcely left Delhi when 
the Mohammedan vizier, whom he had left in office, seized the city, killed the great 
mogul, and set another of the family, a tool of his own, on the throne. At the same 
time the Mahratta chiefs took occasion for attempts to establish the Hindoo power, and 
Ahmed had more than once to cross the Indus on war expeditions. Jan. 6, 1761, he 
defeated the Mahrattas and Sikhs at the great battle of Parifat, but was compelled to 
hasten back to quell rebellion at home. The Sikhs rose, and he was finally forced to 
give me the Punjab. He died in 1773, of cancer in the face, and was succeeded by his 
son Timour. 


AHN, JOHANN FRANz, 1796-1865; a German grammarian, for many years a teacher 
in Neuss. He wrote many manuals for teaching German and other languages, and pub- 
lished in English a collection of German poetry. His Practical Method for a Rapid and 
Easy Acquisition of the French Language has passed through many editions. 


AH’RENS, HErnricu, b. 1808 ; a German writer on law, philosophy, and psychology, 
who studied at Gottingen. He was concerned in the political troubles in 1831, lectured 
in Paris, and from 1834 was 14 years professor of philosophy at Brussels. He was a 
member of the Frankfort parliament of 1848, and on the committee to draft a new Ger- 
man constitution. For a few years afterwards he held a professor’s chair at Gratz, and 
for twenty years following represented the Leipsic university in the first Saxon cham- 
ber. Among his works are a Course of Psychology; Philosophy of Law, or Natural Rights on 
a Philosophico-Anthropological Basis, and a cyclopedia of law. The two last-named works 
have been republished in several languages. He died in 1874. 


AH’RIMAN (in the Zend, afhro mainyus, i. e., the malignant, destroying spirit) is, 
according to the dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the personification of malignity, 
the original source of all moral and physical evil, the chief of the devils and malig- 
nant spirits, the king of darkness and of death, and consequently the eternal enemy 
pee opponent of Ormuzd and of his kingdom of light. See ZOROASTER, PERSIA, 

VESTA. 


A-HULL, maritime term, used to denote the position of a ship when all her sails 
are furled and her helm lashed on the lee-side: in such a position she lies nearly 
with her side to the wind, but with the head turned a little toward the direction of the 
wind. 


AI’ a royal city of the Canaanites, 12m. n. of Jerusalem. It existed in the time of 
Abraham, but is chiefly noted for its destruction by Joshua, who made it ‘‘a heap forever, 
even a desolation.’? <A city which seems to have occupied the site is supposed to have 
been mentioned in Isaiah, and also after the captivity. Its ruins were said to exist in 
the time of Eusebius and Jerome, though none are now to be found. 


AIDAN, SAINT, bishop of Lindisfarne, one of those distinguished monks of the early 
Scoto-Irish Church, who were received into the calendar of saints without the ceremony 
of canonization. His period is the middle of the 7the. He was the first efficient 
missionary who propagated Christianity in the n. of England. Oswald, the celebrated 
king of Northumbria, requested the community of Iona to send to his court one of their 
brethren who would teach the Christian religion to his people. As the history has come 
down to us, the first person sent was a certain Cormac, who was too dogmatic and intol- 
erant to be a successful missionary. On his returning after a failure, A., who possessed 
the patience, geniality and popular manners fitted for the task, was successful. He left 
a great reputation as the earliest promulgator of Christianity in the northern districts. 
His biography has been written by A. C. Fryer (1884). 


AIDE, HAMILTON, English poet and novelist, b. Paris, 1830, was the son of an Arme- 
nian and of a daughter of Admiral Sir George Collier. He served seven years in the 
British army, and then, settling down in the New Forest, devoted himself to literature. 
Among his poems are Eleanore (1856), and Songs without Music (1882); among his novels, 
Rita (1859); Passages in the Life of a Lady (1887) and Elizabeth’s Pretenders (1895). 


AIDE’-DE-CAMP, an officer who may be regarded as a kind of superior confidential 
attendant upon a general in active service. The A. is the organ of the general. He car- 
ries all orders on the field of battle: these he is to deliver in the plainest terms, so as to be 
distinctly understood; and when so understood, the orders are to be as implicitly obeyed 
as if the general himself were present and speaking, As an example of the importance 
of this matter, may be adduced the brilliant but disastrous light-cavalry charge at Balak- 
lava in the autumn of 1854. Lord Raglan sent a message, partly verbal and partly writ- 


Aidestoli. 3 
Ailanthus 176 


ten, to the ear) of Lucan, concerning a particular piece of strategy at a certain time and 
place; the message was misconceived, and the earl of Cardigan was directed to make a 
military movement, perfectly hopeless in its character, resulting in a very serious cavalry 
loss; although the incident presented a fine display of heroism united with discipline. 
An A. also acts as secretary to the general, and assists him in his correspondence, when 
he has not specifically a military secretary. He aids likewise in dispensing the courtesies 
of the general’s house or tent. Generals are much accustomed to appoint their sons or 
other relations to this confidential post. The A. vary from one to four in number, accord- 
ing as the commander is a brigadier-general, major-general, lieutenant-general, general, 
or field-marshal: each receives 9s. 6d. a day besides regimental pay. Before an officer 
can be appointed as A., he must have been two years with his regiment, and must pass 
an examination. A. are not removed from the list of their regiments; and, most com- 
monly, are captains. Besides these A. to generals, the queen has the power to appoint 
any number of A. to herself, in her capacity of nominal head of the army. There are 
no particular duties attached to the office; but it is much sought after, both as an honor, 
and as conferring on the holder the rank of colonel in thearmy. There are 6 who receive 
daily pay as A., and who take it in turn to attend the queen on state occasions. In the 
year 1876, there were no fewer than 383 military A. to the queen, of whom 8 were peers 
of the realm; but of the 33, only 19 belonged to the army; the rest, except two of the 
marines, being militia officers, whose appointments are purely honorary. In addition to 
all the above, there are naval A. to the queen, of whom there were 11 in the year 1876. 
An officer in the United States Army of the rank of major-general is allowed three 
A. D. C’s, who can be either captains or lieutenants; a brigadier general has two lieu- 
tenants as his A. D. C’s. When the office of general existed in the service, the officer of 
that rank was allowed six A. D. C’s with the rank of colonel. A lieutenant-general was 
allowed two A. D. C’s (lieutenant-colonels) and a military secretary. The officer holding 
the position is in the most confidential relations with the general. He carries all orders 
on the field of battle, these he is to deliver in the plainest terms, so as to be distinctly 
understood, and when so understood, the orders are to be as implicitly obeyed as if the 
general himself were present and speaking. The aide also acts as secretary to the general, 
and assists him in his correspondence when he has not specifically a military secretary. 


AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T’AIDERA (help yourself, and heaven will help you). This 
moral aphorism was the cry of certain French political writers to the middle classes, 
about the year 1824, and became the watch-word and title of a society, having for its 
object to agitate the electoral body in opposition to the government. This, however, 
was to be done by means strictly legitimate, and chiefly by correspondence and political 
publications. Most of its founders and active members belonged to the party of Doc- 
trinaires (q.v.), as Guizot, who was president for some time, Duchatel, Duvergier de 
Hauranne, Dubois, Remusat, Thiers, Cavaignac, etc. Le Globe newspaper was the organ 
of the association, and afterwards Le National. It had a great share in bringing about 
the revolution of July 1830, and was at first countenanced by the new government; but 
after a short time it was dissolved (1882). 


AIDIN’, or GuZEL-HIssar, a t. of Asiatic Turkey, on the river Meander, in the 
pashalic of Anatolia, built out of the ruins of the ancient Tralles, which was situated on 
a plateau above the present t. It lies sixty m. s. e. of Smyrna, contains a population 
estimated at 56,300 inhabitants, is 4m. in circuit, and carries on a trade next in import- 
ance to that of Smyrna. It is adorned, like all eastern cities, with numerous mosques 
and other religious edifices, and has a picturesque appearance. 

AIDO'NE, at. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, 20 m. e. bys. from Caltani- 
setta. It crowns the summit of a lofty height commanding a view of the great plain of 
Catania. It was one of the settlements of the Lombards, who accompanied Roger the 
Norman in his conquest of Sicily. The road which leads to the t. is very rugged, 
bordered by luxuriant prickly-pears. Pop. about 7000. 


AIDS. These were originally mere benevolences granted by a tenant to his lord, in 
times of distress; but gradually they came to be regarded as matters of right, and not of 
discretion. There were three principal objects for which A. were demanded: Ist, to 
ransom the person of the lord when taken prisoner; 2d, to make his eldest son a knight; 
and 8d, to provide a suitable portion to his eldest daughter on her marriage. 


AIGRETTE, a French word, used to denote the down or plume (botanically, pappzs) 
which is found attached to many vegetable seeds, as the thistleand dandelion. It is also 
used in reference to the feathery tuft on the heads of several birds, as the heron; and 
in English zoology the name aigret or egret (q.v.) is applied to the lesser white heron, an 
elegant bird, with a white body and a feathery crest. Hence the term A. came to be 
used to designate the long, delicate white feathers which, being stuck upright ina lady’s 
head-dress, are calculated to give a majestic appearance to the person. More recently, 
the usage has been still further extended, and any head-dress bearing an analogy to a 
plume, even a bouquet of flowers, fastened with precious stones, is denominated an A. 


AIGUEBELLE, Paut ALEXANDRE NEVEUE D’, b. 1831 ; a French naval officer. He 
entered the service in 1846; was licut. in 1858, and went into the Chinese service, where 


! Aide-toi. 
ti 7 7 Allentkaw 


ae distinguished himself against the Taepings in 1862-64. He became chief commander of 
the Franco-Chinese corps, forced the insurgents to flee from several towns, and captured 
Hong Chow. He was made a mandarin of the first class in China, and an officer of the 
legion of honor in France. With M. Gicquel he established the arsenal at Foo-chow-foo, 
and taught the Chinese to construct Huropean vessels, the first Chinese man-of-war being 
launched under his supervision in 1869, when he was made grand admiral of the Chinese 
fleet. He d. 1875. 


AIGUES-MORTES (Agua Mortue), a small t. in France—pop. about 4000—in the 
department of Gard, which claims tu have been founded by the Roman Marius. It is 
situated in an extensive marsh, impregnated with sea-salt, and is about 3m. from the 
Mediterranean, with which it is connected by a canal. It was from A. M. that St. Louis 
sailed in 1248, and again in 1270, for the crusades—a proof that the sea then reached 
this spot. In 15388, Francis I. had an interview at A. M. with Charles V. 


AIGUILLE' (Fr., a needle), an instrument often used by military engineers, to pierce 
a es for the reception of gunpowder, when any blasting or blowing-up is to be 
elfected. 


AIGUILLETTE’, a part of the decorations of military dress. It was formerly worn 
on the right shoulder by general officers of various grades; but is now chiefly confined to 
officers of the life-guards and horse-guards, It is merely an ornament, composed of gold 
or silver cords and loops. 


AIGUILLON, ARMAND VIGNEROT DuPLEssIs RICHELIEU, Duc d’, 1720-82; minister 
of foreign affairs under Louis XY., governor of Brittany in 1758. He was replaced as 
minister by Vergennes, and retired to private life. It issupposed that he owed his place 
at court to the king’s mistress, Mme. Dubarry. 


AI'GULET, a rope called a lashing-rope, employed in ships-of-war for securing the 
breeching of a gun. 

AIKEN, aco. in S. C., formed in 1871 ; 1068 sq.m. on the e. side of Savannah river, 
pop. 790, 31,822. There are mineral products, and agriculture and manufactures of cot- 
ton, paper, and pottery are the chief occupations. Co. seat, Aiken. 

AIKEN, t. and co. seat of Aiken co., S. C.; on the Carolina, Cumberland Gap, and 
Chicago, and the South Carolina and Georgia railroads; 17 miles east of Augusta. It is 
in a farming and lumbering region, has an elevation of 600 ft. above sea-level, and is a 
noted winter resort for consumptives. It has churches, banking facilities, daily and 
weekly newspapers, Aiken Institute, Schofield Normal and Industrial School for negroes, 
and numerous hotels. Pop. 90, 2362. 


AIKEN, CHARLES AUGUSTUS, D. D., anativeof Vt., 1827-92; graduated at Dartmouth, 
1846, and in theology at' Andover in 1853. He was pastor of a Congregational church in 
Yarmouth, Me., 1854-59; Latin professor at Dartmouth in 1859-66; at Princeton in 
1866-69; president of Union college, 1869-71; and later, professor of Christian ethics 
in Princeton theological seminary; from 1882 professor of oriental and Old Testament 
literature. He was editor of The Book of Proverbs in Lange’s commentary (Amer. ed.), 
author of many articles in religious periodicals, and was a member of the Old Testament 
revision committee. 

AIKIN, Artuur, 1773-1854 ; son of Dr. John A. -He published Journal of a Tour 
through North Wales and Shropshire, edited the Annual Review, 1808-3, and with his 
brother Charles published a Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy. Subsecuently he 
prepared a manual of mineralogy. He was one of the founders of the geological society, 
and a fellow of the Linnean society. 


AIKIN, Jonn, 1747-1822; an English author and editor. He studied medicine and 
surgery under the celebrated Dr. Wm. Hunter, but tried practice in various places with- 
out success, and turned his attention to literary pursuits, in which he was assisted by his 
sister, Mrs. Barbauld, with whom he published a series of volumes entitled Hvenings at 
#iome, an instructive and entertaining miscellany for the young. He wrote also The 
Natural History of the Year, avaluable biographical dictionary, and other books ; edited 
the Vonthly Magazine from 1796 to 1807, and started the Atheneum, which soon stopped. 


AIKIN, Lucy, 1781-1864; daughter of John A.; an historical writer who greatly 
assisted her father. She wrote books for the young, such as Adventures of Rolando and 
Lorimer ; also published a poem under the title of Hpistles on Women. Her most im- 
portant work is Memoirs of the Court of Elizabeth, which went through several editions. 
One of her latest works was Life of Addison. She was one of the most accomplished and 
attractive women of her time. 


AIKMAN, WI.L.1AM, 1682-1731 ; a Scottish painter who traveled in Italy and Turkey, 
practiced his art in Edinburgh and London, and was intimate with artists and literary 
men. 

AILAN’THUS or AILANTO (atlanthus glandulosus), a lofty tree, of the natural order 
simarubacee (see XANTHOXYLUM), 2 native of China, but now frequently planted to shade 
public walks in the s. of Europe, in England, and in North America. The styles are 
combined at the base, the fruit consists of 3 to 5 samare (or winged achenia q.v.). The 
flowers of the male plant have a disgusting odor. The leaves resemble those of the ash. 
The tree flourishes on chalky soils, and is hardy enough to endure the climate even of 
the n. of Scotland. It is easily propagated by suckers and cuttings of the roots. The 
wood js fine grained, satiny, and suited for cabinet-making, 


Ailanthus, 178 


Ainsworth 


AILAN'THUS SILKWORM, samia cynthia found on the leaves of the ailanthus, on 
which it feeds. Its silk is much used in China, and some think that it may supersede 
the true silk, the worm being hardier and less subject to disease, and feeding on a tree 
grown in all temperate climates. The eggs are treated like those of the regular silkworm; 
the larvee, after feeding through the first moult, being placed on the trees and left to 
themselves. 


AILETT'ES (Fr., little wings) were appendages to the armor worn by knights in the 
13th c. They were sometimes made of leather, covered witha kind of cloth called carda, 
and fastened with silk laces. 'The form was sometimes circular, sometimes pentagonal, 
cruciform, or lozenge shaped, but more usually square. Sometimes they were not larger 
than the palm of the hand; in other instances as large as a shield. In most instances, 
the A. were worn behind or at the side of the shoulders. Whether the purpose of these 
appendages was as a defense to the shoulders in war; as an ensign or mark, to indicate 
to the followers of the knight his place in the field; cr as armorial bearings, is not now 
clearly known; but the first supposition is the most probable. <A. are figured on many 
effigies, monumental brasses, and stained windows, in our cathedrals and old churches. 


AILLY, PImRRE pb’, or PETRUS DE ALLIACO, 1350-1420 ; a French theologian called 
the ‘‘ hammer of heretics” and ‘ eagle of doctors ;” leader of the Nominalists, and early 
a doctor of the Sorbonne; Grand Master of the College of Navarre in 1384, and in 
1889, chancellor of the university; bishop of Cambray in 1898; confessor and almoner to 
Charles VI. He induced the calling of the council of Pisa, of which he was an active 
member. He was made cardinal by John XXIII., and sent legate to Germany, where 
he was prominent in the council of Constance, 1414-18, furthering the condemnation of 
Huss and Jerome of Prague, but strenuously advocating reform in the church; maii- 
taining the authority of councils over that of popes, and aiding in the election of Martin 
V. in place of three rival popes. He was afterwards papal legate to Avignon until his 
death. His writings are numerous. Among them is an attempt to harmonize astronomy 
ang Rect ecte the astronomy being that of the age, soon to be overturned by Copernicus 
and Galileo. 


AIL’RED, EALRED, ETHELREDUS, or ALURED, 1109-66, an English ecclesiastic and 
historian. He was educated at the Scotch court, entered the Cistercian order, became a 
monk, was transferred to Rievaulx Abbey, Yorkshire, 1146; became abbot, remaining so 
till his death. He was the author of many historical and theological works, the former 
of little value owing to his unlimited credulity. Leland says he saw A.’s tomb at 
Rievaulx adorned with gold and silver ornaments. 


AIL'SA CRAIG, a remarkable islet about 10 m. from the southern coast of Ayrshire, 
opposite Girvan, lat. 55° 15’ 12" n., long. 5° 7’ w. Rising abruptly out of the sea to a 
height of 1114 ft., it forms a most striking object, even at a considerable distance. It is 
about 2 m. in circumference, and is accessible only at one point, where the accumulation 
of débris has formed a rough beach. The rock may be described generally as a mass of 
trap, assuming in some places a distinct columnar form, with dimensions far exceeding 
those of the basaltic pillars of Staffa. On the n.w., perpendicular cliffs rise to a height 
of from 200 to 800 ft.; on the other sides, the Craig descends to the sea with a steep. 
slope, covered with grass and wild flowers, with numerous scattered fragments of rock. 
Solan geese, in particular, breed in the cliffs in countless numbers. About 200 ft. from the 
summit are some springs, and on the ledge of a crag on the eastern front, are the remains. 
of an ancient stronghold. In 1831, the late earl of Cassillis, the proprietor of A. C., was 
raised to the dignity of marquis of A. A lighthouse was built here in 1836. 

AILU’RUS FULGENS. See PANDA. 


AIMARD, GUSTAVE, b. 1818, a French novelist. He went to America as cabin-boy, 
and lived ten year§ among the Indians; traveled in Spain, Turkey, and the Caucasus, 
mixing in wars and conspiracies. In 1848 he was in Paris, and an officer of the garde 
mobile, Aimard published his adventures in a long series of novels, The Trappers of the 
Arkansas and Nights in Mexico, and is sometimes called the French Fenimore Cooper. 
During the Franco-German war he organized the francs-tireurs of the press against the 
Germans. D. 1883. 

AIME-MARTIN, Lovts, 1781-1847; a native of Paris, who in 1815 was appointed 
editing secretary to the chamber of deputies, and not long afterwards professor of belles- 
lettres, moral philosophy, and history in the polytechnic school. In 1831, he became 
keeper of the library of Sainte Genévieve. In 1810 he published Lettres a Sophie sur la 
physique, la chimie, et Vhistovre naturelle, in prose and verse; and afterwards the Life of 
Bernardin de St. Pierre, in the literary style of his celebrated subject. But his most 
valuable work is Hducation des meres de famille, showing that the only way to improve 
mankind is to educate women so that they may be able to raise up men of virtue. His 
wife, a daughter of the marquis of Belleport, was the widow of Bernardin de St. Pierre, 
whom she took for her husband in his 63d year, she being 18. She died in the same year 
with her second husband, bequeathing her fortune to Lamartine, with whom she was a 
special favorite. 


SIMON, See AyMON., 


Ailanthue. 
179 Ainsworth. 


AIN, a river in France, rises in the mountains 0: the Jura, flows through the depart- 
ments of Jura and A., and after a course of about 120 m., falls into the Rhone, 18 m 
above Lyon. 


AIN, a frontier department of France, is bounded on the n. by the departments of Jura 
and Sadne-et-Loire, on the e. it is separated from Switzerland and Savoy by the Rhone, 
which also divides it from Isére on the s., while on the w. the Sadne separates It from 
the departments of the Rhone and Sadne-et-Loire. The eastern part is mountainous ; 
but the southern portion of that part which lies to the w. of the Ain forms an argilla- 
ceous plateau, abounding with marshes, which occasion epidemic fevers. This dep. con- 
tains five arrondissements. Bourg, Belley, Gex, Nantua, Trévoux. Area, 2280 sq. m. 
Pop. 96, 351,569. Chief t., Bourg. 


AINMULLER, Max. EMAN., to whom we owe the restoration of the art of painting on 
glass, was born at Munich, 1807. He began the study of architecture, but afterwards 
entered the royal porcelain manufactory as decorator ; and it was here that he first suc- 
ceeded in overcoming the technical difficulties in the execution of glass-painting. A 
separate institution was now established for the art; and A., as inspector, succeeded in 
raising it to a high degree of perfection. He is said to have first conceived the happy 
thought of laying colored glass on cclored, instead of the process hitherto followed, 
of laying colored glass on white ; thus giving the command of above 100 variously 
colored glasses, in all gradations of tint. He was also the first, in conjunction with 
Wehrstorfer, to execute pictures on glass, and thus revive the art of miniature glass- 
painting. Nor was it only technical improvements and inventions that he contributed 
to the new art ; his artistic culture qualified him powerfully to aid the regeneration of 
taste that has accompanied it. The first work of the new institution was the restoration 
of the windows of the cathedral of Ratisbon (1826-83), to which A. contributed the 
ornamentation, and painted several of the figures. He made a like contribution to the 
splendid windows of the church of Maria-Hilf (1883-88), in Munich. In the contribu- 
tion of king Ludwig of Bavaria to the cathedral of Cologne, and the numerous other 
windows executed at Munich for all parts of the world—England among the rest—A. 
displayed the highest artistic faculty in giving to the figures a rich setting of architec- 
tural ornamentation, in such a way as to harmonize with the style of the building.—A. also 
acquired a great reputation as an architectural painter in oil. Among his pieces are St. 
Mark’s church, in Venice ; the interior of St. Stephen’s church, Vienna ; the interior of 
Windsor chapel, of Westminster abbey, and the poets’ corner. Hed. Dec., 1870. 


AI'NOS, a race of men inhabiting Yezo, Saghalien, and the Kurile islands, number- 
ing about 50,000. They are of short stature, thick-set, with bushy black hair, beards, 
and eyebrows. Though living in Japanese territory, they approach the Caucasian type 
of humanity, having eyes set at right angles to the nose, and speak in a language having 
no affinity with the Japanese. They have attracted great attention through the many 
descriptions of them, often fanciful and exaggerated, by writers who call them thé 
‘Hairy Kuriles,” and as likely to furnish the long-desired evolutionary link between the 
hair-clad beast and smooth-skinned man. As matter of fact, their bodies are not, asa 
rule, more hairy than those of men of the Anglo-Saxon race. The A. are fetich-wor- 
shipers, and in disposition are mild and tractable. They have no written language, as 
closet-scholars and many encyclopedias assert. They are probably the aborigines of 
Japan. The mikado’s government is now civilizing them in schools and on farms, and 
American missionaries have entered among them. See The Mikado’s Empire, Reports 
of Horace Capron and his Assistants, Tokio, 1875; Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan ; 
and Sunday Magazine, N. Y., May, 1879, and Batchelor, in The Ainu of Japan (1892). 


AINSWORTH, Henry, 1571-1623 ; an English scholar and divine. Tradition says 
that he was a Roman Catholic, and his younger brother John a Protestant ; that the 
two entered into a written controversy, reciprocally converted each other, and each 
embraced the other’s religion. Henry was driven from England by proscription and 
lived in poverty in Amsterdam about 1598. There he became a doctor or teacher in the 
first church of the sect called Brownists. Though never forward, he was the most 
steadfast, resolute, and cultured champion of the principles of civil and religious free- 
dom represented by the nonconformists in Great Britain and America. While fighting 
for freedom from hicrarchal tyranny A. pursued his Hebrew studies, and for a long 
time biographers had two Henry A.’s, one the learned rabbinical student, the other the 
arch-heretic and leader of the Separatists; but the two were one man. His most 
notable work is A Defense of the Holy Scriptures; Worship and Ministry used in the Chris- 
tian Church separated from Anti-Christ, against the challenges, cavils, and contradictions 
of M. Smythe. He wrote notes on all the books of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and 
Solomon’s Song. There is a story, not probable, that he was poisoned by Jews. 


AINSWORTH, Rosert, the author of a once extensively used Latin dictionary, was 
b. at Woodvale, near Manchester, in 1660. He was educated at Bolton, and taught a 
school there for some time, but afterwards went to London, where he was engaged for 
many years in educational pursuits. In 1714 he commenced his dictionary (Latin- 
English and English-Latin), which, however, was not published until 1736. A. d. near 
London on the 4th of April, 1748. He wrote also some Latin poems, and a few 


Ai th. 
ae 180 


treatises on various subjects; but nothing keeps his memory alive except the dictionary, 
which itself is now fast passing away into oblivion. The labor expended on such a 
production was indeed highly honorable to the author, but the work has no claim to 
the character of an accurate or philosophical lexicon, and, in spite of the numerous 
emendations it has received, it remains essentially what it was at first, and has been 
superseded by better works. 


AINSWORTH, Witi1AM FRaAnctis, an English physician, geologist and traveler, a 
relation of the foregoing, was b. at Exeter, 1807. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, 
and, after receiving (1827) his medical diploma, he travelled in France, and prosecuted 
geological investigations in the Auvergne and Pyrenean mountains. Returning to 
Edinburgh in 1828, he conducted the publication of the Journal of Natural and Geo- 
graphical Science, and delivered lectures on geology. In 1835, he was attached as 
physician and geologist to the Euphrates expedition under col. Chesney, at the recom- 
mendation of co]. Sabine, and returned home in 1837 through Kurdistan, the Taurus 
and Asia Minor. In the following year he went again to Asia Minor, being sent with 
Rassam and Russell by the geographical society and the society for the diffusion of 
Christian knowledge. The objects were chiefly to explore the course of the Halys, and 
to visit the Christians in Kurdistan. On his return (1841) he published Researches in 
Assyria. He has published also The Claims of the Christian Aborigines in the Hast and 
Travels in the Track of the 10,000. He has edited Lares and Penates, or Cilicia and its 
Governors ; On an Indo-European Telegraph by the Valley of the Tigris, a project which 
the Turkish government has since carried out; All Round the World ; The Illustrated 
Universal Gazetteer, etc. He is a member of many foreign learned societies, and was 
one of the founders of the West London Hospital. 


AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON, a well-known writer of fiction, was b. Feb., 
1805, at Manchester, where his father was a solicitor. His creative fancy began early 
to show itself in ballads and tales, which appeared in the local newspapers, and in con- 
tributions to the London Magazine and other periodicals. Being destined to succeed his 
father, he entered a writer’s office ; but after a while he forsook law for literature, and 
at first began a publishing business in London, which, however, he soon gave up in 
disappointment. He had previously published his first novel, Sir John Chiverton (1826). 
After spending some time on the continent, he returned to England, and wrote Rook- 
wood (1834), which was favorably received. It was followed by Crichton (1837) and 
Jack Sheppard (1839). A. edited for a time Bentley's Miscellany, and in 1842 began his 
own Ainsworth’s Magazine. Ue published the Lancashire Witches in 1848; six years 
later appeared the Star Chamber ; in 1860 Ovingdean Grange ; the Lord Mayor of Lon- 
don was published in 1862, Cardinal Pole the following year, and John Law, the Pro- 
jector, in 1864. His more recent works are the Spanish Match, Constable de Bourbon, Old 
Court, Middleton Pomphret, Hilary St. Ives, Merrie England, and The Leaguer of Lathom 
(1876). Hed, 1882. 

AIN-TA'B, a t. of Syria, near the source of the Kowek; an affluent of the Euphrates, 
59 m. n.n.e. from Aleppo. It is tolerably well built : the houses are mostly of stone. 
It is well supplied with water, pure streams of which flow constantly through the 
streets. It has a castle built upon a mound, resting on rock, and of very striking 
appearance. The chief trade is in hides and leather ; but cotton, sheep’s and goats’ 
wool, wax, wheat and rice are also of commercial importance, being chief articles of 
produce in the surrounding district. A. is supposed by some to be the ancient Antiochia 
ad Taurum. Pop. 48,200. BON 

AIR, or ASBEN, a kingdom of c. Africa, extending from about 16° to 20° n. lat., 
and from 6° to 9° e. long. Agades (q. v.) is the capital, and residence of the sultan, 
but his power is ina large measure merely nominal. The country has various towns 
and villages and is within the French sphere of influence. It contains a mountain 
group ranging in elevation from 4000 to 5000 feet. The surrounding region is gener- 
ally dry, but on the mountains there is a considerable rainfall. Air includes a large 
tract of desert. The valleys are naturally rich but they are poorly cultivated. Al- 
though in the region of the tropics, the climate is temperate. The inhabitants are 
principally Tuaregs with an admixture of negro blood. The country is on the caravan 
route to Sokoto. Its chief products are doom-palm, senna and fruits. Pop. is estimated 
at 60,000. ; 

AIR is the name given to that compound of gases constituting the substance of our 
atmosphere. Formerly, all aériform fluids were called ‘‘ airs,” but in this sense the word 
gas is now used. The chief properties of air, and the phenomena they give rise to, will 
be found treated under Atmosphere, Aérodynamics, Aérostatics, Air-Pump, Barometer, 
Balloon, etc. 


AIR, in Music. See ARIA. 

AI’RAY, Henry, D.D., 1560-1616 ; a Puritan preacher, and provost of Queen’s col- 
lege, Oxford. When first a student he was poor, and did servile work in the college; ° 
but he rose in station, took orders, and became a frequent and zealous preaclr, a 


181 4 inewote 


thorough Calvinist and a fiery opponent of Romanism. In 1606 he was vice-chancel. 
lor of the university, and was also rector of Otmoor. He was a good specimen of the 
more cultured Puritans. 


AIR-BEDS and AIR-CUSHIONS, Air-beds were known as early as the beginning of 
the 18th c., but being made of leather, were expensive. It was only after the invention 
of air-tight or Macintosh cloth that it became possible to use air in this way at a 
moderate cost. An air-bed consists of a sack in the form of a mattress, divided into a 
number of compartments, each air-tight ; a projection at one end forms a bolster. Each 
compartment has a valve, through which the air is blown in by bellows. The advan- 
tages of such beds, in point of cleanness, coolness, lightness and elasticity are obvious. 
They-are specially valuable in many cases of sickness. The travelling-cushion is another 
contrivance of the same kind. Recently, vulcanized India-rubber, instead of cloth, has 
been used in the fabrication of such articles. The chief drawback to these contrivances 
is the liability to being spoiled by a rent or other injury. 


AIR-BLADDER, or SWIMMING-BLADDER, in fishes. An organ apparently intended to 
aid them in ascending in deep water, and for the accommodation of their specific gravity 
to various depths. It is made to serve this purpose by the increase or diminution of its 
volume, according to the degree of pressure exerted upon it by the ribs. Its place is in 
the abdomen, under the spine ; and it is very various in size and form in different kinds of 
fishes. It generally has an opening into the esophagus, or into the stomach, but appar- 
ently only for the ejection and not for the admission of air. In some fishes it has no 
opening. The air with which the A. is filled 
appears to be the result of secretion; and in fresh- 
water fishes consists in general almost entirely of 
nitrogen, but contains a larger.proportion of oxy- 
gen in sea-fishes, the oxygen in deep-sea fishes 

AW having been found to amount to 87 per cent. 

Air-bladder of carp: consisting of two The A. isin some fishes very small; in others, it 

arnt ai} peony ee eer ie is entirely wanting, particularly in fishes that are 

cesophagus, E. destined to live chiefly at the bottom of the water, 

as flat fishes, eels, etc.; but there are remarkable 

instances of its absence also in species of very different habits, such as the common 

mackerel, whilst it exists in other species of the same genus or family. The A. of 
fishes affords the finest kind of isinglass. 


AIR-CELLS, or Arr-Sacs, in birds, are remarkable cavities connected with the res. 
piratory system. They are distributed along the inside of the 
whole cavity of the chest and abdomen; and in birds of strong 
wing and rapid flight, often send prolongations into the bones. 
They are connected with the extremely active respiratory sys- 
tem, and communicate with the lungs, giving an immense 
extension to the surface with which the air inhaled comes in 
contact. 

The cells in the lungs of the mammalia into which the air 
is conveyed by minute ramifications of the windpipe, in 
order to be brought into contact with the blood distrib- 

: uted on their walls are very small; in man, 
only about one hundredth part of an inch in 
diameter.—Air-cells, or air-sacs, may be said 
to form the whole respiratory apparatus in 
some of the lower kinds of animals (see vee 
ANNELIDA), whilst in others higher in the scale _Lungs, etc., of ostrich: 
of organization, particularly in insects, air-%%% %% alr-cells; 0d. lungs; 
Air-tubes of insect. tubes arising from these ramify throughout the ’ “e, intestines.’ 

whole body. The air-tubes of insects are 
formed of a spiral fiber within a membranous coat, like the spiral vessels of plants, so 
that they possess great elasticity. See Brrps, RESPIRATION: GILLs. 


AIR-CELLS in plants are cavities containing air in the stems or leaves. The orifices 
of the intercellular passages are closed up, so as to prevent the juices of the plant from 
entering them. They are very variable in size, figure, and arrangement, but are formed 
according to a uniform rule in each particular species in which they are found. They 
are large and numerous in many aquatic plants, evidently serving the purpose of buoy- 
ing them up in the water. Besides A. of regular form, there are irregular cavities also 
called by the same name, which seem to be formed by the tearing of the cellular tissue 
in the rapid growth of the plant, as in grasses and umbelliferous plants. 


AIRD, Tuomas, a poet of considerable genius, b. at Bowden, in Roxburghshire, in 
1802. He received the rudiments of education at schools in his native county, from 
which he passed to the university of Edinburgh. While in the metropolis he made the 
friendship of many distinguished men, especially prof. John Wilson, who was accus-. 
tomed to speak of him in the highest terms. In 18385 he became editor of The Dumfries 
Herald, a new journal, started on conservative principles, an office which he filled till 


| | 
ms 


aie 182 


1864. His genius was of a purely literary character, and not calculated to be effective 
in the discussion of political questions. His works are not so well known as they 
deserve to be, from their intrinsic merit. In spite of very warm eulogy from some 
of the greatest names in popular criticism, and in spite of many elaborate and discrimi- 
nating reviews in various important magazines, they have failed to secure a large 
measure of public approbation. Zhe Devil’s Dream is perhaps an exception to the rest, 
for it is both well known and admired. Competent judges have asserted that there is 
something almost Dantesque in the stern, intense and sublime literalness of the concep- 
tion. Whether the scenes are colossal, as in The Devil’s Dream, or minute, as in The 
Summer’s Day, there is the same clear, vigorous and picturesque word-painting. Herein 
lies A.’s chief originality, for his thought and sentiment, though always pure and fine, 
are not strikingly novel. In 1827 he published Religious Characteristics, a piece of 
exalted prose-poetry ; in 1845, 7’he Old Bachelor, a volume of tales and sketches; in 1848, 
a collected edition of his poems—a second edition of which appeared in 1856; and in 
1852 he edited the select poems of David Macbeth Moir (the ‘‘ Delta” of Blackwood), 
prefixing a memoir for the benefit of Dr. Moir’s family. Without having fully realized 
the expectations to which his early works gave rise, A. died 25th April, 1876. See life 
and poems edited by J. Wallace (1878). 


AIRD’‘RIE, a flourishing town in Lanarkshire, 11 m. e. of Glasgow. The high-road 
between Edinburgh and Glasgow intersecting it forms its principal street. It has risen 
rapidly, and is now one of the most flourishing inland towns in Scotland. Little more than 
a century ago it consisted of a solitary farmhouse or two, but the abundance of iron and 
coal in the vicinity has given its progress an impetus like that of an American city (see 
GARTSHERRIE.) Pop. 91, municipal borough, 19,135. 


AIRE, or AIRE-SUR-L’ADOUR (anc. Vicus Julius), at. of the dep. of Landes, France, 
on the left bank of the Adour, 112 m. s. from Bordeaux. It is a bishop’s seat; and its 
cathedral, which has been often destroyed and rebuilt, is one of the most ancient in 
France, A. has been a place of consequence from the days of the Roman conquest of 
Gaul, and was the capital of the Visigoths under Alaric, but is now much decayed, and 
diminishing in population. It has hat manufactories and tanneries. Pop. about 3000. 


AIRE, or AIRE-SUR-LE-LYS, a town of the department of Pas-de-Calais, France, on 
the Lys, 30 miles southeast from Calais. The town is fortified and well built, but its 
situation is low and marshy. There are manufactures of woolen stuffs, linen yarn, 
thread, hats, starch, Dutch tiles and soap; also some trade in grain. Osier-work is 
carried on to some extent. Population about 5000. 


AIR-ENGINE. See CaLornic ENGINE. 


AIR-GUN, an instrument resembling a musket, used to discharge bullets or darts by 
the force of compressed air instead of gunpowder. It was known in France more than 
two centuries ago, but the ancients were acquainted with some kind of apparatus by 
which air was made to act upon the shorter arm-of a lever, while the longer arm 
impelied a bullet. Various forms of construction have been adopted, those most usually 
seen having a condensing syringe inserted in the stock of the gun. The piston of this 
syringe is worked by an apparatus which passes through to the exterior of the gun; 
and this working causes a small body of air to be condensed into a chamber. The 
chamber has a valve opening into the barre], just behind the place where the bullet is 
lodged. The gun is loaded from the muzzle, as with older patterns of muskets or fowl- 
ing pieces, and there is at that time behind it a small body of highly compressed air, 
ready to rush out at any opening. This opportunity is afforded by a movement of the 
trigger, which opens the valve ; the air rushes forth with sufficient impetuosity to pro- 
pel the bullet with considerable force. By a certain management of the trigger, two or 
three bullets successively and separately introduced can be fired off by one mass of con- 
densed air. 

Another form of air-gun contains several bullets in a receptacle or channel under the 
barrel, but by the movement of a cock or lever, one of these bullets can readily be 
shifted into the barrel, and thus several successive discharges can be made after one 
loading—on a principle somewhat analogous to that of a revolver. Some varieties of 
air-gun have the condensing syringe detached, by which means a more powerful con- 
densation of air may be produced ; this done, the air-chamber is replaced in its proper 
position behind the bullet in the barrel. Those air-guns which present the external 
appearance of walking-canes usually have a chamber within the handle for containing 
eondensed air. Double-barreled air-guns and guns having a combination of springs 
have also been introduced. One of the most successful guns now in use is the Quack- 
enbush, which propels both darts and bullets, and is extensively used by recruits when 
learning the principles of aiming and firing. Pulling the trigger releases a piston, 
which is thrown forward by a spring, expelling the air from the chamber through the 
barrel with great force, carrying the dart or bullet before it. To load the gun, the bar- 
rel is pushed into the cylinder, which resets the piston and allows the projectile to be 
inserted through the opening, after which the barrel is drawn forward until brought 
up byastop. The barrel is easily pushed into the chamber by placing the muzzle upon 
the floor or against some firm object. A magazine is attached to the latest model, 


| 


1 8 8 Airdrie. 


Air-Pump, 


which holds 20 F shot. It can be quickly filled and operated, and saves the inconve- 
nience and delay of handling the shot each time the gun is fired. Other patterns are 
capable of being used either as a rifle or a pistol, and, as a rule, they shoot well and 
strong, firing both darts and slugs. There are also combination air-guns which can be 
sexe eee or air-guns, and which can be used for firing both in the gallery 
and in the field. 


AIR-PLANTS. See EPIPHYTES, ORCHIDS. 


AIR-PUMP, an instrument for removing the air from a vessel. Pumps for this pur- 
pose are very old, but have never attained much prominence until very recently, when 
the exhausting of the air from incandescent lamp bulbs has given great impetus to 
improvements and inventions in this direction. These pumps may be divided for the 
purposes of this article into two classes, mechanical A’s and mercurial A’s. The 
mechanical A. was invented by Otto Guericke (q. v.) in 1664, and its essential 
part is a hollow brass or glass cylinder, in which an air-tight piston is made to 
move up and down by a rod. From the bottom of the cylinder a connecting tube 
leads to the space which is to be exhausted, which is usually formed by placing a bell- 
glass, called the receiver, with edges ground smooth and smeared with lard, on a flat, 
smooth plate or table. When the piston is at the bottom of the barrel, and is then 
drawn up, it lifts out the air from the barrel, and a portion of the air under the 
receiver, by its own expansive force, passes through the connecting tube and occupies 
the space below the piston, which would otherwise be avacuum. The air in the receiver 
and barrel is thus rarefied. The piston is now forced down, and the effect of this is to 
close a valve placed at the mouth of the connecting tube and opening inwards into the 
barrel. The air in the barrel is thus cut off from returning into the receiver, and, as it 
becomes condensed, forces up a valve in the piston, which opens outwards, and thus 
escapes into the atmosphere. When the piston reaches the bottom and begins to ascend 
again, this valve closes; and the same process is repeated as at the first ascent. Each 
stroke thus diminishes the quantity of air in the receiver; but from the nature of the 
process it is evident that the exhaustion can never be complete. Even theoretically, 
there must always be a portion left, though that portion may be rendered less than any 
assignable quantity; and practically the process is limited by the elastic force of. the 
remaining air being no longer sufficient to open the valves. The degree of rarefaction 
is indicated by a gzuge on the principle of the barometer. By means of the partial 
vacuum formed by the A., a great many interesting experiments can be performed, 
illustrating the effects of atmospheric pressure and other mechanical properties of gases. 
See illus., ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, Vol. I.; illus., TORPEDOES, ETC., vol. XIV. As 
this A. only withdraws the air at the rate of one cylinder full for a double stroke of the 
piston, pumps with two barrels are frequently used, in which case the pistons are each 
attached to the same handle but each moves in an opposite direction to the other, the 
object being to double the work done at each stroke of the handle. A large number of 
modifications of this type of pump have been invented, all of which are the same in 
general principles. There are several reasons why such pumps do not continue the 
process of rarefaction indefinitely, but at a certain stage their effects cease and the ten- 
sion of the air undergoes no further change. If the pump is not made very perfect the 
tension of the air will be considerable and even with the most perfect pump of this char- 
acter the tension is always sensible. Leakage at various joints in the pump is one limit- 
ing cause to the action of the machine. It is impossible to prevent leakage entirely, and 
at the beginning of the operation the quantity of air which enters the receiver through 
leakage is very small in comparison with the amount pumped out. But as the exhaustion 
proceeds the leakage is faster on account of the reduced pressure in the receiver, and 
finally a limiting point is reached when the inflow and outflow are equal and no reduc- 
tion in the tension of the air takes place. Another limit to the action of this machine 
is caused by the fact that there must always be some space between the bottom of the 
piston and the lower end of the cylinder, which is untraversed by the piston. At the 
beginning of the operation this space contains air at atmospheric pressure, which is 
rarefied at each stroke of the piston, but some tension always remains there, and when 
the air of the receiver reaches the same tension no further effect will be produced by 
the pump. Perhaps the most important trouble, however, with this type of A., as well 
as the most difficult one to remedy, is the absorption of air by the oil used for lubricat- 
ing the pistons. This oil finds its way in a greater or less quantity to the bottom of the 
cylinder, where its absorbed air is partially given up at the moment the piston begins to 
rise. This class of pumps is not good enough for the manufacturers of incandescent 
lamps, and recourse has been had to the mercurial A. by means of which such a degree 
of exhaustion can be obtained as to reduce the pressure of the gas to something immeas- 
urable. Mercurial A’s were known in the 17th century, when Torricelli showed how 
to produce a vacuum by filling a tube over 30 in. long, and closed at one end, with 
mercury, and then inverting the open end, while temporarily closed, into a vessel con- 
taining mercury. The mercury in the tube then descends to the barometric height 
above the level of the mercury in the lower cup, and a vacuum is left in the top of the 
tube over the column of mercury. This is always alluded to as a Torricellian vacuum, 
and is the same as that in the ordinary barometer. In 1855 Geissler invented a 
mercurial A. in which the vacuum is produced by communication of the receiver with 


Air- . 
Alcor 183 a 


the Torricellian vacuum. The original form of Geissler’s pump is shown in Fig. 1, 
which will serve to illustrate the principle of its operation. It has received numerous 
modifications and improvements within the last few years, which make it one of the 
most efficient pumps in use. In all mercury pumps the parts are made of glass, the 
connections being made'with rubber tubing. In Fig. 1, A is a large bulb, B is a tube 
about 3 feet long, C arubber tube fastening the lower end of B to the vessel D, which 
_is open on top. A can be connected with either of the tubes 
G or F but not with both at once, or it can be shut off from 
both. The receiver to be exhausted is connected with G, and 
F leads to the open air. Enough mercury is used to fill A, B, 
C and D, as shown, and the vessel D is capable of being raised 
or lowered. ‘The operation of the pump is as follows: — Suppose 
the vessel D is raised a little higher than A, as in the figure. The 
mercury will flow into the bulb A, which it fills if the cock E 
is turned so as to connect A with the outside air, F. The cock 
is then turned so as to connect A through the tube G with the 
vessel to be exhausted, the air in which at this stage is at 
atmospheric pressure. D is then lowered and the level of the 
mercury in A is lowered in consequence, the mercury running 
down B and C to D. As the mercury in A descends, air is 
drawn from the receiver through G into A so when the mercury 
has descended below A the whole space is filled with the air 
drawn through G, which, having expanded from the receiver 
attached to Gis at less than atmospheric pressure. The cock 
E, is then turned so as to cut off communication between A and 
G. D is then slowly raised, and the mercury flows gradually 
back into A, compressing the air above it until it is at atmos- 
Zz pheric pressure. At this point the cock E should be turned to 
Fie. 1. connect A with the outside air F, and as D continues rising 
the mercury continues to drive out all of the air at F, until the 
bulb A is filled with mercury to the cock E, which is then closed so as to cut off all 
communication with A. When D is again lowered, the mercury does not begin to fall 
in A until D is about 30 inches below A. It then begins to descend, leaving a Torri- 
eellian vacuum above it, and D is lowered until A is empty. ‘The cock is then turned 
so as to connect A with the receiver through G, and the remaining air in that vessel 
expands and fills A. The cock E is next turned off, D is raised, and the mercury 
rising in A compresses the air above it, until it is let out at F by turning the cock. 
By repeating this operation a sufficient number of times a vacuum is gradually produced 
in the receiver connected to G. When the operation is nearly finished, great care must 
be taken not to raise the vessel D too rapidly, or the impact of the mercury against the 
top of the bulb A will break the apparatus. It will also be seen that when the vacuum 
is nearly reached the mercury in A will be at the top of the bulb when D is about 
380 inches below. If the valve should be turned to F at this point, the inrush of air 
would drive the mercury down. Therefore, no communication between A and F must 
be made until D has been raised on a level with E, and no communication 
between Gand A must be made until D is lowered 30 inches again, other- 
wise mercury will run through G into the receiver being exhausted. 

The Geissler pump just described may be taken as the type of mercury 
pump which are classified as upward driving, and, while a number of 
improvements in details have been introduced making them of a more 
practical form for factory use, this type all operate on the principle of 
connecting the receiver to be exhausted with Torricellian vacuum. 

Sprengel brought out his well-known form of mereury pump in 1865, and 
Fig. 2 shows it in its simplest form. The Sprengel pump is a general type 
of what are classified as downward driving pumps. A is a funnel having a 
stop-cock C, and B is a tube of small bore called the shaft or fall-tube. 
The receiver to be exhausted is connected to the tube G, which branches off 
from near the top of the shaft. The tube B terminates very close to the 
bottom of the vessel D, which is provided with a spout F as shown leading 
to the cup E. The distance from the branch G to the top of the mercury 
in the vessel F must be at least 3 feet. A is filled with mercury which flows 
down theshaft B, the rate of flow being regulated by the cock C so that a 
very small stream is allowed to fall. This mercury in falling breaks up into 
short lengths, between which are small columns of air which flow in at the 
junction of G with the shaft B. The weight of the mercury forces these 
short columns of air down the shaft B to the mercury in D, from the surface 
of which they escape. The mercury as it runs into the cup E must be 
poured back into the funnel A. This operation continues until no more 
air is carried down with the mercury. When the vacuum is nearly com- 
pleted, the mercury in the fall-tube will fall with a sharp rattling noise, showing that 
there is not enough air carried down with it to act as a cushion. With all kinds of 
mercury pumps, however, it is necessary to continue the operation for a considerable 


1 83 b FUPE 


isne, 


time after the receiver is apparently exhausted. Even when no more air appears to 
be carried off by the pump the vacuum will improve as the operation continues. The 
reason for this is that the air sticks to the surface of the glass forming a sort of coat- 
ing which is swept off the surface by the pump, but very slowly. The simple form 
of Sprengel pump is better than the simple Geissler pump, but is not well suited to 
factory work on account of the slowness of its action. This drawback is overcome to 
a great extent by supplying the pump with a number of fall-tubes which act together 
as asingle one. For example, if six fall-tubes are used, the work of removing the most 
of the air is done in one-sixth of the time required by a single pump. After the greater 
part of the air is removed, however, the time taken to produce a good vacuum is not 
nearly so much reduced, and it is chiefly in the early part of the operation where the 
saving of time is effected. Another drawback to all mercury pumps is their liability to 
breakage even with the most careful usage. In the Sprengel pump, owing to the con- 
tinual hammering of the mercury, the fall-tubes are very often broken, even after only a 
very short usage. A method is in use with both of these forms of pumps which consists 
of exhausting into a partial vacuum instead of into the atmosphere. This is accomplished 
by inclosing the part of the apparatus where the air is expelled in a chamber which is 
kept at a partial vacuum by means of a mechanical air-pump. By this means the 
mercury pump will work against a pressure much less than the atmospheric pressure, 
and consequently the fall-tubes and the height to which the mercury must be raised 
can be very much reduced, while the air is much more readily drawn down and out of 
the fall-tubes. In factory work the raising of the mercury from the lower to the upper 
level of the pumps is done mechanically and not by hand as shown in the illustrations. 
It may be raised by a force-pump, or in small buckets on an endless chain, or by air 
pressure. The latter may be simply atmospheric pressure and the mercury is raised 
by being broken up into small lengths with air spaces between, like a Sprengel pump 
working upwards into a vacuum chamber. 

Mercury pumps are much superior to most mechanical pumps, but are by no means as 
perfect as could be desired, the greatest disadvantage being perhaps the slowness of 
operation. An efficient mechanical air-pump is greatly in demand, and several of these 
of novel design have been recently introduced, but up to the present time have not 
replaced the mercury pumps to any great extent. 


AIR’Y, GeorGE BIDDELL, SIR, F-.R.8., etc., astronomer royal, till his retirement in 
1881 ; b. Alnwick, 1801. Educated principally at Colchester, he entered, in 1819, the 
univ. of Cambridge ; in 1822 was elected scholar ; in 1823 took the degree of B.A., with 
the honor of senior wrangler; and in 1826 that of m.A. In the same year he was 
elevated to the chair of science founded by Lucas, which he rescued from the reproach 
of being a sinecure by delivering a course of public lectures on experimental philosophy. 
In 1828 he was made Plumian prof., and had the management of the newly erected 
Cambridge observatory intrusted to him. On account of his severe and unintermitting 
labors in connection with this office, his income was augmented from the funds of the 
university. He published his observations (Astronomical Observations: Cambridge, 
1829-38, 9 vols.), arranged in a clear and simple manner, and they have served as a 
model ever since for those of Greenwich and other observatories. In 1835, the office of 
astronomer royal becoming vacant, A. was appointed to it by lord Auckland, then first 
lord of the admiralty. Healsointroduced new or more perfect scientific instruments, 
more rapid methods of calculation, and researches in magnetism, meteorology, photog- 
raphy, etc. He contributed the well-known article on ‘‘Gravitation” to the Penny 
Cyclopedia (1837). Equally excellent and popular is his treatise on trigonometry, written 
for the Hncyclopedia Metropolitana (1855). He also deservedly obtained the reputation 
of being one of the most able and indefatigable of living savants, He served on the royal 
commission appointed in 1868 to inquire into.the standard weights and measures. In 
1869 he communicated to the royal astronomical society a remarkable discovery on 
‘** Atmospheric Chromatic Dispersion, as affecting Telescopic Observation and the mode 
of correcting it.’”’ He invented the present system of correcting by means of magnets 
the disturbance of-the compass in iron vessels. Among his numerous scientific writings 
are Ipswich Lectures on Astronomy (1851), Algebraical and Numerical Theory of Errors of 
Observations (1861), Undulatory Theory of Optics (1866), and Treatise on Magnetism (1871). 
He died Jan. 2, 1892. 


AISLE (from Lat. ala, a wing) means any lateral division of any part of a church, 
whether nave, choir, or transept. ‘The number of aisles varies in the churches of differ- 
ent countries. In England, there is only one on each side of the nave or choir; in most 
foreign countries there are generally two, and at Cologne there are even three. The 
continental edifices, it would seem, have antiquity in their favor for this arrangement 
(see BAsiLicA). The word is often incorrectly applied to the open space in the nave of 
churches between the seats of the congregation. 


AISNE, a tributary of the Oise, in France, rises in the department of Meuse, and flows 
n. w. through the departments of Marne and Ardennes, and then w. through that of Aisne 
and part of Oise, where it falls into the river Oise, above Compiégne. Its length is 280 
m., of which 75 are navigable. It is connected with the Meuse and Marne by canals. 


Aisne, 184 


Aix. 


AISNE, a department in the n. of France, formed of a part of ancient Picardy and the 
isle of France. It belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is intersected by the river A., 
and by other navigable streams and canals. The soil is fertile ; the chief culture is 
wheat and other grain. Its rich meadows supply Paris with hay. The area is 2868 
sq.m., with a pop. of (1896) 541,618. It is the seat of considerable cotton and other 
manufactures, the centre of which is St. Quentin (q.v.), and at St. Gobin is the famous 
manufactory of mirrors. The department is divided into 5 arrondissements and 37 
cantons. The chief town is Laon (q.v.). 


AITKIN, a co. in e. Minnesota, organized in 1878; intersected by the Mississippi 
river and by the Northern Pacific railroad ; 1900 sq.m.; pop. 790, 2462. The s.w. por- 
tion is occupied by part of the lake of Mille Lacs. Co. seat, Aitkin. 


Al'TON, WiL11AM, 1731-93 ; a Scotch botanist. He was trained as a gardener, and 
in 1754 became assistant to Philip Miller, superintendent of the garden at Chelsea. In 
1759 he was made director of the botanical garden at Kew, and held the place until his 
death. His skill and care were of great service to this important scientific establish- 
ment. In 1789 he published his Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants in the great 
garden, with plates. This was re-edited by his son and successor in office. 


AITZE’/MA, LIEUWE VAN, 1600-69, a Dutch author, whose History of the Netherlands 
from 1621 to 1668 is valuable for original documents. He was an active politician, and 
agent of the Hanse towns at the Hague. 


AIX, at. in France, formerly the capital of Provence, now the chief t. of an arron- 
dissement in the department of the Bouches-du-Rhoéne. It is believed to have been 
built by the Roman consul, C. Sextius (120 B.c.), on account of the mineral springs in 
the neighborhood, and thence called Aque Sextiz. A. is the seat of a court of appeals; 
and possesses an academy for theology and law, and a public library which reckons 
over 100,000 vols. and 1100 MSS. The baptistery of the cathedral is believed to have 
been originally a temple of Apollo. The numerous public fountains give a cheerful air 
to the place. One of them has a sculpture of the good king René, executed by David. 
There is also an old clock-tower, the machinery of which, when the clock strikes, sets 
various quaint-looking figures in motion. ‘The industry of this again flourishing town 
consists chiefly in the cultivation of the olive, in cotton-spinning, leather-dressing, and 
trade in oil, wine, almonds, etc. The warm springs are slightly sulphurous, with a 
temperature from 90° to 100° F., clear and transparent as the purest well-water, almost 
free from smell, yet with a slightly bitter taste. ‘They have the reputation of improving 
the beauty of the skin, and are on this account especially frequented by the fair sex. 
The field on which Marius defeated the Teutones lies in the plain between A. and Arles, 
In the middle ages, under the counts of Provence (see RENE), A. was long the literary 
capital of southern Europe. The pop. of A. in ’91 was 22,924. 


AIX, or AIX-LES-BAINS, a small town of Savoie, France, in a delightful valley near 
lake Bourget, 7m. n. from Chambery. It was a much frequented bathing-place in the 
times of the Roman empire, and among its numerous remains of ancient times are the 
arch of Campanus, the ruins of a temple and of a vaporarium. The hot springs, two in 
number, are of sulphurous quality, and of a temperature above 100° F. They are used 
both a drinking and as baths, and attract annually a large number of visitors. Pop. 
about 4000. 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE’ (Ger. Aachen) is the capital of a district in Rhenish Prussia. It 
is situated in a fertile hollow, surrounded by heights, and watered by the Wurm; pop- 
ulation of commune, 1895, 110,489, of whom a very small proportion are Protes- 
tants. A.is the center of numerous thriving manufactories, especially for spinning and 
weaving woolen fabrics, and for needle and pin-making. There are also immense manu- 
factures of machinery, bells, glass buttons, chemicals, cigars, etc. As a principal sta- 
tion on the Belgian-Rhenish railways, A. is an important staple place of Prussian trade. 
The city ic rich in historical associations. It emerges from historical obscurity about 
the time of Pepin, and Charlemagne founded its world-wide celebrity. Whether it was 
the birthplace of Charlemagne is doubtful, but it became his grave 814 a.p. In 796 
A.D., Charlemagne caused the already existing palace, called the imperial palace, to be 
entirely rebuilt, as well as the chapel, in which Pepin had celebrated Christmas in 765 
A.D. The two buildings were connected by a colonnade, which fell into ruins a short 
time before the emperor’s death, probably from the effects of an earthquake. The pres- 
ent town-house has been built on the ruins of the palace; the chapel, after being destroyed 
by the Normans, was rebuilt on the ancient plan by Otho IIL., in 983, and forms the 
nucleus of the present cathedral. This ancient cathedral isin the form of an octagon, 
which forms, on the outside, a sixteen-sided figure. See illustration, Domxs, vol. V- 
figs. 7, 8. In the middle of the octagon, a stone, with the inscrir tion ‘‘ CAROLO Maeno,” 
marks the grave of Charlemagne. Otto III. opened the vault ir the year 997 A.D. The 
body of the emperor was found in a wonderful state of preservation, seated upon a marble 
chair, dressed in his robes, his scepter in his hand, the gospel on his knee, a piece of the 
holy cross on his head, and a pilgrim’s_scrip attached to his girdle. Otto caused the tomb 
to be built up again, after repairing the injuries of the arch. In 1165 a.p., when the 
emperor Frederick I. caused the vault to be re-opened, the bones of the great emperor 


7 
-< 


185 Aix”. 
were enshrined in a casket of gold and silver, and a large and beautifully wrought chan- 
delier was hung up over the tomb asa memorial. In 1215 a.p., Frederick II. caused 
the remains of the emperor to be inclosed in a costly chest, in which they are yet kept 
in the sacristy. The marble chair was, in later times, overlaid with gold plates, and used 
till 1558 a.p. at the imperial coronations, as a throne for the newly crowned emperor. 
The imperial insignia were removed to Vienna in 1795.—In the 14th c., a choir in the 
Gothic style was added to the east side of the octagon, which had been built in the 
Byzantine style; while on the west side a square belfry was joined to it, as well as two 
small round towers, with winding stairs leading to the treasury. Here are kept the 
so-called ‘‘great relics,’ which, once in seven years, are still shown to the people, in 
the month of July, from the gallery of the tower. This spectacle attracts many thousands 
of strangers to A. Much has of late years been done to restore this venerable pile. 
The columns brought by Charlemagne from the palace of the Exarch at Ravenna, to 
decorate the interior of the octagon, had been carried off by the French; and although 
part of them had been restored at the peace of Paris, they were not replaced in the build- 
ing till recently. 

The town-house—which incloses the remains of the imperial palace—adorns the mar- 
ket-place, having the bell or market tower on the left, and on the right the Granus tower, 
a memorial of old Roman times. The coronation hall, 162 ft. long, by 60 ft. wide, in the inter- 
ior of the town-house, was, in the last century, divided in the middle by a wooden parti- 
tion. This noble hall, in which thirty-five German emperors and eleven empresses have 
been crowned, has been restored to its original form, and the walls have been deco- 
rated with large fresco-paintings of scenes from the life of Charlemagne, by Rethel. 
Before the town-house stands a beautiful fountain, with a bronze statue of Charlemagne. 
In the church of the Franciscans are to be seen a fine picture of the taking down of 
Christ from the cross, by Vandyck, and two other pictures representing the crucifixion, by 
A. Diepenbeeck. At a short distance from A., and surrounded by the river, stands 
Frankenburg, once the favorite residence of Charlemagne and of Fastrada, and still rich 
in legends. It has been rebuilt from its romantic ruins. Asat. A. has recently been 
much improved. It now possesses many fine buildings, among which are several large 
and splendid hotels. From being a quiet old city of historical interest, it has become a 
busy center of manufacturing industry. In 1870, a new polytechnic school was erected. 
A. was formerly noted for its gambling-tables; but these are now disallowed. 

The name of Aix or Aachen is evidently derived from the springs, for which the 
place has been always famous (see AA.). The name Aquis Granum, which it received 
about the 3d c., may possibly be derived from Granus, one of the names of Apollo, who 
was worshiped by the Romans near springs. The French name, A., refers to the chapel 
of the palace. Charlemagne granted extraordinary privileges to this city. The citizens 
were exempted, in all parts of the empire, from personal and military service, from 
imprisonment, and from all taxes. The city also possessed the right of sanctuary: ‘‘ the 
air of A. made all free, even outlaws.” In the middle ages this free imperial city (then 
included in the circle of Westphalia) contained more than 100,000 inhabitants, and held 
an important place among the confederated cities of the Rhine. The emperors were 
crowned in A. from Louis the Pious to Ferdinand I. (813-1531 a.p.); 17 imperial diets 
and 11 provincial councils were held within its walls. The removal of the coronations 
to Frankfort, the religious contests of the 16th and 17th c., a great fire which in 1656 
A.D. consumed about 4000 houses in the city, combined with other causes to bring into 
decay this once flourishing community. In Jan., 1793, and again in 1794, A. was occupied 
by the French. By the treaties concluded at Campo Formio and Luneville, it was for- 
mally ceded to France, and became the capital of the department of Roer; at length, in 
reer the city fell to Prussia. See Quix, Geschichte der Stadt A. (History of A.), 2 vols., 

., 1841. 

The MINERAL Sprines of A., of which six are hot, and two cold, were known in the 
time of Charlemagne, and were much frequented as early as 1170. The hot springs are 
strongly sulphurous, and contain also hydrochlorates. The temperature varies from 111° 
to 186° F. They chiefly act on the liver and on the mucous surfaces and skin, and are 
therefore efficacious in cases of gout, rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, etc. The most 
remarkable is the ‘‘ emperor’s spring,” which rises in the middle of the Hotel Kaiserbad, 


‘The baths themselves are from 4 to 5 ft. deep, and are built quite in the old Roman style. 


The cold springs are chalybeate and not so copious. The new ‘‘ Hisenquelle” (iron 
spring), first discovered in 1829, is provided with an elegant bath-house. The well- 
proved medicinal virtues of the mineral springs of A. bring yearly to the city many 
thousands of strangers. 

TREATIES OF PEACE, and ConerEss oF A.—The first peace of A. ended the war car- 
ried on between France and Spain for the possession of the Spanish Netherlands. On 
the death of Philip IV., Louis XIV. laid claim to a large portion of those territories in 
the name of his wife, Maria Theresa, the daughter of Philip, urging the law of succession 
prevailing in Brabant and Namur respecting private property. The victorious progres, 
of Louis was checked by the triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, and 
a treaty of peace was concluded at A. in 1668, by which France retained possession of 
the fortresses of Charlerois, Lille, etc., which she had already taken. 

The second peace of A. concluded the war respecting the succession of Maria Theresa 


i i. 
Akbarpar. 186 


to the empire. See Succession, Wars oF. After the war had been carried on with vari- 
ous success for eight years, peace was concluded in 1748. In general the possessions 
of the several states remained as before the war. Austria ceded Parma and Pla- 
centia to the Spanish infanta, Philip; and the possession of Silesia was guaranteed to 
Prussia. The privilege of the Assiento treaty (q.v.) was anew confirmed tv England for 
four years, and the pretender was expelled from France. Owing chiefly to the exertions 
of her minister, Kaunitz, Austria came off with but small sacrifice, while England, not- 
withstanding her splendid victories, derivec iittle solid advantage, and was left with a 
debt raised to 80 millions. 

The congress of A. was held in 1818, for regulating the affairs of Europe after the 
war. It began on the 380th Sept. and ended on the 2lst Nov. Its principal object was 
the withdrawal from France of the army of occupation, 150,000 strong as well as the 
receiving of France again into the alliance of the great powers. The emperors of Russia 
and Austria and the king of Prussia were personally present. The plenipotentiaries 
were Metternich, Castlereagh, and Wellington, Hardenberg and Bernstorff, Nesselrode, 
and Capo d’Istrias, with Richelieu on the part of France. France having engaged to 
complete the payment of the stipulated sums of money, was admitted to take part in the 
deliberations, and the five great powers assembled signed a protocol announcing a policy 
known as that of the ‘‘ holy alliance” (q.v.). 


AIZA'NI, or AZANI, a city in Phrygia, mentioned by Strabo. In 1824 its remains 
were found by the earl of Ashburnham about 30 m. s.w. of Kutaieh. There was a temple 
of Jupiter, a theater, a stadium, and gymnasium; the theater is in good preservation—its 
long diameter 185 ft.; it had 15 rows of marble seats. The Rhyndacus (now Adranus) 
rises near the site of A. and passes through it; it was crossed by two white marble bridges, 
each of five semicircular arches. Tombs, Roman coins, and inscriptions have been found. 


AJAC CIO, the chief t. of the island of Corsica, which forms a department of 
France. Pop. in 91, 20,197. The chief employments are the anchovy and pearl 
fisheries, and the trade in wine and olive-oil, which the neighborhood produces in 
abundance, and of good quality. The harbor is protected by a strong fort. A. 
is remarkable as the birthplace of Napoleon; the house is still to be seen. 


AJ’ALON, a town in ancient Palestine, 14m. n.w. of Jerusalem, in the tribe of Dan, 
also spoken of as belonging to Ephraim, Benjamin, and Judah. It is noticeable only as 
the recorded place where Joshua commanded the moon to stay its course till he had 
finished his battle. The modern town is Yalo. 


AJAN’, a portion of the e. coast of Africa, extending from Cape Guardafui nearly 
to the equator. 


A’JAX was the name of two of the Greek heroes of the Trojan war. One of them was 
called A. the less, or the Locrian, being the son of Oileus, king of the Locrians. At the 
head of 40 Locrian ships he sailed against ‘Troy, and was one of the bravest of the Greek 
heroes; in swiftness of foot he excelled all except Achilles. When Cassandra fled to the 
temple of Minerva, after the taking of Troy, it is said that A. tore her from it by force, 
and dragged her away captive. Others make him even violate the prophetess in the 
temple. Though he exculpated himself by an oath when accused of this crime by 
Ulysses, yet he did not escape the vengeance of the goddess, who caused him to be 
engulfed in the waves. 

The other A., called by the Greeks the greater, was the son of Telamon, king 
of Salamis, and, by his mother’s side, a grandson of AZacus. He sailed against Troy with 
12 ships, and is represented by Homer as, next to Achilles, the bravest and handsomest 
of the Greeks. After the death of Achilles, A. and Ulysses contended for the arms of 
the hero, and the prize was adjudged to Ulysses, which threw A. into such a state of rage 
and despair that he killed himself with his sword. This melancholy fate of the hero is 
the subject of one of the extant tragedies of Sophocles. 


AJEHO’, or AsHEHOH, also called ALCHUKU, a city of Manchuria in the Chinese 
empire; 380 m. s. of the Soongaree and 125 m.n. of Kirin. A. is ina fertile region, 
abounding in grain. The people of the district are exclusively Chinese immigrants, who 
get the soil at a nominal price on agreeing to reclaim and cultivate it. Pop, about 
40,000, of whom a considerable number are Mohammedans. 


AJMEER, one of the districts of Hindostan, directly under the government of India, 
lying between lat. 25° 43’ and 26° 42, long. 74° 22' and 75° 33’. Its length from s.e. ton.w. 
is about 80 m.; breadth, 50; area, 2,661 sq.m. The surface of the country towards the 
s.e. is generally level. In the n.,n.w., and w. it is broken by mountains and hills belong- 
ing to the Aravulli range. The mountain of Taragurh, above the city of Ajmeer, contains 
carbonate of lead, manganese, copper, and abundance of iron ore. ‘The general elevation 
of the plain of A. is about 2000 ft., and the frosts in winter are sometimes severe. Strong 
breezes are prevalent, and the climate on the whole is healthy. The scarcity of water, 
however, often occasions great distress. The only permanent stream is the Koree, the 
water of which is so impregnated with mineral salts as to be unfit for alimentary use 
except during the rains. To compensate for this deficiency, water-tanks are numerous. 
The staple crop is bajra (holcus spicatus). Sheep are reared in great numbers, and wool 
is cheap, affording the material of their clothing to the lower orders. Among the more 


18 ri Aizani. 
Akbarpur. 


prevalent diseases are small-pox and ophthalmia. The population in 1891 was 
642,358, of whom four-fifths were Hindoos, The principal race is the Rajpoots. 
The present limits of this district by no means correspond to its former import- 
ance. In the 12th c., at the time of the Mussulman invasion, the sultan of A. 
and Delhi was the most powerful monarch of India. Under Akbar also, who 
acquired this territory in 1559, A. was a large and important province. It after- 
wards fell into the hands of the Mahrattas, from whom it was wrested by the British 
in 1817. 


AJMEER, an ancient city of Hindostan, the capital of the British district of the same 
name, 228 m. w. from Agra. It is situated in a picturesque and rocky valley, at the 
foot of the mountain of Taragurh, whichis crowned by a fort. The city is surrounded 
by a stone wall, with five lofty and handsome gateways on the w. and n. Most of the 
streets are narrow and dirty, but some of them are spacious, and contain many fine 
residences, besides several mosques and temples of very massive architecture. The 
Daulat Bagh or ‘‘ garden of splendor ”’ is now the residence of the British commissioner 
of the district. A. is the seat of the British political agency, Ajmeer college and Mayo 
college. The tomb of the Mussulman saint, Kwajah, within the town, is held in great 
veneration, and pilgrimages are made to it even by Hindoos. The emperor Abkar 
journeyed to it from Agra on foot in 1570, in fulfillment of a vow after the visit 
of his son Jehanghir. In October, a great annual fair is held in honor of the saint, 
at which ridiculous miracles are pretended to be, wrought. The pop. of A. in ’91 was 
68,843. 

AJURNO’CA, town of the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil, 100 m. n. e. from Rio de 
Janeiro. -It is situated in a fertile country, at the northern base of the Sierra Man- 
tiqueira, on the river Ajuruoca, one of the head-waters of the Parana. The surround- 
ing district once yielded much gold, which has apparently been exhausted: but it 
produces excellent crops of tobacco, millet, mandioc, sugar, and coffee. Swine are 
reared for the market of Rio de Janeiro. Population about 17,000. 


AK’ABAH, a village near the gulf of A., onthe e. arm of the Red sea, supposed to 
occupy the site of the Elath of Scripture. Ruins in the sea a short distance to thes. still 
bear the name Ezion-geber. In remote ages A. enjoyed a large trade. 


AK’ABAH, Gurr oF, the Sinus #laniticus of antiquity ; the eastern of the two 
divisions of the n. end of the Red sea, running into Arabia Petra about 100 m. n.ne., 
with a width of 12 to 17 m. Navigation is difficult on account of reefs and sudden 
squalls. The only good harbor is Golden Port, on the w. shore, 33 m. from the entrance 
and 29 m. e. of Mt. Sinai. 


AK’BAR (i.e., ‘“‘very great”), properly JELAL-ED-DIN-MOHAMMED, emperor of 
Hindustan, the greatest Asiatic monarch of modern times. His father, Humayun, was 
deprived of the throne by usurpers, and had to retire for refuge into Persia; and it was on 
the way thither, in the town of Amerkote, that A. was b., in 1542 a.p. Humayun 
recovered the throne of Delhi after an exile of 12 years; but d. withina year. The young 
prince at first committed the administration to a regent-minister; but finding his authority 
degenerating into tyranny, he, by a bold stroke, shook it off, and took the power into his 
own hands (1558). At this time, only a few of the many provinces once subdued by the 
Mongol invaders were actually subject to the throne of Delhi; in 10 or 12 years, A.’s 
empire embraced the whole of Hindostan s. of the Deccan; but although great in 
subduing, A. was yet greater in ruling. The wisdom, vigor, and humanity with which 
he organized and administered his vast dominions, are unexampled in the e. He 
promoted commerce by constructing roads, establishing a uniform system of weights and 
measures, and a vigorous police. He exercised the utmost vigilance over his viceroys of 
provinces and other officers, to see that no extortion was practiced, and that justice was 
impartially administered to all classes of his subjects. For the adjustment of taxation, 
the lands were accurately measured, and the statistics taken, not only of the pop., but of 
the resources of each province. For a Mohammedan, the tolerance with which he treated 
other religions was wonderful. He was fond of inquiries as to religious beliefs; and 
Portuguese missionaries from Goa were sent at his request to give him an account of the 
Christian faith. He even attempted to promulgate a new religion of his own, which, 
however, never took root. Literature received the greatest encouragement. Schools were 
established for the education both of Hindoos and Mohammedans; and numbers of Hindoo 
works were translated from Sanscrit into Persian. Abu-]-Fazl, the able minister of A., 
has left a valuable history of his master’s reign, entitled A.-nwmeh (history of <A.); 
the third volume, containing a description of A.’s empire, derived from the statistical 
inquiries above mentioned, and entitled <Ayin-?-Akbari (institutes of A.), has been 
translated into English by Gladwin (3 vols., Calcutta, 1786; and London, 1800). <A.’s 
latter days were embittered by the death of two of his sons from dissipation, and the 
rebellious conduct of the third, Selim (known as Jehanghir), who succeeded his father at 
his death in 1605. 


AKBARPUR’, a town in the northwestern provinces of British India, 80 miles 
northeast of Allahabad and 25 miles east southeast of Faizabad. Population about 
7400. 


aheat 188 


AKEE' (Cupania or blighia sapida), a fruit-tree belonging to the natural order sapindacee 
(q.v.), a native of Guinea, introduced into Jamaica in the end of last century. It grows 
to the height of 20 to 25 ft. or upwards, with numerous branches and alternate pinnate 
leaves, resembling those of the ash. The flowers .are small, white, on axillary racemes; 
the fruit is about the size of a goose’s egg, with three cells and three seeds, and its 
succulent aril has a grateful subacid flavor. The fruit is little inferior to a nectarine. 
Boiled down with sugar and cinnamon it is used as a remedy for diarrhea. The distilled 
water of the flowers is used by negro women as a cosmetic. The A. sometimes produces 
fruit in stoves in Britain. In order to obtain this, the roots should be cramped in pots. 
—The Axi of New Zealand is a totally different plant, metrosideros buaifolia, of the 
natural order myrtacee, a shrub, which sends out lateral roots, and so attains the summits 
of the loftiest trees. 


A KEMPIS, THomas. See Kempis, Tuomas: A. 


A'KENSIDE, Mark, an author of considerable celebrity, in his own day, on account 
of his didactic poem, The Pleasures of the Imagination, and some medical works. He 
was b. Nov. 9, 1721, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where his father was a butcher. Being 
intended for the Presbyterian church, he was sent to study theology at Edinburgh, but 
soon abandoned it for that of medicine. He graduated as a physician at Leyden in 
1744, and practiced at Northampton, then at Hampstead, and finally in London. His 
success as a practicing physician was never very great, owing, it is said, to his haughty 
and pedantic manner. He d. in London (June 28, 1770), soon after being appointed one 
of the physicians to the queen. At Leyden he had formed an intimacy with Jeremiah 
Dyson, and this rich and generous friend allowed him £300 a year. Some of his medical 
treatises, as those on the lymphatic vessels and on dysentery, possess considerable merit. 
His later poetry, consisting chiefly of odes and hymns, did not attain the same reputation 
as his Pleasures of the Imagination, which was written in his twenty-third year, and to 
which is owing whatever celebrity has attached to his name. Dyson published his 
poetic works in 1772, and another edition appeared in 1807. In Peregrine Pickle, 
Smollett has satirically sketched the character of A. under that of the pedant who 
undertakes to give an entertainment after the manner of the ancients. A. has little 
originality of conception, or even of expression; the reader is carried along for a time 
by the evident enthusiasm of the poet, and rapid and stately march of lofty images and 
ideas; but, as it has been well expressed, ‘‘all is operose, cumbrous, and cloudy, with 
abundance of gay coloring and well-sounding words, but filling the eye oftener than the 
imagination, and the ear oftener than either.” A. became dissatisfied with his juvenile 
production, and at his death had written a portion of a new poem on the same subject. 
Both poems were published in the complete edition of his works, Lond., 1778. His 
life has been written by Bucke: Life, Writings, and Genius of A. (8vo, Lond., 1882). 


A’/KERBLAD, Jan Davin, 1760-1819; a Swedish archeologist, learned in Runic, 
Coptic, ancient Egyptian and Pheenician literature. He was secretary of the Swedish 
embassy to Constantinople, whence he went to Jerusalem and the Troad in 1792-97. 
He was also ambassador at Paris. His last years were spent in Rome, where he was 
sustained by a pension from the duchess of Devonshire. 


AKERS, BENJAMIN PAUL, 1825-61. An American sculptor. He began life as a 
printer, but in 1849 opened a studio in Portland, Me., and made busts of Longfellow 
and others. In 1851-52 he went to Italy, and on his return made a statue of ‘‘ Benjamin 
in Egypt,’”’ which was exhibited in the New York Crystal Palace in 1853. He went to 
Rome in 1855, remaining three years, producing ‘‘Una and the Lion,” a statue of ‘St. 
Elizabeth of Hungary,” the ‘‘ Dead Pearl Diver,” and an ideal head of Milton, which last 
two are described in Hawthorne’s Marble Faun. 


AKETON, another name for a portion of armor used in the feudal times called the 
gambeson, consisting of a wadded doublet generally worn under the hauberk (q.v.). 


AKHALZIKH’, or Axiska, at. of Russian Armenia, 90 m. w. from Tiflis, on the left 
bank of the Dalka, an affluent of the Kur. It is situated in a valley of the Keldir 
mountains, and at such an elevation above the sea that the winter is severe, although the 
summer is very hot. A. was anciently called Keldir or Chaldir. It is without walls, but 
has a strong citadel, built on a rock. The mosque of Sultan Ahmed, built on the model 
of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, has a library attached to it which was accounted one of 
the most valuable in the east, but the Russians, after acquiring possession of A., carried 
off great part of its most valuable treasures to St. Petersburg. Some manufactures are 
carried on in the town, and it maintains an active trade with various places on the 
Black sea. It is the seat of an archbishopric of the Greek church. Pop. abt. 15,000, 
two-thirds of whom are Armenians, 


AK-HISSAR! (anc. Thyatira), a town of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, 52 m. n.e. from 
Smyrna, on somewhat elevated ground in the valley of the Hyllus. The streets are 
paved with carved stone, and other relics of antiquity abound; but there are no ruins of 
ancient buildings. Cotton goods are exported. Pop. estimated at 12,000, of whom two- 
thirds are Turks and the remainder mostly Greeks. 


189 AKAD 


AKHLAT’, or ArpIsH, a t. of Asiatic Turkey, on the north shore of lake Van, and 95 
miles from Erzerum. It is surrounded by a double wall and moat, and further pro- 
tected by towers and a citadel. Pop. estimated at 2000. The old city of A., at a little 
distance from the present town, in a ravine, was the residence of the kings of Armenia, 
and was the scene of many conflicts between the Greeks, Armenians, and Persians. It 
was taken and devastated in 1228 by Jelal-ud-deen, and completely destroyed by an earth- 
quake in 1246. It is the seat of an Armenian bishop. 


AKHOOND OF SWAT, Tur, a Mohammedan saint (d. 1878), who exercised great 
influence and had almost unquestioned authority over Mohammedans in the east,reigning 
supreme as the guide and director of the hearts of men all over high Asia. His residence 
was the resort of pilgrims, who came as many as 800 in a day, from Bengal, Bokhara, 
Constantinople, Persia, Tunis, and even Mecca, to consult him on questions of every 
kind. Forhalfa century the English E. India government was assiduously watching this 
man, who possessed a power which no other person in Asia could pretend to wield; but 
the A. generally kept on friendly terms with the English. In 1877, the Ameer of 
Afghanistan sought his advice in regard to the proper course in the Russo-Turkish war. 


AKHTY’RKA, a t. of European Russia, in the government of Kharkov, and 58 m. 
n.w. from Kharkov. It is situated on a small river of the same name, an affluent of the 
Dnieper. It was founded by the Poles in 1641. It has manufactures of light textile 
fabrics, and a great annual fair. The neighborhood is very fertile. Pop. about 26,000. 


AK’IBA, BEN JosEPH, a famous rabbi and teacher of a large school at Jaffa in the 
ist or 2d c., said to have had at one time 24,000 pupils. He was in the great Jewish 
revolt against Rome, taking the side of Bar-Cochba, or Bar-Cochebas, the pretended 
Messiah, and acted as his sword-bearer. He was taken prisoner by the Romans, and it 
is said that he was flayed alive, but bore his pains with wonderful fortitude. He is 
reported to have been 120 years old at death. Jews were long accustomed to visit his 
tomb, and his is one of the names of ten martyrs still found in a Hebrew penitential 
prayer. The traditions concerning him are numerous; and many unfounded statements 
have been made, one of which even identifies him with Bar-Cochba. 


AK'JERMANN, or AKKERMANN, a t. of Russia, in Bessarabia, on the Black sea, at 
the mouth of the Dniester, with a citadel and harbor; pop. about 46,000. It is the Alba 
Julia of the Romans, and called, by the Poles, Bialogrod, which, as well as A., signifies 
the white town. Itis of some importance on account of its harbor, fortifications, com- 
merce, and especially its extensive salt-pits. 

The treaty (supplementary of that of Bucharest, 1812) concluded at A. in 1826, 
between Russia and Turkey, secured to Russia the free navigation of the Black sea, and 
indemnification for losses sustained by her subjects from the Barbary corsairs; the insti- 
tution of divans in Moldavia and Wallachia, and the power of re-electing the hospodars 
after their term of office; and the restoration of the privileges of Servia, in which Turkish 
troops were only to retain possession of the fortresses. 'The boundaries in Asia were to 
remain as they then stood; Russia consequently retaining the Turkish fortresses of which 
she had gained possesion. The non-fulfillment of this treaty on the part of the Porte 
occasioned the war of 1828, which was terminated by the peace of Adrianople. 


AKKAD. See Accap. 

AKMOU‘INSK, a province of Siberia, organized 1868. It is composed of five districts, 
of which the principal towns are Omsk, Akmolinsk, Atbasar, Kokchetav and Petropav- 
lovsk. Agriculture, cattle-raising, and tobacco-growing are carried on, and gold, 
silver, iron, and copper are found in the mountains. Population, 1890, 500,180. 


AKO’LA, a t. in India, on the Nagpur extension of the great Indian Peninsular 
railway, in 20° 6’ n. and 76° 2’ e.; pop. abt. 15,000. There are in the t. some rich mer- 
chants, and two markets are held each week. Besides the ordinary public buildings 
there is one English church. A. is the headquarters of the district of the same name. 


‘AKRON, city, capital of Summit county, Ohio, on the highest point of land in that 
region. It is thirty-five miles south of Cleveland on the Ohio and Erie Canal, Baltimore 
and Ohio and other railways, contains several parks, a city hospital, public library, 
Buchtel Colleze, and excellent public schools. It has (1897) 132 industrial establishments, 
including a great variety of manufactures, among which may be mentioned printing 
and lithographing, iron, steel, sewer pipes, rubber, matches, foundry products, pottery, 
linoleum, paper, boilers, agricultural implements, electrical manufactures, tiles, and 
lumber. Electrical railways connect the city with Kent, Cuyahoga Falls, Northfield, 
Bedford, and Cleveland. It is lighted by electricity, derives its water supply from springs, 
has good banking facilities, many churches, and several newspapers. Pop. 1890, 27,601. 


AK-SHE’HR (white city, anc. Philomelion), a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of 
Karaman, five m. s. of the salt lake of Ak-shehr, at the entrance of an extensive mountain 
valley. The houses rise in successive terraces on the slope of a hill. There is here a 
celebrated carpet manufactory. Pop. about 15,000. 

AK-SU’, a t. of eastern Turkestan, 260 m.n.e. from Yarkand, on an affluent of the 
Tarim, and on the southern base of the Thian-shan mountains. It was formerly the 
residence of the kings of Kashgar and Yarkand. While eastern Turkestan formed part 
of the Chinese empire it was an important garrison t. In 1867 it was captured by the 
Atalik-Ghazee. In 1716 it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, and in the beginning 
of the present century suffered terribly from an inundation. It is celebrated for its manu- 


Akyab. 
Alabama. 190 


factures of cotton cloth and saddlery. It is much resorted to by caravans as an entrepdt 
of commerce between Russia, Tartary, and China. The pop. of A. is variously estimated 
from 6000 to 20,000 and upwards. Sheep and cattle are extensively reared in the 
neighborhood. See TURKESTAN, EASTERN. 


AKYAB’,a t. of Further India, the chief sea-port of the district of A. or Aracan proper, 
and the capital of the province of Aracan. It was formerly called Twet-twe, and some- 
times still receives that name. It is situated on the eastern side of the island of A., at 
the mouth of the Kuladyne or Coladyne. The houses are well built, the streets broad 
and regular. The t. is rapidly rising in commercial importance. Light-houses have been 
erected for the benefit of the harbor. Pop. 1891, 38,000. ; 


AL, In, or Un, the only article in the Arabic language. When before a lingual or 
dental the sound of the / is dropped, the following letter taking a double force, as ‘‘ II 
shams” (the sun), pronounced ‘‘ish shams.’’ When the word preceding the article 
ends with a long vowel, the ain A. is dropped, and the 7 joined to the vowel sound : 
Example, ‘‘ Abu il Feda,”’ pronounced ‘‘ Abulfeda.” 


ALABAMA, one of the Gulf states, and the 9th in order of admission; between Jat. 
30° 10’ and 35° n.; long. 84° 53’ and 88° 30’ w.; bounded on the n. by Tennessee, on the 
e. by Georgia, on the s. by Florida and the gulf of Mexico, on the w. by Mississippi ; 
length about 336 m. from n. tos.; average width, 175 m.; total area, 52,250 sq.m., or 
33,440,000 acres. The arms of the state, adopted in 1868, represent an eagle just alight- 
ing on ashield. In his left claw he holds several arrows, and in his beak a streamer on 
which is inscribed the words, ‘‘ Here we rest.” See PopuLaR NAMES OF STATES. 

History.—In 1540 De Soto passed through the territory now includedin A., and among 
the Indian tribes that opposed him were the Chickasaws and Choctaws, whose domain 
lay w. of the A. river. Further w., on the Yazoo, were the Alibamos, from whom the 
present state derived its name. Shortly after, the Muscogees or Creeks, who had wan- 
dered from the s.w. to the Ohio, overspread the country between the Alabama and Coosa 
and the Savannah. In 1702 the French, under Bienville, removed from Biloxi bay, where 
a fort had been built in 1699 ; made Dauphin Island, at the entrance of Mobile bay, a pro- 
vision depot, and higher up erected fort St. Louis. The situation of this proving un- 
healthy, Mobile was founded in 1711, and until 1723 was the seat of government of the vast 
Louisiana territory of which Bienville was the first commandant. In 1714 Fort Toulouse 
was built at the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa. The colony was hindered by 
disease and poverty from growing rapidly ; the Chickasaws remained hostile ; and the 
English planted their trading posts in the wilderness n. of Mobile. If the Choctaws 
and the greater part of the Creek nation had not become their allies, the French would 
have held their ground with difficulty. In 1763 France ceded to Great Britain her pos- 
sessions e. of the Mississippi, and by a new division, that continued from 1764-81, all of 
A. and Mississippi lying n. of the parallel of 32° was included in the province of Illinois ; 
all s., in that of West Florida. During the revolution, West Florida, which had by 
that time gained English and Scotch settlers, remained loyal, and in 1779-80 Spain took 
advantage of her own war with Great Britain to seize the province. Her treaty of peace 
with Great Britain in 1783 confirmed her right to it, but the U. S. claimed that all 
above 81° was included in the territory ceded Great Britain. Georgia, a third claimant, 
insisted that West Florida belonged to her by charter right, and in 1794-95 attempted to 
sella large partofit. (See Yazoo Fraup.) In 1795 Spain gave up her claim, and in 1802 
Georgia hers, congress having meanwhile (1798) organized the disputed section into the 
Mississippi territory. In 1801 Louisiana was transferred by Spain to France, and in 1803 
sold by France to the U. 8., excepting the strips. of 31° and between the Mississippi 
and Perdido, which Spain had continued to hold. In 1804 the n. boundary of Mis- 
sissippi territory was extended to the stateof Tennessee, and the settlement of the Ten- 
nessee valley soon followed. In 1810 the region from Baton Rouge to the Pascagoula 
was forcibly annexed to Louisiana by its English-speaking inhabitants, and in 1813, 
April 18, the Mobile district was surrendered to an U. 8. force under Gen. Wilkinson ; 
the secret alliance of the Spanish with the British giving sufficient excuse for seizing it. 
Incited by the British, the Creeks and their allied tribes rose in 1812 against the people 
of A.; their atrocities culminating in the great massacre at Fort Mimms on the A. river, 
Aug. 30, 1818. Gen. Jackson headed the forces sent against the Indians,.and by his 
victories at Talladega and elsewhere, 1818-14, humbled them so completely that they sur- 
rendered their territory w. of the Coosaand s. of Wetumpka. There was, however, more 
or less trouble with them until their removal, 1832-36, to Indian territory. The closing 
events of the war were the unsuccessful attack of the British on Fort Bowyer, Mobile 
Point, Sept. 18-15, 1814, and its surrender to them, Feb. 13, 1815. Mississippi was set 
oft March 1, 1817; the territory of A. wasformed March 8, withits seat at St. Stephens ; 
the first legislature met at Huntsville, Jan. 19, 1818, and the state was admitted to the 
union Dec. 14, 1819. In 1820 the seat of government was removed to Cahawba ; in 1826 
to Tuscaloosa ; and in 1847 to Montgomery. There were 3026 volunteers from A. in the 
Mexican war. A. entered very zealously into the secession movement, and early in De- 
cember, 1860, urged the southern states to withdraw from the union. A convention was 
held at Montgomery in Jan., 1861, to decide the question for the state itself, and the ordi- 
nance submitted on the 10th was adopted on the 11th by a vote of 61 to 39—the protesting 
minority representing the northern part of the state, where the whig party had been 
especially strong. Forts Gaines and Morgan, at the entrance to Mobile Bay, were seized _ 


AREA AND POPULATION OF ALABAMA BY COUNTIES. 
(ELEVENTH CENSUS : 1890.) 


tan AB a or a A en a 
PEW ib setae ees a « sis's 


“ee @s8s @ eee ee ee 
eseoceeee eevee eese 


eer ee eer ee eeeee ee 


CCAM Gide wkriatey a ss 
Chaimbers 


eceoereeoee eee ee 


eoeese eae er eee 


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eee eosree eee eve 


LZOMDOT ees «tte ohare. vee 


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eee eee eer e ere ee ee 


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Franklin 


eee te eee een eee 


Area in 
Square 
Mi‘es. 


660 
1,620 
888 
625 
792 
640 
782 
640 
600 
586 
710 
916 
1,160 
599 
545 
728 
556 


804; 


684 
994 
640 
O17 
660 
954 
760 
652 


Population. 


13,330 | 


8,941 
34,898 
13,824 
21,927 
27,063 
21,641 
39.839 


26,319 | 


20,459 
14.549 
17,526 
22,624 
15,765 
13,218 
12,170 
20,189 
14,594 
15,906 

7,536 
15,425 
13,439 
17,225 
49.350 
21.106 
21,732 

8,666 
21,926 
12,823 
10,681 
10,690 
22, 007 
27,501 
24.847 


Area in 
Square | Population. 
Miles. 

WACKREOD weed cat tose oe 1,144 28,026 
CALE T MOLE eae thot so hc 1,092 88,501 
PIR TET oe eieic re srmnce aia 612) 14,187 
\Lauderdale........- 682) 23,739 
MB WTOC ts acces 768 20,725 
DLueO darted sass ttatss eats, s 610 28,694 
ae pe Ree enae ae ths 596) 21,201 
PEO WANCLOS au eich sate g coe 720} 31,550 
PRTSCOD Gt st oss nate ase 622 18,439 
PL ACLISOILS Rr oes Stee eee 796 38,119 
WNLADOROU Oe wirtc ads iis 960 383,095 
MOTION. sicks sree ea 796 11,347 
LM ratte er). seid stots 580 18,935 
WU Rol 5) TE MGUS eB eaont ya ee 1,234 51,587 
VL OUTOG, «sects os dase S38 990, 18,990 
[Montgomery.... ..... 172 56,172 
ALOR ATI. 2 thistereletentenry s 686 24,089 
LP CER yee 1126 acta et eas T74 29,332 
PPO CIS 27 aera a dalsee'e bi 934. 22,470 
RELIC laiate ue ae sina es 710, 24,423 
(Randolptt .....0... 00. 599 17,219 
ERTIGBOLTG Mines eats ss 670 24,0938 
AE AC LALICO ee torte oh sien) 648 17,353 
GV ge aaara cote ce chao 772 20,886 
HILeE ie ches «ctnaes 6G 970 29,574 
PE UTA OAS Ae ore asl Vinee, 8 784! 29,346 
(Pallapooeh.n es ccet ae: 795 25,460 
USCaLOO Gai. delet «ute tric 1,346 30,352 

BV alkene .tyc tee ek : 824 16,078 
Wisshingtone. asses 1,050 7,985 
Walenxrter se sue cron: 940 80,816 
WY IDBGOI: Fin oc eves oy bere 630 6,552 
ROVE ieee thers are oe 51,540} 1,518,017 


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by the governor, Jan. 3, 4, and on Jan. 21 the senators and representatives withdrew from 
congress. Delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery, Feb. 4, and organized 
the confederate government. ‘lhe constitution adopted then was ratified March 13 by 
a state convention, the vote being 87 to 6. A confederate arsenal, foundry, and navy- 
yard were soon established at Selma, In 1862, Feb.—April, federal troops occupied 
the Tennessee valley. In 1864, Aug. 6-23, Rear-admiral Farragut destroyed a confed- 
erate fleet in Mobile harbor and, aided by Gen. Granger with a land force, reduced 
forts Gaines and Morgan. In the spring of 1865, a body of troops under Maj.-gen. J. 
H. Wilson moved toward Mobile from the north, while a military and naval force under 
Maj.-gen. Canby and Rear-admiral Thatcher advanced from New Orleans. Selma 
was taken April 2; Tuscaloosa on the 8d; the forts about Mobile on the 8th and 9th ; 
Montgomery was occupied on the 11th and Mobile on the 12th. The military depart- 
ments of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Florida were surrendered to Gen. Canby, 
Mar. 4. A provisional government was established June 21, and in Sept. a convention of 
delegates, who had taken the oath of amnesty, repealed the act of secession and altered 
the constitution. In Nov. state officers and members of congress were chosen, and in 
Dec., U. 8. senators ; but congress, in conflict with President Johnson, refused admis- 
sion to the representatives from Alabama. In 1867, April 1, by the reconstruction act, 
Alabama was included with Georgia and Florida in the third military district, under 
Gen. Pope. In Nov. a new constitution was framed, and received, Feb., 1868, 70,182 
votes out of 71,817 cast. The majority of registered voters took no action in the matter, 
but congress declared the constitution operative, and it continued in force till 1875. 
On July 14, 1868, military rule ceased, and on Nov. 16, 1870, the state ratified the 15th 
amendment to the federal constitution. During the war 122,000 men entered the con- 
federate army, and 7545—4969 colored—the union army. ‘The material progress of 
Alabama has been rapid, especially since 1880, and no state has a brighter future. 

TopograpHy.—Alabama is generally described as consisting of four great divisions ; 
the cereal, mineral, cotton, and timber belts. The first belt comprises 8 counties in the 
north, including the valley of the Tennessee ; the second, 28 counties, mainly between 
parallels 34° 15’ and 32° 15’; the third, 17 counties, reaching a little below parallel 32° ; 
the fourth, the 15 remaining counties. The greater part. of the state of Alabama is an 
irregular plain less than 600 ft. in altitude, and witha general slope toward the south- 
west. Low spurs and isolated peaks, none over 2500 ft. high, occupy the northeast 
corner, and, with the gradually diminishing foot-hills that extend into the central 
counties, end the great Appalachian range. The surface is undulating almost to the 
sea-coast, and in many places in Baldwin and Mobile counties has an elevation of from 
100-300 ft. The valleys, the most important of which are the Tennessee, Warrior, 
and Coosa, have a northeast and southwest direction. The coast line is only 60 miles 
in length. Among the bays are Grand, Bon Secours, Perdido (q.v.), and Mobile (q.v.), 
the last the only important one. The Tennessee river comes in at the northeast corner 
of Alabama, flows for 130 miles across the state, and passes out of the northwest corner, 
forming fora few miles the boundary with Mississippi. The Tombigbee enters from 
Mississippi, receives the Black Warrior, and, joining the Alabama above Mobile, forms 
the Mobile river, emptying into Mobile bay. The Alabama (q.v.), with its tributaries, 
drains all the middle part of the state. The Chattahoochee, forming the boundary with 
southwest Georgia, passes through Florida to the gulf. The Perdido, forming part of 
the boundary with Florida, rises in Alabama, as do the Choctawatchie, Yellow Water, 
Escambia, other Floridastreams. All the rivers south of the Tennessee have a southwest 
and southerly direction, and are rapid asarule. The navigable mileage is 2000 miles. 
Navigation on the Tennessee is aided by a canal around the muscle shoals, a series of 
rapids. Among mineral springs are those at Shelby, Blount, Livingstone, Bladen, and 
Tallahatta. 

GroLocy.—The stratified rocks represent every formation occurring in the Appalach- 
ian region of North America. There are three geological divisions of Alabama, namely : 
the northern, containing most of the state north and west of a line from Chattanooga 
through Birmingham nearly to Tuscaloosa, and including the great Tennessee valley, in 
which the rock masses belong to the sub-carboniferous (calcareous and silicious lime- 
stones) and the coal measures ; their strata approximately horizontal. Adjoining this is 
the middle region, bounded by a line drawn from the northeast corner to Tuscaloosa 
and thence through Centreville, Clanton, and Wetumpka to Columbus, Ga. This 
includes (1) the metamorphic region, with altered and crystalline sediments of Silurian 
or preceding ages; quartzites, marbles, granites, and gneisses, the strata in many places 
disintegrated into masses of stratified clay and interlaminated with quartz seams. (2) The 
Coosa valley, with prevailing calcareous rocks. (8) The Coosaand Cahawba coal fields, 
their strata consisting of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and coal beds, tilted and 
unequally degraded. This division contains some of the highest land in the state. The 
southern division south and west of these limits, and including the cotton belt, consists 
largely of drift beds irregularly stratified over the eroded surface of cretaceous and 
tertiary rocks. Clark county, between the Alabama and Tombigbee, is rich in fossil 
remains. 

MINERALOGY.—The southern limit of the mineral region may be defined by a line 
passing through Pikeville, Tuscaloosa, and Wetumpka to Columbus, Ga. Within this 


Alabama. it 9 yi 


area are the gold deposits of Randolph county, and three fields of bituminous coal, named 
from the rivers that drain them—the Warrior, covering 7800 square miles ; the Cahawba, 
200 ; andthe Coosa, 150 square miles. Cannel, free-burning, lump, coking, gas, and other 
coals of superior quality are found. There are extensive beds of iron ore, including red 
hematite, limonite, black band, drift, magnetic and specular; and the Choccolocco, 
Anniston, Coosa, Cahawba, Birmingham, and other valleys are noted for their produc- 
tiveness. Among other mineral products are asbestos, asphalt, copper, corrundum, 
emery, fire-clay, graphite, granite, lithographic stone, manganese, white and variegated 
marble, marl, red ochre, phosphates, plumbago, pottery and porcelain clays, salt (in the 
southwest), silver, slate, soapstone, and tin. Natural gas has been discovered. 

ZodLoey.—Among the wild animals, which are especially numerous in the north, 
are the bear, wolf, wildcat, fox, deer, opossum, raccoon, marsh-hare, skunk, cotton-rat, 
musk-rat, and squirrel. Among birds and wild fowl, the turkey, partridge, pigeon, 
rice-bird, mocking-bird, carrion-crow, ibis, spoonbill, flamingo, pelican, and cormorant. 
Alligators and moccasin snakes are found in the southern swamps, and terrapin in the 
salt marshes. 

Borany.—In the mountain region the principal trees and shrubs are the red, black, 
and Spanish oak, mountain and short-leaved pine, red cedar, chestnut, butternut, elm, 
black walnut, hickory, poplar, linden, magnolia, and azalea. In the central or upper 
pine region they are the Jong-leaved pine, spruce, white cedar, red, black, water, swamp, 
post, and Spanish oak, maple, shell-bark, hickory, elm, sycamore, chinquapin, buckeye. 
haw, and redplum. In the southern counties, particularly in the coast pine-belt, are 
found the red cypress, pitch, and long-leaved pine, juniper ; water, live, willow, and 
black-jack oak, tupelo, cotton-wood, catalpa, ash, elm, hickory, papaw, holly, palmetto, 
sweet-bay, black gum, snowdrop tree, huckleberry, wax myrtle, yaupon, yucca, and 
cane. Among flowering plants are the jessamine, wistaria, pipe-vine, rosin-weed, phlox, 
catchfly, bloodroot, pogonia, and 5 species of pitcher plant. There are over 150 species 
of native and naturalized grasses. 

Som, AND CLIMATE.—The valley of the Tennessee has chiefly a deep red calcareous 
soil; that in the metamorphic region is a red or gray loam with clay subsoil ; in the coal 
measures it is sandy, with sand or clay subsoil; the north and middle divisions are 
bordered by a wide belt of red or yellow loam over stratified rocks and pebbles; the 
cotton belt has a heavy black calcareous soil from 2-20 feet deep, and south of this, brown 
and red clay loams predominate. In the extreme Southern counties the soil is light and 
sandy. Excepting the lowland along the rivers, the state is very healthful, particularly 
in the north. Extremes of temperature are rare, the yearly mean for the state being 61°.. 
The summer heat is tempered by winds from the gulf; the average rainfall is 55.04°. 
Snow falls occasionally in Jan. and Feb., but rarely in the south; the frost limits at 
Montgomery are Oct. 10 and April 25. The prevailing winds for the whole year are 
from the south and southwest. 

AGRICULTURE.—The state may be divided into four natural sections, of which three 
are more or less adapted to agricultural purposes. The cereal belt includes the Alabama 
section of the Tennessee valley, is 200 miles long by 20 wide, covers eight counties, and 
has 180,000 inhabitants. Wheat, oats, rye, hay, cotton, and various fruits grow to 
advantage here, where the surrounding mountains provide a welcome shelter against the 
harsh winds of the north and the heat of the south. The agricultural region proper is 
known as the black belt, owing to the prevailing rich soil of rotten limestone. It extends 
some 70 miles across the state, between parallels 33° and 31° 40’. Water is obtained 
largely from artesian wells. The finest cotton is raised in this section, which embraces 
17 counties and has 500,000 inhabitants, including a large percentage of negroes. The 
timber belt in the south contains superb forests of yellow pine, cypress, sweet bay, 
water-oaks and live oaks, and also yields sugar-cane, sorghum, melons, and peanuts 
in abundance. Chestnuts, cedars, mulberries, elms, hickories and poplars are found 
in the northern and central parts of the state. The mineral belt covers the southwestern 
terminal of the Appalachian range in the north. Large quantities of rice are raised in 
the sandy lowlands and river bottoms of the South. Ramie is likewise an important 
product, and tobacco is grown in the north. The vicinity of Mobile bay is extremely 
fertile, and yields such fruits as melons, plums, apricots, figs, pomegranates, olives, and 
oranges, besides peaches in several fine varieties. Good grazing lands are found among 
the northern hills, as well as in the more fertile districts of the south. Wild cane, mast, 
and numerous species of grass furnish desirable forage. 

Cotton forms by far the largest crop. In 1891 Alabama ranked as the fourth state in 
cotton production and eighth in corn. Otherwise the staple products are wheat, oats, 
rye, potatoes, rice, tobacco, fruits, hay, wool, butter, cane, and honey. 

The number of farms in 1890 was 275,000, with an acreage of over 19,000,000. The 
capital invested in lands and buildings approximated $80,000,000. The principal crops 
(1896) were: Corn, 32,445,075 bush. ; wheat, 394,184 bush.; oats, 4,454,870 bush. ; potatoes, 
458,976 bush.; rye, 16,152 bush.; hay, 92,385 tons; tobacco, 1,009,090 lbs.; and cotton 
(1895) 1,000,000 bales. The farm animals in 1895 comprised 128,336 horses, 127,195 mules, 
208,459 milch cows, 523,329 other cattle, 271,111 sheep, and 1,848,898 swine, of a total 
value of $24,686,936. Farming in Alabama has not yet recovered from the effects of the 
war, when 1,000,000 acres were allowed to relapse into wilderness, and the product was 


1 9 3 Alabama, 


reduced by one-half. That of 1860 has never been reached since. Latterly, however, 
many improved methods have been adopted, and increased attention paid to stock- 
raising. 

Topusitnrns Se aban large and increasing manufacturing industries are mainly 
established in the flourishing and more recent cities of the North. She may be said to 
rival Georgia in her facilities for economic production, particularly of iron, as ore, coal, 
and limestone are frequently found close together. Unsurpassed water-power is afforded 
by means of the numerous falls and rapids of the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Chattahoochee and 
tributary streams. The largest cotton-mills are stationed at Tallassee. Lumber, 
iron, steel, machinery, cotton goods, flouring-mill products, wagons, bricks, and leather 
are the leading manufactures. The first practicable blast furnace was erected in 1852. 
Since then iron industries have taken gigantic strides, and become of paramount impor- 
tance. The now thriving town of Bessemer, for instance, which was founded only in 
1887, within three years could boast of seven furnaces, rolling-mills, fire-brick works, 
besides eight churches, public buildings, business blocks, and two newspapers. The 
same thing might be said of such centres as Anniston, Birmingham, Colera, Decatur, 
Florence, Sheffield, and Tuscaloosa. From 250 to 800,000,000 ft. of lumber are sawed 
annually from the splendid yellow pine and cypress forests of the state, while vast num- 
bers of shingles, staves, etc., are manufactured, The yield of turpentine and rosin 
reaches large proportions, and of late the canning of fruit and vegetables has become a 
successful industry. In 1895, Alabama ranked fifth in production of coal with an out- 
put of 5,693,775 tons, value $5,126,822; third in iron ore, output 2,199,590 tons; fourth 
in pig iron, output 854,667 tons; and second in coke, output 1,444,339 tons, value 
$3,033,521. There were 26 cotton mills, with 164,898 spindles, 2,756 looms, and 517 cards. 

CoMMERCE. — Mobile is the only seaport, and the chief exports are cotton, coal, and 
lumber. The bay of Mobile is 30 miles long, and has an artificial channel for vessels 
drawing under 20 feet of water. In the calendar year 1896, the value of imports was 
$860,411; exports, $9,087,076; total trade, $9,947,487; increase over 1895, $2,685,564, ex- 
clusive of gold and silver coin and bullion. The principal imports were fruit and nuts; 
exports, cotton and lumber. Commerce increases very slowly, owing to railroad compe- 
tition and discrimination. New Orleans takes the bulk of the cotton for export trade, 
and Pensacola the lumber, 

RAtLways.—In 1892 there were 3595 miles of railroad against 2500 in 1887 and 853 
in 1868. The leading roads, with mileage in state at the close of 1890, were the Alabama, 
Great Southern (Chattanooga to Meridian), 245 miles; Southern and Northern (Mont- 
gomery to Decatur), 189; Mobile and Montgomery, 178; Selma Division of East Ten- 
nessee, Virginia and Georgia, 172; Georgia Pacific, 241; Memphis and Charleston, 151; 
Savannah and Western, 156; Alabama Mineral, 127; and Kansas City, Memphis, and 
Birmingham, 118. In addition to the above there were 25 roads of less than 100 miles. 
The total mileage in 1896 exceeded 3,400, and the various roads represented a total 
investment of over $114,500,000; cost for construction and equipment nearly $103,000,000; 
had total funded debt of over $57,000,000; net earnings over $4,250,000; and paid in- 
terest and dividends of over $3,000,000. 

BANKS AND INSURANCE. —In 1896 there were 27 national banks, with aggregate 
capital of $3,405,000; deposits, $5,660,282; reserve, $1,896,072; 10 state banks, with capital 
$464,000; deposits, $538,709; and 3 private banks, capital, $137,000; deposits, $508,272. 

EDUCATION, LIBRARIES, ETC. —In 1895 Alabama had 9 universities and colleges of 
liberal arts, of which 3 were for males only, and 6 were co-educational. Combined, these 
institutions had 95 instructors, 1,558 students in all departments, grounds and buildings 
valued at $880,500, productive funds $365,000, income $106,625, and volumes in libraries, 
37,000. ‘These institutions were Blount College, Blountsville; St. Bernard College, 
Cullman; Howard College, East Lake; Southern University, Greensboro; Lafayette 
College, Lafayette; Lineville College, Lineville; Selma University, Selma; Spring Hill 
College, Spring Hill; and the University of Alabama, University Station. There were 
an agricultural and mechanical college for white students at Auburn, and a normal and 
industrial school for the colored at Normal. The number of children of school age (1894) 
was 603,000, of whom 306,014 were enrolled in the public schools, and 185,100 were in 
daily attendance. There were 6,687 school buildings, 6,608 teachers, and school property 
valued at $1,573,000, and the expenditure of the year was $663,359. For secondary in- 
struction there were 51 public high schools, with 109 teachers and 2,593 secondary students, 
and 79 private schools, with 181 teachers and 3,304 secondary students. Six public normal 

. schools had 65 teachers and 1,498 students, and 5 private normal schools, 105 teachers 
and 1,454 students. There were also 8 colleges for women, 2 schools of iheology, 2 of 
medicine, and one each of law, dentistry, and technology. The state had 27 public 
libraries of over 1,000 volumes each in 1893, with a total of 100,216 bound volumes and 
22,121 pamphlets. In 1896 there were 212 periodicals, including 20 dailies. 

GOVERNMENT. — The capital is Montgomery. A residence of one year in the state, 
three months in the county and 30 days in the township or precinct entitles an adult 
to vote. State senators and representatives receive $4 per day and 10 cents per mile 
traveled. The former (33) serve four years; the latter (100) two. The legislature meets 
biennially. The governor (elected for two years) receives a salary of $3000; the treasurer, 
$2100; the secretary of state and the auditor, $1800 each; the attorney-general, $2500. 
The judiciary consists of a chief-justice and four associate justices of the supreme court, 
serving six years; 10 district judges of circuit courts, serving for the same time; 5 
chancellors of the court of chancery, and judges of the probate and city courts. The 
last-named are appointed by the governor, but all other judicial offices are filled by pop- 


I.—7 


Alabama, Bt 94 


‘ular vote. The U. S. district courts are at Montgomery, Mobile, and Birmingham. 
The legal rate of interest is eight per cent, with forfeiture ia case of usury. 

Alabama has two senators and nine representatives in the U. 8. congress. The 
electoral votes have been cast as follows: 1820, Monroe and Tompkins, 8; 1824, Jack- 
son and Van Buren, 5; 1828, Jackson and Calhoun, 5; 1832, Jackson and Van Buren, 
7; 1836, Van Buren and Johnson, 7; 1840, for same; 1844, Polk and Dallas, 9; 1848, 
Cass and Butler, 9; 1852, Pierce and King, 9; 1856, Buchanan and Breckenridge, 9 ; 
1860, Breckenridge and Lane, 9; 1864, no vote; 1868, Grant and Colfax, 8; 1872, Grant 
and Wilson, 10 ; 1876, Tilden and Hendricks, 10 ; 1880, Hancock and English, 10; 1884, 
Cleveland and Hendricks, 10; 1888, Cleveland and Thurman, 10; 1892, Cleveland and 
Stevenson, 11; 1896, Bryan and Sewall, 11. 

FINANCES. — The state receipts for year ending Sept. 30, 1896, were $1,999,930; 
expenditures, $1,959,977. The amount raised by taxes was $1,328,817. The assessed 
value of property in 1895 was $241,338,024; bonded debt, $9,299,400; current rate of taxa- 
tion, 5 mills. The total debt, less sinking fund, in 1890, was $18,930,867. 

CHARITIES, ETC.— The state institutions comprise the Alabama Institution for the 
Deaf, the Alabama School for Negro Deaf Mutes and Blind, and the Alabama Academy 
for the Blind, all at Talladega; a hospital for the insane, at Tuscaloosa; a penitentiary, 
at Wetumpka; and two prisons at Pratt Mines. The convict system has undergone 
moet improvements, but prisoners are still leased to contractors for various kinds of 
work. 

PoPULATION.—In 1820, 127,901—41,879 slave, 571 free col’d ; 1840, 590,756—253,- 
532 slave, 2039 free ; 1860, 964,201—435,080 slave, 2690 free ; 1880, 1,262,505—600,103 
col’d ; 218 Indian; foreign born, 9734—2966 Irish ; males, 622,629; females, 639,876 ; 
persons to square mile, 24.50; whole number of dwellings, 240,227 ; families, 248,961 ; 
engaged in agriculture, 380,630 ; in manufacturing, mining, and mechanical industries, 
22,996 ; population 1890, 1,518,017 ; 1893, 1,625,000. There are 66 counties ; for pop- 
ulation 1890, see census tables, vol. XV. The largest towns, 1890, were : Mobile, 31,076 ; 
Birmingham, 26,178 ; Montgomery, 21,888 ; Anniston, 9876. 


ALABAMA, ariver of the state of A., is formed by the junction of the Coosa and 
Tallapoosa, about 10 m.n.n.e. of Montgomery. Its general course is westward to Selma, 
thence s. westward until about 50m. n. of Mobile, where it meets the Tombigbee, and with 
that stream forms the Mobileriver. Its whole course is tortuous ; itslength about 320 m. 


ALABA’'MA, Tuk, an armed vessel of the Confederate States of America, which inflicted 
terrible injury upon the shipping of the northern states of the American Union during 
the civil war which broke out in 1861. The career of the A. was in more than one re- 
spect unparalleled in the history of any previous naval war. She was, for a war-ship, 
a small vessel, built for speed, carrying a few guns, and intended not for fighting, but 
for preying upon defenseless merchant-ships. She was almost the only vessel the Con- 
federate states had upon the open seas; but the destruction she wrought was so great, 
and in effect so alarming, as to produce a very marked diminution in the number of 
commercial vessels carrying the flagof the United States. She was built, too, in a British 
port, and never, at any time, entered a port of the state by which she was commissioned : 
there was no port available for the disposal of her prizes, and, ship and cargo, they 
were usually burned. Her career demonstrated how completely, in the present state of 
commerce, under the conditions of navigation and naval warfare produced by steam and 
long-range artillery, belligerents fairly matched might ruin each other at sea; and it raised 
international questions between the United States and Great Britain, which more than 
once threatened to issue in the gravest consequences to both nations. 

At the outbreak of the war, the Confederate states were without a navy, and ap- 
parently without the means of acquiring one, for their population was agricultural ; 
they had neither ships nor seamen; and the northern states promptly instituted an 
effective blockade of nearly all their ports. The able men who had planned the secession 
of the southern states from the American Union had not overlooked the subject of a 
navy; but events had been against them. They had reckoned upon securing a part of 
the United States fleet ; and before the war commenced, they had determined upon fit- 
ting out some small and swift vessels, carrying a few heavy guns, to cruise against the 
northern commerce. A majority of the senior naval officers of the United States were 
southern men, and were at their command ; but although efforts had been made early in 
1861 to purchase ships for the south, it was not until several months after the war 
began, in June, 1861, that the Confederate states were able to send their first armed cruiser » 
to sea. This was the Sumter, a small steamer which had previously traded between 
New Orleans and Havana. Capt. Raphael Semmes, who was appointed her commander, 
was a native of Maryland, about 51 years of age, and had been a commander in the U. 8. 
navy. His career in the Sumter is a record of triumphs won over neutral governors 
and ministers, who were disinclined to admit the little Swmter to the position of a bel- 
ligerent war-vessel ; of clever avoidance of the enemy’s cruisers, of which several were 
always on his track; and of the destruction of valuable ships and cargoes belonging to 
citizens of the United States. The Swmter and her captain were soon known through- 
out the world. 

Though called a pirate, Semmes appears to have done nothing but what it was his 
right as a belligerent to do. It was upon his system of burning his captures, not upon 
the captures themselves, that the people of the northern states founded their charge ; 
and his treatment, warranted by precedents, was probably within his right. The cruise of 


195 Alabama, 


the Sumter, which began on the 30th June, 1861, with her escape from New Orleans, 
then strictly blockaded, was over before the end of the year; but she had captured 18 
vessels, had spread alarm through the northern sea-ports, and had put ship-owners and 
merchants to heavy charges for insurance; and by disinclining merchants to ship their 
goods in northern vessels, had seriously injured the shipping trade of the northern states. 
Eventually, she was laid up at Gibraltar, and declared unfit for further service: had she 
been seaworthy, it would have been very difficult to carry her out of a port where she 
was diligently watched by northern cruisers. She had, however, verified the anticipa- 
tions of the Confederate government; and in 1862, this government found a successor for 
her, much better fitted for the work to be done, and destined to far greater celebrity. 
This was the Alabama, built for the Confederate government by Messrs. Laird and Sons, 
at Birkenhead, England She was a screw steam-sloop of 1040 tons register, built of 
-wood, and for speed rather than strength. She was bark rigged, with two 350 horse- 
power engines, was pierced for twelve guns, and had the means of carrying two heavy 
ivot-guns amidships. She cost $237,500 without equipments ; including equipments, 
$258,580. In June, 1862, Semmes was appointed to superintend her equipment, and to 
take command of her when completed, but enjoined to keep her destination as much of 
a secret as possible. Before he sailed, however, the British government was called 
upon by the U. 8. minister to detain the ‘‘ No. 290,’’ as she was called, from her num- 
ber in the list of steamships built by the Messrs. Laird, on the ground that her construc- 
tion being more that of a ‘war vessel than an ordinary trading vessel, in itself consti- 
tuted grounds for seizure, as being an infringement of international law. Before any 
decision was arrived at (July 31st, 1862), ‘‘ No. 290,’ under pretense of making a trial 
trip, steamed away from the British coast, whereupon the British government was 
notified that it would be held responsible for any damage the vessel might do to Ameri- 
can commerce. In the mean time the vessel arrived at Terceira, one of the Azores, 
Aug. 13th, and was joined, a few days later, by the Agrippina, of London, with her 
guns, stores, and supply of coal, and by the Bahama, with Capt. Semmes and his offi- 
cers. By Aug. 24th she was ready for sea, and Capt. Semmes produced his commission 
to the sailors, named her the Alabama, and hoisted the Confederate flag. The sailors on 
the three vessels were Englishmen, all entered for a feigned voyage, and with few 
exceptions they enlisted under Capt. Semmes. The crew consisted of eighty men all 
told, and the armament of eight 32-pounders. The Alabama made her first capture 
Sept. 5th, and within eleven days she seized and burned property the value of which 
exceeded her own cost. The people of the United States were filled with indignation 
and alarm, and several fast-sailing cruisers were at once sent in search of her. As 
Semmes was anxious to make some captures within sight of New York, he sailed at once 
for the American coast ; but his supply of coal failing, he had to make for a coaling 
station, after which he lay in wait for the California mail-steamers, plying between New 
York and Aspinwall. After a time he captured the Arve/, taking one gun and a quan- 
tity of specie, besides several United States officers, 140 marines, and about 500 other 
passengers. There was not room on the Alabama for the passengers and crew, and as 
the yellow fever was raging at Kingston, Jamaica, where he intended to land them, he 
was unable to destroy the steamer, as he intended, but set her free after exacting a bond 
for a large sum to be paid at the close of the war. This capture caused great alarm 
among ship owners, which was further increased, Jan. 17th, 1863, by an encounter be- 
tween the Alabama and the United States gunboat Hatteras, off Galveston, Texas, in 
which the latter was sunk. After this pursuit became so hot that she sailed away for 
the African coast and remained until June, 1864, when she returned to European waters, 
and put in to Cherbourg, on the coast of France, for repairs and supplies. A few days 
later the United States steamer Kearsarge arrived off Cherbourg, and made demonstra- 
tions that were regarded by Capt. Semmes and his officers as a challenge. Accord- 
ingly, on June 19th, he put out to sea some three leagues, or beyond French waters, 
where, after an hour’s battle Semmes found his ship sinking, and gave orders to pull 
down his flag, to get out the boats and put the wounded into them ; but before this 
could be done the ship went to the bottom. The boats of the Kearsarge saved many of 
the crew ; others, including Capt. Semmes, were picked up by the Deerhound, an Eng- 
lish yacht that had gone out to see the fight, and had been allowed by Capt. Winslow 
to assist in the rescue. These the Deerhound immediately carried within the neutral 
jurisdiction. Semmes and the others saved by this vessel were afterwards charged with 
having broken their faith as prisoners who had asked for quarter from the Kearsarge ; 
but this is not so, because when once on the deck of the Deerhound they were entitled 
to the protection of Great Britain, and no previous compact could have deprived them 
of it. The Alabama captured in all sixty-five vessels, most of them merchant vessels 
incapable of resistance, which she either burned or liberated on bond, and the value of 
the property she destroyed in this way has been estimated at $4,000,000. But it was by 
the heavy insurance for war risks to which she subjected them, and still more by the 
difficulty she caused them in getting freights that the Alabama inflicted the greatest in- 
jury upon the ship-owners of the United States. See The Oruise of the Alubama and the 
miter, compiled from the papers of Capt. Semmes. 

The ‘‘ Alabama Question” was fairly raised in the winter of 1862-63, when Mr. 
Seward, in his diplomatic correspondence, declared that the Union held itself entitled at 
a suitable time to demand full compensation for the damages inflicted on American prop- 
erty by Anglo-confederate vessels; the cnestien never ceasing to be a source of irritation 


Aland.” 196 


between the two peoples till its final settlement by special tribunal of arbitration. This 
court, consisting of the representatives of England and the United States, and of three 
other members appointed by the king of Italy, the president of the Swiss confederation, 
and the emperor of Brazil, met at Geneva, 17th Dec., 1871, and, the claim for indirect 
damages to American commerce having been allowed to drop, finally decreed, 15th Sept., 
1872, that Great Britain should pay $15,500,000. See GENEVA ARBITRATION. 


AL'’ABASTER. This name is given to two kinds of white stone, chemically distinct, 
but resembling each other in appearance, and both used for ornamental purposes. A. 
proper isa white, granular, semi-transparent variety of gypsum (q.v.), or sudphate of lime. 
It occurs in various countries, but the finest is found near Volterra, in Tuscany, where it 
is worked into a variety of the smaller objects of sculpture, vases, time-piece stands, etc. 
Gypseous A. of good quality is also found in Derbyshire, and many ornamental articles 
are made of it at Matlock and other places. Not being quite insoluble in water, 1t can- © 
not be exposed to the weather; and its softness makes the surface easily become rough 
and opaque. Nor is it generally found in sufficient masses for large works. The other 
stone is a compact, crystalline carbonate of lime deposited from water in the form of 
stalagmite, etc. It is distinguishable from the gypseous alabaster by its effervescing with 
an acid, and by its hardness; real alabaster may be scratched with the nail.—The name 
is derived from Alabastron, a town in upper Egypt, where this kind of stone was abun- 
dant, and was manufactured into pots for perfumes. Such pots were called alabasir:: 
even when made of other materials. 


AL’ABASTER, WILLIAM, D.D., 1567-1640, an English poet and scholar. He was 
educated at Cambridge and Oxford, and was a fellow of Trinity college. He was 
appointed chaplain to Robert, earl of Essex, whom he accompanied in 1591 in the expe- 
dition intended to assist Henry IV. against the league. In France he was converted to 
the Roman Catholic church, but did not long remain in it. His report was that he was 
enticed to Rome and imprisoned, but escaped. Returning to England he became pre- 
bendary of St. Paul’s and rector of Hatfield. A. was a famous Hebrew scholar, with 
a strong inclinatioa to mysticism in tracing the meaning of scripture. Dr. A. pub- 
lished several works on scriptural subjects, and left a number of poems in MSS., one 
of which was surreptitiously published—a tragedy called Roxana, which Dr. Johnson 
regarded as the only Latin verse of English production worth naming until Milton 
appeared. 

ALACH’VA, a co. in n. Florida, between the Santa Fé and Suwannee rivers, crossed 
by several railroads; 1282 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 22,934, inclu. colored. It has a rolling 
surface and fertile soil, producing sea-island cotton, oranges, etc. Co. seat, Gainsville. 


ALACOQUE, MarauEritE Marts, 1647-90; a French nun, who established the fes- 
tival of the sacred heart of Jesus. She took the veil at Paray-le-Monial, where she is 
said to have performed miracles, prophesied, made revelations, and held direct communi- 
cation with God and the angels. She foretold the day of her death, and cut the name of 
‘‘ Jesus Christ” on her bosom with a knife. By the Roman Catholic church she is called 
** venerable.” 

ALADAGH’, a mountain chain in Asiatic Turkey in which the Euphrates rises. 
The chief portion of the chain is above the basin of the lake Van, between 39° and 40° n. 
and 42° and 44° e., forming part of the water-shed between the Caspian sea and the Persian 
gulf. 


ALAGO’AS, a maritime province of Brazil, which formed at one time a district of the 
province of Pernambuco. It is bounded on the n. and w. by Pernambuco, and on the 
s.is divided from the province of Sergipe by the navigable river San Francisco. The 
country, which is mountainous in the n.w., and low, marshy, and unhealthy on the 
coast, contains (1890) 511,440 inhabitants. 

ALAIN DE LILLE, 1114-1203; a Cistercian scholar, called ‘‘the universal doc- 
tor,” one of the most learned men of the 12th c., in philosophy, theology, history, medi- 
cine, and poetry. He was appointed bishop, but soon resigned to enter a monastery. 
He wrote chiefly in verse on alchemy, natural philosophy, and doctrinal subjects. Ger- 
many, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, and Flanders contend for his birthplace; but he said he 
came from Lille in Flanders, as his name implies. 


ALAIS, a t. of the dep. of Gard, France, situated in a fertile plain, on the right bank 
of the Gardon, at the base of the Cevennes mountains, 23 m. n.w. from Nimes, with 
which it is connected by railway. It embraced the Protestant cause in the religious wars 
of France; and Louis XIII. in person, accompanied by the cardinal de Richelieu, besieged 
it, and having taken it in 1629, demolished its walls. Three years later, the baron of 
A. having taken part in the rebellion of Montmorency, the castle was destroyed. 
Protestantism still prevails to a considerable extent. A. is a very flourishing t., and 
owes its prosperity chiefly to the mineral wealth of the surrounding district, which pro- 
duces coal, iron, lead, zinc, and manganese. The coal and iron mines are of chief 
importance. Pop. 23,700. 


ALAJUE'LA, a city of the state of Costa Rica, Central America, 23 m. w.n.w. from 
Cartago, and a little on the western side of the water-shed between the Atlantic and the 
Pacific. It contains many good houses, and has extensive suburbs of detached houses, 


j Alab st . 
197 Aland. 


embowered among trees and flowering shrubs. The neighborhood is chiefly devoted to 
the culture of the sugar-cane. Population about 10,000. 

ALAMANCE, a co. in North Carolina, on the Haw river and the Southern rail- 
road ; 446 sq.m; pop. 90, 18,271, inclu colored. It has an undulating surface and fer- 
tile soil, producing tobacco, corn, etc. Co. seat, Graham. 


ALAMAN'NI, Luter, a distinguished Italian poet, b. at Florence, Oct. 28, 1495. His 
father, a man of noble birth, was a zealous partisan of the Medici, and Luigi stood high 
in their favor till in revenge for some real or fancied wrong he conspired against the life of 
cardinal Guiliano, the representative of Leo X. This being found out, A. fled to Venice, 
and thence, on the accession of the cardinal to the papal chair, to France. In 1527, 
encouraged by the pope’s reverses, he returned to Florence, and urged the republic to 
seek the protection of Charles V., by means of Andrea Doria’s friendly mediation. The 
republic declared such a proposal treachery, and A. sailed with Doria for Spain. 
Finally, he settled in France, employed as a diplomatist by Francis I. and Henry II. A. 
d. at Amboise in 1536. He wrote epics, dramas, and minor poems, much admired in 
their day, and disputes with Trissino the claim of first introducing blank verse into 
Italian poetry. 

ALAME’DA, a co. in w. California, on the bay of San Francisco, and traversed by 
several railroads; 704 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 93,864, with Chinese; co. seat, Oakland. 

ALAMEDA, a city in Alameda co., Cal., 6 miles across the bay from San Francisco, with 
which it is connected by ferry lines; on the Central Pacific and South Pacific Coast railroads. 
It is mainly aresidential city for San Francisco business men, has macadamized streets, an 
improved sewer system, electric lights, an electric railroad, public and private schools,a free 
library, good banking facilities and newspapers, and is celebrated for its cleanliness and for 
its variety of trees. Itsnewcity hall was completedin 1897. The drawbridge over the Oak- 
land estuary hasa draw of 380 feet. Borax ismanufactured on an extensive scale, and there 
are manufactures of sewer pipe, pottery, and a large oil refinery. Pop. 1890, 11,165. 

A'LAMO, Tue, a fort now in San Antonio, Bexar co., Texas, famous in the Texan war 
of independence. It was oblong, covering about 24 acres, with walls some 22 ft. high, 
and a yard in thickness. Here, Feb. 23, 18386, Santa Anna with 4000 Mexicans shut in 
151 Texans and men from the United States commanded by Col. Wm.B. Travis. Bombard- 
ment was kept up 24 hours, and several assaults were repulsed; Travis sent for help, but 
only 32 men reached him, and all his men suffered greatly from fatigue and want of pro- 
visions. On the 6th of Mar. at daylight the Mexicans assaulted in force, and were twice 
driven back with heavy loss. A hand to hand fight ensued, in which, lacking time to 
load, the Texans clubbed their rifles and fought desperately until only six were alive. 
These, including Colonels Crockett and Travis, surrendered under promise of protection, 
but were killed by Santa Anna’s orders. Col. Bowie, ill in bed, was shot after killing a 
number of his assailants, and Maj. Evans was shot while trying to fire the magazine. Some 
women, a negro, and one child alone were spared. Then the bodies were collected, 
mutilated, and burned. A few weeks later Santa Anna was routed with immense loss 
and himself captured in the battle of San Jacinto, where the cry ‘‘ Remember the Alamo” 
excited the Texans to fight like heroes. 


A'LAMOS, Los (i.e., 7’he Poplars), a t. of Mexico, in the state of Sonora, and depart- 
ment of Sinaloa, 110 m. n.n.w. from Sinaloa. It is situated in a barren plain, but in a 
region famous for its silver mines. The houses are mostly of stone or brick, covered 
with stucco. Provisions are dear, being brought from a distance, and the t. is very 
insufficiently supplied with water. Pop. estimated at 6000 to 10,000. | 


ALAN, ALLEN, or ALLYN, WILLIAM, 1582-94; an English cardinal. He studied in 
Oxford, and became principal of St. Mary’s Hall in 1556. Two years later he was made 
canon of York. He opposed the reformation, and on the accession of Elizabeth fled to 
Louvain. After a while he returned to Engiand, but his proselyting zeal made another 
flight necessary. He was given a doctor’s degree by the new university of Douay, and 
established there a college for English Roman Catholics, whence he sent Jesuit priests to 
his native land, the aim of his life being to restore papal supremacy in England. In 
1589 he was offered the archbishopric of Mechlin. He hated Elizabeth, who expelled 
some of his emissaries and put some to death. In one of his pamphlets he made charges 
against the queen too foul for decent pages. He wasin the armada plot—the pope having 
promised him the see of Canterbury in case of success. He published 10 volumes, among 
them: Certain brief Reasons concerning Catholic Faith (1564); The Execution of Justice in 
Fingland (1584) ; and aided in revising the English trans. of the Douay Bible. 


A’LAND ISLANDS (pronounced Oland), a numerous group of small islands and rocks 
at the entrance of the gulf of Bothnia, opposite Abo, about 25 m. from the Swedish 
coast, and 15 from that of Finland. They are called, by the Finns, Ahvenanmaa. 
About 80 of them are inhabited. Although these rocky isles are covered with but a thin 
stratum of soil, they bear Scotch fir, spruce, and birch trees, and with proper cultivation 
produce barley and oats, besides affording subsistence to a hardy breed of cattle. 
The inhabitants are of Swedish origin, skillful sailors, fishermen, and seal-hunters. 
The total population is about 16,000. The largest of the islands, which gives its name 
(signifying ‘‘land of streams’) to the whole group, is about 18 m. long by 14 broad. 
It is tolerably wooded and fruitful, and contains nearly 11,000 inhabitants. These islands 
belonged formerly to Sweden, but were seized by Russia in 1809. Previous to this, 
they had several times changed hands between these two powers. In 1717, the Swedes 


Alangiacess , 
ark : 198 


were defeated by the Russians in a naval engagement near Aland, the first important 
exploit of the Muscovite navy. The importance of these islands as a military position 
led to the construction, in the reign of the emperor Nicholas, of those strong fortifications 
at Bomarsund which, in Aug., 1854, were destroyed by the Anglo-French force, com- 
manded by Sir Charles Napier and Baraguay d’Hilliers. Two thousand prisoners were 
taken. This extensive fortress (which is supposed to have been but the first of an 
intended series of similar menacing fortifications in the Baltic) commanded the anchor- 
age of Ytternes, capable of containing a large fleet. 


ALANGIA'CEZ, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, allied to Myrtacee (q.v.), 
and containing only about eight known species, trees and large shrubs, of which the 
greater number belong to the American genus nyssa (see TUPELO), differing from the 
rest of the order in the absence of petals. The one-celled fruit, and pendulous albumi- 
nous seeds, constitute marks of distinction from myrtacese. The fruit of alangiwm 
decapetalum and A. hexapetalum, natives of the East Indies, are eatable, but mucilag- 
inous and insipid. The timber is good, the roots aromatic. 


ALA'NI, nomadic tribes of eastern origin who spread over Europe during the decline 
of the Roman empire. They probably were first encountered by the Romans when 
Pompey, in the Mithridatic war, led an expedition into the Caucasus. In 276 a.p. they 
were checked by the emperor Tacitus in their attempt to go eastward into Persia. The 
Huns gave them a severe defeat on the Tanais in 375, and then the A. divided, some 
going e., but the larger portion joining their conquerors in an invasion upon the Goths. 
With the Vandals and Suevi they entered Gaul in 406, and later crossed the Pyrenees 
and founded settlements in Lusitania, where they lived for some time in peace. In 418 
they were attacked by the Visigoths, their king was slain, and they became subject to 
Gunderic, king of the Vandals, losing completely their national independence. About 
450 they served under Theodoric; but they sympathized with the barbarians, and their 
desertion at Chalons (451) came near bringing defeat upon the Roman army. They were 
mentioned occasionally in later times, and seem to have kept their independence after 
the 6th c. In 1221, Gengis Khan defeated them, and they were so completely subjugated 
in 1237 by Batu-Khan that their name disappeared from history. 


AL-ARAF, in the Mohammedan religion, the line or wall of separation between 
heaven and hell, astride of which are placed those whose accounts of good and evil 
exactly balance, so that they deserve neither hell nor heaven; also those who went to. 
war without consent of their parents, who are deemed martyrs, safe from hell but not 
quite worthy of heaven. 


ALARCON, HERNANDO DE, a Spanish navigator of the 16th c., the first to visit the 
coast of California. He sailed May 9, 1540, to meet a land expedition under Vasques de 
Coronada, but did not find him. He discovered that lower California (a supposed 
island) was a peninsula, made a good survey of the coast, sailed up the Rio de Tizon 
(Colorado), and on returning to Mexico, in 1541, made a map of California, which differs 
little from those of the present day. 


ALARCON Y MENDOZA, JuAN Ruiz DE, one of the most eminent of Spanish drama- 
tists, b. at the t. of Tasco, in Mexico, about the end of the 16th c. He belonged to the 
ancient family of the Ruizes of Alarcon, of which a branch had emigrated to America. 
Having studied at the college that had been instituted in Mexico, he removed to Spain, 
where he is mentioned as Relator del real consejo de las Indias (reporter of the royal council 
of the Indies) in 1622, The success that early attended his pieces, joined to the haughty 
disdain with which, in the consciousness of his own powers, he treated the opinion both 
of the public and of his brother-writers, excited the envy and jealousy of his contempo- 
raries, so that he became the object of venomous epigrams by the most famous poets of 
the time, in which the deformed upstart from New Spain, with his pride and contempt- 
uousness, was held up to public ridicule. This kind of persecution continued till his 
death, which occurred in 1689. Even during his lifetime, his best pieces were attributed 
to others, and were printed and represented under the names of more favored poets. This 
early withdrawal and oblivion of his name, together with the scarcity of his works, have 
been the cause that he has seldom been mentioned and still less appreciated by historians 
of literature, even down to the latest times. Yet some of the best critics rank him next 
to Calderon and Lope de Vega as a dramatic writer. Besides many single or detached 
pieces printed in collections, he published a nuniber in his Comedias (vol. i., Madrid, 1628; 
vol. ii., Barcelona, 1634). Hartzenbusch began a collected edition at Madrid, 1848. A. 
attempted almost all the kinds of drama in vogue in his time; and was especially eminent 
in the heroic, as the best specimens of which may be mentioned H/ Tejedor de Segovia 
and Ganar Amigos, or La que mucho vale mucho chesta. A.’s mastery in delineating char- 
acter is shown in the Comedias de Costumbres, or character-comedies, of which he may 
be held as the creator. The best known are La Verdad Sospechosa (imitated by Corneille 
in his Menteur) and Las Paredes Oyen (Walls have Ears), which are yet represented on 
the Spanish stage. Of his comedies of intrigue, the best specimen is Todo es ventura. 
It does not appear that A. wrote any Avwtos or sacramental allegorical dramas, though his 
two pieces, Hl Antichristo and Quien mal ande en mal acuba, betray a tendency to ascetic 
mysticism. Although, through the artifices of his contemporaries, as well as the éclat of 


Alanviacesze. 
199 Alastee 


Lope de Vega’s and Calderon’s dramas, the compositions of A. were soon driven from the 
stage, yet he remains, together with Tirso de Molina, the most distinguished and original 
among the successors of Lope. Lope and Calderon, the coryphei of that age, are the 
only dramatists that excel A. Combining, in no mean degree, the characteristics of both, 
he excels them in purity of language and elevation of moral feeling. 

ALARD, DELPHIN, Violinist, born in Bayonne, France, March 8, 1815 ; died in Paris, 
Feb. 22, 1888. He was the son of an amateur violinist, studied in Paris under Habeneck 
and Fétis, and won the notice of Paganini, when he appeared in concerts In1840 
Alard succeeded Baillot as first violinist to the king, and in 1843 became professor of 
the violin at the Paris Conservatoire. He is the representative of the modern French 
school of violin playing, has composed nocturnes, duos, études, etc., for the violin, and 
is the author of an Heole du violin, which was adopted by the Conservatoire. 

AL’ARIC I, (A/-ric, i.e., all rich, or from 41, all, and reiks, ruler) a great chieftain of 
the Visigoths. He makes his first appearance in history in 894 A.D., as leader of the 
Gothic auxiliaries of Theodosius in his war with Eugenius; but after the death of the 
former, he took advantage of the dissensions and weakness that prevailed in the Roman 
empire to invade (895) Thrace, Macedon, Thessaly, and Illyria, devastating the country, 
and threatening Constantinople itself. Rufinus, the minister of Arcadius, appears to 
have sacrificed Greece in order to rescue the capital, and Athens was obliged to secure 
its own safety by ransom. <A. proceeded to plunder and devastate the Peloponnesus, but 
was interrupted by the landing of Stilicho in Elis with the troops of the west. Stilicho 
endeavored to hem in the Goths on the Peneius; but A. broke through his lines, and 
escaped with his prisoners and booty to Illyria, of which he was appointed governor by 
the emperor Arcadius, who was frightened by his successes, and hoped, by conferring 
this dignity on him, to make him a peaceful subject instead of a lawless enemy (896). 
In 402, he invaded upper Italy, and Honorius, the emperor of the west, fled from Rome 
to the more strongly fortified Ravenna. On the way to Gaul, A. was met and defeated 
by Stilicho at Pollentia on the Tanaro; but it was not till the following autumn that the 
result of the battle of Verona forced him to retire into Illyria. Through the mediation 
of Stilicho, A. concluded a treaty with Honorius, according to which he was to advance 
into Epirus, and thence attack Arcadius in conjunction with the troops of Stilicho. The 
projected expedition did not take place, yet A. demanded indemnification for having 
undertaken it; and Honorius, by the advice of Stilicho, promised him 4000 pounds of 
gold. When, after the death of Stilicho (q.v.), Honorius failed to fulfill his promise, A. 
advanced with an army, and invested Rome, which he refused to leave till he had ob- 
tained the promise of 5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 of silver. But neither did this 
negotiation produce any satisfactory result, and A. again besieged Rome (409 A.D.). 
Famine soon rendered it necessary that some arrangement should be made; and in order 
to doit, the senate proclaimed Attalus, the prefect of the city, emperor instead of Hono- 
rius. But Attalus displayed so little discretion, that A. obliged him publicly to abdicate. 
The renewed negotiations with Honorius proved equally fruitless with the former, and 
A. was so irritated at a perfidious attempt to fall upon him by surprise at Ravenna, that 
he advanced on Rome for the third time. His victorious army entered the city on Aug. 
24, 410, and continued to pillage it for 6 days, A. strictly forbidding his soldiers to dis- 
honor women or destroy religious buildings. When A. quitted Rome, it was only to 
prosecute the conquest of Sicily; the occurrence of a storm, however, which his ill-con- 
structed vessels were not able to resist, obliged him to abandon the project for the time; 
and his death, which took place at Cosenza, in Calabria, soon after (410), prevented his 
resuming it. In order that his remains might not be discovered by the Romans, they 
were deposited in the bed of the river Busento, and the captives who had been employed 
in the work were put to death. Rome and all Italy celebrated the death of A. with public 
festivities; and the world enjoyed a momentary repose. But A. himself was much less 
barbarous than his followers. 


ALARIC II., 8th king of the west Goths, or Visigoths, succeeded his father in 484 a.p. 
He was of a peaceful disposition, and wished to live on friendly terms with the Franks. 
His dominions were very extensive. Besides Hispania Tarraconensis and Betica, he 
possessed numerous rich provinces in Gaul, and formed an alliance, which still further 
increased his power, with Gondeband and Theodoric, the latter of whom was his father- 
in-law, and king of the east Goths. At length, however, he came into collision with the 
Frankish monarch, Clovis, whose cupidity had been excited by the extent and fertility 
of the territories over which A. ruled. An excuse was found for breaking the peace 
which existed between the two nations, in the fact that A. was a zealous Arian. This 
circumstance had given great offense to many of his subjects, who were orthodox Catho- 
lics; and ostensibly to vindicate the true doctrine, the newly converted barbarian, Clovis, 
declared war against him. The result was fatal to A. He was slain by the hand of 
Clovis himself at Vouillé, near Poictiers,and his forces completely routed. 

A. is said to have been indolent and luxurious in his youth; but this may simply imply 
that he was not fond of those sanguinary pleasures which captivated his savage contem- 
poraries. He was tolerant in his religious convictions. Though an Arian, he did not 
persecute the Catholics. He enacted several useful statutes, and kept a watchful eye on 
all parts of his kingdom. It was during his reign that the Breviartum Alaricianium, or 
code of A., was drawn up. It is a selection of imperial statutes and writings of the 
Roman jurisconsults. A. sent copies of it to all his governors, ordering them to use it, 
and no other. An edition of it was published by Sichard, at Basle, in 1528. 


Alarm. 
Alaska. 200 


ALARM’. In military matters, the word alarm has a more defined meaning than mere 
terror or fright. An alarm, among soldiers in an army, is not so much a danger, as a 
warning against danger. An alarm, signified by the firing of a gun or the beating of a 
drum, denotes to an army or camp that the enemy is suspected of intending a sudden 
surprise, or that the surprise has actually been made. There is an alarm-post in camp or 
garrison arrangements, to which the troops are directed to hasten on any sudden alarm 
being given. 

ALARM, BURGLAR, consists of an electric bell and battery connected by wiring to every 
means of entrance to a building. The wiring is arranged so that opening any door or 
window closes the circuit through the bell and battery and rings the bell. The latter 
may be located in any part of a building, or in watchman’s quarters outside the building. 
In addition to the bell an annunciator is generally used which shows by means of different 
drops from which entrance into the building the alarm has been given. A switch is 
provided by means of which the B. A. may be shut off when not needed, and when this 
switch is closed the alarm will ring if any door or window has been accidentally left open. 
Many city houses left temporarily vacant are connected directly to a police station, mak- 
ing it impossible to enter them without sending in an alarm at the station. 


ALASCO, Jonn, 1499-1560 ; a Polish nobleman and traveler, who imbibed the doc- 
trines of Zwingli, and had intercourse with Erasmus, who esteemed him highly, bequeath- 
ing to him his library, He first preached Protestantism in East Friesland, but, anticipat- 
ing persecution, he went to London, on Cranmer’s invitation, and became superintendent 
of the congregation of the foreign Protestant exiles. On the accession of Mary, in 1558, 
he and all his congregation were banished. In 1556, he returned to Poland, where he 
died. He wrote many treatises, and was one of the 18 divines who prepared the Polish 
version of the Bible. 


ALA-SHEHR' (i.e., the exalted city, ancient Philadelphia), a city of Asia Minor, in the 
pashalic of Anatolia, 75 m. e. by s. from Smyrna, at the n.e. base of Mt. Tmolus. It 
was founded by Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamos, about 200. n.c., and is famous as 
the seat of one of the “‘seven churches of Asia.” It is still a place of considerable 
Importance, and carries on a thriving trade by caravans, chiefly with Smyrna. It is sur- 
rounded by a wall, and is of large extent; but the streets are narrow and dirty. There 
are many interesting remains of antiquity. Pop. about 15,000, of whom a considerable 
number are Greeks. 

ALASKA, formerly Russian America, territory of the U. S., comprises the extreme 
n. western part of the North American continent, together with all the islands near its 
coast and the whole of the Aleutian archipelago, excepting Behring’s and Copper Islands, 
lying off the coast of Kamtchatka. It is bounded on the n. by the Arctic ocean ; on the 
e. by the Northwest territories of Canada and by British Columbia; on the s. and s.w. by 
the Pacific ocean ; on the w. by Behring sea and the Arctic ocean. The greater part of 
the mainland lies between the 14ist and 167th meridians of w. long., but the most westerly 
of the islands, Attu, lies in 178° east long. The mainland, on the n., extends to 71° 23’ 
n. lat., and a narrow strip, about 80 m. wide, stretching down the s.e. coast, between the 
Pacific ocean and the dominion of Canada, touches 54° 40’ n, lat. and the meridian of 130° 
w. long.; total length of mainland from n. tos., 1100 m.; greatest width, 800 m. ; area, 
about 581,107 sq.m., or 371,908,480 acres, exceeding that of the original 13 states. 

History.—In July, 1741, the Russian discoverer, Behring, sighted the American conti- 
nent (possibly visited A.) and discovered a number of islands, among them that bearing his 
name. Russian explorers and traders gradually pushed further eastward, and in 1761 the 
coast of the Aliaska peninsula was visited by a merchant, Bechevin. As early as 1772 
at least 25 trading companies were busy along the coast, and the explorations of Capt, 
Cook, the English navigator, in 1776, and his report of the existence of otters greatly 
stimulated Russian enterprise. In 1784 the first permanent settlement was made, on 
Kadiak island, and in 1790 Alexander Baranoff was made gov. of the vast regionof A. In 
1799 the Russian-American co. was chartered and was granted control of all Russian in. 
terests in North America for 20 years. Trading posts, including Sitka (1799), and missions 
of the Greek church were established at many new points, and Baranoff’s successor 
(1819), Yanovsky, and others explored the n.w. coast and portions of the interior. ‘The 
charter of the Russian American co. was renewed in 1820 and 1844. In 1864-67 parts of 
the country were explored by the Western union telegraph co. with the object of pang 
a telegraph from America to Asia near Behring’s strait, but the project was abandoned ~ 
when the Atlantic cable was laid. In 1867, Mar. 30, the whole territory was ceded to 
the U. S. for $7,200,000 in gold, and formal possession was given on Oct. 18 toa military 
force of the U. S. at Sitka. In 1868, July 27, the laws of the U. 8. relating to customs, 
commerce, and navigation were extended over the mainland, islands, and waters. A mili- 
tary post was maintained at Sitka for 10 years, and other garrisons were established, but in 
1877 all troops were withdrawn. In May, 1884, a territorial government was established, 
and the laws of Oregon adopted. In maintenance of its claim to joint possession with 
Russia of Behring sea (q. v.) as an inland water, the U.S. has several times seized British 
vessels engaged in taking fur seals. A treaty between the U. S. and Great Britain, signed 
Jan. 30, 1897, provided for the demarkation of the boundary between A. and the British 
North American possessions. 

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of Al-ay-ek-sa, ‘‘the great land.’’ A, is naturally divided into 3 regions, differing from 
each other in climate and agriculture: the Yukon district, comprising the country n. of 
the A. mts.; the Aleutian district, comprising the islands of that name and the peninsula; 
and the Sitka district, comprising the remainder of the territory. The northern ranges 
of the Rocky Mts. extend through the Sitka district, the Coast range having a width of 
from 50-75 m., and consisting of a succession of lofty mts., many of which exceed 12,000 
ft. in height. Mt. St. Elias, one of the loftiest American peaks, is 19,500 ft.; Mt. Cook, 
16,000 ft.; Mt. Crillon, 15,900. The Alaska Mts., one of these great Alpine ranges, turn 
to the s.w., extend along the southern side of the long peninsula of Aliaska, and are 
prolonged for 800 m, farther by the Aleutian islands. The Yukon Mts, farther n, have a 
nearly parallel direction. A large portion of the mainland, especially toward the n., is 
made up of dreary moors, marshes, and undulating plains. The principal river, the 
Yukon, one of the longest on the globe, and the largest American river emptying into 
the Pacific, rises in British Columbia, and after a course of about 2000 m., flows through 
a wide delta into Behring sea. It drains an area estimated at 200,000 sq.m., and is said to 
discharge every hour one third more water than the Mississippi. At a distance of 600 m. 
from the sea it is a m. wide, and it is navigable for steamers, in A., for 1206m. Its 
chief tributaries are the Tananah and the Porcupine. The largest river flowing into the 
Arctic ocean is the Colville. The principal streams s. of the Yukon are the Kuskoquim 
and Copper. Owing to the peculiarities of its contour, the coast line is disproportion- 
ately long and measures 20,000 m., exceeding the entire coast line of the U. 8. on the At- 
lantic ocean and gulf of Mexico. It is cleft by numerous bays and fiords, and by means 
of Kotzebue and Norton Sounds, Bristol Bay and Cook’s Inlet, the mainland projects 4 
great peninsulas into the sea. The most northerly part of the mainland is Point Bar- 
row, on the Arctic coast, lat. 71° 27’n. The islands comprise about 31,200 sq.m. of 
the land area of A., and their principal groups are the Aleutian (q.v.), about 150 in 
number ; the Privyloff, or Prybilov (q.v.), the Kadiak or Kodiak, including Kadiak, 
80 m. long, and the Alexander, 1100 in number, of which Sitka is the most important 
and Prince of Wales the largest. An idea of the extent of the coast line can be best 
conveyed by quoting the statement of Prof. Guyot: that the island of Attu is as far w. 
of San Francisco as the coast of Maine is e. of that city. 

A. is noted for its glaciers, which abound in the valleys and along the coast, and in- 
clude some of the largest on the globe, The Muir glacier, at Glacier Bay, fills a ravine or 
amphitheater, between the St. Elias Alps and the White mts., of about 1200 sq.m. in area, 
and discharges its surplus ice through an opening about 2 m. wide. Its depth, where 
it breaks off into the water, is estimated at nearly 1000 ft., and the amount of ice daily 
discharged during Aug., at 150,000,000 cubic ft. Another glacier, on the Stickine river, 
is 40 m. long and 4 or 5 m. wide. Extinct volcanoes are numerous, especially in 
the Aleutian islands, and there are others which are dormant, some of which have been 
active within recent years. Northern A. is famed for its auroral displays. 

Geology and Mineralogy.—The upheaval of the Rocky Mts. took place, it is believed, 
during the jurassic period ; that of the Coast Range at the end of the miocene. The ex- 
tent and force of the volcanic disturbances in A. are proved by the great number of vol- 
canic peaks, and the hot and boiling springs, some of which are of great extent. The 
glacial period, like the volcanic, still survives, some of the masses of ice that abound in 
mt. valleys and in ravines leading to the sea having a motion of many feet per day, 
that of the Muir glacier in the central part of its channel of exit being from 65-70 ft. 
Glacial débris and striz are found high up on the mt. sides, and the iniets of the western 
coast are doubtless the work of ancient glaciers. Beds of cretaceous and miocene 
lignites are found, also dikes of plutonic rock, and remains of the elephant and other 
mammals ure abundant. Gold was discovered on the Kenai peninsula in 1848, but no 
attempts were made by the Russians to seek further for precious metals. In 1880 surface 
gold was found in s.e. A., and the search has since been diligently prosecuted. On 
Douglas, Admiralty, Prince of Wales, and other islands there are quartz-bearing ledges, 
and one mine on Douglas Island in 1886 turned out over $100,000 in bullion monthly. 
Many claims lie close to the water’s edge. The auriferous gravel beds of the Yukon 
and its tributaries are of great extent, and auriferous sands are worked at Yakutat Bay. 
A deposit of silver-bearing galena of great extent and purity exists at Golovin Bay, 
about 1000 m. n.w. of Sitka. Lignite coal of good quality is obtained at various 
points, native copper, cinnabar, graphite, mica, manganese (black oxide), and kaolin. 
There are large deposits of iron ore, and on Bardnoff and Admiralty Islands, beds of 
fine white marble. Sulphur is abundant, petroleum is reported, also garnets and amber. 
Fossil ivory of some value is an article of commerce. Medicinal springs are a feature 
both of the islands and the mainland. 

Zoology.—The principal fur-bearing animals are the black, white, blue, red, silver- 
gray, and cross foxes, marten, mink, otter, lynx, 3 species of bear, wolf, wolverine, and 
sable. The reindeer, moose, mountain sheep, mountain goat, beaver, ermine, muskrat, 
hare, squirrel, marmot, and porcupine are abundant, as are the walrus, sea otter, fur, 
hair and other species of seal. The islands of St. George and St. Paul, in the Pribyloff 
group, are the haunts of the fur'seal. (See Industries.) The waters afford over 60 species 
of food fishes. The cod is found along the whole s. shore, but the principal banks are 
off the Aleutian islands. Salmon are equally abundant, the king salmon of Bristol Bay 


Alaska. 202 


being noted for size and quality, also herring ; and halibut, sea trout, Arctic trout, sea 
bass, mullet, ulicon, etc. The creeks and rivers swarm with salmon during the spawn- 
ing season, and according to Dall, not less than 2,000,000 are caught and dried every 
summer by the natives at the mouth of the Yukon alone. Clams are plentiful along the 
3. eastern coast. The eagle, gull, puffin, ptarmigan, etc., are numerous. 

Botany.—The interior of the country is well wooded. On the Pacific* coast dense 
forests of spruce, yellow cedar, hemlock, and balsam fir clothe the mountain-sides, both 
on the islands and mainland. The spruce predominates and trees are found from 4-6 ft. 
in diameter at the base and growing to a height of from 30-40 ft. before branching. Its 
lumber resembles that of the southern or pitch pine. The yellow cedar is more limited 
in distribution, but is more valuable, yielding a hard and durable lumber invaluable for 
ships. The hemlock attains a large size, but is not plentiful. The white and the black 
birch are sparingly found. The poplar, willow, and alder are abundant. Many of the 
northern islands and parts of the coast are nearly if not quite destitute of trees. Red and 
black currants, gooseberries, cranberries, salmon berries, whortleberries, and strawberries 
and other fruits are indigenous. 

Climate, Soil, and Agriculture.—The great gulf stream of the Pacific, known to 
geographers as the Japan current, strikes and divides on the western end of the Aleutian 
islands. A portion flows n. into Behring’s sea, so that it is a remarkable fact that ice 
does not flow from the Arctic ocean southward through Behring’s straits. The otber 
portion sweeps southward and eastward, and makes the whole n.w. coast habitable, 
giving to southern A., onthe coast and the adjacent islands, a winter climate milder than 
that of New York city. In the Yukon district the mean annual temperature is about 25° 
Fahr., and from 3-4 ft. below the surface there is a subsoil of frozen earth, from 6-8 
ft. deep. This phenomenon is ascribed to the want of drainage, together with a covering 
of moss that shields the ground from the hot suns of the Arctic summer ; yet, notwith- 
standing this ice subsoil, during the summer months there is a luxuriant growth of veg- 
etation. The mean annual temperature of the Aleutian district is 36°-40° Fahr. During 
a period of 5 years the greatest cold was found to be zero and the highest temperature 
77°. The Sitka district has a warmer and moister climate, the mean annual temperature 
being 44.7° and that in winter seldom reaching the freezing point. The average annual 
rainfall here is about 40 in. The rainfall on the upper Yukon is less than on the coast 
and the sunshine is more continuous. In the interior of A. the cold is extreme and there 
are regions covered with eternal ice and snow. Cyclones are unknown in A. The 
Aleutian islands and the mainland below the Coast range, extending n. and w. from Sitka 
to the peninsula, have a fertile soil, which is largely a vegetable soil with a clay subsoil, 
producing oats, barley, potatoes, and root crops. In favorable localities in s.e. A., cauli- 
flowers and cabbages are grown, and it is probable that in many parts all the cereals 
except corn can beraised. Blue, blue-joint, and wood-meadow grasses grow luxuriantly, 
and in s.e. A. pasturage is obtained during 8 months of the year. There are, however, 
few horses and cattle in the territory. 

Industries. — These are principally the fur seal and salmon fisheries, and, since 1895, 
gold-mining. Over two-thirds of the annual catch of fur seals in the world is taken in 
Alaskan waters. The seal fishery is controlled by an American corporation, operating 
under stringent congressional regulations, and the government has received from the 
corporation for rent of the Pribyloff Islands (q. v.) much more than the amount paid 
for the purchase of Alaska, During the season of 1896 the lessees of the islands took 
30,000 male seals, and 66 vessels engaged in pelagic sealing took 20,712. The males on 
the islands exceeded the needs of the herds there, but the number of seals frequenting 
the sea showed a steady decrease. The supply of salmon appeared to be inexhaustible. 
There were 29 canning establishments in operation, and 619,879 cases were packed in 
1895, and a still larger number in 1896. The canneries employed 2,000 white men, 1,600 
Indians, and 2,000 Chinese. Cod, halibut, and herring are caught in large quantities. 
Besides these and salmon, the waters of Alaska contain over 1U0 species of food fish. In 
1896, congress provided for a regular inspection of all the fisheries. The development 
of gold mining has been extraordinary, following the reports of the first geological 
survey made by the government in 1895. The initial fields of operation were in the 
Sitka district, the Yukon river region, and along the coast in the vicinity of Cook’s 
Inlet. During the year ending Oct. 1, 1896, the output of gold mines within Alaska was 
valued at $2,300,000. Under the treaty of 1892, the United States and Great Britain 
appointed commissioners to survey the country through which the boundary runs. In 
1895 some excitement was caused by a rumor that Great Britain claimed nearly 30,000 
square miles of territory in Alaska, containing the best gold fields, but on Jan. 30, 1897, 
a treaty was signed providing for a commission to locate the boundary line,so far as it 
coincides with the 141st meridian. 

Religion and Education. —The United States government maintains about 20 public 
schools in the mainland and islands. The Russian Greek Church has schools at Fort 
Kenai, Ninilchik, Tooyounok, and Alexandrofsk, and orphanages at Unalaska, Kadiak, 
and Sitka. Several schools and missions and an industrial training school at Sitka are 
supported by the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions. In 1895, the Rev. Peter T. 
Rowe, D.D., was consecrated the first Protestant Episcopal bishop of Alaska, the terri- 
tory being raised from a missionary district, because of the large religious, educational 
and charitable interests that denomination had established there. The activities of the 


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various religious denominations comprise church, mission, day and boarding school, 
hospital, and training school buildings, and, at Auvik, a well-equipped saw mill for the 
industrial training of the natives. The congressional appropriation for educational 
work in Alaska for 1895-96 was $30,000, an inadequate amount, because the closing of 
many contract schools threw an additional burden on the regular government schools. 
The strongest denominations are the Roman Catholic, Russian Greek, and Presbyter.an. 

Government, elc.—The capital and port of entry for the customs district of A. is 
Sitka, and here are situated the land office, court house, custom house, and penitentiary. 
The territorial officers are a gov. receiving $3000 salary, a U. 8. judge, a clerk and re- 
ceiver of public moneys,a U.S. district attorney, a U. 8S. marshal and surveyor gen. 
All civil suits are tried by the U. 8. commissioner. There are sub-ports of entry at Ton- 
gass, Wrangel, and Juneau ins.e. A., and on Kadiak and Oonalaska islands. There is 
a monthly mail service between Port Townsend and several ports in s.e. A. 

The enforcement of law and order in all portions of A. is impossible, and except in 
the s. eastern part of the territory, civil government is merely nominal and, it is believed, 
must remain so antil mail communication is established or those charged with the duty 
of administering it are furnished with some kind of safe and reliable transportation. In 
all the more remote sections of the territory the law prohibiting the importation and sale 
of intoxicating liquors and breech-loading fire-arms is openly violated ; crimes, including 
murder, are committed with impunity, and there is no punishment for the offenders, for the 
simple reason that the officials are not provided with the means necessary to put the law 
in force. The indefiniteness of the boundary line between A. and the British possessions 
threatens, since the discovery of gold on the eastern tributaries of the Yukon, to become 
a cause of international disputes. 

Native Races.—These are classed as Orarians and Indians; the Orarians being 
divided into Innuits or Eskimos and Creoles and Aleuts; the Indians into Tinneh, 
Thlinkets, and Hydahs—not to mention the many tribes, settlements, and families 
into which all these are sub-divided. The Orarians occupy almost all the coast 
and its outlying islands, and portions of the peninsula; the Indians possess the 
interior, the coast at Cook’s inlet and Copper river, and the Alexandrian archipelago, 
southward from mt. St. Elias. The Innuits are described as tall, muscular, and good- 
natured, with coarse brown hair, yellow complexions, small eyes, and high cheek bones, 
and as having a common language split up into dialects. The Arctic division embraces 
about 380 small settlements (see illustration NoRTH AND SouTH AMERICA, figs. 9, 12, 20), 
but the majority are found on or near Norton’s sound and the Yukon and Kuskoquim 
rivers. Although superior to the other Eskimos of the North American continent, the 
Innuits are savages, and those n. of the Aliaskan peninsula are nomadic in summer. 
The Aleuts or Unungum (‘‘our people”) occupy portions of the peninsula and the islands 
westward from the Shumagin group. They havean average height of 5 ft. 6in., beara 
strong resemblance to the Japanese, are civilized, Christianized, and more or less edu- 
cated. The customs and modes of life of ancient times (see same illus., figs. 1, 17), have 
given place to those of the whites with whom they are associated. They are decidedly 
superior to both the Innuits and Indians, but under Russian rule, their condition was de- 
plorable and their numbers were considerably lessened. The Tinneh (‘* people’) are 
akin to the Indians of Oregon and California. They are tall, well formed, and brave ; 
skilled hunters and fishers, but where uninfluenced by civilization are degraded in habits, 
believers in witchcraft, and live in abject fear of the Shaman or sorcerer. The Thiinkets 
resemble them. The Hydahs, on the southern end of Prince of Wales island are large, 
strong, light-colored, and noted for bravery and ferocity. They are skilled workers in 
wood and metal. 

The Indians are sub-divided into various families, each of which has its badge or to- 
tem. Members of the same tribe may marry, but not members of the same badge. A 
wolf, for instance, is not permitted to ally himself with the wolf family, but may with 
that of the whale. The rank of a chief is indicated by the height of a pole erected in 
front of his house. In front of their leading houses and at their burial places are some- 
times seen immense timbers covered with carvings which constitute the genealogical 
record of the family. Polygamy, with all its attendant evils, female infanticide and the 
slavery and degradation of women, are, or were, among the customs both of the fnnuits 
Tinneh, and Thlinkets. Among some of the Indians on the upper Yukon and around 
the shores of Behring’s sea, the bodies of men are burned. Where wood is scarce, the 
bodies of women are not considered to be worth the wood that would be consumed in 
the burning. Among the Kariaks the old and feeble-are sometimes put to death. In 
some localities cannibalism was practised in former times. In spite of the prevailing dis- 
eases—scrofula and consumption—and the devotion of certain tribes to intoxicating li- 
quors, the natives are said to be increasing. 

A. is celebrated for its canoes. Some of the largest of these canoes are from 60-75 ft. 
long, and 8-10 ft. wide, and will carry 100 people. The operation of making them is 
thus described : ‘‘ Having selected a sound tree and cut it the desired length, the out- 
side is first shaped, then the tree is hollowed out till the shell is of proper thickness ; this 
is done with a tool resembling a grubbing-hoe, or narrow adze witha short handle. It is 
then filled with water, which is heated by throwing in hot stones. The canoe is then 
covered with a canvas to keep the steam in. This softens the timber, and the sides are 
distended by cross-sticks to the desired breadth at the center, and tapering toward the 


ye 204 


ends in lines of beautiful symmetry. It is finished off with a highly ornamental figure. 
head, and the bulwarks strengthened by a fancy covering board.” The Aleuts use ca- 
noes made of the skin of the hair seal or sea lion. 

A fishing scene on the Naass river, witnessed by a missionary, is one of many graphic 
descriptions in Jackson’s work on A.: ‘‘It was what the Indians call their ‘small 
fishing.’ The salmon catch is at another time. These small fish are valuable for food 
and «liso for oil. They come up for six weeks only, and with great regularity. The 
Naass, where I visited it, was about a mile and a half wide, and the fish had come up in 
great quantities, so great that, with three nails upon a stick, an Indian would rake in a 
eanoeful in a short time. Five thousand Indians were gathered together from British 
Columbia and Alaska, decked out in their strange fantastic costumes, faces painted red and 
black, and they had feathers on their heads and imitations of wild beasts on their dresses. 
Over the fish was.an immense cloud of sea-gulls, so many and so thick, as they hovered 
about looking for fish, the sight resembled a heavy fall of snow. Over the gulls were 
eagles soaring about and watching their chance. After the small fish had come up 
larger fish from the ocean, There was the halibut, the cod, the porpoise, and the fin- 
back whale ; man life, fish life, and bird life—all under intense excitement.” 

Population, ete. —In 1880 this was estimated at 33,426—17,617 Eskimos, 1756 Creoles, 
and 430 whites. In 1887 it was estimated at 39,000-—5000 whites, 1800 Creoles, who are 
practically white, and 38000 Aleuts. The census for 1890 gives a total population of 30,329. 

Of this population about 25,000 are found in that section of the territory westward 
from Kadiak, including the villages along the coast and islands, to the end of the Aleu- 
tian peninsula. These contain about 4800 Creoles and Aleuts, who are civilized, and, 
to a large extent, educated. They reside mainly on the islands and are generally mem- 
bers of the Greek church. In the s, eastern section of the territory the white popula- 
tion is estimated at 2000, residing principally at Sitka, Juneau, Douglas Island, Wran- 
gel, Killisnoo, and some smaller points, while the natives number 7000 or 8000. 

St. Michael’s or Michaelofsky is the principal seat of the Yukon river trade, and Fort 
Wrangel or Wrangell, on the n. western coast of Wrangel Island, at the mouth of the 
Stickine river is a business center for s. eastern A. Belkofsky, near the southern ex- 
tremity of the peninsula, is the principal depot for the trade in sea otter furs. See Ban- 
croft’s History of Alaska, 1730-1885 (San Francisco, 1886); Ray’s Report of the Inter- 
national Polar Eapedition to Point Barrow, 1881-83 (Washington, 1885); Seton Karr’s 
The Shores and Alps of Alaska (1887) ; Elliott’s Our Arctic Province and Alaska and the 
Seal Islands (1886); Schwatka’s Along Alaska’s Great River (New York, 1885); Wright’s 
The Ice Age in North America (New York, 1889); Jackson’s Alaska and the Missions of the 
North Pacific Coast; Mrs. E. 8. Willard’s Life in Alaska (1884); Ballou’s The New Eldorado 
(Boston, 1889); The Alaska Coast Pilot, a government publication; Report of the Governor 
of Alaska to the Secretary of the Interior (1896). 


ALASKA SABLE. A euphemistic name given by dealers in fur and also by their cus- 
tomers to the fur of the skunk (q.vV.). 


ALATAU (‘‘ mottled’’), a name given to a range of lofty mts. forming the boundary 
between Turkestan and Mongolia, and the northern limit of the great table-land of cen- 
tral Asia. It is made up of five sierra-like sub-ranges, the Zungarian, the Trans-Ili, the 
Kungei, and the Terskei A., the fifth, running west, having been renamed by the Rus- 
sians the Alexander range. These are all grouped round lake Issik-Kul (elevation, 
5300 ft.) as a central point. The mts., which are principally of granite formation, 
range generally in elevation from 10,000 to 15,000 ft., and the loftiest peak, Khan Ten- 
gri, is 24,000 ft. above the sea. 


ALATER'NUS, according to some, a genus of plants of the natural order rhamnacee 
(q.v.), akin to rhamnus (see BUCKTHORN) ; but more generally regarded as a sub-genus 
of rhamnus, consisting of evergreen shrubs, of which the best known is rhamnus A., or 
A. phillyrea, a large shrub, densely branched, with shining alternate leaves, which are 
more or less ovate. The flowers are dicecious, racemed, numerous, and small, much 
sought after by bees, This shrub is abundant in Europe, 


ALA'TRI, at. in Italy, 6 m.n. of Frosinone. It is the see of a bishop, anu shows 
considerable remains of Pelasgian antiquity. Population about 14,000. The ancient 
name was Alatrium. 


ALAU’DA, genus of birds, including larks, chiefly noted as song birds. They are 
found in all countries, but abound especially in Europe, They are birds of passage, and 
some of the genus are esteemed for the table. 


ALAU’SI, at. of the republic of Ecuador, South America, in the province of Chim- 
borazo, 65 m. e. from Guayaquil, at an elevation of 7980 ft. above the sea, in a valley of 
the Andes, on the river Alausi, which flows into the gulf of Guayaquil. The valley of 
the Alausi is extremely fertile, producing sugar, grain, and fruits. There are hot springs 
in the town. Pop. estimated at 4000 to 6000. 


A’LAVA, one of the provinces of Spain, 1200 sq.m. Its surface is mountainous, 
especially in the n., where the Pyrenees form the natural boundary. It is separated from 
Logrino by the Ebro; the Zadowa and the Ayadak are the other rivers. The soil is fer- 
tile, producing wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp, and fruit. The mountains are covered 


205 Alba:™ 


with forests of oak, beech, chestnut, etc., and contain iron, copper, lead, and marble. 
Pop. ’87, 92,893. Capital, Vittoria. 

A’LAVA, Don Mieueu Ricarpo vp’, a Spanish general, b. at Vittoria, in 1771, of anoble 
family, in the province of Alava. He entered the navy in early life; but afterwards 
changed to the land-service. After the abdication of Ferdinand VII., he was for a time 
a zealous partisan of France; however, in 1811, when he saw the fortunes of Joseph 
beginning to wane, he abandoned the cause of this prince, to embrace that of the national 
party, and accepted the office of Spanish commissary on the staff of Wellington. He 
gained the confidence of this general, and from this time manifested the strongest pre- 
dilection for England and English institutions. The war of independence furnished him 
with numerous occasions of distinguishing himself. After the restoration of the king, 
however, be was arrested, on the suspicion of entertaining liberal opinions; but on the 
application of his uncle, Ethenard, the inquisitor, seconded by the influence of Welling- 
ton, he was not only liberated, but appointed ambassador to the Hague. He returned to 
Spain in 1820, after the revolution; became captain-general of Aragon, made himself con- 
spicuous among the Exaltados, and figured in the ranks of the militia on occasion of the 
revolt of the royal guard at Madrid, July 7, 1822. In the cortes assembled at Seville in 
1823, he voted for the suspension of the royal authority, and took part in the negotiations 
carried on with the duke of Angouléme, at Cadiz. The re-establishment of absolute 
monarchy in the peninsula drove him, as a political refugee, to Brussels and England, till, 
ut the death of Ferdinand, he was recalled by the regent, Maria Christina. In 1834, he 
was appointed Spanish ambassador to London; and towards the end of 1835, he under. 
took a mission to Paris. Under the administration of Isturiz, A. showed himself as zeal- 
ous for the moderate system as he had been for the preceding one, and advocated the 
French intervention, which he had opposed during his embassy to London. After the 
insurrection of La Granja, he refused to swear to the constitution of 1812, declaring that 
he was tired of constantly taking new oaths; he gave in his resignation accordingly, and 
retired to France, where he died in 1848. 


ALAY, a Turkish ceremony on the assembling of the forces at the breaking out of 
a war; essentially a public display of the sacred standard of Mohammed, which may be 
looked upon only by Moslems and touched only by emirs. Once when the standard had 
been shown, the rule was forgotten, but when remembered all the Christians who had 
innocently looked at the banner were slaughtered. 


ALBA (ancient Alba Pompeia), a very ancient city of north Italy, in the province of 
Cuneo, on the right bank of the Tanaro, 31 m. s.e. from Turin. It is situated in a plain 
surrounded by hills. The neighborhood produces much wine and silk, besides corn, oii, 
and fruits. The town has an extensive trade in cattle. It isan episcopal seat; the cathe- 
dral was founded in 1486. Pop. 6000. 


AL’BA, or ALVA, FERDINAND ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, Duke of, prime minister, and 
gen. of the Spanish armies under Charles V. and Philip II., was b., in 1508, of one of the 
most illustrious families of Spain. He was educated under the eye of his grandfather, 
who instructed him in the arts of war and of government. He fought, while yet a youth, 
at the battle of Pavia, and had the custody of Francis I. while a prisoner. He commanded 
under the emperor Charles V., was present at the siege of Tunis, and accompanied the 
expedition against Algiers. He defended Perpignan against the dauphin, distinguished 
himself in Navarre and Catalonia, and was in consequence created duke of A. His cau- 
tiousness and his taste for political intrigue afforded as yet no very high evidence of his 
military talents; and even Charles V., whom he counseled, when in Hungary, to build a 
bridge of gold for the Turks, rather than hazard a decisive battle, seems to have intrusted 
him with the command rather as matter of personal favor than recognition of his abilities. 
His pride was hurt at the low estimation in which he was held; and his real genius began 
to show itself. The victory which Charles V. gained at Miihlberg over John Frederic, 
elector of Saxony, in 1547, was due to the able generalship of the duke of A. Under his 
influence, as president of the council of war, the captive elector was condemned to death, 
and it was entirely against his wish that the emperor commuted the sentence. He took 
part under the emperor in the expedition against Henry II., king of France, who had 
taken possession of Metz; but here his exertions, as well as those of the emperor, proved 
unavailing. He was more fortunate in Italy against the combined armies of the pope 
and the French king, which he repeatedly defeated during the campaign of 1555. After 
the abdication of the emperor Charles V. in 1556, he continued to hold the command of 
the army, and overran the states of the church, which, after the retreat of the French 
army in 1557, lay entirely at his mercy. He was obliged, however, by the command of 
Philip II., to conclude a peace with pope Paul IV., and restore all his conquests. Being 
recalled from Italy, he appeared in 1559 at the court of France, with which Spain had 
become reconciled by the peace of Chéteau-Cambresis, April 8, 1559; and as proxy for 
his sovereign, espoused Elizabeth, Henry II.’s daughter. 

When the inhabitants of the Netherlands, who had been accustomed to freedom, 
revolted against the tyranny of Spain, and especially against the hated inquisition, the 
duke of A.’s counsel was to suppress the insurrection forcibly and with rigor. The king 
accordingly committed the matter to his hands, and sent him to the Netherlands, 1567, 
with unlimited power and a large military force. His first step on arriving was to estab 


Albacete. 
Albania, 2 0 6 


lish what was called the ‘‘ bloody council,” in which he himself at first presided, and 
over which he afterwards appointed the sanguinary don Juan de Vargas. This tribunal 
condemned all without distinction whose opinions appeared dubious, or whose-wealth 
excited jealousy. The present and the absent, the living and the dead, were subjected 
alike to trial, and their property confiscated by the council. A number of the merchants 
and mechanics emigrated to England; above 100,000 abandoned their native country, and 
many others enlisted under the banners of the proscribed princes, Louis and William of 
Orange. A., rendered still more savage by adefeat which befell his lieutenant, the duke 
of Aremberg, put to death the counts Egmont and Horn on the scaffold. He afterwards 
defeated Prince Louis, and compelled William of Orange to retire toGermany; upon 
which he entered Brussels in the greatest triumph on the 22d Dec., 1568. The pope pre- 
sented him with a consecrated hat and sword, as defender of the Catholic faith; an honor 
which, having been hitherto conferred only on crowned heads, increased his insolence to 
the highest degree. He caused a statue to be cast, in which he was represented as tramp- 
ling under foot two human figures, representing the nobles and people of the Netherlands; 
and this he set up in Antwerp. His executioners shed more blood than his soldiers; and 
none now withstood his arms except Holland and Zealand. But these provinces con- 
tinually renewed their efforts against him, and succeeded in destroying the fleet which 
had been equipped by his orders. This disaster, and perhaps still more the apprehension 
that he might lose the king’s favor, induced him to request that he might be recalled. 
Philip gladly acceded, as he perceived that the obstinacy of the rebels was only increased 
by these cruelties, and he was desirous of trying the effect of milder measures. A. 
accordingly resigned the command of the troops to Don Louis de Requesens, and, Dec. 18, 
1578, left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had executed 18,000men. The 
war which he had kindled burned for 68 years, and cost Spain $800,000,000, her finest 
troops, and the loss of seven of the richest provinces of the Netherlands. 

A. was received at Madrid with the highest distinction, but did not long enjoy his 
former consideration. Don Frederic, one of his sons, having seduced one of the queen’s 
ladies of honor under promise of marriage, and being arrested on this account, the father 
assisted him to escape, and, in opposition to the desire of the king, united him in marriage 
to one of his relatives. He was in consequence banished from the court to his castle of 
Uzeda, where he lived two years. But now the troubles in Portugal, the crown of which 
Philip claimed as his hereditary right, induced the king to draw A. anew from his retreat. 
The duke accordingly led an army into Portugal, and drove out don Antonio, who, as 
grandson of John III., had taken possession of the throne. The whole country was 
speedily conquered (1581); and A., with his accustomed cruelty and rapacity, seized the 
treasures of the capital himself, while he allowed the soldiers to plunder without mercy 
the suburbs and the surrounding country. Philip, dissatisfied with these proceedings, 
desired to have an investigation of the conduct of the duke; but the haughty bearing of 
the latter, and the fear of a revolt, induced him to abandon it. A. d. at Lisbon, Dec. 11, 
1582, at the age of 74. He had a fine countenance, with a haughty air and a robust frame; 
he siept little, while he both labored and wrote much. It has been said of him, that 
during 60 years of military service he never lost a battle, and never allowed himself to 
be surprised. 


ALBACE'TE, at. of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, in Murcia, 138 
m. s.e. from Madrid, and a station on the railway from Madrid to Alicante. It stands 
in a fertile but treeless plain, is built with some degree of regularity, and contains a 
number of squares and many good houses. It is a place of considerable trade, and has 
great cattle-fairs in Sept. It was formerly noted in Spain for the manufacture of knives 
and other steel goods, which, however, were very inferior to those of Sheffield. Annual 
cattle fairs are held here. Pop. 20,700.— The province of Albacete is partly formed 
trom the former kingdom of Murcia, and partly from New Castile. The river Segura 
drains the province. It is generally hilly, and in some parts mountainous, some of its 
mountains attaining an altitude of 5000 feet; but it contains also rich plains and fertile 
valleys. Agriculture is in a more advanced state than in most parts of Spain, and the 
mineral wealth of the province is said to be considerable. It produces grain, oil, wine, 
tobacco, fruits of various kinds. Large numbers of cattle, horses, sheep, and goats are 
reared, The area of the province is 5972 sq. m.; pop. ’87, 229,492. 


AL'BA LON'GA, one of the most ancient cities of Italy, situated on the rocky ridge 
that runs along the eastern shore of the Alban lake, between the lake and the Alban 
mount. See ALBANO. According to legendary history, it was built by Ascanius, the 
son of Aineas, about 300 years before the foundation of Rome, which is represented as 
a colony of A. Notwithstanding this, the Romans, under Tullus Hostilius, destroyed 
the city, and removed the inhabitants to Rome. It seems certain that A. was an 
important city long before the existence of Rome, and the head of a confederation of 
Latin towns, and that when it was destroyed, many of its inhabitants settled at Rome. 
Some traces of its walls are yet to be seen. 


AL'BAN, Sarnt, the first martyr of Britain, was b. at Verulam, in the 3d c., and 
after having long lived as a heathen, was converted to Christianity, but put to death at 
the commencement of Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians. His anniversary is 


207 Albania.” 


eclebrated on the 22d June. The t. of St. Albans, which bears his name, is believed to 
gtand on the site of his birthplace, or the scene of his martyrdom. See ALBANS, ST. 

ALBANEN’SES, a division of the sect of Catharists in the 11th c., holding the Gnostic 
doctrine of two principles, good and evil. They denied the divinity of Christ, and 
rejected the story of his death, resurrection, and ascension; they denied the resurrection 
of the dead; and believed the judgment day was passed, and hell’s torments are suffered 
in this life; they also denied free will and original sin, and held that man can impart 
the Holy Spirit to himself. 


ALBA'NI is the name of a rich and celebrated family of Rome, who came originally 
from Albania in the 16th c., and settled first at Urbino. The great influence of the 
family dates from the accession (1700) of Giovanni Francesco A. to the papal throne as 
Clemens XI. It has since furnished a succession of cardinals. 

ALBANI, Emma (stage name of Emma La Jeunesse), b. Canada, 1851; opera singer, 
whose first public appearance was at Albany, N. Y., when but 12 years old. She studied 
under Duprez, of Paris, and Lamperti, of Milan, making her début at Milan, 1870. She 
m. 1878, Mr. Ernest Gye, of London. Among her impersonations are Elsa in ‘‘ Lohengrin,”’ 
Elizabeth in ‘‘ Tannhauser,’’ and in 1896 she appeared in ‘‘ Tristan und Isolde.”’ 

ALBA'NI, FRANCESCO, a painter of the Bolognese school of the time of the Caracci ; 
b. at Bologna 1578, and d. there in 1660. He studied, along with Guido Reni, first 
under Calvert, and afterwards under the Caracci. He has painted above fifty altar- 
pieces, worthy of the Caracci school; but his inclination lay more to the representation 
of scenes of a playful and pastoral or of a mythical kind, and of this nature are the 
greater part of his pieces. He had by his second wife a family of twelve children of 
extraordinary beauty, in whom he found exquisite models for his Venuses, Galateas, 
and angels’ heads with the disadvantage, however, of imparting a certain uniformity to 
the countenances of his figures. His representation of the four seasons, so often 
imitated, gained him great renown. A.’s chief defect lies in the expression of life and 
feeling. 

ALBA'NIA forms the s.w. district of European Turkey, and occupies the w. of the 
Balkan peninsula, from Bosnia and Montenegro to the Greek frontiers, which the Ber- 
lin congress of 1878 recommended should be advanced to the Kalamas river. Upper or 
northern Albania corresponds to the Illyria of the Romans, and lower or southern 
Albania corresponds to the ancient Epirus. On the east boundary, forming the water- 
shed of the peninsula, rises the range of the Bora-dagh and the Pindus. The first 
detaches itself from the wild masses of the Tshar-dagh (dagh in Turkish means mown- 
tain) and Argentaro mountains ; and west of it lie parallel chains, inclosing on the one 
side long elevated valleys, and sinking on the other in terraces down to level strips 
along the coast, consisting mostly of unhealthy swamps and lagoons. Pindus, to the 
s., is also flanked by isolated basins or hollows, whose western edges pass into the 
jagged and thick-wooded Ebirotic highlands. 'These highlands advance to the sea, 
forming steep rocky coasts ; one promontory, the Acroceraunian, projecting in cape 
Linguetta far into the sea, reaches a height of 4000 to 5000 ft. 

The chief rivers are the Bojana, the Drin, the Skombi, Ergent, Vojussa, Glykys or 
Acheron (which follows for some distance a subterranean channel, and on reappearing 
is called Mauropotamos), the Arta, and the upper course of the Aspropotamos. Among 
the lakes, those of Bojana, Ochri, and Janina are the most important. 

A fine climate, the heat of which is tempered by high mountains and the proximity 
of the sea, and a favorable soil, would seem to invite the inhabitants to agriculture ; but 
for the most part in vain. In the north little or nothing is cultivated but maize ; in the 
moist valleys, a little rice and barley are produced ; but the mountain-terraces are used 
as pastures for numerous herds of cattle and sheep. In Epirus there is more variety. 
Here the slopes of the lower valleys are covered with olives, fruit and mulberry trees, 
intermixed with patches of vines and maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges 
furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau of Janina yields abundance of grain ; 
and in the valleys opening to the s. the finer fruits are produced, along with maize, rice, 
and wheat. Even cotton and indigo might be profitably cultivated in the moist valleys ; 
but in its present wretched condition the country can barely support its scanty popula- 
tion. 

The inhabitants, estimated at about 1,400,000, form a peculiar people, the Albanians 
or Arnauts; they call themselves Skypetars. They are descendants of the ancient 
Illyrians, mixed with Greeks and Slaves, and not to be confounded with the Albani that 
live on the Caspian sea. The Albanians are half-civilized mountaineers, frank to a 
friend, vindictive to an enemy. They are constantly under arms, and are more devoted 
to robbery and piracy than to cattle-feeding and agriculture. They live in perpetual 
anarchy, every village being at war with its neighbor, and even the several quarters of 
the same town carrying on mutual hostilities. Many of them serve as mercenaries ip 
other countries, and they form the besi soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time the 
Albanians were all Christians ; after the death of their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg, 
and their subjugation by the Turks, a large part became Mohammedans, who dis- 
tinguished themselves by cruelty and treachery towards the tribes that remained true to 
their old faith. The steep valleys of the Acheron in the s., forming the district of 


Albania, 
Albany. 2 08 


Suli, are inhabited by a powerful tribe, the Suliotes, who till their fields sword in hand, 
and conceal their harvests in the earth. They made themselves famous by their long 
resistance to Ali Pasha. In the n., between the Black Drin and the sea, is the country 
or circle of the Mirdites, i.e., the brave, who are always ready with weapons in their 
hands to defend their freedom and their religion—the Roman Catholic. A. is officially 
divided between the vilayets of Scutari and Janina. The divisions chiefly recognized 
by the Albanians themselves are the varieties of the native tribes, which col. Leake 
divides into the Ghegides, whose chief towns are Dulcigno, Scutari, and Durazzo; the 
Toskides, in Berat and Elbasan ; the Liape, in the mountains between the Toske and 
Delvino; and the Tsami, in the s. Albanians form an element in the population of 
Greeee, Italy, Sicily, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Dalmatia and Slavonia. 


ALBANIA, in ancient geography, a country in Asia on the w. side of the Caspian 
sea and n. of Armenia, corresponding with the modern Daghestan, Schirvan, and Lag- 
histan. It is mostly alluvial, made by the river Cyrus, and is very fertile. The ancient 
Albanians were described as tall, very strong, and of graceful appearance. ‘They were 
nomads, and never went into agriculture or trade. The Romans under Pompey first 
encountered them (65 B. c.) and found a force of 60,000 infantry and 22,000 cavalry con- 
testing the road. Pompey secured a nominal submission, but they continued practically 
independent. 


ALBA’NO, at. of Italy, about 18 m. from Rome, on the declivity of the lava-walls 
which encompass the lake Albano. It is the seat of a bishop, has about 7000 inhabitants, 
and is surrounded with handsome mansions of the wealthier Romans. Itis on the oppo- 
site side of the lake from where Alba Longa stood, and owed its origin to the villas of 
ancient Roman magnates, such as Pompeius, Domitian, and Clodius. A valuable wine 
is produced in the environs. Near the town, on the old Appian way, are found the 
remains of an amphitheatre, and a sepulchre of Etruscan architecture. 

THE ALBAN LAKE, or lago di Castello, is formed in the basin of an extinct volcano, and 
has a circumference of 6m., with the enormous depth of more than 1000 ft. Its elevation is. 
nearly 1000 ft. above the sea-level. While the Romans were at war with the Veientes 
(890 B.c.), this lake rose to an extraordinary height in the heat of summer, and without 
any apparent cause. Etruscan diviners declared that the conquest of Veii depended 
upon letting off the waters of the lake. Stimulated by this, the Romans, under the direc- 
tion of the Etruscans, opened an emissary or tunnel through the lava-wall which bounds 
it. In the execution of this work they acquired the art of mining, which they now 
applied to undermine the walls of Veii. The tunnel, which still remains, and still 
fulfills its ancient office, is 14 m. in length, with a height of 7 ft. and a width of 4 ft. On 
the eastern bank of the lake, rises monte Cavo, the ancient Mt. Albanus, 3000 ft. high, 
affording an extensive and magnificent view from its summit. Upon it once stood the 
magnificent temple of Jupiter Latialis, which was approached by a paved way, for the 
ascent of the solemn processions of the Latin confederation (Werte Latine), and for the 
ovations of Roman generals. The road remains, in great part, perfect to this day. 

The Albano stone, called Peperino, was much used in Roman buildings. Itis akind 
of volcanic tufa, of an ash-color, and is still quarried extensively at A. 


AL'BANS, Sr., an ancient borough in Hertfordshire, situated on the top and northern 
side of a picturesque hill, 21 m. n.w. from London. The Ver, a small tributary of the 
Colne, separates it from the site of the ancient Verulamium (Verulam), an important 
station in the time of the Romans, and the scene of a terrible slaughter in the insurrec. 
tion under Boadicea. In honor of St. Alban, said to have suffered martyrdom here in 
297, a Benedictine monastery was founded by Offa, king of Mercia, in 796. The foun. 
dation of the t. is supposed to be due to Ulsig (or Ulsin), who was abbot about 150 years 
later. Two battles were fought near St. A. during the wars of the roses, in 1465 and 
1461. In the first Henry VI. became a captive; in the other, he was set at liberty by his 
brave queen, Margaret of Anjou. The old abbey-church, restored in 1875 by Sir Gilbert 
Scott, is a cruciform building of irregular architecture, 547 ft. in length by 206 in breadth, 
with an embattled tower 146 ft. high. The abbot of St. A. had aseat in the house of 
peers, and had precedence of all other English abbots. In St. Michael’s church is to be . 
seen a monument to the memory of the great Bacon, who bore the titles of baron Veru- 
lam and viscount St. A. More recently, the Beauclerk family have taken from this place 
the title of duke, and the Grimston family that of earl. The borough was disfranchised 
in 1852 for bribery. Pop. ’91, 12,895, many of whom are employed in straw-plaiting. St. 
A. has recently been made the centre of a new diocese of the church of England, its 
first bishop having been enthroned in June, 1877. 


ALBANS, St., in Vermont. See Sr. ALBANS. 


ALBANY, or ALBAINN, an ancient name for the highlands of Scotland, and retained. 
in some degree of use down to our own day. Connected with it is the term Albiones, 
applied to the inhabitants of the entire British island in Festus Avienus’s account of the 
voyage of Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, in the Oth c. B.C; also the term Aldion, which 
appears as the name of the island in Aristotle’s Treatise of the World. It may, indeed, be 
pretty safely assumed that Albion or Albany was the original name of Britain among its 
Celtic population; and that it only became restricted to the n.w. provinces of Scotland 


1 ° 
209 Albany. 


when the Celts had for the most part become confined to the same region. Albainn 
means a country of heights (the root being ald, or alp, a height) ; and it is remarkable to 
find Albania also a mountainous country. The modern use of the name A. may be said 
to have taken ‘ts rise in an act of a Scottish council held at Scone in June, 1898, when 
the title of duke of A. was conferred on the brother of king Robert III., then acting as re- 
gent of the kingdom. The title, being forfeited in the son of the first holder, was after- 
wards conferred on Alexander, second son of king James II., in the person of whose son, 
John, it became extinct in 1586. Subsequently it was conferred in succession on Henry 
lord Darnley, on Charles I. in infancy, on James II. in infancy, and (as a British title) 
on Frederick, second son of George III. Prince Charles Stuart assumed the appellation 
of Count of A. as an incognito title, and gave the title of duchess of A. to his legitimated 
daughter. The title was restored in 1881 and conferred upon prince Leopold. 


ALBANY, aco. in e. N. Y., on the w. side of the Hudson river, 499sq.m. ; pop. 90, 
164,555. The surface is hilly and mountainous in the s. ; soil good in the valleys, but 
on high ground sandy and poor. Marl, gypsum, magnesian limestone, and iron are 
found. Several railroads intersect it, including the great New York Central and Hudson 
River, the first section of which, from A. to Schenectady, was the earliest railroad in 
the state. The staple products are wool, grain, hay, milk, etc. Co. seat, Albany. 


ALBANY, aco. in the s.e. part of Wyoming, 4500 sq.m. ; drained by the n. fork 
of the Platte and the Laramie r. It is mountainous, Laramie peak being 10,000 ft. above 
sea-level. The Union Pacific railroad runs through the co. Cattle and wool are the 
staples. Co. seat, Laramie. Pop. of co., 1890, 8865. 

ALBANY, capital of New York state and of Albany county, is on the west bank of the 
Hudson River, nearly six miles below the head of navigation ; in latitude 42° 39’ 49” 
north, and longitude 73° 44’ 383" west; 145 miles north of New York and 200 miles west 
of Boston. 

The first settlement in Albany was made as early as 1540 by some Frenchmen, who 
commenced erecting a castle near the site, and the place was called Castle until the 
Dutch took possession of it in 1617; they had built a stockade called Fort Nassau, on an 
island below the present location, in 1614, but removed to the mainland and called their 
settlement Beverwyck. In 1624 Fort Orange was erected in what is now the heart of 
the city. In 1626 the Indians destroyed the place, and the inhabitants were sent down 
the river to New Amsterdam forsafety. In 1629 originated the ‘‘ patroon’’ system, by 
which the settlers rented their lands from the patroon or lord of the manor, who had ab- 
solute title to the soil, his tenants being little more than serfs, Killien Van Rensselaer 
and others received a grant of land extending along the Hudson twenty-four miles 
square, including Fort Orange and Beverwyck, and Van Rensselaer became the first 
patroon. He erected a large mansion, with extensive grounds, which remained standing 
until 1894, when it was removed to Williamstown, Mass., to be used as a chapter house 
for the Sigma Phi Society. The property descended through five generations, but the 
patroonship became obsolete after the Declaration of Independence. What is known as 
the ‘‘ Anti-Rent War’ was the result of an attempt to collect these rents for years after 
the Revolution, and caused the troops to be called out many times. It was finally 
arranged in 1853, and most of the tenants received a fee simple of their lands. In 1664 
Beverwyck, Fort Orange, and Willemstadt became English possessions, and were called 
Albany. In 1686 Albany was the first city in the thirteen colonies to be incorporated. 
In June, 1764, the first general Congress of the Colonies met there, and in 1797 it was 
made the permanent capital of the state. In that year and in 1848 it suffered severely 
from fires. In 1886, July 18th to 22d, the bi-centennial of its incorporation was cele- 
brated with elaborate ceremonies, and on Jan. 6, 1897, the centennial of the selection of 
the city as the state capital. 

Albany has a river frontage of four miles, and for about 300 feet back the ground 
is comparatively level and is subject to overflow. From that point four hills, separated 
by ravines, rise westward to a plateau elevated about 200 feet, Prospect Hill reaching 
an altitude of 301 feet. Upon these hills are the Capitol and many elegant residences, - 
stretching away in the distance, giving a very picturesque effect to the city, when 
viewed from the river or the opposite shore. There are numerous parks, large and 
small, of which the most extensive and picturesque is Washington Park, containing 
eighty-one acres, a lake 1700 feet long, and a fountain which is a work of art. This 
was the gift of Col. Henry L. King, in memory of his father, Rufus H. King, and was 
designed by J. Massey Rhind. The subject is Moses smiting the Rock, and besides the 
central figure, twenty-nine feet above the basin, there are grouped about upon the rocks 
a@ woman with two children, a maiden, a soldier, and an old man. Of the many ceme- 
teries, Rural, four miles above the city, and shared by Troy, is one of the finest in the 
country. Here is the tomb of President Arthur, with a magnificent mausoleum, de- 
signed by Ephraim Keyser, representing a life-sized angel placing a palm upon the bier. 
The streets are many of them narrow and steep; scme still retain the old cobble-stone 
pavement, although on others many miles of asphalt and granite have been laid. 
State street, leading to the Capitol, is broad, but steep, and was formerly the general 
market-place, Electric roads furnish transportation to all parts of the city and suburbs. 
Water is supplied from an artificial lake five miles distant, and also from the Hudson; 
it is pumped into reservoirs on Prospect and Bleecker Hills. The fire and police depart- 
ments are well equipped and efficient. 


Albany. 2 1 (0) 


Alberic. 


The Capitol is built of Maine granite, in the Renaissance style, with dome-capped 
tower, and cost more than $18,000,000. It contains an assembly room, senate, court of 
appeals, state library of over 122,000 volumes, and rooms for state officers. Many 
relics of the Revolution and Civil War find place in its spacious corridors. The City 
Hall. erected in 1882, Custom-House, Post-Office, State Agricultural Museum, Geolog- 
ical Hall, Merchants’ Exchange, Hermann’s Bleecker Hall, State Penitentiary, many 
elecant churches and two cathedrals are among the public buildings. The Delevan 
House, for fifty years known as the resort of politicians and eminent men, was burned 
on the night of the 31st of December, 1894. 

Excellent public schools, academies, a high school, normal college and St. Agnes’ 
school for young ladies furnish educational facilities. Connected with Union University 
at Schenectady are Dudley Observatory, a law school and medical college. ‘There are 
four fine libraries, and many newspapers, daily and weekly. There are immense blast- 
furnaces, foundries, breweries, shoe factories, etc. Assessed valuations (1895) real estate, 
$58,549,720, personal, $6,426,995; total, $64,976,715; tax rate $20 per $1000; net debt 
(1896) $3,042,327. In 1896 the combined capital of national banks was $1,550,000; de- 
posits, $6,386,190; resources, $13,158,686. Albany has long taken a high rank in the 
lumber trade, its products amounting annually to several millions. It is also a large 
barley market. Population, 1820, 12,630; 1880, 90,758; 1890, 94,928. 

ALBANY, capital of Linn county, Oregon, is on the Willamette river, twenty-eight 
miles south of Salem and eighty-one south by west from Portland. It is located in an 
extensive valley noted for its beauty and fertility. It has good school buildings, 
Albany college, banking facilities, newspapers, churches, and good water supply. 
There are wagon, match, and furniture factories, saw and planing mills, foundries and 
machine-shops, a wire-cloth factory and woolen and flouring mills. Flour, grain and 
fruit are exported. Population, 1890, 3079. 

ALBANY, a maritime division of Cape Colony, Africa, about 450 m. e. of Cape Town; 
65 m. long by 30 or 40 wide; traversed by Great Fish River. It produces maize, barley, 
and cotton. Capital, Grahamstown, pop, ’91, 10,498. 

ALBANY, LourisA-MARIA-CAROLINE, also ALOYSIA, Countess of, wife of the unfor- 
tunate Charles Edward Stuart (q. v.), grandson of James II. of England. She was the 
daughter of prince Gustavus-Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedern, who fell in the battle of 
Leuthen in 1757. This lady was b. in 1753, and, during her married life, bore the name 
of the countess of A. She had no children; her marriage proved an unhappy one, and 
in order to escape from the ill-usage of her husband, who lived in a state of continual 
drunkenness, she sought refuge in a nunnery, 1780. At the death of the prince in 1788, 
the court of France allowed her an annual pension of 60,000 livres. She outlived the 
house of the Stuarts, which became extinct at the;death of her brother-in-law, the cardi- 
nal of York, in 1807. She died at Florence, which was her usual place of residence, on 
the 29th of Jan. 1824. Her name and her misfortunes have been transmitted to pos- 
terity through the works and autobiography of Alfieri (q. v.), with whom she lived after 
the death of the prince. Their remains repose in the same tomb in the church of Santa 
Croce at Florence, between the tombs of Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo. 


ALBATEG’NI L, d. 929; an Arabian astronomer, whose proper name was MOHAMMED 
Ipn JABIR IBN SENAN ABU ABDILLAH, named from Batan in Mesopotamia, of which t. 
he is said to have been chief. His astronomical observations extended over more than 
60 years, and were conducted on the Euphrates and at Antioch in Syria. His chief work, 
The Science of the Stars, was published in 1587 from the original manuscript in the 
Vatican library. He recast and improved Ptolemy’s tables, and came as near to the 
obliquity of the ecliptic as 23° 35’. His tropical year was nearer than Ptolemy’s, being 
only 2m. 26s, short. The Alphonsine tables of the moon’s motion were founded upon 
his observation, and he first substituted sines for chords, and also introduced into 
trigonometry the use of tangents and versed sines. He was called ‘‘The Arabian 
Ptolemy,” and was held to be first of Arabian astronomers. 


AL'BATROSS (Diomedea), a genus of web-footed birds of the family of the Larida, 
nearly allied to gulls and petrels. Their feet have no hind-toe nor claw; they have a large 
strong beak—the upper mandible, with strongly marked sutures, and a hooked point. 
The common A. (D. erulans), also called the wandering A., is the largest of web-footed 
birds, the spread of wing being sometimes 12 ft., and the weight 20 lbs. or upwards. 
The wings are, however, narrow in proportion to their length. This bird is often seen 
at a great distance from land, and abounds in the southern seas, particularly near the 
cape of Good Hope, whence sailors sometimes call it the cape sheep. It often approaches 
very near to vessels, and is one of the objects of interest which present themselves to: 
voyagers far away from land, particularly when it is seen sweeping the surface of the 
ocean in pursuit of flying-fish. It seems rather to float and glide in the air than to fly 
like other birds, as, except when it is rising from the water, the motion of its long wings 
is scarcely to be perceived. The plumage is soft and abundant, mostly white, dusky on 
the upper parts, some of the feathers of the back and wings black. The bill is of a deli- 
cate pinky-white, inclining to yellow at the tip. The A. is extremely voracious ; it feeds 
chiefly on fish and mollusca, but has no objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or to any 
kind of carrion. It is not a courageous bird, and is often compelled to yield up its prey 
to sea-eagles, and even to the larger kinds of gulls. When food is abundant, it gorges 
self, like the vultures, and then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may some- 


Albanye 
211 Aibonicl 


times be taken with the hand. Not unfrequently, however, on the approach of a boat, 
it disgorges the undigested food, and thus lightened, it flies off. Its cry has been com- 
pared to that of the pelican ; it also sometimes emits a noise which has been likened to 
the braying of an ass. Its flesh is unpalatable. It heaps up a rude nest of earth not far’ 
from the sea, or deposits its solitary egg in a slight hollow which it makes in the dry 
ground. The egg is about 4 in. long, white, and spotted at the larger end ; it is edible. 
There are seven species of this genus. One of these (D. fuliginosa), chiefly found within 
the antarctic circle, is called by sailors the Quaker bird, on account of the prevailing 
brown color of its plumage. Albatrosses appear in great numbers towards the end of 
June, about the Kurile islands and Kamtchatka. The Kamtchadales take them by 
baited hooks, blow up the entrails for floats to their nets, and make tobacco-pipes and 
various domestic articles of the wing-bones. See illus., ANTELOPES, ETC., vol. I 


ALBAY’, at. of the island of Luzon, Philippine islands, the capital of a province of the 
same name, in the s, end of the island. It is situated about 2 m, from the bay of Albay, 
which is an excellent harbor, and very near a volcano also called Albay, which is in a 
state of constant activity. Earthquakes are frequent, but the province is very fertile. 
The t. is regularly built, and is a place of considerable trade. Pop., about 13,000. 


ALBE, or ALB (Lat. albus, white), the long white linen vestment worn in early times 
by all ecclesiastics at divine service. It differed from the more modern surplice (q.Vv.), 
which is only a modification of it, in having narrower sleeves. At the foot and wrists 
were embroidered ornaments called apparels. In the ancient church newly baptized 
persons were obliged to wear a similar garment for eight days ; and hence catechumens 
were called albati ; and the Sunday after Easter, on which they usually received baptism, 
came to be called dominica in albis. See WHITSUNTIDE, 


ALBEMARLE, a co. in Virginia, e. of the Blue Ridge and n. of James river, inter- 
sected by the Chesapeake and Ohio, and the Southern railroads; 675 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 
32,379, inclu. colored. It has an undulating surface and rich bottom lands. Co. seat, 
Charlottesville. 


ALBEMARLE, GrorGE Monk, Duke of, 1608-70; an‘English general, chief agent 
in the restoration of the Stuarts in 1660. In 1625 he was in the expedition against Spain ; 
served ten yearsin the Netherlands; was lieut.-col. in the campaign against the Scots; leda 
regiment against the Irish; and was governor of Dublin until the peace in 1648. Next 
year in the civil war he was made prisoner by Fairfax, and kept two years in the Tower, 
but was released on taking the covenant. Cromwell made him lieut.-gen. and chief of 
artillery, and for good service at Dunbar raised him to gen.-in-chief in Scotland. He took 
part in the commission to arrange the union of Scotland and England, and went to the 
former country as governor in 1654, with much difficulty maintaining his rule against 
the Presbyterians. Charles tried to secure his support, but Monk sent the letter to 
Cromwell, after whose death Monk declared in favor of Richard Cromwell, assuming 
the defence of public order. On the 1st of Jan., 1660, Monk crossed the border with 
6000 men, joined Fairfax at York, and entered London Feb. 3 without opposition. His 
intentions were not known until Feb. 28, when he called together the Presbyterian 
members expelled from parliament in 1648, and created a majority for the king, and 
Charles was formally declared on the 8th of May. Charles made Monk duke of Albe- 
marle, privy-councilor, chamberlain, and lord lieutenant of Devon and Middlesex. In 
1666 he commanded the naval expedition against Holland and was beaten by De 
Ruyter at Dunkirk, in his turn defeating the Dutchmen at North Foreland. 


ALBEMARLE SOUND, an inlet in the coast of North Carolina, 60m. long and 4 to 
15 wide, separated from the ocean by an island, and not appreciably affected by the 
tides. It receives the Roanoke and Chowan rivers and is connected with Currituck and 
Pamlico sounds by natural channels, and with Chesapeake bay by the Dismal Swamp. 
canal. Having only shallow water, the sound is of little value for navigation. 


AL’BER, MATTHEW, 1495-1570 ; one of the promoters of the reformation, preaching 
at Reutilingen. He was put under ban by the pope and the imperiai court, but went on 
preaching, strongly supported by the people. He rejected Latin, and used the native 
tongue in church services, put out the images, and took a wife. He was summoned 
before the imperial chambers and charged with nearly 70 distinct heresies, to all of 
which, save that of speaking disrespectfully of the mother of Christ, he confessed 
guilty. He was tried, but set free without punishment. A. was a friend and ally of 
er Some of his sermons, a catechism, and a work on Providence have been pub- 
ished. 


AL'BERIC I.,a Roman ruler in the beginning of the 10th c.; son of a Lombard 
nobleman. He married Marozia, daughter of the notorious Theodora, who held the 
temporal authority, and by union with her he came to beruler. He joined pope 
John X. in expelling the Saracens, and ruled the duchy of Spoleto; but the pope 
banished him from Rome and he was murderedin 925. His widow married Guido of 
Tuscany, and after his death, Hugo, king of Italy, whom her son Alberic II. expelled. 


AL'BERIC II, son of Alberic I., a wise Roman ruler who died in 954, after a reign, 
of 28 years, He was succeeded by his son Ottaviano, afterwards pope John XII., in 956.. 


“Alberoni. 9) 
_Albert. 212 


ALBERO'NI, Givuii0, CARDINAL, the son of a poor vine-dresser, was born on the 31st 
‘of May, 1664, at Firenzuola in Parma. From being merely a chorister in a church at 
Piacenza, he quickly rose, through his abilities, to the dignity of chaplain and favorite 
of count Roncovieri, bishop of St. Donino. He was afterwards sent to Madrid as 
chargé @ affaires, by the duke of Parma, where he gained the favor of Philip V. of Spain, 
and had the honors successively conferred on him of grandee, cardinal, and prime- 
minister. In this last capacity he was of singularly great service to Spain, overthrow- 
ing the intriguing family of Ursini, bringing about the second marriage of Philip V. 
with Elizabeth Farnese, and stimulating the expiring energies of Spain. A new life 
dawned upon the nation, which learned to forget the hardships it had suffered in the 
Spanish wars of succession ; although, on the other hand, it must be admitted that it 
was principally through his instrumentality that the last liberties and rights of the people 
were sacrificed in favor of absolutism. He was ambitious, and ambition is always 
despotic and unscrupulous ; hence, to gratify the covetous desires of his new mistress, 
he suddenly invaded Sardinia, in violation of the peace of Utrecht, cherishing the hope 
of re-establishing the monarchy of Charles V. and Philip I1., and startling Europe by 
his insolent audacity. The regent of France broke off his alliance with Spain, and 
united himself with England and the emperor; but A. was not dismayed. Even when 
the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean was destroyed by an English one, he contemplated 
an extensive war by land, in which all the European powers would have been entangled. 
He patronized the pretender, to annoy England, and the French Protestants, to annoy 
Louis. He sought to unite Peter of Russia and Charles XII. with him, to plunge 
Austria into a war with the Turks, to stir up an insurrection in Hungary, and, through 
his influence with one of the parties at the French court, he actually accomplished the 
arrest of the regent himself (the duke of Orleans), But so universal became the com 
plaints against A., that Philip lost courage, and concluded a treaty of peace, the chief 
condition of which was that the cardinal should be dismissed, which was effected 
through the influence of Elizabeth herself, now weary of the arrogance of her late 
favorite. In 1719 Alberoni received a command to quit Madrid within 24 hours, 
and the kingdom within 5 days. Exposed to the vengeance of every power whose 
hatred he had drawn upon himself, he knew no land where he could remain. Not 
even to Rome could he venture, for Clement was more bitterly inimical to him than 
any secular potentate. He wandered about in disguise, and under fictitious names. At 
length he was imprisoned in the Genoese territory, through the solicitation of the pope 
and the Spanish monarch ; but he speedily recovered his liberty, and two years after 
the death of Clement, was reinstated by Innocent XIII. in all the rights and dignities 
of a cardinal. In 1740 he retired to Piacenza, where he died twelve years after (June 
16, 1752) at the age of 88. He bequeathed his possessions in Lombardy to Philip V., 
while his cousin and heir, Cesar A., became possessor of 1,000,000 ducats, 


ALBERS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERMANN, 1805-67; a German physician, professor 
of pathology at Bonn. He established there an asylum for the treatment of insanity 
and nervous diseases ; and was director of the pharmacological cabinet. His anatomi- 
cal atlas and works on various branches of medical science are regarded as authority. 


ALBERT, a co. ins.e. New Brunswick, on the bay of Fundy; 677 sq.m.; pop. 91, 
10,971. The land is good, with bituminous and cannel coal, oil-bearing shales, plaster, 
and freestone. Coal and plaster are sent to the United States, Chief t., Hopewell Cape. 


ALBERT, archbishop of Madgeburg, and elector of Mentz, generally called A. of 
Brandenburg, younger son of the elector, John Cicero of Brandenburg, was b. in 1490. 
In 1513 he became archbishop of Madgeburg; in the same year, also, administrator of 
the bishopric of Halberstadt, and in the following year, archbishop and elector of Mentz. 
Leo X. having granted him permission to sell indulgences, on condition that he should 
deliver up half the booty to the papal exchequer, A. appointed the Dominican Tetzel 
‘“‘indulgence-preacher,” who, by the shameless manner in which he went about his work, 
first stirred Luther to post up his well-known ninety-five theses. Even in the archbishop’s 
own diocese, the reformer’s doctrines found not a few adherents, so that A. was com- 
pelled, at the imperial diet at Augsburg, to act the part of peacemaker. When he 
joined the holy alliance against the treaty of Schmalkald, Luther made a fierce attack 
on him in writing. He was the first of all the German princes who received the Jesuits 
into his dominions. In 1541, he granted religious liberty to his subjects, under the 
condition that they should pay his debts, amounting to 500,000 florins. He did this, not 
from any love of religious liberty, but either because of the consideration referred to, or 
from a dread of popular compulsion. The last days of his life were spent in Aschaften- 
burg, where he d. in 1545. } 


ALBERT, count of Bollstiidt, usually called Albertus Magnus, also Albertus Teutoni- 
cus, a man less distinguished for originality than for the extent of his acquirements and 
his efforts for the spread of knowledge, especially of the works and doctrines of Aristotle, 
was b. at Lauingen, in Swabia, in 1205, or, as some say, in 1193. After finishing his 
studies at Padua, he entered the order of the Dominican friars, and taught in the schools 
of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. He 
afterwards repaired to Paris, where he publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle, in 
spite of the prohibition of the church. In 1249, he became rector of the school at 


Alberoni, 
918 Albert. 


ologne; and in 1254, provincial of the Dominican order in Germany. In 1260, he 
od from Pope Racer IV. the bishopric of Ratisbon. But_ in 1262, he retired 
to his convent at Cologne, to devote himself to literary pursuits; and here he composed 
a great number of works, especially commentaries on Aristotle. He had fallen into 
dotage some years before his death, which occurred in 1280. ‘The fullest edition of his 
works was prepared by Pierre Jammy, the Dominican (21 vols., Lyon and Leyden, 1651); 
but it is far from being complete. Many of the writings attributed to A. seem to be 
spurious; among others, that entitled De Secretis Mulierwm, which was widely circulated 
during the middle ages. The extensive chemical and mechanical knowledge which A. 
possessed, considering the age in which he lived, brought upon him the imputation of 
sorcery; and in German tradition he has a very ambiguous reputation. It is recorded, 
for instance, that in the winter of 1240, he gave a banquet at Cologne to William of Hol- 
land, king of the Romans; and that during the entertainment the wintry scene was sud- 
denly transformed into one of summer bloom and beauty, This myth rests most’ likely on 
the fact of A. having hada greenhouse. The scholastics who followed A.’s opinions took 
the name of Albertists, His best known works are Summa Theologie and Summa de Creaturis, 


ALBERT, last grand-master of the Teutonic order, and first duke of Prussia, was b. in 
1490. He was the son of the margrave Frederic of Anspach and Baireuth, who, having 
several children, wished to make him enter the church. He was educated under the 
care of Archbishop Hermann, of Cologne, where he became canon. He did not, however, 
neglect knightly exercises. He accompanied the emperor Maximilian I. in his expedi- 
tion against Venice, and was present at the siege of Pavia. In 1611, when scarcely 
21 years old, he was chosen grand-master of the Teutonic order, the knights expecting 
their feudal allegiance to Poland to be abolished, on account of his near relationship to 
Sigismund, the monarch of that country, while they also hoped for protection against 
the latter from his friends in Germany. He was consecrated at Mergentheim with his 
father’s consent. In 1512 he removed to Konigsberg, having been acknowledged by 
Poland likewise; but refusing to take the oath of allegiance, he was plunged into a war 
with Sigismund in 1520. The year after, a four years’ truce was agreed to at Thorn. 
A. next made his appearance at the imperial diet at Niirnberg, as a German prince of 
the empire, to induce the other princes to assist him against the Poles. But Germany 
could at that time grant no assistance to any one. _ Disappointed in his hopes, A. threw 
himself into the cause of the reformation, which had rapidly spread into Prussia, and 
broken the last strength of the declining order, whose possessions now appeared a 
certain prey to Poland. A. still hoped to preserve these, by acting upon Luther’s advice, 
which was, to declare himself secular to the duke of Prussia, and place his land under 
the sovereignty of Sigismund. This was done with great pomp at Cracow, on the 8th 
April 1525, the duchy being secured to him and his descendants. During the remainder 
of his life, A. zealously sought to further the welfare of his duchy. He regulated the 
administration of all affairs, both secular and ecclesiastical, established the ducal library, 
founded in 1543 the university of Kénigsberg, gathered many literary men around him, 
and caused their works to be printed. In 1527, he married Dorothea, daughter of 
Frederick, king of Denmark. A. earnestly desired peace, but his was not an age in 
which peace could be purchased. The transition period from the old to the new is always 
violent, and the duke found himself entangled in conflicts with the nobles, and in theo- 
logical disputes, which, along with other crosses of a more personal character, saddened 
the close of his life. Hed. in 1568. See Prussta. 


ALBERT, or ALBRECHT. Fivesovereign dukes of Austria (q.v.) bore this name, of 
whom two (I. and V.) were also emperors of Germany. A.I., duke of Austria and 
emperor of Germany, was the eldest son of Rudolph I., and born in the year 1248. 
Rudolph, about the close of his career, made an effort to have A. appointed his successor; 
but the electors, tired of his authority, and emboldened by his age and infirmities, refused 
to comply with his request. After Rudolph’s death, Austria and Styria revolted; but A., 
having vigorously crushed the insurrection, had the audacity to assume the insignia of 
the empire without waiting for the decision of the diet. This violent measure induced 
the electors to choose, in preference to him, Adolphus of Nassau. Disturbances in 
Switzerland, and a disease which cost him an eye, now rendered him more humble; he 
delivered up the insignia which he had so rashly assumed, and took the oath of allegiance 
to the new emperor, who, however, after some years, so completely disgusted his subjects, 
that A. began to entertain hopes of recovering his imperial dignity. In 1298, Adolphus 
was deposed, and A. elected; but the former having resolved to maintain his title, A. was 
obliged to fight for the crown. The rivals drew up their forces near Worms, where a 
battle ensued, in which Adolphus was defeated and slain. A., feeling that he might now 
safely display magnanimity, voluntarily resigned the crown which had been recently 
conferred upon him; and, as he had anticipated, was unanimously re-elected. His 
coronation took place at Aix-la-Chapelle, in August, 1298. But the pope, Boniface VIIL., 
denied the right of the princes to elect A., declared himself the only true emperor and 
legitimate king of the Romans, summoned the former before him, required him to ask 
pardon and do penance, forbade the princes to acknowledge him, and released them 
from their oath of allegiance. A., on the other hand, with his usual intrepidity, defied 
his holiness, formed an alliance with Philip the fair of France, secured the neutrality 


Ibert. 
Alberta, 214 


of Saxony and Brandenburg, invaded the electorate of Metz, and forced the archbishop 
to break off his alliance with Boniface and to form one with himself for the next five 
years. The pope was alarmed by his success, and entered into negotiations with him. 
A., whose duplicity and unscrupulousness equaled his courage, suddenly broke off his 
alliance with Philip, admitted the western empire to be a papal grant, and declared that 
the electors derived their right of choosing from the holy see. Moreover he promised 
upon oath to defend the rights of the Romish court whenever he was called upon. Asa 
reward, Boniface gave him the kingdom of France, excommunicating Philip, and 
declaring him to have forfeited the crown; but the latter severely chastised the pope for 
his insolence in daring to give away what was not hisown. In the following year, A. 
made war unsuccessfully against Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary, Bohemia, and 
Thuringia. Shortly afterwards, news reached him that a rebellion had broken out 
amongst the Swiss in Unterwalden, Schweitz, and Uri, in Jan., 1808. A. had not only 
foreseen, but desired this, in order that he might find a pretext for completely subju- 
gating the country. A new act of injustice, however, occasioned a crime which put an 
end to his ambition and life. His nephew, Duke John, claimed Swabia as his rightful 
inheritance, and had set his claims before A., but in vain. When the latter was depart- 
ing for Switzerland, the former renewed his demand. A. scoffingly refused; and duke John 
resolved to be revenged. Along with four others, he conspired against his uncle’s life, 
and assassinated him on the way to Rheinfelden, while separated from his followers by 
the river Reuss. The emperor expired May 1, 13808, in the arms of a beggar-woman 
sitting by the wayside—a spectacle calculated to excite stern reflection on the vanity of 
human ambition. His daughter Agnes, queen of Hungary, frightfully revenged her 
father’s death. See JoHN, THE PARRICIDE. A. left five sons and five daughters, the 
children of his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of the count of Tyrol. 


ALBERT, or ALBRECHT, Archduke of Austria, b. in 1559, was thethird son of the 
emperor Maximilian Il. He was brought up at the Spanish court, and dedicated him- 
self to the church. In 1577 he was made cardinal, in 1584, archbishop of Toledo, and 
during the years 1594-96, held the office of viceroy of Portugal. He was next appointed 
stadtholder of the Netherlands, where he continued, until his death, the representative 
of the Spanish monarch, discharging the duties ‘of his function with prudence and 
dignity. Cardinal Bentivoglio, who resided a considerable time at his court, praises his 
uprightness, his moderation, his love of serious study, his industry, his perseverance, 
and his discretion, though he does not conceal the fact that he was a prince better fitted 
for peace than for war. He displayed at first both courage and enthusiasm, but after- 
wards he was accused of dilatoriness and timidity. Meanwhile, he did not receive from 
Spain the promised help ; and, moreover, affairs had reached such a pitch, that they could 
hardly become worse. A., however, did the best that could be done. His mild, 
moderate, and unpersecuting character, essentially contributed to the re-establishment of 
the Spanish authority in the Netherlands. Philip employed him to mediate amid the 
disturbed provinces. A. now abandoned his ecclesiastical profession, and married (1598) 
the infanta, Isabella, who received the Netherlands for her dowry. He d. in 1621. 


ALBERT, ALEXANDER MARTIN, a member of the provisional government of France 
after the revolution of Feb., 1848, was b. at Bury (Oise) in 1815. His father was a 
peasant, and he himself learned a mechanical trade at Paris. He took part in 
the revolution of July, 1830, and was implicated in the celebrated trial of 1884 ; after 
which he devoted himself to the study and discussion of political questions, yet not 
abandoning his workshop. He commenced at Lyon the republican journal called 
La Glaneuse, on account of whichhe was condemned to a fine of 5000 francs when the 
insurrection broke out at Lyon. In 1840 he began L’Atelier, a paper conducted 
exclusively by operatives, and devoted to their interests. On the evening before the 
proclamation of the republic in Feb., 1848, he was making buttons in his workshop; and 
on the nomination of Louis Blanc, he was called to take part in the provisional govern- 
ment. He was afterwards chosen president of the commission for national rewards; but 
he soon resigned this post. He was elected by a large majority of voices as the repre- 
sentative of the department of the Seine in the national assembly; but involving himself 
in the attempt of May 15, 1848, against the government as it then existed, he was arrested, 
and sentenced to transportation. He was, however, soon liberated. D. May 28, 1895. 


ALBERT, FRANctIS(ALBERT) AUGUSTUS-CHARLES-EMMANUEL, Prince of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, consort of Victoria, queen of Great Britain, b. Aug. 26, 1819, was the second son 
of the late duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, by his first marriage with Louisa, daughter of the 
duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. The prince, after a careful domestic education, along 
with his elder brother, the reigning duke, attended the university of Bonn, where, in 
addition to the sciences connected with state-craft, he devoted himself with ardor to the 
study of natural history and chemistry, and displayed great taste for the fine arts, 
especially painting and music. Several compositions of his obtained .publicity, and an 
opera was afterwards performed in London, said to have been composed by him. Gifted 
with a handsome figure, he attained expertness in all knightly exercises. It was this 
accomplished prince that the young queen of Great Britain selected as her partner for life. 
The marriage was celebrated in London on the 10th of Feb, 1840. On his marriage, 
Prince Albert received the title of royal highness, was naturalized as a subject of Great 


215 \ Sibert. 


ritain, and obtained the rank of field-marshal, the knighthood of the order of the bath, 
oA the command of a regiment of hussars. As the union proved, in the highest hac haa 
a happy one, the prince was loaded with honors and distinctions both by the piern an 
the nation. The title of consort of her most gracious majesty was formally conferred in 
1842, and that of prince consort, in 1857, made him a prince of the United Kingdom. He 
was also made a member of the privy council, governor and constable of Windsor Castle, 
colonel of the grenadier guards, acting grand-master of the Order of the Bath, chancellor 
of the university of Cambridge, master of the Trinity House, etc. Notwithstanding his 
high and favored position, the prince, with rare prudence and tact, abstained from 
meddling with state affairs, and thus escaped the jealousy and detraction of parties. 
When the whig ministry of 1840 proposed for him the income of £50,000, as consort of 
Queen Victoria, the tories, in conjunction with the radicals, succeeded in limiting the 
sum to £30,000. This appears to have been the only instance of any manifestation of 
party feeling with reference to the prince. On the other hand, he opened for himself 
an influential sphere of action, in the encouragement and promotion of science and art, 
appearing as the patron of many useful associations and public undertakings. The 
exhibition of 1851 owed much to the prince. He d. 14th Dec., 1861. See Life by Theo- 
dore Martin (5 vols., 1874-80), and Vitzthum’s Reminiscences (Eng. trans. 1887). 


ALBERT, FREDERICK RupowpH, 1817-95; Archduke of Austria, son of archduke 
Charles, and grandson of Leopold II.; first cousin of the father of the reigning emperor. 
He was distinguished in youth as a cavalry commander, doing good service in the battle 
of Novara, in 1849. He was governor of Hungary, 1851-60; in 1866 he commanded the 
Austrians in Venetia, and won the victory of Custozza, June 24; but Benedek’s defeat at 
Sadowa, July 3, made his success of no account. He became field-marshal and inspector 
general of the Austrian army. A. married, May 1, 1844, Archduchess Hildegarde, 
daughter of Ludwig I. of Bavaria. Shed. April 2, 1864. 


ALBERT, Friepricu Avucust ; b. April 28, 1828, reigning king of Saxony, son of 
king John and queen Amélie. He was a general in the Schleswig-Holstein war, and 
after his father’s accession in 1854 presided over the council of state. In 1866 he 
commanded the Saxon army codperating with the Austrians against Prussia, and re- 
ceived a decoration for the behavior of his troops. On the union of Saxony with the n. 
German confederation, this force became the 12th corps of the n. German army, and 
with them the prince won high honors at Gravelotte and Sedan, receiving the Prussian 
iron cross and the command-in-chief of the newly formed 4th army, at the head of 
which he entered Paris with the emperor and the German princes. He married, June 
18, 1853, Caroline Frédérique Frangoise Stephanie Amélie Cécile, daughter of Gustavus, 
prince of Vasa, 


ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, b. Nov. 9, 1841; heir-apparent of the 
British throne, eldest son and second child of Victoria and Albert. He is duke of Corn- 
wall, according to the statute of 1337, with annual revenue of about $250,000. He was 
created Prince of Walesin 1841, and earl of Dublin in 1850; is high steward of Scotland, 
duke of Rothsay, earl of Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and Lord of the Isles. He is also 
a Knight of the Garter, general in the army, and colonel of the 10th hussars. His early 
education was under Rev. Henry Birch, rector of Prestwich ; Mr. Gibbs, barrister ; Rev. 
C. F. Tarvex, and H. W. Fisher. He visited Canada and the United States in 1860; 
joined the camp at Curragh in June, 1861; traveled in 1862 in the east with Dean Stanley, 
visiting Jerusalem ; and in 1875-76 made a tour of India. He married March 10, 1863, 
Princess Alexandra, daughter of Christian [X., king of Denmark. Their children are: 
1. Prince AlbertVictor Christian, duke of Clarence, b. 1864, d. 1892; 2. Prince George 
Frederick Ernest Albert, b. June 3,1865 ; 3. Princess Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, 
b. Feb. 20, 1867; 4. Princess Alexandra Olga Mary, b. July 6, 1868 ; 5. Princess Maud 
Charlotte Mary Victoria, b. Nov. 26, 1869. Prince A. was chosen grand-master of free- 
masons in 1867, succeeding the marquis of Ripon. 


ALBERT, EvGEN D’, pianist, born at Glasgow, Scotland, April 10, 1864. He was the 
son of Charles d’Albert, a French dancing-master, studied under Sir Arthur Sullivan, 
Prout, and Pauer in London, under Hans Richter in Vienna, under Liszt in Weimar, 
and in 1881 made his first appearance at a Philharmonic concert in Vienna, achieving 
brilliant success. He was soon made court pianist in Weimar, traveled in Europe, and 
came to America in the season of 1889-90. His mastery of technique, intellectual inter- 
pretation, force, and fire class him with Rubinstein, Liszt, and von Biilow, as one of the 
four greatest pianists of the century. His compositions include pianoforte music, a 
suite, symphony, and overture for the orchestra, a quartet for strings, and several 
songs. 


ALBERTA, a district in Canada, formed in 1882 out of the n.w. territory, contain- 
ing about 106,000 sq.m. It is bounded on then. by Athabasca, on the e. by Sas- 
katchewan and Assiniboia, on the s. by the U. §., and on the w. by British Columbia. 
A, is the cattle-ranche district, containing the Belly, Battle, and Bow rivers. Principal 
places, 1883, Edmonton, Rocky Mountain House, Victoria, Fort Saskatchewan, Hamil- 
ton, Calgary, Old Bow. The new districts, A., Athabasca, Saskatchewan, and Assini- 
boia, have as their capital, Regina in the latter district. The Canadian Pacific railroad 
passes through the s. portion of A. Pop. 1891, 25,277. 


Albert. , 916 


Albion. 


ALBERT LEA, seat of justice of Freeborn co. Minnesota, is situated between two lakes, 
one of which bears its name, about 100m. s. of St. Paul. It was settled in 1855, and incor- 
porated in 1878, and is reached by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and other rail- 
roads; has waterworks, electric lights, an academy, Albert Lea college, and is principally 
engaged in manufacturing, dairying, and grain and stock raising. Pop. ’90, 3305. 


ALBERT MEDAL, a decoration instituted in England (1866) to reward heroic acts in 
saving life at sea. In 1877 it was extended to acts of gallantry in preventing loss of life 
in perils on land. ‘ 

AL'BERT N’YAN’ZA (the Little Luta Nzige of Speke), a large lake of e. central Africa, 
one of the reservoirs of the Nile, situated in a deep rock-basin, 80 m. w. of the Victoria 
N’yanza. The A. N. is of an oblong shape, and, as proved by M. Gessi, one of colonel 
Gordon’s party in 1876, is 100 m. Jong from n. to s., and 25 m. broad. It is crossed by 
the equator near its centre. On thee. it is fringed by precipitous cliffs, having a mean 
alt. of 1500 ft., with isolated peaks, rising from 5000 to 10,000 ft. The surface of the 
lake is 2720 ft. above the sea, and 1470 ft. below the general level of the country : its 
water is fresh and sweet, and it is of great depth toward the centre. Then. and w. 
shores of the lake are bordered by a massive range of hills, called the Blue mountains, 
which have an elevation of about 7000 ft. The existence of this vast lake first became 
known to Europeans through Speke and Grant, who, in 1862, heard the Luta Nzige de- 
scribed by the natives as only a narrow reservoir forming ashallow back-water of the Nile. 
When Speke and Grant, after the discovery of the Victoria N’yanza, were, in 1863, 
descending the Nile on their return to Europe, they met, at Gondokoro, Mr. (now Sir) 
Samuel White Baker (q.v.), who wasascending the river inthe hope of meeting with and 
aiding these travelers. Assoon as they informed him of the reputed great lake, Pakcr 
agreed to undertake itsexploration. Joining a trading party, hetraveled south-eastward 
to Latooka, which he describes as the finest country he had seen in Africa, His course 
was now s. and s.w., through the countries of Obbo and Madi, crossing the Asua, a tribu- 
tary of the Nile, on 9th Jan.,1864. Journeying next in as, and south-eastward direction 
over uninhabited prairies and swampy hollows, he came upon the Nile at the Karuma 
falls, lat. 2° 17' n., at the identical spot where it had been crossed by Speke and Grant. 
Being prevented, by the jealousy of king Kamrasi, from following the course of the 
stream to the westward, he was forced to proceed, by slow marches southward on the w. 
side of the Somerset or Nile, to M’rooli, leaving which, his course lay s.w. onthe s. side of 
the Kafoor river. After a toilsome march of 18 days from M’rooli, the party came 
in sight of the glorious expanse of water, which Baker named in honor of Prince Albert 
who was but recently dead. 

The spot where the party first reached the lake, Vacovia, is in lat. 1° 14' n., 30° 40’ e. 
Embarking thence in canoes, the party coasted north-eastward, and in 18 days arrived 
at Magungo, lat. 2° 16’ n., near the mouth of the Somerset river. At this part, the lake 
was under 20 m. in width, and appeared to stretch away in a n.w. direction. From 
Magungo, 250 ft. above the lake, the travelers had a view of the Nile valley for 15 or 20 
m. northwards. Ascending the Somerset, at a distance of 25 m. from its mouth, the 
canoe-voyage was interrupted by a grand cataract 120 ft. high, which was named the 
Murchison falls. The explorers proceeded south-eastwards for about 30m. to Kisoona, 
and then a march n.e. for about the same distance brought them to the Karuma falls, 
where they first entered the lake-region. The name Somerset is adopted from Speke’s 
first map, in order to distinguish that river from the Nile proper. It issues from the 
Victoria N’yanza at the Ripon falls, and flowing n.w. and w. for about 230 m., it enters 
the A. N. within 80 m. of its northern extremity, and soon quits it to form the true Nile. 
From the Ripon falls for 80 m. n., and from the Karuma to the Murchison falls, 45 m., 
the Somerset forms a series of rapids. The A. N. receives the drainage of a great equatorial 
mountain range, where rain falls during 10 months of the year. In 1887, Emin Pasha 
reported that he had discovered two rivers, the Nyussi-Msisi and the Due-ru, flowing 
into the lake from the southwest, and that the latter, the larger of the two, discharges a 
considerable quantity of water into the lake all the year round. In 1876 two steamers 
were placed by Gordon Pasha on Albert Nyanza. The scenery of the lake is described 
as extremely beautiful. Salt, which is very abundant in the soil on the eastern shores 
of the lake, is now the only article of trade to the inhabitants. 


ALBERT THE BEAR (so called, not from any peculiarity of character or appearance, 
but from the heraldic cognizance that he assumed), margrave of Brandenburg, one of the 
most remarkable princes of hisage, was b. 1106. He was theson and successor of Otho, 
the rich count of Ballenstiidt, and of Elica, eldest daughter of Magnus, duke of Saxony. 
Having proved faithful to the emperor Lothario, he received from the latter Lusace, 
to be held as a fief of the empire; but the duchy of Saxony, to whigh he had the best 
claim, was given to Henry of Bavaria (1127), the son of the youngest daughter of the 
duke. As a compensation, A. was made margrave (markgraf) of the northern march or 
marck (Salzwedel) ; but in the year 1188, Henry having been put under the imperial ban, 
the duchy reverted to the former, when he took the title of duke of Saxony. Henry, 
however, again got the upper hand, and A. was compelled to fly, and to content himself 
with the margraviate of northern Saxony, and the government of Swabia, which was 
given him as an indemnity. Returning to his own country, he got himself invested with 
the Jands which he had conquered from the Wends as a hereditary fief of the empire, 
and thus became the founder and first margrave of the new state of Brandenburg. Under 


——_ 


e 917 Alpes. 


A. the margravedom was afterwards raised to be an electorate, and he himself became 
elector of Brandenburg. After he had quelled a revolt of the Wends in 1157, he deter- 
mined to take extreme measures against the vanquished. He almost depopulated their 
country, and then colonized it with Flemings. On his return from a pilgrimage to Pal- 
estine in company with his wife in 1159, he exerted himself to suppress the language and 
paganism of the Wends, and to introduce Christianity amongst them. He died in 1170. 


ALBER'TUS MAGNUS. See ALBERT OF BOLLSTADT. 


AL'BI, capital of the department of Tarn in France, is built on a height. It is very 
old, and suffered greatly during the religious wars which devastated the Jand in the time 
of the Albigenses. Besides the usual government offices, it possesses a public library of 
12,000 volumes, anda museum, The chief buildings are the cathedral, built in the style 
of the 18th c., the old palace of the count of Albigeois, and the theater. There is con- 
siderable trade in corn, wine, fruit, etc., and linen, cotton, woollen, and leather manu- 
factures. Pop. about 14,200. 


AL'BIGENSES is a name applied loosely to the ‘‘ heretics,” belonging to various sects, 
that abounded in the s. of France about the beginning of the 13th ce. The chief sect was 
the Cathari (q.v.); but they all agreed in renouncing the authority of the popes and the 
discipline of the Romish church. The name arose from the.circumstance that the dis- 
trict of Albigeois in Languedoc—now in the department of Tarn, of which Albi is the 
capital—was the first point against which the crusade of Pope Innocent III., 1209, was 
directed. The immediate pretense of the crusade was the murder of the papal legate 
and inquisitor, Peter of Castelnau, who had been commissioned to extirpate heresy in 
the dominions of count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; but its real object was to deprive the 
count of his lands, as he had become an object of dislike from his toleration of the here- 
tics. It wasin vain that he had submitted to the most humiliating penance and flagella- 
tion from the hands of the legate Milo, and had purchased the papal absolution by great 
sacrifices. ‘The legates, Arnold, abbot of Citeaux and Milo, who directed the expedition, 
took by storm Beziers, the capital of Raymond’s nephew, Roger, and massacred 20,000— 
some say 40,000—of the inhabitants, Catholics as well as heretics. ‘‘ Kill them all,” said 
Arnold ; ‘‘God will know his own!” Simon, count of Montfort, who conducted the 
war under the legates, proceeded in the same relentless way with other places in the ter- 
ritories of Raymond and his allies. Of these, Roger of Beziers died in prison, and Peter 
I. of Aragon fell in battle. 'The conquered lands were given as a reward to Simon of 
Montfort, who never came into quiet possession of the gift. At the siege of Toulouse, 
1218, he was killed by astone, and counts Raymond VI. and VII. disputed the posses- 
sion of their territories with his son. But the papal indulgences drew fresh crusaders 
from every province of France, to continue the war. Raymond VII. continued to strug- 
gle bravely against the legates and Louis VIII. of France, to whom Montfort had ceded 
his pretensions, and who fell in the war in 1226. After hundreds of thousands had per- 
ished on both sides, a peace was concluded, in 1229, at which Raymond purchased relief 
from the ban of the church by immense sums of money, gave up Narbonne and several 
lordships to Louis [X., and had to make his son-in-law, the brother of Louis, heir of his 
other possessions. These provinces, hitherto independent, were thus, for the first time, 
joined to the kingdom of France; and the pope sanctioned the acquisition, in order to 
bind Louis more firmly to the papal chair, and induce him more readily to admit the 
inquisition. The heretics were handed over to the proselytizing zeal of the order of 
Dominicans, and the severe tribunals of the inquisition ; and both used their utmost 
power to bring the recusant A. to the stake, and also, by inflicting severe punishment on 
the penitent converts, to inspire dread of incurring the church’s displeasure. From the 
middle of the 13th c., the name of the A. gradually disappears. The remnants of them 
took refuge in the east, and settled in Bosnia. 


ALBI'NOS—called also Leuccethiopes, or white negroes, and by the Dutch and Ger- 

mans kakerlaken—were at one time considered a distinct race; but closer observation 
has shown that the same plrenomenon occurs in individuals of all races, and that the 
peculiar appearance arises from an irregularity in the skin, which has got the name of 
leucopathy or leucosis, It consists in the absence of the coloring matter which, in the 
normal state, is secreted between the cuticle and the true skin, and also of the dark pig- 
ment of the eye ; so that the skin has a pale, sickly white color, while the iris of the eye 
appears red, from its great vascularity. As the pigment in the coats of the eye serves to 
diminish the stimulus of the light upon the retina, A. generally cannot bear a strong 
light ; on the other hand, they see better in the dark than others. The coloring matter 
of the hair is also wanting in A., so that their hair is white. All these differences 
are of course more striking in the darker varieties of the species, and most of all in the 
negro albinos. 
_ Albinoism is always born with the individual, and occurs not only in men, but also 
In other mammalia, in birds, and probably in insects. It is not improbable that the 
peculiarity may, to some extent, be hereditary. The opinion that A. are distinguished 
from other men by weakness of body and mind, is completely refuted by facts. 


AL'BION is the most ancient name on record of the island of Great Britain. See 
ALBANY or ALBAINN. 


Albion. 9 il 8 e 


Albumen. 


ALBION, the seat of justice of Orleans co., N. Y., 80m. w. of Rochester; pop. ’90, 5773. 
The Erie canal and Niagara branch of N. Y. Central railroad pass through it. There 
are sandstone quarries, manufactures of agricultural implements, shoes, carriages, etc. 


ALBION, New, the name given by Sir Francis Drake to California, which he visited 
in 1578 ; but later restricted by Humboldt and ther geographers to that part of the n.w. 
coast lying between 43° and 48° n. 


ALBIR'CO, a double star in the head of the swan; interesting to spectroscopists for 
the different color lines of its components ; the larger star is orange and the smaller 
one blue. 


ALBITE (Lat., albus, white), name given to soda-feldspar. 


AL'BOIN, the founder of the Lombard dominion in Italy, succeeded his father in 561 
A.D., as king of the Lombards, who were at that time settled in Pannonia. His thirst 
for action first vented itself in aiding Narses against the Ostrogoths; and afterwards, in 
a war with the Gepide, whom he, in conjunction with the Avari, defeated in a great 
battle (566), slaying their king Cunimond with his own hand. On the death of his first 
wife, Klodoswinda, he married Rosamond, daughter of Cunimond, who was his prisoner. 
Some of his warriors, who had accompanied Narses into Italy, brought back reports of 
the beauties and riches of the country. This determined A., in 568, to enter Italy with 
his own nation of Lombards, the remains of the Gepide, and 20,000 Saxons. He soon 
overran and subdued the n. of the country as far asthe Tiber, fixing his principal resi- 
dence at Pavia—which long continued to be the capital of the Lombards ; when his bar- 
barity cost him his life. During a feast at Verona, he made his queen drink out of the 
skull of her father, which he had converted into a wine-cup. In revenge, she incited her 
paramour to murder her husband, who fell 574. Strangely enough, A. was a just and 
beneficial ruler. He was beloved. by his subjects, whom he stimulated into that vital 
activity that characterized their descendants for ages. For several centuries, his name 
continued to be illustrious among the German nations, who celebrated his praises in mar- 
tial songs. To escape the fury of the Lombards, Rosamond fled with her associate and 
the treasure to Longinus, the exarch, at Ravenna. lLonginus becoming a suitor for her 
hand, she administered poison to Helmichis, her paramour, who, discovering the treach- 
ery, caused her to swaliow che remainder of the cup, and die with him. 


ALBO'NI, MarteTta, b. Mar. 10, 1828; an Italian contralto, pupil of Rossini. She 
made her début at the age of 15 at the Communal Theatre of Bologna, where her success 
led toan engagement at La Scala, Milan. She made rapid progress, and in 1846-47 sang 
in all the principal cities of Europe, in London at Covent Garden in rivalry with Jenny 
Lind, who was at her Majesty’s Theatre. In1852 she visited the United States, remaining 
over a year, and singing in the chief towns in opera and concert. Her celebrity was owing 
to the power, fine quality, flexibility, and compass of her voice, a true contralto compassing 
24 octaves, and ranging as high as a mezzo-soprano, her florid style gaining great effect 
from her vivacity and grace of action. She married Count Pepoli, of the Roman states, 
but kept her maiden name on the stage, appearing in opera at Munich as late as 1872. 
Her husband died in 1866, and in 1877 she married M. Zieger. She died in 1894. 


ALBORNOZ’, Ziaiprus ALVAREZ CARILLO, a warlike prelate of the middle ages, was 
b. at Cuenca, 13810. He studied at Toulouse, and Subsequently became almoner to Alfonso 
XI., king of Castile, who appointed him archdeacon of Calatrava, and finally archbishop 
of Toledo. He took part in the wars against the Moors, saved the life of the king in the 
battle at Tarifa, and was present at the siege of Algeciras, where the king dubbed him 
knight. On account of the Christian boldness with which he denounced the criminal 
excesses of Peter the cruel, he fell into disgrace, and had to flee to pope Clement VL., at 
Avignon, who made him a cardinal. Innocent VII. also recognized his political talents 
and sent him as cardinal-legate to Rome, where, by his tact and vigor, he secured, in 
spite of the intricate complication of affairs, the restoration of the papal authority in the 
states of the church (1353-62). Pope Urban V. owed the recovery of his dominions to 
him, and out of gratitude appointed him legate at Bologna in 1367. In the same year 
he died at Viterbo, but, expressing a wish to be buried at Toledo, almost royal honors 
were rendered to his dead body by the Spanish monarch, Henry of Castile; and Urban 
even granted an indulgence to all who had assisted in the transference of his remains 
from Viterbo to Toledo. He left a valuable work upon the constitution of the Romish 
church, printed for the first time at Jesi in 14738, and now very rare. 


ALBOSTAN’, a t. of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Marash, and 122 m. n. from 
Aleppo. Pop. estimated at 6500. 


ALBOX’, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Almeria, 42 m. n.e. from 
Almeria, on a small affluent of the Almazora, which divides the t. into two parts. It 
has some good streets and buildings, and a fine square. Blankets, coarse linen and 
hempen fabrics, and earthenware are manufactured. ‘There are also corn and oil mills. 
There is a great annual fair in Nov., lasting for a fortnight. Pop. 10,100. 


ALBRECHT. See ALBERT. 


AL'BRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GerorG, 1736-1809; an Austrian musician, He 
studied under Mann, the Vienna court organist, and hecame one of the most learned 
and skillful contrapuntists of his age. In 1772 he was appointed court organist, and in 
1792 kapellmeister of St. Stephen’s cathedral. Among his pupils were Beethoven, 
Humme:, Moscheles, Seyfried, and Weigl. His published works consist of preludes, 
fugues and sonatas for the piano and organ, and string quartettes ; but the greater portion 


9 1 9 Albion. 


Albumen. 


of his labors are in manuscript, in possession of prince Esterhazy, His most valuable 
service to music was in his theoretical works, which substantially superseded earlier 
treatises. 


ALBRET, JEANNE D’, 1528-72, queen of Navarre, only daughter of Henry II. and 
Margaret, sister of Francis I. Jeanne married Antoine de Bourbon. She was celebrated 
for her intellectual strength and personal beauty. She embraced Calvinism, while her 
husband adhered to the Roman church, and asked the pope to annul his marriage; but 
Antoine died soon afterwards; and, in spite of Spanish menaces and Roman intrigue, 
Jeanne kept her possessions. In 1567 she declared the reformed religion established in 
the kingdom; and in 1569, with her children Henry and Catherine, she brought a small 
band of Huguenots to Coligny at La Rochelle, where, after the murder of the prince of 
Condé, she was looked upon as the only support of the Protestants. She wrote prose 
and verse, and some of her sonnets have been published. 


ALBRIGHT, JAcon, a Lutheran minister, 1759-1808; b. Pennsylvania; founder of 
the EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION (q.V.). 


ALBUCA’SIS, or ABoo-L-KasiM, d. 1110; the most celebrated of Arabian writers on 
surgery; supposed to have practiced in Cordova. His chief work on anatomy, physi- 
ology, and the practice of medicine and surgery, is of great value, the treatise on surgery 
pete the best that has come to us from antiquity, and important for tracing the progress 
of the art. 


ALBUER’A, in the Spanish province of Estremadura, an insignificant hamlet, famous 
for the battle of May 16, 1811, between the combined English, Spanish, and Portuguese 
forces under Gen. Beresford, and the French under Marshal Soult, who were scarcely so 
numerous, but had abundant artillery. The object of the latter was to compel the 
English to raise the siege of Badajos. The result was that Soult was obliged to retreat 
to Seville with the loss of 9000 men; the loss of the allied forces was about 7000. In 
proportion to the numbers engaged, the battle was the most sanguinary in the whole 
contest. The French had at first got possession of a height which commanded the 
whole position of the allied army, but they were driven from it by 6000 British, only 
1500 of whom reached the top unwounded. 


ALBUFER’A (an Arabic word meaning ‘‘ the lake’), a lake near Valencia, in Spain, 
about 10 m. in length and the same in breadth, divided from the sea by a narrow tongue 
of land; a canal connects it with the city of Valencia. It is rich in fish and fowl, and 
is said to have been excavated by the Moors. From it marshal Suchet (q.v.) took the 
title of duke. 


ALBU’'GO is a term employed in surgery to designate the white opacity that often 
follows ulceration of the cornea of the eye. In infancy, the comparatively rapid inter- 
change of materials will often diminish to a great extent both the extent and density of 
these spots, but in after-life they do not undergo similar absorption, nor are they 
amenable to surgical relief. 


AL'BUM, amongst the Romans, was a white tablet overlaid with gypsum, on which 
were written the Annales Maximi of the pontifex, edicts of the pretor, and rules relative 
to civil matters. It was so called, either because it was composed of a white material, 
or because the letters used were of that color. 'To tamper with the names written on an 
A. was regarded by the Romans as a serious offense, and involved a severe penalty. In 
the middle ages the word was used to denote any list, catalogue, or register, whether of 
saints, soldiers, or civil functionaries. In the gymnasia and universities on the conti- 
nent the list of the names of the members is called the A. The name is also applied to 
the ‘‘ black board” on which public notifications of lectures, etc., are written up. But 
its popular signification in modern times is that of a book for containing photographs, 
or a blank book for a drawing-room table, and intended to receive the fugitive pieces of 
verse, or the signatures of distinguished persons, or sometimes merely drawings, prints, 
marine plants, etc. 


ALBU MEN, in physiological chemistry a definite proteid substance (now frequently spelt 
Albumin). It forms the chief ingredient in the white of egg, and abounds in the blood and 
chyle, and more or lessin all the serous fluids of the animal body: it also exists in the sap 
of vegetables, and in their seeds and other edible parts. A. forms the starting point of 
animal tissues, for in an egg during incubation all the parts of the chick are formed out 
of it. The organized substances, fibrine and caseine, have a chemical composition similar 
to A.; and hence, along with A., they are called albuminous compounds. A. may be 
considered a raw material of fibrine, and fibrine as animalized A. 

The chief component elements of A. are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with 
small proportions of phosphorus and sulphur. It is believed to be a definite chemical com- 
pound, though the exact proportions and the rational formula have not been definitely 
ascertained. Carbon forms about 54 per cent of it; nitrogen, 16; and sulphur, 2. It is 
the sulphur of the A. that blackens silver when brought in contact with eggs, and the 
smell of rotten eggs arises from the formation of sulphureted hydrogen during the 
decomposition. 

A. is soluble in water, and in such a state is found in the egg, the juice of flesh, the 
serum of blood, and the juice of vegetables ; when heated from 140° to 160° F. (48 to 71° C.) 


Albumen. 
Alburnum, 2 2 0 


it coagulates, and is no longer soluble in water. With bichloride of mercury (corrosive 
sublimate), sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), acetate of lead (sugar of lead), nitrate of silver 
(lunar caustic), it forms insoluble compounds, and is therefore used as an antidote to 
these poisons. The property of coagulating with heat adapts A. for the purpose of 
clarifying in sugar-refining and other processes. The A. is added to the liquid in the 
cold state, allowed to mix thoroughly therein, and then, when heated, it coagulates, 
entangling and separating all the impurities suspended in the liquid. <A. is likewise 
coagulated by the majority of the mineral acids, but not by acetic acid. Alcohol, ether, 
creosote, and tannic acid likewise cause the coagulation of A., and hence the efficacy of 
these substances, especially the two latter, in coagulating and thereby killing the nerves 
which cause so much pain in toothache. The importance of A. as an article of diet 
will be discussed under Foon. 


ALBU'MEN, in botany, a store of nutritive matter, distinct from the embryo, but 
inclosed along with it within the integuments of the seed. It is also known by the 
names perisperm and endosperm. When a seed has a store of A. separate from the 
embryo, it is said to be albuminous or perispermic. When the nutritive matter is stored 
up in the cotyledons or lobes of the seed itself, as in the bean, pea, wall-flower, etc., the 
seed is said to be evalbuminous or aperispermic. In these the A., as a distinct part of the 
seed, is wanting, and the entire seed consists of embryo and integument. When the A. 
is present, it is sometimes very small, as in the nettle; in other instances, on the contrary, 
it is very much larger than the embryo, as in the cocoa-nut, of which it forms the edible 
part. It is also the edible or useful part of many other seeds—as in the different kinds 
of corn—and in coffee, nutmeg, etc. It is sometimes mealy or farinaceous, as in the 
cereals; oily, as in the poppy; horny, as in coffee; cartilaginous, as in the cocoa-nut; 
mucilaginous, a8 in the mallow. Vegetable ivory is the A. of a palm (genus phytelephas) 
which grows on the banks of the Magdalena, and is used in place of ivory. The pres- 
ence or absence, and various peculiarities of A., afford botanical characters of great 
value. The A. appears to be a store provided for the nourishment of the embryo, and 
consists of starchy, oily, and albuminous matter. Vegetable A., in a chemical sense, 
exists, and often in large quantity, even in seeds, which, according to the language of 
descriptive botany, are exalbuminous or destitute of A.; and to prevent confusion, pe7?- 
sperm has begun to be employed as the botanical term; but it is not yet in general use. 


ALBU'MENOIDS, or PRoreErps, organic bodies in animals or plants; chief constit- 
uents of blood, nerve, muscle, glands, and other organs in animals; in smaller proportion 
but important in vegetable life. They consist of carbon, 52.7 to 54.5; hydrogen, 6.9 to 
7.3; nitrogen, 15.4 to 16.5; oxygen, 20.9 to 23.5; sulphur, 0.8 to 1.6. They are soluble 
in alkalies, mineral acids, acetic acid, and in a degree in water; insoluble in ether, and 
nearly so in alcohol. Strong alkalies change them to leucine, tyrosine, oxalic acid, car- 
bonic acid, ammonia, etc., according to temperature. In solutions they are precipitated by 
excess of mineral acids, by potassic ferrocyanide, with acetic or hydrochloric acid, by 
acetic acid in presence of a considerable quantity of alkaline or alkaline-earthy salt, gum 
arabic or dextrine, by mercuric nitrate, or Millon’s reagent. 

ALBUMINU'RIA, or Brieut’s Disease, albumen in the urine, with dropsical ten- 
dency, and organic change in the substance of the kidneys. Acute A. may commence 
with a chill followed by fever, dry skin, furred tongue, and rapid pulse; sometimes the 
countenance, or even the whole body, is swollen; urine greatly diminished, and dark 
red, as if bloody; dull pain about the loins, pallid skin, and thirst; loss of appetite, nausea, 
and vomiting. Rarely is there a complete suppression of urine, which is almost certainly 
fatal. Tested by heat and nitric acid, the urine shows so much albumen as to change 
almost into a mass of jelly. Under the microscope the sediment of the urine shows 
blood corpuscles, renal epithelium, and small fibrinous casts of the uriniferous tubes, 
containing entangled in them epithelial cells and blood globules. The causes of acute A. 
are exposure to cold, especially when the body is exhausted by fatigue, recent illness, or 
unsuitable diet; but excessive indulgence in alcoholic liquors is the most fruitful cause. 
Other diseases, in which the blood is in an altered condition, are sometimes preceded or 
followed by A., as acute rheumatism, typhus fever, erysipelas, and purpura; it may also 
follow scarlet fever, when it generally terminates favorably. No patient can be consid- 
ered safe from A. so long as any trace of albumen can be found in the urine. The treat- 
ment is easy; let the patient put on flannel, and stay in bed, if possible, in an evenly 
heated room, carefully guarding against exposure or cold currents of air; diet to be simple 
and digestible, and not over-plentiful; on or near recovery, preparations of iron are use- 
ful to improve the blood and impart strength. 

Chronic A. is sometimes thoroughly seated before suspected, and persons have died 
as was supposed from apoplexy, when the real cause was long-established albuminuria. 
But usually the symptoms are clear: loss of flesh, strength, and appetite, or, if appetite 
hold, flatulence and dyspeptic symptoms; the body becomes pallid, sallow, and looks 
waxy; the skin dry; swellings under the eyes, particularly in the morning, and the ankles 
cedematous at night; pain in the back, but generally not severe; there is irritability of 
the bladder, and a frequent desire to urinate ; urine sometimes copious, but often 
‘ess than average, pale and of low specific gravity, from 1.004 to 1.012. On test 
the quantity of albumen in the urine varies; sometimes it is large, often only a trace, 


Albumen. 
2 2 1 Alburnum. 


or hardly that. As the disease goes on, dropsy of the abdomen is apt to occur, and be 
the chief cause of suffering; anasarca is present, and all the cellular tissue is infiltrated 
withserum There is a tendency to sleep which may lapse into coma, or alternate with 
epileptic convulsions. Bronchitis is apt to occur in severe form, or pneumonia to come 
insidiously and run rapidly to a fatal issue; rheumatism is not infrequent. ‘The variety 
of diseases which collect in a case of chronic A. is of course in consequence of the con- 
dition of the blood—the alterations in the blood being the diminished amount of globules, 
the hematine sometimes reaching only a third of its proper quantity, and the presence of 
urea. The duration of the disease varies: those exposed to the weather and who lack 
the comforts of life, often die suddenly, while in persons in condition to avoid 
exposure and fatigue it may last for years, leaving the victims a good degree of the 
enjoyments of life; but their situation is always precarious, and serious or fatal disease 
may at any moment come on from trifling causes. The main cause of chronic A. is 
intemperance in eating or drinking, but especially in the use of distilled and fermented 
liquors. Exposure to cold, wet, fatigue, want, and mental anxiety are occasionally 
* causes, and there are cases where no cause can be traced. Where neither dropsy, nor 
other difficult complications demand attention, the treatment should be more in careful 
clothing, diet, and exercise than in’ medicines, Flannel next the skin is indispensable, 
and exposure to wet and cold must be guarded against; unusual exercise, physical or 
-mental, is forbidden; diet. should be moderate and nutritious, and above all taken with 
regularity; fermented liquors should be avoided, although if long habit render them 
necessary the patient should select that which best agrees with him. See Brieut’s 
DISEASE. 


ALBUNOL’, at. of Spain, in the province of Granada, 41 m. s.e. from Granada, and 
about 3m. from the coast of the Mediterranean. It is a well-built t., with clean paved 
streets. The surrounding district abounds in vineyards, and is also very productive of figs 
and almonds. The making of wine and brandy and the drying of raisins are the chief 
occupations of the inhabitants of the t. itself. Pop. 8764. The port of A.is a smal) 
place called La Rabita. 


ALBUQUERQUE’, at. of Estremadura, Spain, in the province of Badajoz, and 24 m. 
n. from Badajoz. It is a decaying place. Cotton and woolen fabrics are manufactured, 
also earthenware, soap, and chocolate. Pop. 9400. 


ALBUQUERQUE, cap. of Bernalilloco., New Mexico, ontheright bank of the Rio Grande, 
56m. s. w. of Santa Fé, and on the Atchison, Topekaand Santa Fé and Atlantic and Pacific 
r.r. It has an elevation of 5200 ft. above the sea; is the seat of the University of New 
Mexico (opened 1892), a government school for Indians and several academies; has 
a large trade in hides and woo] and manufactures of iron, and in the vicinity are silver, 
gold, copper, and iron mines. Pop. 1880, 2315; 1890 (inc. old town), 5518. 

ALBUQUERQUE’, ALFONSO THE GREAT, Viceroy of the Indies, and also called the 
Portuguese Mars, was b. in 1453, near Alhandra, a t. not far from Lisbon, of a family of 
the royal blood of Portugal. In that age the Portuguese people were distinguished for 
heroism and a spirit of adventure. They had discovered and subjugated a great part of 
the western coast of Africa, and were beginning to extend their dominion over the seas 
and people of India. — A. being appointed viceroy of these new possessions, landed on the 
coast of Malabar, on Sept. 26, 1503, with a flect and some troops; conquered Goa, which 
he made the seat of the Portuguese government, and the center of its Asiatic commerce; 
and afterwards the whole of Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda isles, the peninsula of Malacca, 
and (in 1515) the island of Ormuz at the entrance of the Persian gulf. When the king 
of Persia sent for the tribute which the princes of this island had formerly rendered to 
him, A. presented bullets and swords to the ambassador, saying: ‘‘' This is the coin with 
which Portugal pays her tribr.te.” He made the Portuguese name profoundly respected 
among the princes and people of the east; and many of them, especially the kings of 
Siam and Pegu, sought his alliance and protection. All his undertakings bore the stamp 
of an extraordinary mind. He maintained strict military discipline, was active, far- 
seeing, wise, humane and equitable, respected and feared by his neighbors, while beloved 
by his subjects. Notwithstanding his valuable services, Albuquerque did not escape 
the envy of the courtiers and the suspicions of king Emmanuel, who appointed Lopez 
Soarez, a personal enemy of A., to supersede him as viceroy. This ingratitude affected 
him deeply. Ishma#l, the shah of Persia, offered his assistance to resist the arbitrary 
decree of the Portuguese court; but A. would not violate his allegiance. A few days 
after, commending his son to the king in a short letter, he died at sea near Goa, Dec. 16, 
1515. Emmanuel honored his memory by a long repentance, and raised his son to the 
highest dignities in the state. His life is well portrayed in the Commentarios do Grande 
Alfonso de A. (Lisbon, 1576 and 1774), published by his son Blasius. 


ALBURG, a t in Grand Isle co., Vermont, on the Central Vermont railroad ; pop. 
’90, 1890. It has a mineral spring, the waters of which are said to be useful in gout and 
rheumatism. 


ALBURNUM, or Sarwoop, in botany, is that part of the wood of exogenous trees 
which is still imperfectly hardened, and, consisting of the woody layers most recently 
formed, is interposed between the bark (q.v.) and the heart-wood or duramen (q.v.). There 
is often a very marked division between it and the duramen in trees whose age is such 
that the latter has been perfected. The A. differs from the duramen in having its tubes 


Alca. Say 


Alcaraz. 


still open for the passage of fluids; and these tubes appear to be the vessels which chiefly 
serve for the ascent of the sap (see Sap.). It gradually hardens, and is transformed into 
duramen, new layers being added externally. It is almost always of a white or very pale 
color, whilst in many trees the duramen is highly colored. The A. is pale even in ebony, 
in which the duramen is black. In general, the A. is much inferior in value to the hard- 
ened or perfected wood, and the different proportions which they bear to each other in 
the thickness of the stem, go far to determine the relative values of some kinds of 
trees. These proportions, however, are different not only in trees of different kinds, but 
even in trees of the same kind at different ages, and according as circumstances have 
been favorable or otherwise to rapidity of growth. When there is a great proportion of 
A.the wood dries slowly, and with difficulty, owing to the quantity of sap it contains. 


AL'CA and Atcap. See AUK. 


ALCZE'US, of Mitylene, one of the greatest lyric poets of Greece, flourished about 
the end of the 7th or the beginning of the 6th c. B.c. His odes in the olic dialect are 
occupied with his grief for the dissensions of his country, his hatred of tyrants, his own © 
misfortunes, and the sorrows of exile; while on other occasions he celebrates the praises 
of love and wine. He is said to have been an admirer of Sappho, who was a contem- 
porary. <A. himself took part in the civil war, first as the coadjutor of Pittacus, but 
afterwards against him, when he proved tyrannical. Being banished from Mitylene, he 
endeavored, at the head of the other exiles, to force his way back; but in this attempt he 
fell into the hands of Pittacus, who, however, granted him his life and freedom. He 
was the inventor of the form of verse which after him is called the Alcaic, and which 
Horace, the happiest of his imitators, transplanted into the Latin language. Of the ten 
books of A.’s odes, only fragments remain, which are collected in the Cambridge Museum 
Criticum and in Bergk’s Poete Lyricit Greci (Leip. 1848). 


ALCA'ICS, the name of certain kinds of verse, from Alczus, their reputed originator. 
One kind is of five feet, viz., a spondee or iambic, an iambic, a long syllable and two 
dactyls ; the second kind of two dactyls and two troches. The A. odeis composed of sev- 
eral strophes, each of four verses, the first two of which are always alcaics of the first kind : 
the third verse is an iambic dimeter-hypercatalectic, consisting of four feet and a long 
syllable ; and the fourth verse is an alcaic of the second kind. Example: 

Non possidentem multa vocaveris 
Recte beatum ; rectius occupat 


Nomen beati, qui deorum 
Muneribus sapienter uti. 


ALCAI'DE, or ALCAYDE, a Moorish title, applied by Spanish and Portuguese writers 
to a military officer having charge of a fortress, prison, or town. It is to be dis- 
tinguished from Alcalde, which indicates a civil officer. 


ALCALA’ DE GUADAI RA (the castle of the Guadaira), the ancient Carthaginian Hien- 
ippa (‘‘ place of many springs”), a t. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Seville, and 
7 m.e. bys. from Seville. It stands near the Guadaira, partly on ahill, so that some of 
the streets are very steep, and is overlooked by the ruins of an ancient Moorish castle, 
once one of the most important, as its ruins are still among the finest, in Spain. This 
t. is beautifully situated, and on account of the salubrity of its climate is much resorted 
to as a summer residence by the inhabitants of Seville. It is celebrated for producing 
the finest bread in Spain; there are numerous bakeries in the t., and Seville is chiefly 
supplied from it. The water-mills and mule-mills for making flour are more than 200 
in number, and, with the bakeries, give employment to a great part of the popula- 
tion. Every process connected with the making of bread is conducted with the greatest 
care. Seville is also supplied with water from the hill above A., which is perforated by 
tunnels, some of them 6 m. in length, forming underground canals. Some of the tunnels 
are believed to be Roman works, but most of them are known to have been made by the 
Moors. The water flowing through the subterranean canals is as clear as crystal. The 
neighborhood of A. is fertile, producing corn, wine, oil, silk, honey, and fruits, also 
sheep and oxen. Pop. 9000. 


ALCALA’ DE HENARES (£7 Calaat, in Arabic, means ‘‘the castle”), a t. in Spain, 
in the province of New Castile, situated on the Henares, 22 m. from the capital, pop. 
12,000. Itis built in the old style, and boasts of a university, which was founded by car- 
dinal Ximenes in 1510, and once enjoyed a worid-wide fame, second to that of Salamanca 
alone. When Francis I. visited it, while a prisoner in Spain, he was welcomed by 11,000 
students. The library contains the original of the celebrated polyglot Bible which was 
printed in this t., and called the Complutensian, from the ancient name of the place 
(Complutum). A. has, besides, a military academy, and a celebrated powder and leather 
factory. It is said to have been the birthplace of Cervantes, and various other distin- 
guished persons.—There are several other towns in Spain which bear the name of ALCALA; 
as A. of Chisberte, in Valencia (pop. 6000); A. de Guadaira, near Seville (9000), and A. 
la Real, in Jaen (16,000), with superior wine, fruit, sheep, etc. 

ALCALA’ LA REAL’ (the Royal Castle), a city of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of 
Jaen, and 26 m. n.w. from Granada. It is situated on a conical hill, in a narrow valley, 
on the n. side of the mountains which separate the province of Jaen from that of Gran- 


223 onan 


ada, at an elevation of nearly 3000 ft above the sea. It is a very picturesque t., irreg- 
ularly built, with steep and narrow streets and bold towers. It was the stronghold of 
the aleaide Ibn Zaide; and being taken in 1340, by Alonzo XI. in person, it obtained the 
name fveal. It has a hospital, formerly an abbey, a very fine building. The neighbor- 
hood produces grain and fruits of the finest quality, and the inhabitants of the t. are 
mostly engaged in agriculture. There is some trade in wine and wool. Pop. 16,521. 


ALCAL'DE, a corruption of the Arabic el-cadi, ‘‘the judge,” a word introduced by the 
Moors. It is still used in Spain as the general title of judicial and magisterial office, 
the special function being denoted by another term. Thus, there are alcaldes de aldea, 
village-justices ; alcaldes pedaneos, justices of the peace ; alcaldes de corte, judges of the 
court, etc. 

ALCAM’ENES, lived 448 to 400 B.c., a famous Athenian sculptor, pupil of Phidias, 
commended for skill in his art by Cicero, Pliny, and others. With Phidias and Poly- 
cletus, he formed the great triumvirate of Greek sculptors. He is said to have competed 
with his master in creating statues of Minerva, but overlooked the height at which his 
was to be seen and made it too small, though otherwise perfect. The ‘‘ Venus Urania” 
in the temple at Athens was his masterpiece. 


AL'CAMO, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, and 23 m. e. from Trapani, in the 
Val di Mazzara, on the high-road between Palermo and Trapani. It is said to have been 
founded by the Arabs, on their first invasion of Sicily in 827. The original t. stood on 
a hill, and long retained a Moslem population, who were driven out by the emperor 
Frederick II. in 1228, and the new t. was built at the foot of the hill. A. is sur 
rounded by a battlemented wall of the 14th c. The houses are mostly mean, and the 
streets irregular and dirty; the whole place having an air of poverty and decay. It 
contains, however, some fine old churches and palaces. Pop. about 23,000. 


ALCANIZ’, a t. of Aragon, Spain, in the province of Teruel, 63 m. s.e. from Saragossa. 
It is situated on a rising ground on the right bank of the Guadalupe, which is here 
crossed by a bridge of nine arches. It is a well-built t., with wide paved streets, and a 
number of squares. It has a magnificent collegiate church, in which are many fine tombs 
and pictures. There are manufactures of silk, woollen, and coarse linen fabrics, hats, 
and soap; there are also flour and oil mills, and some trade in grain, cattle, and the man- 
ufactures af the t. Pop. 7800. 


ALCAN’'TARA (Al-kantarah, Arabic, ‘‘the bridge’’), the Norba Cesarea of the Romans, 
an old fortified Spanish t., built by the Moors in the province of Estremadura. The 
present population is about 4000. lt was plundered by the French under general Lapisse 
in 1809. The bridge from which it takes its name was built for Trajan, 105 a.p. - It con- 
sists of 6 arches, the 2 central ones with a span of 110 ft.; the whole length is 670, and 
the height 210 ft. This remarkable structure was partially blown up by the English in 
1812, and was again destroyed during the civil war of 18386; and though it might be 
easily repaired, it is left in a state of ruin, the lazy Spaniards being ferried over in a 
Jumbering boat. 

THE ORDER OF A. (formerly St. Julian), one of the religious orders of Spanish knight. 
hood, was founded (1156) as a military fraternity for the defense of Estremadura against 
the Moors. In 1197, Pope Celestine III. raised it to the rank of a religious order of 
knighthood; bestowed great privileges on it, and charged it with the defense of the 
Christian faith, and the maintenance of eternal war with the infidel. Alphonso IX., 
having taken the t. of A., ceded it in 1218 to the order of Calatrava (q.v.); but the knights 
of this order, unable to hold it along with their other great possessions, yielded it to the 
knights of St. Julian, who transferred it to their seat, and henceforth were known by its 
name. At length the grand-mastership of the order was, by pope Alexander VI., united 
to the Spanish crown in 1495. The order is still richly endowed. The knights, who 
follow the rule of St. Benedict, take now only the vows of obedience and poverty, hav- 
ing, since 1540, been absolved from that of celibacy. -A special vow binds them to defend 
the immaculate conception of the virgin. At their nomination, they must prove four 
generations of nobility. Fora time, the knights of A. acknowledged the superiority of 
the knights of Calatrava, but they were latterly absolved from it. In 1835, the order 
ceased to exist as an ecclesiastical body and became an order of the court. The crest of 
the order is a pear-tree. 

ALCAN TARA, a seaport t. of Brazil, in the province of Maranham, 17 m. n.w. from 
Maranham, near the mouth of the bay of St. Marcos. Most of the houses are only of 
one story. The more wealthy residents are mostly cotton-planters; the poorer classes 
live chiefly by fishing, and by making hammocks of some of the peculiar fibers of the 
country. There are salt-pits not far from the t. Cotton, rice, and salt are exported. 
Pop. 5000. 

ALCARAZ’, a t. of La Mancha, Spain, in the province of Albacete, and 36 m. w.s.w 
from Albacete. It standson the slope of an isolated hill, on the left bank of the Guadar. 
mena, a feeder of the Guadalquivir. A ruined castle crowns the summit of the hill; and 
there are also the remains of a fine Roman aqueduct. Some of the streets are very steep. 
The inhabitants are partly employed in weaving and iron-working, partly in agriculture, 
Pop, about 5000, 


Alcatraz. 
Alchemy. 22 + 


ALCATRAZ’, or PeLIcAN ISLAND, in the bay of San Francisco, n.w. of the city, for- 
tified by the federal government, and having a light-house on its highest ground. The 
island is less than a third of a mile in length. It commands the entrance to the bay. 


ALCAUDET'E (anc. Uditunwm), a t. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of. Jaen 
and 22 m. s.w. from Jaen. It is situated in a hollow, enclosed by three hills, on am afflu- 
ent of the Guadalquivir, is overlooked by the ruins of an ancient castle, and is tolerably 
well built. There are fine pictures in some of the churches. Oil and rope making, 
weaving, and agriculture are the chief employments of the inhabitants. Grain, silk, 
oxen, sheep, goats, pigs, mules, and asses are produced in the neighborhood. Pop. 
9200. : 

ALCAVA’LA, or ALCABA’LA, & duty formerly charged in Spain and her colonies on 
transfers of property, whether public or private. It was begun in 1341 by Alphonso XI. 
at 10 and increased to 14 per cent of the selling price of all commodities, raw or manufac- 
tured, and charged as often as they were sold or exchanged. This monstrous impost 
was enforced, nearly ruining the commerce of the kingdom, down to the invasion of 
Napoleon. Catalonia and Arragon purchased from Philip V. exemption from the tax, 
and, though still burdened heavily, were in a flourishing state in comparison with dis- 
tricts covered by the Alcovalla. 


ALCE’DO. See KINGFISHER. 


ALCESTER (Baron), The Right Hon. FrepERIcCK BEAUCHAMP PAGET SEYMOUR, 
G.C.B., was born in London, Eng., 1821. Entering the Royal Navy, Jan.,1834, he received 
his lieutenant’s commission in 1842, became a captain in 1854, rear-admiral in 1870, vice- 
admiral in 1876, and admiral in 1882. He served with honor in the Burmese war, 
1852-3, and against the Russians in 1854. From Oct., 1874, till Nov., 1877, he com- 
manded the Channel Squadron, and in 1880 he was appointed commander-in-chief in 
the Mediterranean. While in command of the Allied Fleet of the European Powers, he 
distinguished himself in the naval demonstration off the Albanian coast, and in the fol- 
lowing year was created G.C.B. In the Egyptian war, as commander-in-chief of the 
Mediterranean fleet, he took a conspicuous part, reducing Alexandria and retaining the 
command until the arrival of Sir Garnet Wolseley. For his distinguished services he 
was elevated to the peerage by the title of Baron Alcester of Alcester. D. in 1895. 


AL'CHEMY is to modern chemistry what astrology is to astronomy, or legend to his- 
tory. In the eye of the astrologer, a knowledge of the stars was valuable only as a means 
of foretelling, or even of influencing, future events. In like manner, the genuine alche- 
mist toiled with his crucibles and alembics, calcining, subliming, distilling, not with a 
view to discover the chemical properties of substances, as we understand them, but 
with two grand objects, as illusory as those of the astrologer—to discover, namely, (1) 
the secret of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver, and (2) the means of indefinitely 
prolonging human life. 

Tradition points to Egypt as the birthplace of the science. Hermes (q.v.) Trisme- 
gistus is represented as the father of it ; and the most probable etymology of the name is. 
that which connects it with the most ancient and native name of Egypt, Chemz (the Scrip- 
ture Cham or Ham). The Greeks and Romans under the empire would seem to have 
become acquainted with it from the Egyptians ; there is no reason to believe that, in 
early times, either people had the name or the thing. Chemia (Gr. chemeta) occurs in the 
lexicon of Suidus, written in the 11th c., and is explained by him to be ‘‘ the conversion 
of silver and gold.” It is to the Arabs, from whom Europe got the name and the art, 
that we owe the prefixed article al. As if chemia had been a generic term embracing all 
common chemical operations, such as the decocting and compounding of ordinary drugs, 
the grand operation of transmutation was denominated the chemia (al-chemy)—the chemis- 
try of chemistries. The Roman emperor Caligula is said to have instituted experiments. 
for the producing of gold out of orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic); and in the time of 
Diocletian, the passion for this pursuit, conjoined with magical arts, had become so 
prevalent in the empire, that that emperor is said to have ordered all Egyptian works. 
treating of the chemistry of gold and silver to be burnt. For at that time, multitudes. 
of books on this art were appearing, written by Alexandrine monks and by hermits, but. 
bearing famous names of antiquity, such as Democritus, Pythagoras, and Hermes. 

Ata later period, the Arabs took up the art; and it is to them that European A. is 
directly traceable. The school of polypharmacy, as it has been called, flourished in 
Arabia during the caliphates of the Abbasides. The earliest work of this school now 
known is the Summa Perfectionis, or ‘‘Summit of Perfection,” composed by Gebir (q.v.): 
in the 8th c.; it is consequently the oldest book on chemistry proper in the world. It. 
contains so much of what sounds very much like jargon in our ears, that Dr. Johnson 
ascribes the origin of the word ‘‘ gibberish” to the name cf the compiler. Yet when 
viewed in its true light, it isa wonderful performance. It is a kind of text-book, or 
collection of all that was then known and believed. It appears that these Arabian poly- 
pharmists had long been engaged in firing and boiling, dissolving and precipitating, 
subliming and coagulating chemical substances. They worked with gold and mercury, 
arsenic and sulphur, salts and acids; and had, in short, become familiar with a large: 
range of what are now called chemicals. Gebir taught that there are three elemental, 
chemicals—murcury, sulphur, and arsenic. These substances, especially the first two, 
seem to have fascinated the thoughts of the alchemists by their potent and penetrating: 
qualities, They saw mercury dissolve gold, the most incorruptible of matters, as water 


4. Alcatraz. 
22 9) Alchemy. 


dissolves sugar; and a stick of sulphur presented to hot iron penetrates it like a spirit, 
and makes it run down in a shower of solid drops, anew and remarkable substance, 
possessed of properties belonging neither to iron nor to sulphur. The Arabians held 
that the metals are-compound bodies, made up of mercury and sulphur in different 
proportions. With these very excusable errors in theory, they were genuine practical 
chemists. They toiled away at the art of making ‘‘many medicines” (polypharmacy) 
out of the various mixtures and reactions of such chemicals as they knew. They had 
their pestles and mortars, their crucibles and furnaces, their alembics and aludels, their 
vessels for infusion, for decoction, for cohabitation, sublimation, fixation, lixiviation, 
filtration, coagulation, etc. Their scientific creed was transmutation, and their methods 
were mostly blind gropings; and yet, in this way, they found out many a new body, and 
invented many a useful process. 

From the Arabs A. found its way through Spain into Europe, and speedily became 
entangled with the fantastic subtleties of the scholastic philosophy. In the middle ages, 
it was chiefly the monks that occupied themselves with A. Pope John XXII. took 
great delight in it, though it was afterwards forbidden by his successor. The earliest 
authentic works on European A. now extant are those of Roger Bacon (b. 1214, d. 1284) 
and Albertus Magnus (Albert of Bollstiidt, q.v.). Bacon (q.v.) appears rather the earlier 
of the two as a writer, and is really the greatest man in all the school. He was acquainted 
with gunpowder. Although he condemns magic, necromancy, charms, and all such 
things, he believes in the convertibility of the inferior metals into gold, but does not 
profess to have ever effected the conversion. He had more faith in the elixir of life than 
in gold-making. He followed Gebir in regarding portable gold—that is, gold dissolved in 
nitro-hydrochloric acid or aqua reyia—as the elixir of life. Urging it on the attention of 
pope Nicholas IV., he informs his holiness of an old man who found some yellow liquor 
(the solution of gold is yellow) in a golden vial, when plowing one day in Sicily. 
Supposing it to be dew, he drank it off. He was thereupon transformed into a hale, 
robust, and highly accomplished youth. Bacon no doubt took many a dose of this 
golden water himself.—Albertus Magnus had a great mastery of the practical 
chemistry of his times ; he was acquainted with alum, caustic alkali, and the purification 
of the royal metals by means of lead. In addition to the sulphur-and-mercury theory of the 
metals, drawn from Gebir, he regarded the element water as still nearer the soul of nature 
than either of these bodies. He appears, indeed, to have thought it the primary matter, 
or the radical source of all things—an opinion held by Thales, the father of Greek specu- 
lation.—Thomas Aquinas (q.v.) also wroteon A., and was the first to employ the word 
amalgam (q.v.).—Raymond Lully (q.v.) is another great name in the annalsof A.. His 
writings are much more disfigured by unintelligible jargon than those of Bacon and 
Albertus Magnus. He was the first to introduce the use of chemical symbols, his 
system consisting of a scheme of arbitrary hieroglyphics. He made much of the spirit 
of wine (the art of distilling spirits would seem to have been then recent), imposing on it 
the name of aqua vite ardens. In his enthusiasm, he pronounced it the very elixir of life. 
One of the most celebrated of the alchemists was Basil Valentine (q.v.), b. 1894, who 
introduced antimony into medical use. He, along with some previous alchemists, 
regarded salt, sulphur, and mercury as the three bodies contained in the metals. He 
inferred that the philosopher’s stone must be the same sort of combination—a compound, 
namely, of salt, sulphur, and mercury; so pure, that its projection on the baser metals 
should be able to work them up into greater and greater purity, bringing them at last to 
the state of silver and gold. His practical knowledge was great; he knew how to 
precipitate iron from solution by potash, and many similar processes, so that he is ranked 
as the founder of analytical chemistry. 

But more famous than all was pacdneleds (q.v.), in whom A. proper may be said 
to have culminated. He held, with Basil Valentine, that the elements of compound 
bodies were salt, sulphur, and mercury—representing respectively earth, air, and water, 
fire being already regarded as an imponderable—but these substances were in his system 
purely representative. All kinds of matter were reducible under one or other of these 
typical forms; everything was either a salt, a sulphur, or a mercury, or, like the metals, 
it was a ‘‘mixt” or compound. There was one element, however, common to the four; 
a fifth essence or ‘‘ quintessence” of creation; an unknown and only true element, of 
which the four generic principles were nothing but derivative forms or embodiments: in 
other words, he inculcated the dogma that there is only one real elementary matter— 
nobody knows what. ‘This one prime element of things he appears to have considered 
to be the universal solvent of which the alchemists were in quest, and to express which 
he introduced the term alcahest—a word of unknown etymology, but supposed by some 
to be composed of the two German words alle geist, ‘‘all spirit.” He seems to have had 
the notion that if this quintessence or fifth element could be got at, it would prove to 
be at once the philosopher’s stone, the universal medicine, and the irresistible solvent. 

After Paracelsus, the alchemists of Europe became divided into two classes. The one 
class was composed of men of diligence and sense, who devoted themselves to the 
discovery of new compounds and reactions—practical workers and observers of facts, 
and the legitimate ancestors of the positive chemists of the era of Lavoisier. The 
other class took up the visionary, fantastical side of the older A., and carried it to a 
degree of extravagance before unknown. Instead of useful work, they compiled mystical 


I.—8s 


Alcibiades. 226 
trash into books, and fathered them on Hermes, Aristotle, Albertus Magnus, Paracelsus, 
and other really great men. Their language is a farrago of mystical metaphors, full of 
‘red bridegrooms” and ‘‘lily brides,” ‘‘ green dragons,” ‘‘ruby lions,” ‘‘royal baths,” 
<‘ waters of life.” T’ieseven metals correspond with the seven planets, the seven cosmical 
angels, and the seven openings of the head—the eyes, the ears, the nostrils, and the 
mouth. Silver was Diana, gold was Apollo, iron was Mars, tin was Jupiter, lead was 
Saturn, and so forth. They talk forever of the power of attraction, which drew all men 
and women after the possessor; of the alcahest, and the grand elixir, which was to 
confer immortal youth upon the student who should approve himself pure and brave 
enough to kiss and quaff the golden draught. There was the great mystery, the mother 
of the elements, the grandmother of the\ stars. There was the philosopher’s stone, and 
there was the philosophical stune. The philosophical stone was younger than the elements, 
yet at her virgin touch the grossest calx (ore) among them all would blush before her into 
perfect gold. The philosopher’s stone, on the other hand, was the first-born of nature, 
and older than the king of metals. Those who had attained full insight into the arcana 
of the science were styled wise; those who were only striving after the light were philoso- 
phers; while the ordinary practicers of the art were called adepts. It was these vision- 
aries that formed themselves into Rosicrucian societies and other secret associations. It 
was also in connection with this mock A., mixed up with astrology and magic, that 
quackery and imposture so abounded, as is depicted by Scott in the character of 
Dousterswivel in the Antiqguary. Designing knaves would, for instance, make up large 
nails, half of iron and half of gold, and lacker them, so that they appeared common 
nails, and when their credulous and avaricious dupes saw them extract from what seemed 
plain iron an ingot of gold, they were ready to advance any sum that the knaves 
pretended to be necessary for pursuing the process on a large scale. It is from this 
degenerate and effete school that the prevailing notion of A. is derived—a notion which 
is unjust to the really meritorious alchemists who paved the way for genuine chemistry. 
It is interesting to observe that the leading tenet in the alchemists’ creed—namely, 
the doctrine of the transmutability of other metals into gold and silver—a doctrine 
which it was at one time thought that modern chemistry had utterly exploded—receives 
not a little countenance from a variety of facts every day coming to light. The multi- 
tude of phenomena known to chemists under the name of allotropy (q.v.), are leading 
speculative men more and more to the opinion that many substances hitherto considered 
chemically distinct, are only the same substance under some different condition or 
arrangement of its component molecules, and that the number of really distinct elements 
may be very few indeed. The two alchemists, Basil Valentine and Paracelsus, 
recognizing the importance of the strange substances which escaped from the re- 
torts of the masters of A. in the transmutation of bodies, gave them the name of 
mercury ; the elders called them souls or spirits; Van Helmont studied them more 
closely, and gave them the name of gas. He was acquainted with carbonic acid 
under the name of woody gas; but his ignorance of the action of the oxygen 
of the atmosphere prevented him from making the fundamental distinction be- 
tween experiments performed in a closed vessel and in one open to the air. 
Priestley, Lavoisier, and Scheele, by the use of the test tube and the balance, weighed 
and tested the results of ancient A., and thence modern chemistry was born; but 
the work had already been begun by men of genius, such as Bernard Palissy, Boyle, 
Homberg, the Geoffreys, Margraff, Bergman, and Rouelle, the master of Lavoisier, 
who may be called the Diderot of chemistry. It is also true that the most important 
discoveries in chemistry have been made by men who combined with chemical experi- 
ments a marked taste for alchemic theories; for instance, Glauber, ablest of mystics; 
Kunkel, who thought he had found in the ‘‘ shining pills” of his phosphorus mirabilis as 
efficacious a remedy as the potable gold in which he also believed; Glaser, the alchemist, 
master of Lemery, who has been called the father of chemisty; Robert Fludd, and 
others. Soon after chemistry was settled as a science there was a crusade in search of 
the philosopher’s stone. Among French seekers was De Lisle, who died in the Bastille 
of wounds inflicted by his keepers in trying to extort his secret; among Englishmen, Dr. 
Price, who committed suicide to avoid a public trial of his pretended discoveries. Doubt- 
less the main idea of A. is yet alive. One of the greatest of French chemists, Dumas, 
thought as to the theoretical possibility of making gold, that a solution might be found 
in the doctine of isomerism; and the more famous English savant, Sir Humphrey Davy, 
refused to decide that the alchemists must be wrong. In 1796 two German physicians 
founded a society for the investigation of the transmutation of metals, and this society 
and its branches existed as late as 1820. A text-book of chemistry by Baudrimont (1844) 
says ‘‘a certain Mr. Javary has obtained very surprising results by following the pre- 
scriptions of the ancient alchemists, so that there is hope of at last seeing the great work 
succeed.” Another work by Fiffereau (1856) affirms that the metals are compound 
bodies, and that silver can be changed into gold. The literature of A. is enormous, 
including such names as Roger Bacon, Lord Bacon, Becher, Fludd, Hermis Tris. 
megisti, Glauber, Kunkel, Paracelsus, Quercetean, Basil Valentine, Peter Gregory, etc., 
not to mention Greek, Roman, and Arabic writers. See Kopp’s Geschichte der Chemie ; 
on ah and the Alchemists, by Dr. Samuel Brown, in Chambers’s Papers for the People 
0. 66), 


Alciati. 
227 Alcibladens 


ALCIA’TI, Anpre’A, 1492-1550; an Italian jurist, skillful in his exposition of the 
jaws, for which he is praised by De Thou. He published many legal works, annotations 
on Tacitus, and Hmblems or moral sayings in Latin verse, greatly admired. His History 
of Milan was published in 1625. 


ALCIBI'ADES, a son of Clinias and Dinomache, b. at Athens, 450 B.c. He lost his 
father in the battle of Cheeronea, and was in consequence educated in the house of 
Pericles, his uncle. In his youth he gave evidence of his future greatness, excelling both 
in mental and bodily exercises. His handsome person, his distinguished parentage, and 
the high position of Pericles, procured him a multitude of friends and admirers. Socrates 
was one of the former, and gained considerable influence over him; but was unable to 
restrain his love of luxury and dissipation, which found ample means of gratification in 
the wealth that accrued to him by his union with Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus. 
His public displays, especially at the Olympic games, were incredibly expensive. He 
bore arms for the first time in the expedition against Potidza (482 B.c.), where he was 
wounded, and where his life was saved by Socrates—a debt which he liquidated eight 
years after at the battle of Delium, by saving, in his turn, the life of the philosopher; but 
he seems to have taken no part in political matters till after the death of the demagogue 
Cleon, when Nicias brought about a treaty of peace for fifty years between the Athenians 
and Lacedemonians. A., jealous of the esteem in which Nicias was held, persuaded the 
Athenians to ally themselves with the people of Argos, Elis, and Mantinea, and did all 
in his power to stir up afresh their old antipathy to Sparta. It was at his suggestion 
that they engaged in the celebrated enterprise against Sicily, to the command of which 
he was elected, along with Nicias and Lamachus. But while preparations were being 
made, it happened during one night that all the statues of Mercury in Athens were 
mutilated. The enemies of A. threw the blame of this mischief upon him, but post- 
poned the impeachment till he had set sail, when they stirred up the people against him 
to such a degree that he was recalled, in order to stand his trial. On his way home, he 
landed at Thurii, fled, and betook himself to Sparta, where, by conforming to the strict 
manners of the people, he soon became a favorite. He induced the Lacedemonians to 
send assistance to the Syracusans, persuaded them to form an alliance with the king 
of Persia, and after the unfortunate issue of the Athenian expedition in Sicily, to 
support the people of Chios in their endeavors to throw off the yoke of Athens. He 
went thither himself, and raised all Ionia in revolt against that city. But Agis and the 
other leading men in Sparta, jealous of the success of A., ordered their generals in Asia 
to have him assassinated. A. discovered this plan, and fled to Tissaphernes, a Persian 
satrap, who had orders to act in concert with the Lacedzemonians. He now resumed his 
old manners, adopted the luxurious habits of Asia, and made himself indispensable to 
Tissaphernes. He represented to the latter that it was contrary to the interests of Persia 
entire to disable the Athenians. He then sent word to the commanders of the Athenian 
forces at Samos that he would procure for them the friendship of the satrap if they 
would control the extravagance of the people, and commit the government to an oligarchy. 
This offer was accepted, and Pisander was sent to Athens, where he got the supreme 
power vested in a council of 400 persons. When it appeared, however, that this council 
had no intention of recalling A., the army at Samos chose him as their commander, 
desiring him to lead them on instantly to Athens, and overthrow the tyrants. But A. 
did not wish to return to his native country till he had rendered it some service, and he 
accordingly attacked and defeated the Lacedeemonians both by sea and land. Tissa- 
phernes now ordered him to be arrested at Sardis.on his return, the satrap not wishing 
the king to imagine that he had been accessory to his doings. But A. found means to 
escape; placed himself again at the head of the army; ‘beat the Lacedsemonians and 
Persians at Cyzicus; took Cyzicus, Chalcedon, and Byzantium; restored to the Athenians 
the dominion of the sea; and then returned to his country (407 B.c.), to which he had 
been formally invited. He was received with general enthusiasm, as the Athenians 
attributed to his banishment all the misfortunes that had befallen them. 

The triumph of A., however, was not destined to last. He was again sent to Asia 
with 100 ships; but not being supplied with money for the soldiers’ pay, he was obliged 
to seek assistance at Caria, where he transferred the command in the meantime to 
Antiochus, who being lured into an ambuscade by Lysander, lost his life and part of the 
ships. The enemies of A. took advantage of this to accuse him and appoint another 
commander. A. went to Thrace, where he lived in voluntary exile in Pactye, one of 
the castles which he had built out of his earlier spoils. But being threatened here with 
the power of Lacedemonia, he removed to Bithynia, with the intention of repairing to 
Artaxerxes, to gain him over to the interests of his country. At the request of the 
thirty tyrants of Athens, and with the concurrence of the Spartans, Pharnabazus, a 
satrap of Artaxerxes, received orders to put A. to death. He was living at this time in 
a castle at Phrygia; Pharnabazus ordered it to be set on fire during the night, and as his 
victim was endeavoring to escape from the flames, he was pierced with a volley of arrows. 
Thus perished A. (404 B.c.), about the 45th year of his age. He was singularly endowed 
by nature, being possessed of the most fascinating eloquence (although he could not 
articulate the letter 7, and stuttered in his speech), and having in a rare degree the 
talent to win and to govern men. Yet in all his transactions, he allowed himself to be 
directed by external circumstances, without having any fixed principles of conduct. 


Alcinous,. 9 
Alcohol. 2 = 8 


On the other hand, he possessed that boldness which arises from conscious superiority, 
and shrunk from no difliculty, because he was never doubtful concerning the means by 
which an end might be attained. His life has been written by Plutarch and Cornelius 
Nepos. 

ALCIN'0US, a mythical king of the Pheecians, grandson of Neptune. He was im- 
mortalized in the Odyssey for the relief and entertainment extended to Ulysses by his 
daughter Nausicaa. The subjects of A. loved pleasure, but they were skillful seamen, 
and he is described as having been a good prince. 


AL'CIPHRON, a Greek epistolary writer, probably contemporary with Lucian. 
His letters, 116 of which have been published, are in pure Attic dialect, and are con- 
sidered models of style. The imaginary authors are common people, fishermen, cour- 
tesans, and parasites. The letters are valuable as picturing Athenian private life at that 
period. 


ALCI'RA (anc. Sebaticula), a t. of Spain, in the province of Valencia, 20 m. s. by w. 
from Valencia, on an island in the river Xucar, the two branches of which are here 
crossed by stone bridges. It is surrounded by old walls, with strong towers. The 
principal streets are wide, but the t. is ill built. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in 
the manufacture of earthenware, the production of silk, and agriculture. The sur- 
rounding country is much intersected by canals, exhibiting an admirable specimen of the 
system of irrigation introduced by the Moors. Pop. 18,500, 


ALCMZ'ON, in Greek legend, son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, and brother of 
Amphiloclus. He was a leader of the Epigoni who went against Thebes to revenge the 
death of their fathers in the war of the seven. After the fall of Thebes, A. killed his 
mother, as he had been ordered by hisfather. For this act madness came upon him, and 
he was always pursued by the furies. He married Arsinoé, daughter of Phegenus, king 
of Psophis, and also Calirrhoé, daughter of the river-god Achelous. The last wife 
coveted the necklace and peplus of Harmonia, once belonging to his mother, which he had 
given to Arsinoé,and he got them from Arsinoé by the false pretense of wishing to 
dedicate them at Delphi in hope to cure his madness. When his father-in-law heard that 
he had got the treasures for his new wife, he sent his sons, who killed A; but A,’s sons 
by Calirrhoé took bloody vengeance, at her instigation. After his death A. seems to 
have been worshiped, and had altars at Thebes and elsewhere; his tomb was shown 
at Psophis, and he had a statue at Delphi. 


ALCMZ’ON, a Greek natural philosopher of the latter part of the 6the. B.c., b. in 
Crotona, s. Italy, and said to have been a pupil of Pythagoras. He was the first who 
practiced dissection of animals; but it is a question whether he ever operated ona 
human body. He thought the human soul was immortal, because, like the heavenly 
bodies, it contained within itself a principle of motion. The eclipses of the moon he 
thought were occasioned by her shape, like that of a boat. 


ALC’MAN, an ancient lyric poet, was born at Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in Asia 
Minor, but lived first as a slave, and afterwards as afreeman in Sparta. He is the earliest 
erotic poet, and is said to have introduced some new metrical forms called Alemanica 
metra. He composed in the Doric dialect a poem on the Dioscuri, Parthenia, or songs 
sung by choruses of virgins, bridal-hymns, verses in praise of love and wine, etc. We 
possess only a few fragments of A., nor do these justify the high opinion entertained of 
his merits by the ancients, though some of them exhibit considerable beauty. A.d. ofa 
loathsome disease (morbus pedicularis). 


ALCME’NE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Electryon king of Mycene, and wife 
ef Amphitryon; mother of Hercules, by Jupiter, who came to her in the form of her 
husband. She was the mother of Iphicles by Amphitryon. 


ALCO, a variety of dog, domesticated in Mexico and Peru before the discovery of 
America by Europeans, and also found in a wild state in these countries. But whether 
it is originally a native of them, or has escaped from domestication, is uncertain, nor is 
the variety well known to naturalists. It is described as having a very small head and 
peng Mews ears: the latter being in dogs one of the ordinary results of domestication. 

umboldt supposed it to be allied to the shepherd’s dog. It has been attempted to elevate 
it into a species under the name of canis A. It is not improbable that the name A. was 
given to more varieties than one. 


ALCOCK, Sir RurHERFoRD, b. London, 18093; British diplomatist and author. He 
heid posts in the naval, medical, and diplomatic services in Spain and Portugal, 1833-44 ; 
was British consul at'Foo-chow, Shanghai and Canton in China; consul-general to Japan, 
1858; and later, minister plenipotentiary. Owing to the ignorance then existing con- 
cerning the true relations of the tycoon and the mikado—that of vassal, instead of equal 
—his course was beset with many difficulties, and attempts were made upon his life in 
1860 and 1862. He was one of the four foreign ministers who ordered the bombardment 
of Shimonoseki, and then exacted an indemnity of $3,000,000. For this he was recalled. 
A. was made K.c.8B. in 1863, and was minister plenipotentiary to China 1865-71. He is 
a vice-president of the royal geographical society; has published Medical History ¢f 


Alcinous, 
229 Alcohol. 


the British Legion in Spain, Life's Problems, The Capital of the Tycoon, or Three Years in 
Japan, and Art and Art Industries in Japan. 


ALCOHOL is a limpid, colorless liquid, of a hot, pungent taste, and having a slight 
but agreeable smell. It is the characteristic ingredient of fermented drinks, and gives 
them their intoxicating quality. Looking at the extraordinary consumption of these 
liquors, and to the extensive application of A. for other purposes, it becomes one of the 
most important substances produced by art. 

There is only one source of A.—namely, the fermentation of sugar or other saccharine 
matter. Sugar is the produce of the vegetable world.. Some plants contain free sugar, 
and still more contain starch, which can be converted into sugar. The best vegetable 
substances, then, for yielding A. are those that contain the greatest abundance of sugar 
or of starch. See DrAsTaAsk, FERMENTATION, and DISTILLATION. 

Owing to the attraction of A. for water, it is impossible to procure pure A. by distil- 
lation alone. Common spirits, such as brandy, whisky, etc., contain 50 or 52 per cent 
of A.; in other words, they are about half A., half water. Proof-spirit, which is the 
standard by means of which all mixtures of A. and water are judged, contains 57-27 per 
cent by volume, and 49.50 per cent by weight, of A. The specific gravity of proof- 
spirit is -9186 ; and when a spirit is called above proof, it denotes that it contains an excess 
of A.; thus, spirit of wine, or rectified spirit, with specific gravity -838, is 54 to 58 over- 
proof, and requires 54 to 58 per cent of water to be added to it, to bring the strength 
down to that of proof-spirit; whilst the term under proof has reference to a less strong 
spirit than the standard. See AREOMETER. The most primitive method of learning the 
strength of A. was to drench gunpowder with it, set fire to the spirit, and if it inflamed 
the gunpowder as it died out, then the A. stood the test or proof, and was called proof- 
spirit. The highest concentration possible by distillation gives 90 per cent of A., still leav- 
ing 10 per cent of water. In order to remove this, fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, 
or fused carbonate of potash, is added to the alcoholic liquid, the whole allowed to stand 
for twelve hours, and then the spirit may be distilled off quite free from water. Spirit of 
wine may also be deprived of its remaining water by suspending it in a bladder in a 
warm place; the bladder allows much of the water to pass through and evaporate, but 
little of the A. The latter method is called Soemmering’s process, and depends on the 
different degrees of rapidity with which the bladder admits of water and A. passing 
through it. Thus, introduce into one bladder 8 oz. of water, and into a second, 8 oz. of 
A., and allow both bladders to be similarly exposed on a sand-bath, till all the water has 
evaporated through the pore of the membrane, which will be accomplished in about 4 
days, and it will then be observed that whilst 8 oz. water have made their exit from the 
bladder, that only one ounce of A. has thus evaporated, and 7 oz. still remain in the 
bladder. This experiment explains why smugglers, a few generations ago, could supply 
a whisky which was stronger, and hence esteemed preferable, as they carried the whisky 
in bladders around their persons, and the water escaping therefrom in much greater pro- 
portion than the A., a stronger spirit was left. 

A. is used medicinally, both internally and externally. The more common form for 
internal use is brandy, and is that generally recommended by physicians. Asa stomachiec 
stimulant, A. is used in sea-sickness and indigestion. As a stimulant and restorative, it is 
employed with advantage in the later stages of fever. It is also employed internally as 
a powerful excitant to prevent fainting during operations, and to assist in restoration in 
cases of suspended animation. In cases of diarrhea, unaccompanied by inflammation, 
it is often of great benefit. Externally, A. is applied to stop hemorrhage, to harden the 
cuticle over tender parts, as the nipples of females for some time before delivery, and to 
feet which have been blistered from long walking or tight-fitting shoes. 

Absolute or anhydrous A. has a specific gravity of 793 at the temperature of 60°. It 
boils at 173°, and has not been frozen by any cold hitherto produced. Reduced to a 
temperature of —130°, A. becomes of an oily and greasy consistence; at —146° it assumes 
the aspect of melted wax; and at —166° it gets still thicker, but does not congeal at 
the lowest attainable temperature. This property of non-freezing at any degree of cold 
to which the earth is subjected, has led to the employment of A. colored red by cochineal, 
in the thermometers sent out to the arctic regions. It acts as a poison by abstracting the 
water from the parts it touches. It is highly inflammable; its combustion yielding only 
carbonic acid and water. When mixed with water, heat is evolved, and a condensation 
takes place. The formula of A. isC,.HsOH. In 100 lbs., therefore, of A., about 53 are 
carbon, 13 hydrogen, and 34 oxygen. Besides the A. consumed in wine, beer, and 
spirits, it is much employed in pharmacy and in the arts. It is a powerful solvent for 
resins and oils; and hence is employed in the preparation of varnishes. In Germany, a 
cheap spirit made from potatoes is much used for cooking on a small scale. See METHY- 
LATED Sprrir; and ALcoHoL and ALcoHoLs. The use and abuse of alcoholic drinks 
will be considered under Foop AND DRINK, and TEMPERANCE. 


ALCOHOL, PuystoLoGicAL AND Potsonous ACTION or. A.in a concentrated form 
exerts a local irritant action on the membranes and tissues of the animal body. <Accord- 
ing to various circumstances, as, for example, its greater or less dilution, the quantity in 
which it is administered, the emptiness or fullness of the stomach, and the nature of the 
animal on which the experiment is made, A. may either act as a gentle stimulus, 


Icoholism. 
Alcohols. 230 


which assists the digestive process, or it may excite sucha degree of irritation as may 
lead to the disorganization of the mucous membrane. It is well known that dilute A., 
in contact with animal matter, at a temperature of from 60° to 90°, undergoes acetic 
fermentation, and it was maintained by Leuret and Lassaigne that a similar change took 
place in the stomach. It appears, however, that only a small part of the A. under- 
goes this change; and it is the small part thus changed which produces the penetrating 
and disagreeable acidity which characterizes the eructations and vomited matters of 
drunkards. A. is, however, for the most part, rapidly absorbed in an unchanged state, 
either in the form of liquid or vapor; and this absorption may take place through the 
cellular (or connective) tissue, the serous cavities, the lungs, or the digestive canal. This 
is shown by the experiments of Orfila, who fatally intoxicated dogs by injecting A. into 
the subcutaneous cellular tissue, or by making them breathe an atmosphere charged with 
alcoholic vapor; and by Rayer, who injected about half an ounce of proof-spirit into the 
peritoneum of rabbits, which almost immediately became comatose, and died in a few 
hours. It is, however, only with absorption from the intestinal canal that we have to 
deal, in relation to man. Almost the whole of this absorption is effected in the stomach, 
and it is only when A. is taken in great excess, or is mixed with a good deal of sugar, that 
any absorption beyond the stomach occurs. The rapidity of the absorption varies 
according to circumstances. The absorption is most rapid when the stomach is empty 
and the drinker is fatigued; while the action is delayed by a full stomach, and especially 
by the presence of acids, tannin, or the mucilaginous and saccharine ingredients of many 
wines, Fatty matters have a similar action, and hence it is that (as we learn from Dr. 
Perrin’s elaborate article on ‘‘The Physiology of Alcohol,” in the Dictionnaire Eneyclo- 
pédique des Sciences Médicales, vol. ii. p. 577, 1865) ‘we must account for the English 
habit of taking a very fat soup, or even a glass of oil, before proceeding aux libations.” 
The mode of action of A. on the system, and the various phenomena of drunkenness, are 
sufficiently described in the article InToxicarion. Previously to the year 1860, the 
actual presence of A. in the blood had been attempted to be proved by many chemists, 
but no satisfactory evidence upon this point had been adduced; and its presence had also 
been sought for in the expired air and in the secretions, but the results were equally 
doubtful; and Liebig’s view, that A. was oxidized in the blood, and after passing through 
various stages of oxidation, was finally converted into, and eliminated from, the system 
as carbonic acid and water, was almost generally accepted. In that year, however, an 
elaborate work, abounding in well-devised experiments, and entitled Du Réle de? Alcohol 
et des Anesthesiques dans ( Organism, was published by three well-known physiological 
inquirers, MM. Lallemande, Perrin, and Duroy, and received a prize, with high com- 
mendation, from the academy of sciences. In this work, it seems to be proved beyond 
all doubt that ‘‘ A. stays for a time in the blood, that it exercises a direct and primary 
action on the nervous centers, whose functions it modifies, perverts, or abolishes, accord- 
ing to the dose; that neither in the blood nor in the expired air are any traces to be found 
of its transformation or destruction; that it accumulatesin the nervous centers, and in 
the liver; and that it is finally discharged from the system by the ordinary channels of . 
elimination.” —Perrin, op. cit., p. 580. So far from carbonic acid being one of its final 
products, it is now ascertained that A. causes a diminished exhalation of that gas. The 
A., when it has entered the blood, is diffused over the whole organism, remains during, 
apparently, different periods in different organs, and almost immediately begins to escape; 
and if as much wine or spirit is taken as contains 80 grammes, or rather more than 24 oz. 
of A., the urine passed some hours afterwards yields, by distillation, an amount of A. 
capable of burning; and the elimination by this channel continues for 16 hours or more. 
The elimination by the lungs continues for about 8 hours. The authors believe that in 
man the chief excreting channel is the skin, but they have no data to show how long this 
elimination is continued. They further show that when a quantity of vin ordinaire, 
equivalent to half an ounce of A., has been taken by a healthy man, the presence of A. 
may be readily detected in the blood, the expired air, the urine, and the cutaneous exha- 
lation in the course of half an hour after the wine has been taken. In animals destroyed 
when intoxicated, the portions of the brain and of the liver are found to yield, weight 
for weight, considerably more A. than the blood. The fact of the retention and accu- 
mulation of A. in the nervous centers and liver, tends to throw much light on the special 
diseases of drunkards. 

The action of any kind of alcoholic drink in moderate doses, is that of a somewhat 
rapid stimulant. The bodily and mental powers are for a time excited beyond their 
ordinary strength, after which there is a corresponding depression. Although the A. 
which is introduced into the system cannot act as a true food (for in that case it 
would not pass through the system unchanged), it indirectly takes the place of food, by 
diminishing the wear and tear of the system, and thus rendering less food sufficient : a 
fact which is proved by chemical experiments, showing that less carbonic acid and urea 
(which are the ultimate products of the carbonaceous and nitrogenous tissues) are given 
off when A. is administered in moderation, than when it is totally withheld. 

The influence of an excessive dose of A. has been demonstrated by various series 
of experiments on animals, and unfortunately by many observed cases in man. Ifa 
poisonous dose of A. is given to an animal (a dog, for example), its action on the 
nervous system is the first point that is noticed. The dog ceases to exhibit the ordinary 


Alcoholisna, 
931 ‘Alcokoinie 


control over its muscular movements, which seem to be no longer under the influence of 
the will. It walks with uncertain and doubtful steps, till the hind-legs lose their power, 
the fore-legs still preserving some activity. The general sensibility becomes more or less 
abolished, and the animal can no longer see or feel. Soon afterwards the respiration, 
fails; and finally, the circulation is arrested, and life ceases with the last beat of the 
heart. 

ALCOHOLISM, the term employed to denote the symptoms of disease produced 
by alcoholic paee: In acute alcoholism, which is generally caused by the rapid 
absorption of a large quantity of alcohol, the first symptoms are animation of manner, 
exaltation of spirits, and relaxation of judgment. The emotions are altered and often 
perverted ; muscular movements become irregular or ataxic ; the mechanism of speech 
suffers. The further development of the symptoms presents three different series of 
effects. In the ordinary course of the action of the drug, headache, dizziness, disturb-' 
ance of sight and hearing, and other troubles due to disorder of the central nervous 
system, ensue, leading to heavy sleep or profound coma, from which it is sometimes 
impossible to rouse the individual, who lies completely paralyzed, breathing stertorously. 
Sometimes the alcohol affects so strongly the centres of respiration and circulation that 
death is caused by paralysis of one or other, or both. This condition of coma requires 
to be carefully distinguished from opium poisoning. In the former, the face is usually 
flushed and the pupils dilated, while in the latter the face is pale and the pupils con- 
tracted ; but these appearances are not constant. The odor of the breath is no criterion, 
inasmuch as sympathizing bystanders are apt to administer spirits in every case of depres- 
sion, often with hurtful effects. The second class of effects is entirely different. In- 
stead of sinking into stupor or coma, the individual becomes more and more excited, 
bursts into wild mirth or passionate anger, struggles violently with those who attempt to 
soothe him, and may grievously harm himself or others. This is the condition known 
as alcoholic mania—the physical explanation of many fearful crimes. After a longer or 
shorter period of fierce excitement, it is in most cases succeeded by great depression, and 
sometimes during this condition there may be sudden death from failure of the respira- 
tion or circulation. In the third division, the stage of excitement culminates in a con- 
vulsive seizure somewhat resembling that seen in hystero-epilepsy. The convulsions are 
repeated at intervals, are very complicated in character, and produce remarkable con- 
tortions of the body. These usually grow less violent, and, passing off, end in deep 
sleep ; but here also death may occur from the action of the poison. Acute alcoholism 
is more apt to occur in those who are of unsound mind and weak nervous system, and 
this applies especially to the two last-described forms of the affection. In the treatment 
of acute alcoholism, it is sometimes necessary to wash out the stomach in case alcohol is 
present ; but, from its rapid absorption, this is rarely the case. In the profound coma 
the administration of stimulants, such as ammonia, may be called for, and sometimes 
artificial respiration may be the only means of saving life. In the maniacal and con- 
vulsive forms of the affection, chloral, along with bromide of potassium, must be used. 
After the immediate symptoms have passed away in all forms, the individual must be 
carefully fed, on account of the disturbance of the digestive system which is caused by 
the overdose of alcohol, with nutrient enemata, along with remedies which will subdue 
the digestive irritation and stimulate the depression of the nervous system. 

_Chronic alcoholism is caused by the prolonged use of overdoses of various alcoholic 
drinks. Changes are caused in every tissue of the body, but the nervous, respiratory, 
and circulatory systems are more especially affected, together with the liver and kidneys. 
There is always more or less catarrh of the digestive organs, shown by dyspepsia, heart- 
burn, vomiting—especially in the morning—and usually diarrhoea. The liver becomes 
enlarged from congestion, and afterwards shrinks, exercising pressure on the veins and 
bringing back blood to the heart from the abdominal viscera, leading to congestion of 
the bowels, hemorrhoids, and hemorrhages. From changes in the organs of circulation 
there is a tendency to palpitation, fainting, and breathlessness on exertion. These altera- 
tions are degenerations of the heart, which may be soft or even fatty ; fibrous changes 
in the walls of the arteries; and dilatation of the capillaries from paralysis of the vaso- 
motor nerves. This last condition gives the florid complexion and mottled appearance 
to chronic drinkers. There is, besides, usually some congestion of the kidneys; but it 
is erroneous to attribute Bright’s disease mainly to alcohol. The lungs are subject to 
chronic congestion and catarrh of the bronchial tubes and lung tissues. The muscular 
system suffers, the muscles becoming flabby and fatty. There is a great tendency to 
deposition of fat, and skin diseases are frequently induced by the vaso-motor changes. 

Two characteristic results of the action of the drug on the central nervous structures 
are deliriwm tremens and alcoholic insanity. See Insanrry. In treating chronic alcohol- 
ism the great point is to prevent the employment of alcohol in any form, and to invigorate 
the bodily and mental functions. In deliriwm tremens the patient must have sleep, which 
is best obtained by the use of bromide of potassium and chloral hydrate. 


ALCOHOLOM'ETRY is the process of estimating the percentage of absolute alcohol in 
a sample of spirits. See AREOMETER. 


ALCOHOLS. During the last few years, our knowledge of the properties of ordinary 
alcohol and of the general class of bodies to which the term Alcohols is applied, in con- 


] 
ry 939 


sequence of their resemblance, in certain chemical reactions, to ordinary alcohol, has been 
very much enlarged. The alcohols are all compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 
and are perfectly neutral to test papers. Many of them are produced along with ordinary 
alcohol in the process of fermentation, and alter the flavor of the resulting beverage : 
such are amylic (fusel oil) and butylic alcohol. They are chiefly characterized by yield- 
ing, on treatment with acids, neutral bodies called ethers, the formation of water being a 
part of the reaction. According to the theory of chemical types (see TypEs, CHEMICAL), 
the alcohols are divided into monatomic (comprising the important series of methyl, 
ethyl, propyl, and other alcohols, which are referred to further below), and polyatomic. 
According to their behavior on oxidation, they are further divided into primary, second- 
ary, and tertiary. 

The action of oxygen on alcohol requires notice. In a nearly anhydrous state, alcohol 
has little tendency to oxidation, but when freely diluted and exposed to the air, it rapidly 
becomes oxidized into acetic acid. This conversion is, however, not a direct one, an 
intermediate compound, termed aldehyde (q.v.), being first formed, which is rapidly 
oxidized into acetic acid. The oxidation of alcohol into aldehyde is represented by the 
equation, 

Alcohol. Aldehyde. Water. 
CH;:CH.OH + O = CH;COH + H,0O, 
while the further oxidation of aldehyde into acetic acid is represented by 
Aldehyde. Acetic Acid. 
CH;:COH + O = HC.H:;0sz. 

In the first reaction, alcohol loses two atoms of hydrogen, water being formed ; in the 
second, aldehyde takes up one atom of oxygen. 

Every alcohol which, like ordinary alcohol, yields on oxidation an aldehyde, and on 
further oxidation an acid having the same number of carbon atoms as the alcohol itself, is 
termed a primary alcohol. To take another example, primary propyl] alcohol, C;H,OH, 
is oxidized first into propyl aldehyde, C;H;OH, and then into propionic acid, HC;Hs0s,,. 
Primary alcohols are subdivided into normal and iso-alcohols, but it would lead us too 
far to explain the meaning of this distinction. Secondary alcohols on oxidation lose two 
atoms of hydrogen, and are converted into bodies known as acetones or ketones, which 
differ from aldehydes inasmuch as they are not converted on oxidation into acids having 
the same number of carbon atoms, but are split up into acids having a smaller number 
of carbon atoms. Thus, secondary propyl alcohol is oxidized into acetone, and on 
further oxidation, acetone splits up into formic and acetic acids, 


Secondary Propyl! Alcohol. Acetone. Water. 

(CHs):CH -OH+0O = (CH:;).CO + H.O, 
Acetone. Formic Acid. Acetic Acid. 
(CH;),CO + Os = HCHO, + HC.H:0.. 


It will be observed that propyl alcohol and secondary propyl] alcohol, propyl aldehyde 
and acetone, are respectively isomeric (see ISOMERISM). 

Tertiary alcohols on oxidation give neither aldehydes nor ketones, but split up into 
acids having a smaller number of carbonatoms. Thus, tertiary butyl alcohol (CHs);COH 
which is isomeric, with primary and with secondary butyl alcohol, splits up on oxidation 
into acetic and formic acids. Only a comparatively small number of secondary and ter- 
tiary alcohols are at present known, and their properties and reactions have not been so 
thoroughly studied as those of the much more numerous class of primary alcohols. 
peeoreicn! considerations, however, lead to the belief that their number will be largely 
increased. 

Ordinary or ethyl alcohol is monatomic—that is, it may be regarded as being derived 
from the type HOH, by the substitution of its radical ethyl, C.H;, for one atom of 
hydrogen. ‘This view is expressed by the formula C,H;,0H 

The monatomic alcohols are more abundant than all the polyatomic alcohols together. 
There are several series of them, of which the most important are alcohols whose radical 
is of the form C,Ha1+ 1 (as methyl, CHs ; ethyl, C2H; ; propyl, CsHz, etc.), and which 
are represented by the formula (C,Ha.+1)HO. They are intimately related to the fatty 
acids, whose general formula is C,H2,O2, which may be formed from the alcohols by 
oxidation—O being substituted for H. The three highest alcohols of this set, whose 
formule are CieH340, Ca7HseO, and C3.He20, known as cetylic, cerylic, and melissylic 
alcohols, are solid waxy or fatty matters. Of the polyatomic alcohols, diatomic alcohols 
belong to the secondary water type, (H2O). or H.O.H:. Thus, the most important 
diatomic alcohol, glycol, C2H.Oz2, is represented, according to the theory of types, by the 
formula (C2H4)'’O2Ha, its radical C,H, being marked with two dashes to indicate that it 
replaces two atoms of hydrogen. So also there are ¢77, tetra, and hexatomic alcohols cor- 
responding to 3, 4, and 6 molecules of water, examples of which are glycerine, (C;H;)'” 
O;H; ; erythrite (obtained from litmus), (C4He)'""0,H,; and mannite (from manna), 
(CeHz)"""OHe. 

Dry cmorine and absolute alcohol react on each other in a singular manner—the final 
product being a solid compound of alcohol with a very remarkable colorless oily fluid, 
ealled chloral, having a peculiar penetrating and irritating odor, and having the formula 
€:Cl;OH. By treatment with strong sulphuric acid, this chioral is set free, and may be 


233 rape 


changed into chloroform by warming with an alkali. Dilute alcohol, distilled with chlo- 
ride of lime (bleaching powder), yields chloroform ; and this is the most economical 
process for obtaining this invaluable compound. Heated with an excess of sulphurie 
acid, alcohol loses all its oxygen in the form of water, and is converted into ethylene, the 
result being shown by the equation ; 
Alcohol. Ethylene. Water. 
C.-HeO = C.H,; + H.O. 
A less complete dehydration, under the action of sulphuric acid, converts alcohol into 
ether. The process is a complicated one, but the final result is expressed thus : 
Alcohol. Ether. Water. 
2C2H.O = (C2H;)20 + H.O. 

The best tests for discovering the presence of alcohol are—1. Its hot, pungent taste, 
its odor, and its great volatility. 2, Absorbed in asbestos, it burns with a pale blue flame, 
which deposits no carbon on white porcelain ; and when burned in the mouth of an in- 
verted test-tube, containing a few drops of the solution of baryta, it produces a well- 
marked deposit of carbonate of baryta—carbonic acid and water being the products of its 
combustion. 8. When boiled with sulphuric acid, and a few drops of a saturated solu- 
tion of bichromate of potash, it reduces this salt to green sulphate of chromium. The 
chromium test, originally discovered by Dr. Thomson in 1846, is that on which the 
French physiologists Lallemand, Perrin, and Duroy relied in their investigations regard- 
ing the presence of alcohol in the blood, urine, expired air, etc. 4. The least trace of al- 
cohol in an aqueous solution can be detected by adding a little chloride of benzoyl, and 
then a little caustic potash ; benzoate of ethyl, a liquid having a very characteristic aro- 
matic odor, is at once formed, and enables one thousandth part of alcohol in a teaspoonful 
of water to be detected. 

Alcohol is of a double use to the chemist, inasmuch as it furnishes a cleanly and val- 
uable fuel when used in the spirit-lamp, and possesses remarkable solvent powers without 
in general exerting chemical action on the dissolved substances. It dissolves many of 
the gases more freely than water, as, for example, nitrous oxide, carbonic acid, phos- 
phuretted hydrogen, cyanogen, and the hydrocarbons, as, for instance, ethylene. 
Amongst the mineral substances which it dissolves may be mentioned iodine, bromine, 
boracic acid, the hydrates of potash and soda, the chlorides of calcium, strontium, mag- 
nesium, zinc, platinum, and gold, the perchloride of iron, corrosive sublimate, the 
nitrates of lime, magnesia, etc.; Whilst among organic matters, it dissolves many organic 
acids, bases, and neutral bodies, the resins, the soaps, and the fats, which latter, how- 
ever, dissolve more freely in ether than in alcohol. The alcoholic solutions of sub- 
stances used in medicine are called Tinctures, Sprrits, and Essences. 

AL’CORAN. See KoRAN., 

ALCORN, JAmeEs Lusk, 1816-94; b. Golconda, Ill.; lawyer; received a collegiate educa- 
tion; settled in Mississippi in 1844; representative and senator in the legislature in 1846-65; 
elected United States Senator but was not seated in 1865; elected governor in 1869 and de- 
feated in 1873; United States Senator in 1871-7; founder of the levee system of Mississippi. 
The State Agricultural and Mechanical College for Colored Youth was named after him. 


ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, b. Connecticut, 1799. He was the son of a farmer, and 
when young, went to Virginia as a peddler. Returning to New England, he became a 
successful teacher of children in Boston, remarkable for sympathy and skill in dealing 
with the very young; but he gave up his school, and at Concord, Mass., began the 
study of natural theology, civil and social science, and reforms, especially in educa- 
tion and diet. He visited England in 1842, and brought back with him Charles Lane 
and H. G. Wright, and the three founded a community, near Harvard, Mass. The 
Englishmen soon went home, the community farm was sold, and A. went to Concord, 
where he afterwards lived as a peripatetic philosopher, speaking occasionally to the pub- 
lic in other places, when invited, on a wide range of subjects, from divinity to practical 
cookery. A. was admired for brilliancy and suggestiveness. His points of importance 
in treating of man physically are: race, complexion, diet, and government. He pub-, 
lished Orphic Sayings, Tablets, Concord Days, etc. In his theology he always cultivated the ~ 
mystical element, and in later years his teachings showed a decided tendency towards the 
evangelical view of Christianity. He d. 1888. See Memoir by Sanborn and Harris (1893). 


ALCOTT, Loutsa May, American authoress, was a daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott, 
and was born at Germantown, Penn., Nov. 29, 1832. After teaching for a time, she 
made literature her profession, interrupting this work by service as a hospital nurse 
during the civil war. She died Mar. 6, 1888. Her first book, Flower Fables, appeared 
in 1855, and was followed by Hospital Sketches (1868) ; Moods (1864), a tale; and a num- 
ber of books for children, of which Little Women (1868, continued 1870), An Old- 
Fashioned Girl (1869); Little Men (1871), its sequel, Jo’s Boys (1866), were especially 
popular. <A biography of Miss Alcott was published in 1889. Her sister May, Madame 
Ernest Nrerrker (1840-79) studied art in Boston, London, and Paris, painted still life 
and landscapes, copied Turner’s works with much success, and published Concord 
Sketches and Art Study Abroad (1879). 


ALCOTT, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, 1798-1859 ; b. Connecticut ; cousin of A. Bronson, 
sn American author. When young he worked on a farm in summer and taught school 
ja winter, He studied medicine at Yale, and assisted Woodbridge in preparing his geog- 


Alcove. 2 3 4° 


Alcyonium,. 


raphies, at the same period editing the Juvenile Rambler, the first serial for children 
issued in America. He also edited Annals of Education, and worked with Gallaudet, 
Hooker, and others for school reform, gaining a premium for a paper On the Construction 
of School Houses. In 1832, he removed to Boston and published The Young Man’s Guide. 

ithin 20 years of lecturing he visited more than 20,000 schools, making addresses to 
most of them. His works are more than a hundred in number, nearly all of a reforma- 
tory character. 


ALCOVE' (Spanish alcoba, which is derived from the Arabic el-kauf, a tent), an archi- 
tectural term, denoting a sort of niche or recess in a chamber where one may recline, or 
where a bed may be placed. An A. is either hung with curtains or closed with doors 
during the day. It was known to the ancients, and at one time very common in France, 
when the immoderate size of the apartments rendered it absolutely necessary as a prevent- 
ive against the cold during sleep. It is no longer fashionable, the most eminent physi- 
cians having declared it to be prejudicial to health. 


ALCO'Y, at. of Spain, in the province of Alicante, a portion of the former kingdom of 
Valencia. It is ‘‘ built in a funnel of the hills, on a tongue of land hemmed in by two 
streams, with bridges and arched viaducts.” The houses hang picturesquely over the 
terraced gardens and ravines. The walls of A. are of clay, and suffered considerable 
damage during the last war; but the town contains some new edifices, and has numerous 
manufactories. ‘‘Here is made the papel de hilo, the book Ltbrito de fumar, which forms 
the entire demiduodecimo library of nine tenths of Spaniards, and with which they make 
their papelitos, or little paper cigars.’? An insurrection broke out here in 1873, but was 
put down by the regular army. A. is also famous for its sugar-plums, and manufactures 
coarse woolen cloth. It has a consistory, town-hall, poor asylum, public granary, etc. 
Pop. about 30,000. 


ALCUDI'A, MANUEL DE Gopoy, DuKE oF, known as the prince of peace, was b. at 
Badajos, in Spain, 12th of May, 1767. Poor, but handsome and musical, at the age of 
twenty he entered the king’s body-guard at Madrid, and soon became a favorite of the 
weak Charles IV., as well as of his queen. Honors and emoluments flowed in rapidly. 
In 1801, he led the Spanish army against the Portuguese, and signed the treaty of Badajos. 
In 1804, he was made generalissimo of the Spanish forces on sea and land, and invested 
with unlimited power. The alliance of Spain with France, and the war with England 
which ensued, in spite of the sums paid by Spain to secure neutrality, the defeat of 
Trafalgar, and consequent check to commerce—all tended to exasperate the public mind, 
and a court-party was formed against him, with the prince of Asturias at its head. A. 
now resolved to shake off the French alliance, and to treat secretly with the Lisbon court. 
But however cautiously taken, his warlike measures reached the ears of Napoleon, and 
determined him to carry out his project of dethroning the Bourbons. Meanwhile, the 
people had been further exasperated against the favorite by his unprincipled accusations. 
against the prince of Asturias; and when, in 1808, Charles abdicated in favor of his son, 
the duke’s life was only saved by the promise of his trial. This trial, however, never 
took place. Napoleon, who knew his influence over the minds of their Spanish majesties, 
had him liberated, and brought to Bayonne, where he instigated all measures taken by 
the ex-king and queen, retaining their favor till their death. After his fall, he lived 
chiefly in France. In 1808, his income had been estimated at five million piastres. 
After the revolution of 1830, we find him subsisting in Paris upon a small pension 
bestowed by Louis Philippe. In 1847, his return to Spain was permitted, and his titles, 
together with great part of his wealth, restored. He died at Paris, Oct. 7, 1851. 


AL'CUIN, or Fiuaccus ALBInvs, the most distinguished scholar of the 8th c., the con- 
fidant and adviser of Charlemagne, was b. at York about the year 735. He was edu- 
cated under the care of jarchbishop Egbert, and his relative, Aelbert, and succeeded the 
latter as master of the school of York. Charlemagne became acquainted with him at 
Parma, as he was returning from Rome, whither he had gone to bring home the palliwm 
for a friend; and in the year 782, this monarch invited him to his court, and availed 
himself of his assistance in his endeavors to civilize his subjects. A. became the precep- 
tor of Charlemagne himself, whom he instructed in the various sciences. To render his 
instructions more available, Charlemagne established at his court a school called Schola 
Palatina, the superintendence of which, as well as of several monasteries, was com 
mitted to him. In the learned society of the court A. went by the name of Flaccus 
Albinus. Most of the schools in France were either founded or improved by him. 
Among others, he founded the school in the abbey of St. Martin, in Tours, 796, taking 
as his model the school of York, and in this school he himself taught after his retire- 
ment from court, 801. While living at Tours, he frequently corresponded with Charle- 
magne. At his death, in 804, he left, besides numerous theological writings, a number 
of elementary works on philosophy, mathematics, rhetoric, and philology; also poems, 
and a great number of letters. His letters, while they betray the uncultivated character 
of the age generally, show A. to have been the most accomplished man of his time. He 
understood Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Good editions of his works appeared in 1777 and 
in 1873. See the life of A. by Lorenz, 1829; Monnier’s 4. et Charlemagne, 1864; Mullinger’s 
Schools of Charles the Great, 1877, and West’s Aleuin and the Rise of Christian Schools, 1892. 


eS Alcove. 
233 Alcyonium, 


ALCY’ONE, the most brilliant cf the seven stars or pleiades, and supposed by 
Maedler to be the central sun in reference to which our sun with its planets and all other 
known systems are moving, or perhaps revolving within some almost incomprehensible 
period of time. Argelander has shown that this cannot be true. 


ALCY’ONE, or HALCYONE, in classic legend, daughter of Molus, and wife of Ceyx, 
so inconsolab’e on the death of her husband that she threw herself into the sea, where- 
upon she and her husband were changed into kingfishers as a reward of their mutual 
devotion. 


ALCYO NIUM, a genus of ceelenterata, type of an order called Alcyonaria, belonging to 
the class Actinozoa (see article ZooLoGy), and consisting of a polype-mass with starlike 
pores and protrusive polypes. A. digitatwm is extremely common on the British shores, 
on stones, old shells, etc., in deep water. It sometimes appears as a mere crust, about 
the eighth of an inch in thickness, but commonly rises up in rounded cones, and often 
assumes forms which have procured for it the popular name of dead man’s fingers, and 
other similar appellations. The polype-mass is gelatinous within, and covered with a 
sort of leathery skin, the mass being traversed by a multitude of minute canals, ter- 
minating on the outer surface in starlike figures, which, if the whole is placed in seas 
water, are seen to project considerably from the surface, and appear as polypes with 
eight tentacula or feelers; so that what seems to be a disgusting fleshy mass in the fisher 
man’s net, proves to be, when placed in its proper element, a structure of wonderful 
beauty and full of animal life, existing under peculiar and wonderful conditions. The 
manner in which the polypes protrude and retract themselves has been likened to that 
in which the horns of a snail are protruded and retracted. Their tentacula are short, 
obtuse, and elegantly fringed at the margins. The external part of the body of the 
polype is a membrane so transparent, that by the employment of a magnifying glass the 
whole internal structure can be seen through it. This delicate membrane, however, is 
composed of two very thin membranes, intimately united, the outer of which increases 
in thickness at the base of the polype, coalesces with that of adjacent polypes, and is 
continuous with the common leathery skin of the polype-mass. The inner membrane 
retains its extreme delicacy throughout ; it extends into and lines the cell of the polype 
and the tube or canal which proceeds from the cell into the mass, and is thus also con- 
tinuous with the corresponding membranes of other polypes ; for the canals divide into 
branches in their course from the base of the polype-mass to the surface, and the 
intimacy of union in the whole is increased by a fine tubular net-work which occupies 
the spaces between the principal canals. If a portion of an A. is irritated, not only 
the particular polypes immediately subjected to irritation retract themselves as to 
withdraw from danger, but the gradual collapse and contraction of the whole polype- 
mass shows that the irritation has been felt through it all. The contraction of the 
mass is owing to a discharge of water, which the polypes, when protruded, imbibe, 
and which circulates through and distends the polype-mass, so that when the polypes 
are undisturbed, and in full activity, it has twice or three times the size which it 
has as we find it cast out upon the beach. The stomach of each polype is cylindrical 
and beneath it is a comparatively large cavity, into which hang loosely eight twisted 
filaments or threads, the use of which is not well ascertained, and has been the sub- 
ject of very different opinions among naturalists. In the gelatinous substance of the 
polype-mass, which fills the interstices of the*tubular net-work, numerous crystalline 
calcareous spicula lie immersed, like the vaphides (q.v.) found in the intercellular 
passages of some plants. They are toothed on the sides, but are of various forms, and 
have no organic connection with any part of the animal structure ; their only use appar- 
ently being to impart some degree of strength to the whole. These spicula are of general 
occurrence in zoophytes of this order, and are secreted by the common skin of the 
polype-mass. The polype-mass increases by gemmue or buds, which grow into new 
branches ; but the propagation of the species taker place by ova or eggs, which first 
appear as minute smooth warts on the membrane of the canals in the interior. The 
constriction of the neck, by which they grow, separates them from the parent membrane, 
and they move through the canal by means of very minute vibrating cilia or hairs with 
which they are furnished, until they reach the stomach of a polype, into which they 
enter, and through which they more slowly proceed till at last they are ejected by the 
mouth (the only opening), and committed to the waves and tides. The ova seem as if 
capable of feeling whilst within the parent mass, and may be observed to move back- 
wards and forwards, and to contract their sides as if by. voluntary action in their passage 
through the body of the polype. These wonderful phenomena of nature are the more 
easily observed because the ova are of a deep vermilion color, beautifully contrasting 
with the pure white of the polype, threugh the tunic of which they are seen.—One of 
the most remarkable known species of A., and the largest, is that called A. pocuwlwm or 
Neptune’s cup, which was discovered by Sir Stamford Raffles upon the coral-reefs of 
Sumatra, and is found in the neighborhood of Singapore. It grows erect, sometimes 
attaining nearly 3 ft. in height and 18 in. in diameter. Specimens are now frequent in 
museums. 

The name alcyonium was formerly also given to many zoophytes now found to be of 
very different structure, some of which now bear the name alcyonidium, others that of 


Aldan, 936 


Aiden. 


aleyonella, The genus aleyonidium belongs to the class of zoophytes called polyzoa, order 
infundibulatu. See ZOOPHYTES. The north-eastern coast of the U. 8. has a species, A. 
carneatum. The most common British species, aleyonidiwm gelatinosum, resembles a 
sponge in appearance, but is more pellucid and gelatinous, and is full of polypes, each 
having 15 or 16 long slender tentacula. It is attached to old shells and stones, and is 
sometimes much lobed ; the color varying from pale brown to clear yellow ; the surface is 
speckled with minute dots, from which, when it is placed in sea-water, the polypes 
protrude. The polype differs widely from that of alcyonium in having an intestine, 
which, proceeding from the stomach to the aperture of the cell, opens there by an orifice 
distinct from the mouth, a difference characteristic of the classes to which they respect- 
ively belong. The ova are clothed with cilia, and their motions either are or most strik- 
ingly resemble voluntary motions.—alcyonella belongs to the class polyzoa, order hypo- 
erepia. See ZoopuytTes. There is one British species, aleyonella stagnorum, found in | 
stagnant waters, especially in autumn, in shapeless, jeily-like masses, of a blackish-green 
color, usually adhering to the leaves of aquatic plants. The jelly-like mass is traversed 
from base to surface by multitudes of tubes, which open by a roundish or 5-angied 
aperture ; the heads of the polypes project a little way from the aperture, and expand 
into a circle of about fifty tentacula. About 1600 polypes are situated on a square inch 
of the surface of the mass. The number of tentacula ona specimen of moderate size has 
been computed at more than 5,000,000. The tentacula are covered with minute cilia, 
only to be observed with a high magnifying power, by means of which a constant whirl- 
pool is maintained, centering in the mouth of the polype, and essential, probably, for 
breathing as well as for the supply of food. Each polype is organically connected with 
the mass, its tunic being continuous with the tube. The alimentary canal has two open- 
ings. ‘The ova are to be found in vast numbers in the tubes which traverse the mass. 
They are dark brown, whilst the tubes are colorless or tinted with green, of a lens-like 
form and destitute of cilia. They are produced from all parts of the inner side of the 
_ gelatinous tubes; and as there seems to be no aperture for their escape, it is supposed 
' that they are liberated from the parent mass only on its death and decomposition. 'The 
alcyonelia is an interesting object ina fresh-water aquarium, but is rather difficult to pre- 
serve. It is not, however, always to be found, even in ponds where it might be expected, 
and is abundant in particular seasons and rare in others. The ova are probably capable 
of remaining long dormant, until some concurrence of circumstances favors the develop- 
ment of the germ of life which they contain. See Johnson’s History of British Zoophytes, 
2 vols., Lond. 1847—a most interesting and valuable work. 

ALDAN’ a river of Siberia, in the government of Yakutsk; rises in 55° n. and 125° e. 
It flows 300 m. n.e., turns n.w. and joins the Lena 100m. above Yakutsk. Its length is 
unknown, but it is probably between 900 and 1500 m.; it isin part navigable. 


ALDAN MOUNTAINS, a branch of the Stanavoi mountains running from the main 
chain in the direction of Aldan river. Some think the name ought to be given to the 
whole mountain system of eastern Siberia. 


ALDBOROUGH, a t. in England, 16 m. n.n.w. of York. A. formerly had two mem- 
bers of parliament, but was disfranchised by the reform act of 1832. The t. is remark- 
able for ancient ruins. It was the Isurium of the Romans, and remains of aqueducts, 
buildings, tessellated pavements, implements, urns, and coins have been found. Popu- 
lation, 1891, 7467. 

ALDEB'ARAN, the Arabic name of a star of the first magnitude, in the constellation 
Taurus. It is the largest and most brilliant of a cluster of five which the Greeks called 
the Hyades. From its position it is sometimes termed ‘‘ the bull’s eye. 


ALDEGONDE’, Saint, Poizre vAN Marnix, baron of, 1538-98 ; a Dutch statesman, 
educated at Geneva, a strong Calvinist and a leader among the nobles who protested 
against the establishment of the inquisition in the Netherlands in 1566. He was the 
friend of William of Orange, who gave him several important missions, and sent him 
in 1572 to the first Dutch states-general at Dort. He was envoy to Paris, to London, and 
to the diet of Worms. As burgomaster of Antwerp in 1584 he defended that city 
against the duke of Parma, and in 1590 he was again ambassador to France. He left a 
metrical version of the Psalms, and at his death was translating the Bible into Flemish. 


AL'DEGRE'VER, or ALDEGRAF, Hernricn, 1502-62; a German painter and en- 
graver. From his style, which closely resembles his master’s, he has been called the 
“ Albert Dtirer of Westphalia.” His engravings put him in the first rank of “little mas- 
ters.” Specimens of his paintings are very rare. 

AL'DEHYDE, CH;COH isa volatile fluid produced by the oxidation and destructive 
distillation of alcohol and other organic compounds. Its discoverer, Débereiner, called 
it light oxygen ether ; its present term is an ebbreviation of alcohol dehydrogenitum, its 
composition being represented by that of alcohol from which two atoms of hydrogen 
have been abstracted. In the article on this subject in Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry, 
ten different modes of obtaining this substance are given. It is sufficient here to state 
that the best modes of preparing it may be found in that work, or any recent treatise on 
organic chemistry. It is a thin, transparent, colorless liquid, very inflammable, burning 
with a blue flame, and having a spec. gr. of 0-800, a boiling point of about 70° F. (21° C.), 
and a pungent, suffocating odor. It mixes in all proportions with water, alcohol, and 


Q- Aldan, 
237 Al 


ether, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, and iodine. Asis shown in the article ALCOHOL, 
it constitutes an intermediate stage in the oxidation of alcohol into acetic acid. A. is 
susceptible of combination with many other bodies, Bier and inorganic. With 
hydrocyanic acid it forms aldehyde-hydrocyanide, CH;-CHOH-CN ; convertible by the 
action of acids or alkalies into lactic acid, of which it is really the nitril. With 
sodium-bisulphite, A. forms a crystalline compound, aldehyde-sodium-bisulphite, 
CH;:CHOH-:N,SOs, from which the aldehyde can be regenerated by treatment with an 
acid. A. readily combines with ammonia, forming aldehyde-ammonia, C.H:ONHs, 
which is obtained in transparent shining crystals, and is a compound that has led 
chemists to the discovery of a large number of very remarkable derivatives. 


AL'DEHYDES are a class of organic compounds, intermediate between alcohols and 
acids; the ordinary aldehyde, described in the preceding article, being, as we have seen, 
intermediate between ordinary alcohol and its corresponding acid—viz., acetic acid. 
Each aldehyde is derived from the corresponding alcohol by the abstraction of two atoms 
of hydrogen, and each aldehyde is converted into its corresponding acid by the addition 
of one atom of oxygen. 

Ten A. of the form C.H.,O, corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, and 16, 
are at present known, the simplest being formic aldehyde, CH20, and the highest being 
palmitic aldehyde, Ci¢H3.0. 

Amongst A. not connected with the preceding group may be mentioned various or- 
ganic compounds which have been recently shown to belong to this class—thus, acrolein, 
C;H,O, is acrylic aldehyde ; camphor, Cio0Hi6O, is campholic aldehyde ; bitter-almond 
oil, C;H,.O, is benzoic aldehyde; oil of cumin, Ci.0Hi.0, is cuminic aldehyde; oil 
of cinnamon, C,H;0O, is cinnamic aldehyde. Most of these A. are obtained directly 
from plants, and either exist in them ready formed, or are given off as volatile oils on dis- 
tillation with water. 

Owing to their great tendency to oxidize into their corresponding acids, the aldehydes 
are powerful reducing agents. ‘They reduce the silver in silver salts to the metallic state. 
On the other hand, by the action of nascent hydrogen upon the aldehydes, the correspond- 
ing alcohols are regenerated. Thus, ordinary alcohol may be obtained from ordinary 
aldehyde. 

Acetic Aldehyde. Ethyl! Alcohol, 
C,H.O | H, = C.H.O. 
With the acid sulphites of the alkalies the aldehydes form sparingly soluble crystalline 
compounds. When treated with caustic alkali, the aldehydes are converted into the corre- 
sponding alcohols, and the potassium salt of the corresponding acid. Thus benzoic alde- 
hyde yields benzyl alcohol and benzoate of potash : 
2C,H.O + KHO = C,H,0O + KC;H;0.. 

The aldehydes have a great tendency to form polymeric compounds. Thus, ordinary 
aldehyde passes readily into two polemeric modifications (see IsoMERISM) : (1) par-alde- 
hyde, a liquid which does not boil till 255° F. (124° C.); (2) metaldehyde, a solid body 
which sublimes at 212° F. (100° C.), and is converted intovordinary aldehyde by heating 
to 239° F. (115° C.) for a few hours in a closed vessel. In Naquet’s Principes de Chimie, 
Sondée sur les Théories Modernes is found a full account of the aldehydes derived from 
the monatomic alcohols, of the modes of preparing them, of the properties common to 
all aldehydes, and those specially belonging to different series, the rational formule and 
constitution of aldehydes, and the aldehydes derived from diatomic alcohols or glycols, 
in which this chemist includes not only salicylous, salicylic, and glycolic aldehydes, but 
that remarkable synthetic product, furfurol. See FURFURAMIDE. 


ALDEN, Henry MILLs, author and editor, b. 1836; became editor of Harper's Maga- 
zive in 1864; published God and His World (1893), and A Study of Death (1895). ef 


ALDEN, James, 1810-77, a rear-admiral in the U. S. navy. He was in the Wilkes 
exploring expedition, and in the naval operations of the Mexican war; and 1848 to 
1860 in the coast survey. In the civil war he commanded the steamer South Carolina 
and in 1862 the sloop-of-war Richmond. He was engaged in the capture of New 
Orleans, and the attacks of Vicksburg and Port Hudson; commanded the sloop 
Brooklyn, the leading ship of the line, in 1864, and was in the Mobile bay and Fort 
Fisher conflicts. In 1868, he was commandant of the California navy yard; in 1869 
chief of the bureau of navigation in the navy department; and in 1871 he took command 
of the European squadron. 


_ALDEN, Joun, b. England, 1599, d. Duxbury, Mass., Sept. 12, 1687; one of the 
pilgrims to Plymouth, Mass. He was one of the signers of the compact in the cabin of 
the ** Mayflower.” A. married Priscilla Mullens, to whom his first proposal was in 
behalf of Miles Standish, but who indicated her preference for A. over the soldier. A 
poem by Longfellow has this incident for its theme. He was a magistrate for more 
than 50 years, and greatly assisted in the government of the infant colony. 


ALDEN, JOSEPH, D.D., LL.D., b. New York, 1807; graduated at Union college, 1829; 
studied theology at Princeton, and was ordained pastor of a congregational church in 
Massachusetts, 1834, He was professor in Williams college, 1835-52; in Lafayette college, 
1852-57; president of Jefferson college, 1857-67, and later principal of the New York 
state normal school at Albany; published many educational works. D, 1885. 


Alden. 
Aldershott. 2 3 8 


ALDEN, Noau, an advocate of religious liberty in Massachusetts, as against the old 
union of church and state, and a member of the convention that ratified the federal con- 
stitution. For 30 years, beginning 1766, he was pastor of the Baptist church in Belling- 
ham, and he represented that t. in the state constitutional convention. 


ALDEN, Timoruy, D.D., 1771-1839 ; b. Massachusetts; graduated at Harvard ; pastor 
of a congregational church in Portsmouth, 1799-1805, and a prominent teacher there, and in 
Newark, Boston, New York, and Cincinnati. He was the founder and first president of 
Allegheny college, Meadville, Pa., and author of Missions Among the Senecas, a book of 
epitaphs, and other works. 


AL'DER (Alnus), a genus of plants of the natural order detulaceew (regarded by many 
as a sub-order of amentaces, See Bircu and AMENTACES. The genus consists entirely 
of trees and shrubs, natives of cold and temperate climates ; the flowers in terminal, 
imbricated catkins, which appear before the leaves ; the male and female flowers in sepa- 
rate catkins on the same plant ; the male or barren catkins loose, cylindrical, pendulous, 
having the scales 8-lobed, and each with three flowers whose perianth is single and 
4-partite ; the fertile catkins oval, compact, having the scales sub-trifid, and each with two 
flowers destitute of perianth ; styles, two; fruit, a compressed nut without wings. See 
illustration, Botany, vol. II., figs. 17-21.—The Common or Buack A. (A. glutinosa) 
is a native of Britain, and of the northern parts of Asia and America. It has roundish, 
wedge-shaped, obtuse leaves, lobed at the margin andserrated. Seeillustration, HAZEL, 
ETC., vol. VII., fig. 7 The bark, except in very young trees, is nearly black. It suc- 
ceeds best in moist soils, ard helps to secure swampy river-banks against the effects of floods, 
It attains a height of 30 to 60 ft. Its leaves are somewhat glutinous. The wood is of an 
orange-yellow color, not very good for fuel, but affording*one of the best kinds of 
charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder, upon which account it is often grown as 
<oppice-wood. Great numbers of small A. trees are used in Scotland for making staves 
for herring-barrels.. The wood is also employed by turners and joiners; but it is 
particularly valuable on account of its property of remaining for along time under water 
without decay, and is therefore used for the piles of bridges, for pumps, sluices, pipes, 
cogs of mill-wheels, and similar purposes. The bark is used for tanning and for dyeing, 
also for staining fishermen’s nets. It produces a yellow or red color, or, with copperas, 
a black color. The leaves and female catkins are employed in the same way by the 
tanners and dyers of some countries. The bark is bitter and astringent, and has been 
used for gargles, and also administered with success in ague. The seeds are a favorite 
food of greenfinches.—The A. is one of the ornaments of many of the most exquisite 
landscapes in Britain. The dark green of its foliage, and the still darker hue of its bark, 
contrast beautifully with the colors of the other trees with which it is usually associated 
on the banks of our rivers. In boggy grounds it is often almost the only kind of tree 
that appears, and in many parts of the highlands, groups of alders are scattered over the 
lower and moister parts of the mountain-slopes. ‘The individual tree, viewed by itself, 
may be regarded as somewhat stiff and formal in appearance; but in groups or clusters 
it is always far otherwise.—The common A. ceases on the Swedish shore of the gulf of 
Bothnia, in the s. of Angermanniland, and is there called the Sea A., because it is only 
in the lowest grounds near the sea that it occurs.—The Gray or WHITE A. (A. tncana), 
a native of many parts of continental Europe, especially of the Alps, and also of North 
America, and of Kamtchatka, but not of Britain, differs from the common A. in having 
acute leaves, downy beneath, and not glutinous. It attains a rather greater height, but 
in very cold climates and unfavorable situations appears asashrub. It occurs on the 
Alps at an elevation above that to which the common A. extends, and becomes abundant 
also where that species disappears in the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. 
The wood is white, fine-grained, and compact, but readily rots under water. The bark 
is used in dyeing.—A. cordifolia is a large and handsome tree, with cordate acuminate 
leaves, a native of the s. of Italy, but found to be quite hardy in England. Some of the 
American species are mere shrubs. The bark of A. serrulata, found from s. New England 
to Wisconsin, Kentucky, and Florida, is used in dyeing. A. viridis ranges from n. New 
England to the shore of lake Superior, and northward and southward to North Carolina. 
Several species are natives of the Himalayas.—The Brrry-BEeARiInG A., or A. Bucx- 
THORN, is a totally different plant. See BucKTHORN. 


AL'DERMAN, a title derived from the Anglo-Saxon ealdorman, compounded of ealdor 
(older) and man. Whether any definite and invariable functions were connected with 
the ancient rank of ealdorman, does not seem to be very clearly ascertained. The term 
was generally applied to persons of high and hereditary distinction, such as princes, earls, 
and governors. Its special signification in the titles ‘‘ A. of all England” (aldermannus 
totius Angliw) and ‘‘king’s A.” (aldermannus regis) is not ‘distinctly indicated. There 
were also aldermen of counties, hundreds, cities, boroughs, and castles. In modern 
times, aldermen are officers invested with certain powers in the municipal corporations of 
England, Wales, and Ireland, either as civil magistrates, or as accessors of the chief civil 
magistrates in cities and towns corporate. The corresponding title in Scotland is bailie. 
The London court of aldermen consists of 26 aldermen, including the lord mayor, and 
constitutes the bench of magistrates for the city, besides having judicial and legislative 
authority in the corporation. In the majority of American cities A. are a legislative 
body, having limited judicial powers in matters of internal police regulation, etc., 


Alden. 
939 Aldershote 


though in many cities they hold separate courts and have magisterial powers to a con 
siderable extent. 

AL'DERNEY (Fr. Aurigny; Lat. Aurinia), an island in the English channel (see 
CHANNEL IsLANDSs), lat. 49° 45’ n., long. 2° 18’ w., separated from the coast of Normandy 
by a strait about 7m. in breadth, called the race of Alderney. Through this channel, 
which is very dangerous in rough weather, the remnant of the French fleet escaped 
after their defeat at La Hogue in 1692. The distances between Alderney and the nearest 
points of Guernsey, Jersey, and Great Britain are respectively about 15, 33, and 60 m. 
The length of the island is about 4 m., the breadth about 13. The coast to the s.e. is 
bold and lofty, to the n.e. and n. it descends, forming numerous small. bays, one of 
which, that of Crabby, affords the only anchorage in the island. <A harbor of refuge 
and breakwater have been constructed on the n. side of the island, the extensive works 
connected with which have greatly increased the population ; 6 m. to the w. are the 
caskets, a small cluster of rocks on which are three light-houses. The soil in the center 
of the island is highly productive; and the A. cows, a small but handsome breed, have 
always been celebrated. The climate is mild and healthy, and good water abounds. 
The population has been steadily on the decrease for some time. In 1891 it was 1848 ; 
in 1881, it counted 2039. Education to some extent is universal. The population was 
originally French, but half the inhabitants now speak English, and all understand it. 
Protestantism has prevailed here since the reformation. A. isa dependency of Guernsey. 
and subject to the British crown. The civil power is vested in a judge appointed by 
the crown, and six jwrats chosen by the people. These, with twelve popular represent- 
atives or douzainiers (who do not vote), constitute the local legisiature. The court of 
justice is composed of the judge and jurats, the royal procureur and comptroller and 
the registrar (greffier), nominated by the governor. There isa local militia, consisting of 
two companies of infantry and a brigade of artillery. The “town,” situated in a pic- 
turesque valley near the center of the island, contains a few public buildings, among 
which isthe old church, said to have been erected in the 12th century. 


AL'DERSHOT CAMP. When England and France declared war against Russia in 
1854, in relation to Turkish affairs, the British army was known to be in an unsatisfac- 
tory state ; 89 years of peace had allowed many important elements in military organi- 
zation to fall into a state of inefficiency. Among others, the power of acting well 
together in brigades and divisions had scarcely been taught to the soldiers, who had been 
familiar with little more than the discipline and tactics of battalions and companies. To 
remedy in part these defects was the object held in view in establishing the camp at A. 
It was to be a permanent camp, with barracks and huts, instead of mere canvas tents; 
and was to be provided with all the appliances for a military school, valuable to officers 
as well as to privates. A dreary waste, on the confines of Surrey, Hants, and Berks, 
called A. heath, was purchased by the government as the locality for the new camp. The 
area was 7063 acres, and the purchase-price about £130,000. The spot was deemed 
suitable as being distant from any thickly inhabited district ; as being within easy reach 
of three or four stations on the South-western and South-eastern railways; and as being con- 
veniently placed for the quick transmission of troops to any part of the southern coast. 
The camp was ready for the reception of troopsin 1855. At first, no brick structures were 
attempted. The soldiers were accommodated in wooden huts, each furnishing living and 
sleeping room for about 25 men. When the camp was inaugurated, in April of the year 
last named, by a review at which the queen was present, there were 18,000 troops, regulars 
and militia, temporarily stationed there. The huts for each regiment were grouped 
apart, for the better maintenance of regimental discipline. Each hut had arange of iron 
bedsteads on either side, capable of being doubled up; anda long table through the 
middle, in a line with two doors at the ends of the huts. The officers’ huts, though of 
course superior in construction and convenience, were as simple as they could well be. 
The cooking was performed in huts especially set apart for that purpose, provided with 
efficient cooking apparatus. The wooden huts have gradually been superseded by brick 
barracks at a cost of more than a quarter of a million sterling. These may be fully de- 
scribed as affording in many ways examples of the finest barracks hitherto constructed 
inthis country. The Basingstoke canal, running directly across the heath, has occasioned 
a division into north camp and south camp ; but each of these is susceptible of a good 
deal of extension. Reviews and sham-fights are frequently held, at some of which the 
queen has been present, and there are various important operations carried on daily, and 
known to very few besides those immediately concerned. There are many square m. 
of plain, heath, shrub, morass, valley, and hill surrounding the camp, on which soldiers, 
and especially the militia regiments, are exercised in the various evolutions and strategic 
movements connected with the battle field and siege-works. It is no child’s play ; the 
men are often severely worked, and gain a foretaste of some of the fatigues of military 
life. On other days, they are exercised in various quiet duties of tents and huts, bar- 
racks and kitchens, intended to teach them many of the useful knacks in which French 
soldiers are acknowledged to be more skilled than the English. Different regiments, 
regulars as well as militia, artillery as well as cavalry and infantry, take it in turn, to 
experience camp-life at A. There are usually about from 10,000 to 15,000 troops at the 
camp, comprising infantry, cavalry, artillery, and militia) The war authorities some 


Aldhelm. 
Ale 240 


years ago purchased or leased a portion of forest-land between A. and Winchester; 
camping arrangements of a temporary kind are made, and the troops are occasionally 
exercised with a tough march of a dozen miles. A town has sprung up near the camp. 
Pop. about 12,600. 

ALDHELM, 656-709; an English divine during the Saxony heptarchy ; the first 
Englishman who wrote Latin poetry. He was abbot of Malmesbury, bishop of Sher- 
borne, and afterwards of Salisbury. He is known by two works, De Virginitate and De 
Laude Virginum 

AL DINE EDITIONS, the name given to the works that issued from the press of Aldo 
Manuzio (Lat., Aldus Manutius, q.v.) and his family in Venice; 1490-1597. Recom- 
mended by their intrinsic value, as well as by their handsome exterior, they have been 
highly prized by the learned and by book-collectors. Many of them are the first editions 
(editiones principes) of Greek and Roman classics ; others contain corrected texts of mod- 
ern classic writers, as of Petrarch, Dante, Boccaccio, etc., carefully collated with the 
MSS. Allof them are distinguished for the remarkable correctness of the typography; 
the Greek works, however, being in this respect somewhat inferior to the Latin and 
Italian. The editions published by Aldus, the father, form an epoch in the annals of 
printing, as they contributed in no ordinary measure to the perfecting of types. No one 
had ever before used such beautiful Greek types, of which he got nine different kinds 
made, and of Latin as many as fourteen. It is to him, or rather to the engraver, Fran- 
cesco of Bologna, that we owe the types called by the Italians corsivi, and known to us as 
italics, which he used for the first time in the 8vo edition of ancient and modern classics, 
commencing with Virgil, 1501. Manuzio’s impressions on parchment are exceedingly 
beautiful; he was the first printer who introduced the custom of taking some impressions 
on better paper—that is, finer or stronger than the rest of theedition. The first example of 
his is afforded inthe Hpistole Greece, 1499. It would be difficult to name another who has 
brought so much zeal, disinterestedness, taste, and knowledge to the furtherance of litera- 
ture, especially classical literature. After his death, in 1515, his business was superintended 
by his father-in-law, Andreas Asulanus. Paul, the son of Aldus, possessed the same enthu- 
siasm for Latin classics that his father had for Greek. He died at Rome in 1597. The 
printing establishment founded by Aldo continued in active operation for 100 years, and 
during this time printed 908 different works. The distinguishing mark is an anchor, en- 
twined by a dolphin, generally with the motto, Sudavit et alstt. Under the direction of the 
grandson of the founder, it lost the superiority which it had formerly maintained over all 
the other printing-presses inItaly. The demand which arose for editions from this office, 
and especially for the earlier ones, induced the printers of Lyon and Florence, about 
1502, to begin the system of issuing counterfeit Aldines, The Aldo mania has considera- 
bly diminished in later times. Among the A. works which have now become very rare 
may be mentioned the Hore Beate Marie Virginis of 1497; the Virgil of 1501; and the 
Rhetores Grect ; not to mention the editions from 1494 to 1497, which are now extremely 
rare. ‘The most complete collections known are those of the former grand duke of Tus- 
cany, and of Renouard, the bookseller of Paris. In 1834 appeared a third edition of the 
monograph published by Renouard, Annales de Imprimerie des Aldes, ou Histoire des 
Trois Manuces, et de leur editions: par A, Renouard, Paris, 1834. Ebert has published 
a catalogue of all the authentic A. E. in the supplement to Vol. I. of his Bibliographical 
Dictionary. 

ALDI'NI, Giovanni, 1762-1834 ; nephew of Galvini, and brother of Count Antonio: 
Aldini ; a student of natural science. He held the chair of physics at Bologna. His 
chief work was in experiments to apply science to useful purposes: galvanism, gas for 
lighthouses, and fireproof cloth receiving most attention. He was one of the founders 
of the national institute of Italy ; received the British royal society’s gold medal, and 
was made knight of the iron crown, and counselor of state at Milan. 


ALDRICH, Henry, D.D., 1647-1710, was an eminent English theologian and phi- 
losopber. He was prominent in the controversy with the Roman Catholics during the 
reign of James II. He was also eminent as a composer of sacred music, and composed 
a number of anthems and church service that are still frequently used in cathedrals. 
Qne of his best-known compositions in the lighter style is, ‘‘ Hark, the bonny Christ- 
Church bells.’? He was the author of a Compendium Artis Logtce, used as a manual in 
Oxford for nearly a century. 


ALDRICH, Nretson W., b. R. I., 1841; he received an academic education, but be- 
came a merchant. He was president of the Providence common council, 1872-3: mem- 
ber of state general assembly, 1875-6, and during the latter year speaker ; member of 
XLVI. and XLVII. congresses ; republican member U. 8. senate, 1881 ; re-elected, 1887. 


ALDRICH, Tuomas Baruey, b. Portsmouth, N. H., 1886. He intended to enter 
college, but on his father’s death went into his uncle’s counting-room in New York, 
remaining three years, frequently writing verses for the newspapers; was reader for a 
publishing house, then a regular writer for the New York Evening Mirror, and an editor 
of the Home Journal and the Saturday Press. He has contributed to the leading maga- 
zines. His first volume of poems was Zhe Bells, 1855; followed by Babie Bell, Pam- 
pinea, Cloth of Gold, etc. Among his prose works are Story of a Bad Boy, Prudence 
Pi ifrey, Marjorie Daw, Judith and Holofernes, ete. He was editor of Every Saturday, and 
of the Atlantic Monthly (1881-90). 


241 ccc 


ALDRIDGE, Ira, 1810 (?)-67, the ‘‘ African Roscius.” There are two accounts of 
him, one that he was a mulatto porn near Baltimore about 1810, apprenticed to a German 
ship-carpenter, and accompanying Edmund Kean to England as a servant; returned in 
1830 or ’31, and appeared on the stage in Baltimore; failed and returned to England, 
where he gained high reputation. The other story is that he was the son of a native of 
Senegal, who was brought here as a slave, became a Christian and pastor of the African 
church in Church st., New York; that Ira was born in that city about 1805, and intended 
for the ministry; that he was fond of dramatic performances, but his father disapproved, 
and sent him to England to be educated for the ministry; that he still preferred the 
drama, and made his début at the Royal theater, London, in ‘‘ Othello,” and was re- 
markably successful. He playedalso ‘‘ Zanga,” ‘‘Orozembo,” ‘‘ Rolla,” and other char- 
acters that were color-parte, throughout England. On the continent he took high rank 
in Shakspeare’s tragedies and kindred characters, and he had presents of crosses and 
medals from the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of Prussia. He was 
actual or honorary member of many of the great academies. He married an English 
woman, whom he left a widow in London. At the time of his death he was on his way 
to St. Petersburg, where he had anengagement, and expected to appear in New York in 
the following September. 


ALDROVAN DI, Utysszs, one of the most distinguished naturalists of the 16th c., was 
born at Bologna, probably about the year 1522. He was descended from a noble family, 
and received an excellent education, partly in his native city and partly in Padua. 
Some of his religious opinions having been called in question, he traveled to Rome in 
1550, to vindicate himself; and whilst there, studied Roman antiquities, and wrote a 
treatise on ancient statuary. At Rome, he formed the acquaintance of Rondelet. On 
his return home, he devoted himself to the study of botany, and having taken his degree 
in medicine at the university of Bologna in 15538, he was in the following year appointed 
to the chairs of philosophy and logic, and also to the lectureship on botany. He prac- 
ticed medicine for some time in Bologna, and appears after a short time to have ex: 
changed some of the chairs which he held in the university for that of natural history, 
to the study of which science he applied himself with great devotedness. He established 
the botanical garden at Bologna in 1567. He wasmuch employed, during many years, 
in forming a museum of natural history,collecting specimens with great assiduity, and 
employing draughtsmen to make figures of them for the great work on natural history 
which he contemplated. In the pursuit of his favorite science, he traveled into different 
countries, but no particular record of his travels remains. Inspiring others with a zeal 
similar to his own, he had the pleasure of seeing his museum rapidly increase. He 
finally bequeathed it to the senate of Bologna, and it became the foundation of the 
splendid public museum of that city, where many of A.’s specimens remain to this day. 
He left behind him also at his death a prodigious mass of valuable manuscripts, which 
still remain in the public library of Bologna, astore of which proper use has never yet been 
made, and in which there is probably much correspondence of eminent men, interesting 
as showing the first steps of progressof the science of natural history, after the long dor- 
mancy of the middle ages. Allhis studies and collections were made subservient to his 
work on natural history; the first volume of which—on birds—appeared in 1599. Six 
volumes appeared during A.’s life ; otherseven were published under the direction of his 
colleagues and pupils after his death, which took place in 1605 or 1607. It has been 
stated in many notices of his life, and was long commonly believed, that, by his scientific 
pursuits, A. reduced himself to circumstances of great poverty, and that he died in a 
public hospital at Bologna; but the story, although Bayle has adopted it in his dictionary, 
rests on no sufficient evidence, and there is reason to think that it is not true. It is 
difficult to procure a complete edition of the works of A., and the volume on minerals 
is especially rare. A. has been censured for excessive copiousness in things of little 
importance, and at best merely serving to illustrate his subject and render it interesting. 
He shows, however, great anxiety to set forth all that is known on every subject of 
which he treats; he writes of natural history in a way which shows that he greatly loves 
the science, and at the same time with a devout and reverent spirit, always beholding in 
the works of creation the traces of the Creator’s hand. 


ALD’STONE, or ALSTON, a market-t. of the co. of Cumberland, England, 30 m. e.s.e. 
from Carlisle. The parish of A. contains extensive and very productive lead mines, 
formerly belonging to the earls of Derwentwater, and now to the lords commissioners 
of the admiralty. The t. has manufactures of worsted yarns and flannel. It is situated 
in a mountainous district on the declivity of a steep hill, near the confluence of the 
Nent and south Tyne. The pop. is about 3500. Alston Moor, an upland tract lying to 
the south, contains, with Garrigill, about 2500 inhabitants. 

ALE would seem to have been the current name in England for malt liquor in gen. 
eval before the introduction of hops. This took place, according to Johnston (Chemistry 
of Common Life), as late as the reign of Henry VIII., about the year 1524. As the use 
of hops was derived from Germany, the German name for malt liquor (der), beer, was 
used at first to distinguish the hopped liquor from ale, the unhopped. The word ale had 
fa all likelihood been introduced by the Danes and other Scandinavian settlers—for ¢ 


Aleandro. LAD 
Alembert. 242 


(allied probably to 027) is still the name for malt liquor in the Scandinavian tongues—and 
must have driven out the deor of the Anglo-Saxons, which that people had in common 
with the other Teutonic nations. As now used, ale siguifies a kind of beer (q.v. and 
FERMENTATION), distinguished chiefly by its strength and the quantity of sugar remain- 
ing undecomposed. Strong ale is made from the best pale malt ; and the fermentation 
is allowed to proceed slowly, and the ferment to be exhausted and separated. This, 
together with the large quantity of sugar still left undecomposed, enables the liquor to 
keep long without requiring a large amount of hops. The Scotch ales are distinguished 
for the smallness of the quantity of hops they contain, and for their vinous flavor. 
They are fermented at an unusually low temperature. The ales of Edinburgh and 
Prestonpans have a high reputation. Burton ale is the strongest made, containing as 
much as 8 per cent ot alcohol; while the best brown stout has about 6 per cent, and 
common beer only 1 per cent. India pale ale differs chiefly in having a larger quantity 
of hops. 


ALEAN'DRO, GiroLAMo (HIERONYMUsS), 1480-1542, studied at Venice, and got great 
reputation for learning, and in 1508 went to Paris, on invitation of Louis XLI., to be 
rofessor of belles-lettres and rector in the university. He was sent on missions to 
tome, Where Leo X. kept him as librarian of the vatican. In 1520 he was papal nuncio 
at the coronation of Charles V., and next year Luther’s chief opponent in the diet of 
Worms, going to the utmost extremes to suppress the doctrines of the reformer, and 
becoming so Violent tuat he lost the friendship of Erasmus. He drew up the edict 
against Luther, and after the diet went as nuncio to the Netherlands, where he lighted 
the fires of persecution—two monks of Antwerp, the first martyrs of the reformation, 
being burned at his instigation, at Brussels. In 1623 Clement VII. sent him to the court 
of Francis I., and he was taken prisoner with that monarch at the battle of Pavia (1525), 
and released only after paying a heavy ransom. In 1538 he was made cardinal. His 
acount of the diet of Worms is an important historical source. See Brieger, A/leander 
und Luther, 1884. 


A-LEE, expressed by the French sovs Je vent, or ‘‘ under the wind,’’ is a maritime term 
applied to the position of the helm when so worked as to bring the head of the ship to 
windward. 


ALEKO PASHA (Prince ALEXANDER VOGORIDES) was b. in Bulgaria, 1830, and was 
the third son of Prince Alexander Vogorides, prominent in the Crimean war. A, in 
early life was attached to diplomatic corps in Berlin, London, and Vienna, and was 
Turkish ambassador at Vienna fora short time during the Russian war, 1877. When 
e. Roumelia was made a province, 1878, he was appointed governor-general, but resigned, 
1880, susvecting disaffection in the national assembly. 

AL'EMAN, Louts, b. 1390; archbishop of Arles and cardinal of St. Cecelia. He was 
one of the presidents of the council of Baslein 1431, and led the party for the supremacy 
of the councils over the pope in opposition to the claims of Eugenius [YV., and on his 
motion the latter was deposed and Felix V. elected in his stead. Hugenius thereupon 
deposed Felix, and deprived A. of his ecclesiastical dignities, but these were restored by 
Nicholas V. in 1447—Felix having resigned on A.’s advice. In 1527 A. was canonized 
by pope Clement VII. 

ALEMAN’, Mato, a famous Spanish novelist, was b. about the middle of the 16th 
¢., at Seville, and d. in Mexico during the reign of Philip Ill. In 1604 he published a 
poetical biography of St. Antonius of Padua; and in 1608, while in the new world, 
@n Ortografia Castellana, written during his voyage; but his great work is Guzman de 
Alfarache, a novel with a rogue for the hero, like some of the more recent English 
fictions. It was first published at Madrid in 1599, became immensely popular, and in 
half a dozen years had gone through 26 editions, consisting of not less than 50,000 
copies, in Spain and other countries. Both as regards the delineation of manners and 
the purity of style, this masterly creation of A. ranks next to that most celebrated of all 
the Spanish novels of the same character—the Lazarillo de Tormes of Mendoza. It 
displays keen powers of observation, and is readily recognized as the work of a ripe 
‘and cultivated mind. Mendoza’s hero has the advantage in originality, freshness, and 
vivacity; but Guzman exhibits a richer variety of gifts in the various characters he is 
compelled by circumstances to assume, such as stable-boy, beggar, thief, coxcomb, 
mercenary, valet, pander, merchant, etc. ‘The manners of the author’s own age are hit 
off with great skill and effect, and a wide knowledge of human nature is manifested. 


ALEMAN'NI (that is, all-men), the name of a military confederacy of several German 
tribes which began to appear on the lower and middle Main about the beginning of the 
3dc. Caracalla fought with them first on the Main in 211 4.p., but without conquer- 
ing them; Alexander Severus was equally unsuccessful; but Maximinus at length 
succeeded against them, and drove them beyond the Rhine. After his death they again 
invaded Gual, but were defeated by Posthumius, who pursued them into Germany, and 
fortified with ramparts and ditches the boundary of the Roman territory, called the 
Agri Decumates. The mounds near Pforung, on the Danube, the rampart extending 
through the principality of Hohenlohe to Jaxthausen, and the ditch with palisados on 
the n. side of the Main are remains of these works. The A., however, did not desist 
from their incursions, although they were repeatedly driven back. After 282, being 
pressed upon from the n.e. by the Burgundians, they took up permanent settlements 


Aleandro.e 
yess Alembert. 


within the Roman boundary from Maintz to lake Constance. At last, Julian came 
(357) to the relief of Gaul, which had been suffering from the incursions of the A., and 
soon compelled eight of their chiefs to sue for peace. Their united force, in their 
principal battle with Julian, amounted to 35,000 men. After the 5th c., the con- 
federated nation is spoken of as A. and Suavior Suevi. In the course of the 4th c. 
they had crossed the Rhine, and extended as far w. as the Vosges, and s. to the Hel- 
vetian Alps. At length Clovis, king of the Franks, broke their power in 496, and made 
them subject to the Frankish dominion. The s. part of their territory was formed into 
a duchy, called Alemannia. The name of Swabia came afterwards to be applied to the 
part of the duchy lying east of the Rhine. From the A. the French have given the 
name of Allemands and Allemagne to Germans and Germany in general, though the 
inhabitants of the n. of Switzerland, with those of Alsace and part of Swabia, are the 
proper descendants of the Alemanni. 


ALEM’BERT, JEAN LE RoND D’, one of the most distinguished mathematicians and 
writers of the 18th c., was b. in Paris, Nov. 16, 1717. He was the illegitimate son of 
Madame de Tencin, a lady of considerable notoriety in the time of the regency, and of 
a M. Destouches. He was exposed by his mother on the steps of the church of St. Jean- 
le-Rond, and the policeman who found him committed the seemingly dying infant to 
the care of the wife of a poor glazier, thinking it too weak to be taken to the depot. 
The father, without publicly avowing the child, secured to him an allowance of 1200 
francs a year. At the age of 12, he entered the college Mazarin, where he soon gave 
indication of that inclination, or rather passion for mathematical studies which distin- 
guished him through life. On leaving college, he returned to the humble home of his 
kind foster-mother, where he continued to live and pursue his favorite studies for 
nearly 40 years, sharing with her household his small revenue. Although the good 
woman loved him as a son, so little did she encourage his exclusive devotion to science, 
that when he spoke of his discoveries or writings, she replied with a sort of pity: ‘‘You 
will never be anything but a philosopher; and what is a philosopher, but a fool who 
torments himself during his life, that people may talk about him when he is dead?” 
At first, his friends urged him to qualify himself for some profitable career; but after 
trying for a time the study of law, and then of medicine, he gave up the attempt as 
hopeless, and abandoned himself without reserve to his passion for science. In 1741, at 
the age of 23, he was admitted a member of the academy of sciences, having already 
attracted attention by several physico-mathematical tracts. 'Two years later appeared 
his Treatise on Dynamics, founded on a new and fertile principle which makes an epoch 
in mechanical philosophy. ‘‘This principle consists,” says Condorcet, ‘‘in establishing 
the equality, at every instant, between the changes which the motion of the body has 
undergone, and the forces which have been employed to produce them;” in other 
words, it reduces all the laws of motion to the consideration of equilibrium. Among 
the more important of his other scientific works are: his 7’heory of the Winds, which 
gained the prize of the academy of Berlin, 1746, and which contains the first conception 
and use of the calculus of partial differences; a treatise on the Precession of the Hqui- 
noxes, 1749, giving for the first time an analytical solution of that phenomenon, as well 
as of the nutation of the earth’s axis; Hssay on the Resistance of Fluids, 1752; Researches 
on some Important Points in the System of the Universe, 1754 and 1756. His Mathematical 
Opuscules contain an immense number of memoirs, some on new subjects, some contain- 
ing developments of his previous works. 

But A. did not confine himself to physical science. Diderot (q.v.) having conceived 
the idea of the famous Hncyclopédie, enlisted the services of A., who wrote the Prelimi- 
nary Discourse, which is allowed by all to be a noble tribute to literature and philosophy 
—a model of lucid and eloquent exposition, and displaying an immense extent of 
knowledge combined with rare judgment. Besides numerous articles in the Hncyclo- 
pédie, he published Elements of Philosophy, 1759; Mélanges of Literature and Philosophy; 
The Destruction of the Jesuits, etc. He also wrote a great many éloges of members of the 
academy of sciences, of which he was elected secretary in 1772. His literary works have 
been published in a collected form, new edition, by Bossange, Paris, 1821, 5 vols. 8vo. 
This edition contains the correspondence of A. with Voltaire and the king of Prussia. 
His scientific works have never been collected. 

A. gave striking proof of how little he regarded riches and distinctions, or the flat- 
teries of the great, and how genuine was his love of independence. Frederick II. of 
Prussia offered him the presidency of the academy of Berlin, 1752, but he declined to 
leave France, and only accepted a subsequent offer of a pension of 1200 fr. The king 
of France granted him a similar sum. In 1762, Catherine II. of Russia invited him, 
through her ambassador, to undertake the education of her son, with a salary of 100,000 
fr.; and when he declined, she wrote him a letter with her own hand, urging that to 
refuse to contribute to the education of a whole nation was inconsistent with his own 
principles; and inviting him, if he could not reconcile himself to the breaking-off of 
his pursuits and friendships, to bring all his friends with him, and she would provide 
both for them and for him everything they could desire. But A. remained steadfast. 
When the grand duke afterwards visited Paris, he good-humoredly reproached A. with 
his refusal; and to the excuse of the rigor of the climate and feeble health, the prince 


Aiembic. 
Alessandria. 2 44 


replied, with the compliment: ‘‘In truth, monsieur, it is the only fa.se calculation you 
have made in your life.” A. was never married. He was tenderly attached for many 
ears to a Mademoiselle Espinasse, although their intimacy, it is believed, never went 
eyond a warm friendship. The death of the lady wasa severe blow to A. His own 
health began to give way; for he was suffering from the stone, and would not consent to 
an operation. e died Oct. 29, 1783. 

A. was truthful, frank, and extremely benevolent. He held it as a principle of morais 
that a man has no right to dispose at will of his own superfluous means while there 
are others in want of the necessaries of life. A stigma has attached to the name of A. 
from his intimate association with Voltaire and other assailants of Christianity; but A. 
never attacked religion in his published writings, which might be read without knowing 
what his opinions regarding revelation were. It is only from his private correspondence 
that it appears that he thought the probabilities were in favor of theism. 


ALEM'BIC (formed by the Arabs from their article al and Gr. ambiz, a goblet) is a form 
of still introduced into chemistry by the alchemists, and used by the more ancient exper- 
imenters in manipulative chemistry for the distillation and sublimation of substances, 
such as alcohol, or formic acid obtained by heating a decoction of red ants in water. 
The vessel consisted of a body, cucurbit 
or matrass (A), in which the material to 
be volatilized was placed; a head or 
capital (B) into which the vapors rose, 
were cooled, and then trickled down to 
the lower part (C), from whence by a 
pipe (D) the distilled product passed into 
the receiver (KE). Where very volatile 
liquids were being distilled, it was cus- 
tomary to introduce the receiver (E) into 
a vessel with cold water, so as to in- 
crease the perfectness of the condens- 
ing part of the arrangement. The A. 
has now been entirely superseded by 
the retort and receiver, or by the flask 
Alembic. attached to a Liebig’s condenser. See 

RETORT. 


ALEMTE’JO, a province in the s. of Portugal; area, 9417 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 393,000. 
It is partly washed by the Atlantic on the w., and stretches to the Spanish frontier on 
the e. It is traversed by a number of mountain-chains, and is watered by the Tagus, 
Guadiana, and Saado or Sado. In the s. and w., the climate is hot and dry; the plains 
are covered with brown heath, unrelieved by a tree or a shrub, and only broken at inter- 
vals by marshy wastes, while the vegetation is extremely scanty. In the e., on the con- 
trary, the valleys are fertile, and the mountains adorned with forests. The productions 
are singularly abundant. They consist of wheat, barley, rice, maize, the vine, and a 
variety of choice fruits—such as the citron, the lemon, the fig, the pomegranate. In the 
valleys, the principal trees are the oak with edible fruits, the evergreen oak, the cork- 
oak, the chestnut, and the pine ; in the plains, we find lavender, rosemary, juniper, the 
myrtle. The pasturage, also, is extraordinarily fine. Great attention is paid to the rear- 
ing of swine, goats, and sheep, and, in a less degree, of horned cattle, asses, and mules. 
As the population is sparse, more grain is produced than is consumed ; but manufactures 
are in a backward condition. Even mining, which might be very profitably carried on, 
is neglected. The chief towns are Evora (the capital), Elvas, Portalegre, Beja, Estremoz, 
and Mertola. 


ALEN'CON, chief t. of the department of Orne, in France, is situated on the Sarthe, 
in lat. 48° 25’ n., and long. 0° 54’ e. The town-church—a structure of the 16th c., con- 
taining the remains of the tombs of the A. family, which were almost completely 
destroyed at the revolution—is built in the Gothic style. It has a fine porch and exquis- 
itely painted windows. A.is a clean and handsome t., with good streets and a delightful 
public walk. The inhabitants produce excellent woolen and linen stuffs, embroidered 
fabrics, straw-hats, lace-work, artificial flowers, hosiery, etc. The manufacture of A, 
point-lace (points @’A.), although still important, is not carried on to the same extent as 
formerly. The cutting of the so-called A. diamonds (quartz-crystals), found in the 
vicinity of the t., is a branch of industry which has also greatly declined. Pop. ’91, 
18,319. 

The old Duxzs of A. were a branch of the royal family of Valois, and were descended 
from Charles of Valois, who perished at the battle of Crecy in 13846. His grandson, 
John I.,fell at Agincourt in 1415. His successor, John II.,allying himself with the 
enemies of the court, was twice condemned to death, but pardoned both times. René, 
son of John II., also excited, not without cause, the suspicion of the French monarch, 
Louis XI., who confined him for three months in an iron cage at Chinon; but as the 
parliament had never condemned him, he was released at the death of Louis, and 
restored by Charles VIII. to his title and estate. René’s son, who had married the sister of 
Francis I., was general of the advance-guard of the French army in the Netherlands. He 


Alembic. 
2 4 5 Alessandria, 


eommanded the left wing at the battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the kin 
at a critical moment, he fled with his troops; and to him, therefore, has been attribute 
both the disastrous defeat sustained by the French, and his sovereign’s falling into the 
hands of the enemy. With him expired the old house of A. The duchy was then given 
to the duke of Anjou. Louis XIV. conferred it upon the duke of Berri, and Louis XVI. 
on the count of Provence. 


ALENIO, GivuLio, about 1582-1649, a Jesuit missionary, b. in Brescia, Italy. He 
joined the order of Jesuits in 1600, and went to China in 1610, There he adopted the 
dress and manners of the country, and labored for nearly thirty years to spread Chris- 
tianity. He was the first Christian to labor in the province of Kiang-Si, and also built 
several churches in the province of Fo-Kien. He became master of the Chinese lan- 
guage, and composed a number of works, the most important being a Life of Christ and 
a Cosmography. 


ALEP’PO, a t. in the n. of Syria, capital of a Turkish vilayet of the same name, 
between the Orontes and the Euphrates, on the banks of the little desert stream, Nahr-el- 
Haleb. It stands in a large hollow, surrounded by rocky hills of limestone. The 
fruitful gardens, celebrated for their excellent plantations of pistachios, are the sole con- 
trast to the desolation which environs the city, whose numberless cupolas and minarets, 
clean, well-paved streets, and stately houses, make it even yet one of the most beautiful 
in the east. It is a telegraph station in connection with Damascus, and with Diarbekir, 
on the Indo-European line, and contains 127,000 inhabitants, Mohammedans, Greeks and 
Armenians. Formerly, it supplied a great part of the east with fabrics of silk, cotton, and 
wool, and gold and silver stuffs; but in 1822 an earthquake swallowed up two-thirds of 
the inhabitants, and transformed the citadel into a heap of ruins. The plague of 1827, the 
cholera of 1832, and the oppression of the Egyptian government, all but completed its 
destruction. During the sway of the last, however, a new citadel and some other 
edifices were erected ; but scarcely half of the mosques and baths have been rebuilt. The 
aqueduct is the oldest monument of the town. A.is one of the principal emporiums of 
the mland commerce of Asia. Its port is Alexandretta or Iskanderoon (q.v.). <A. hasa 
large trade in cotton and silk goods, skins, tobacco, wine, oil, etc. Aleppo was once 
the centre of Saracenic power, still retains much of the Arabic character, and its citizens 
are famed throughout the east for their elegant manners. 


ALES’, or ALESSE’, ALEXANDER, original name ALANE, 1500-65 ; a native of Edin- 
burgh. He studied at St. Andrew’s, graduating in 1515 ; became canon of the collegiate 
church, and contended vigorously for scholastic theology as against the reformers. On 
the execution of Patrick Hamilton his views entirely changed, though he kept the fact a 
secret for a long time. For a sermon against dissoluteness among the clergy he was put 
in prison, whence he escaped to the continent, traveled in Europe, and settled in 
Wittenberg, where he made the acquaintance of Melancthon. Meantime he was tried in 
Scotland, and condemned for heresy, without a hearing. After Henry VIII. broke with 
the church of Rome, A. went to England, and was cordially received by the king and 
‘Cranmer and Cromwell, and through the latter’s influence he was appointed lecturer on 
theology at Cambridge. In 1539, he was again compelled to exile himself in consequence 
of the statute known asthe ‘‘Six Articles.” He was at once chosen to a theological chair 
at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and was the first professor who taught the reformed doctrines. 
ae ee he quitted Frankfort for Leipsic, where he filled a similar professorship until 

is death. 


ALE'SIA, a t. of ancient Gaul, the siege and capture of which form one of Cesar’s 
greatest exploits. The Gauls were making a last effort to shake off the Roman yoke ; 
and Vercingetorix, their bravest leader, after several defeats, had shut himself up with 
80,000 men in A., there to await the reinforcements which he expected from a general 
insurrection of the country. The t. was situated on a lofty hill, and well calculated for 
defense. Ceesar, with his army of 60,000 men, completely surrounded the place, with the 
view of starving it into a surrender. He fortified his position by two lines of ramparts 
of prodigious extent and strength ; one towards the t., for defense against the sallies of 
the besieged ; the other towards the plain, against the expected armies of relief. Before 
they could assemble, 250,000 strong, he was ready for them ; and all their assaults, com- 
bined with the desperate efforts of the besieged, were of no avail. A. was obliged to 
surrender, and Vercingetorix was made prisoner. A.was afterwards a place of some 
note under the empire, but was destroyed by the Normans in 864. Near the site of the 
ancient A., w. of Dijon, stands the modern village of Alise or Sainte-Reine. 

ALESSANDRES KU, Greaory, b. 1812 ; a Roumanian poet. He served in the army ; 
was a liberal politician, and was banished toa monastery for publishing satires reflecting 
upon the government. In 1859 A. was minister of finance. He wrote Reminiscences, 
Impressions, Letters, and Fables. ‘ 

ALESSAN'DRIA, the principal fortress and town of the province of the same name in 
the n. of Italy, is situated in a marshy country near the confluence of the Bormida 
and Tanaro. It was built in 1168 by the inhabitants of Cremona, Milan, and Placentia, 
asa bulwark against emperor Frederick I. Its original name was Casarea, but it was 
afterwards called A. in honor of pope Alexander III., who established a bishopric in it. 
Designed at first as a fortress to guard the passage of the Bormida and Tanaro, and be: 


Aleutian, 
Alexander. 246 


ing the central point of intercourse between Genoa, Milan, and Turin, the town has 
frequently been the object of sanguinary strife. It was taken and plundered in 1522 by 
duke Sforza; besieged, but without success, by the French, under the prince of Conti, in 
1657; and again taken, in spite of an obstinate resistance, by prince Eugene in 1707. 
After the prostration of Austria at the battle of Marengo in 1800, Bonaparte concluded 
an armistice at A. with his enemies, according to which, upper Italy, as far as the 
Mincio, was ceded to the French, with twelve fortresses. It was the principal armory 
of the Piedmontese during the insurrection of the Lombardo-Venetian states in 1848-9, 
when many new fortifications were added to it. At present, the citadel is one of the 
strongest fortresses in Europe; of enormous size, larger, it is said, than many a town, and 
in the event of a war in Italy, the whole surrounding country can be inundated by 
means of the sluices of the Tanaro. <A. contains (1894), 74,200 inhabitants, who carry 
on a considerable trade in linens, woolens, silk fabrics, stockings, hats, ete. The 
culture of flowers is also much attended to. Two fairs are held in A. annually, which 
are largely frequented. ‘The province has an area of 1950 sq. m. and a pop. (1894) of 
about 730,000. It is a fertile plain on the e., and the w. is hilly and wooded. 


ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, or the CATHERINE ARCHIPELAGO, is the name of a group of 
islands, numbering above 150, and consisting of several clusters, which now belong to 
the United States, and form an insular continuation of the N. American peninsula of 
Alaska (q.v.), in the shape of an arch or bridge between the former continent and Asia. 
They lie in 55° lat., separating the sea of Kamtchatka from the Pacific, and naturally 
subdivide themselves into five groups: 1. the Komandorski islands, sometimes not 
regarded as belonging to the A. 1.; 2. the Sasignan, or ‘‘ Nearest” islands; 3. the Rat 
islands; 4. the Andreianowsky, which are very small and little frequented; 5. the Fox 
islands, among which is Unimak, the largest in the archipelago. The islands are all 
craggy, and have a desolate appearance from the sea. They exhibit traces of violent 
internal commotion. Several volcanoes are still periodically active, and warm volcanic 
springs are numerous. The whole chain or group forms a connecting link between the 
volcanic range of the west coast of America and Kamtchatka. On account of the 
numerous rocks which lie off their shores, they are not very accessible to ships. Under 
a climate which exchanges only for a short time the monotonous rigor of winter for a 
cloudy spring and a hot summer, little can be expected of so niggardly a soil. There 
are plenty of low scrubby bushes, grasses, moss, and lichens, but no strong and stately 
growth of trees. An experiment tried at Unalaska of planting pines had very little suc- 
cess. Here and there, however, European kitchen-gardens have been attempted with 
better results ; and the cultivation of the potato has been undertaken. Theislands abound 
in springs, and are overrun with foxes, dogs, and reindeer, while the coasts swarm with 
fish, seals, and otters. The natives, numbering only 900 in 1890, though once numerous, 
are variously regarded as of Asiatic or American origin. There are two tribes, the Oona- 
laskans and the Atkhas. In appearance they closely resemble the Innuit or Esquimaux. 
Reduced in numbers by the cruelty of their Russian masters, they have since suffered 
terribly from pestilences. A large majority of them have become Christianized. Their 
occupation is hunting and fishing. Their trade is chiefly in furs and fish, of which the 
principal entrepét is Alexandria, in the island of Rojak. They area strong and agile 
race, capable of enduring great fatigue and extremes of heat and cold. The inhabitants 
of Fox Island live in peculiar dwellings consisting of large underground holes divided 
into compartments and having several entrances. Many of their utensils are made of 
stone and they are still classed by ethnologists with the dwellers in theStone Age. Their 
food consists of the flesh of seals, otters, fish, etc. ‘Their weapons are lances, spears, 
harpoons and arrows. Until they were Christianized they appear to have worshiped 
the spirits of the stars, sun, and moon, and to have differed from many tribes, in the 
same condition of savagery, in having no idols. Singular matrimonial customs formerly 
prevailed among them. There was no marriage ceremony and a system of polygamy 
was practised, each man taking as many wives as he wished and sending them back when 
weary of them. See illus., N. and S. AMERICA, vol. I. 

ALEWIFE (alosa tyrannus), a fish of the same genus with the shad (q.v.), which, in 
the end of spring and beginning of summer, appears in great numbers on the eastern 
coast of N. America, and enters the mouths of rivers tospawn. It appears in Chesapeake 
bay in March, on the coasts of New York and New England in April, and on those of 
ths British provinces about the Ist of May. It abounds in the bay of Fundy, but is 
more rare in the gulf of St. Lawrence; and the bay of Miramichi appears to be its 
northern limit. It ascends rivers only as far as the tide extends, and, after spawning, 
returns to the sea in the middle of summer. It prefersasoft, muddy bottom. Its length 
is not more than 12 inches. The A. is called spring herring in some places, and gaspereau 
by the French Canadians. It is inferior to the herring, yet it is a valuable fish. The 
fishery is prosecuted in the rivers, by small-meshed seine-nets, set across the stream. 
Large quantities are taken in the rivers of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova 
Scotia. The harbor of St John’s, New Brunswick, alone produces from 12,900 to 20,000 
barrels annually. This fish, in a salted state, forms a considerable article of export from 
the northern parts of America to the West Indies. 


_ ALEXAN’DER, a co. forming the s.w. corner of Illinois, between the Ohio and Mis- 
SISSIppl rivers ; 230 sq.m. ; pop. 90, 16,563. It is low, flat, and subject to inundations 
In some portions, but produces good corn and wheat. The Illinois Central railroad 
intersects this county. Co. seat, Cairo. 


Aleutian. 
24 7 Alexander, 


ALEXAN DER, a co. in n.w. North Carolina, bounded on the s. by the Catawba 
river; 278 sq.m. ; pop. 90, 9430, with colored. The chief products are wheat, corn, 
and oats. Co. seat, Taylorsville. 

ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD, D.D., 1772-1851; b. Virginia; a Presbyterian minister 
of Scotch descent. He was self-educated ; was led to religious study in the revival of 
1789, was licensed to preach in 1791, and spent some years as an itinerant missionary; 
was president of Hampden-Sidney college, 1789-1801; in 1802 married the daughter of 
Rey. Dr. Waddell, the blind preacher whose eloquence was so eloquently eulogized by 
William Wirt; was pastor of Pine street Presbyterian church, Philadelphia, 1807-12; 
and having at the organization of the theological seminary of the Presbyterian church at 
Princeton, N. J., been unanimously chosen professor of theology, he retained the 
position with eminent success until his death. His best known work is Outlines of the 
Lividences of Christianity, which has been translated into many languages and is a text- 
book in colleges. He wrote also Zreatise on the Canon of the Old and New Testaments; 
Llistory of the Patriarchs; History of the Israelitish Nation; Religious Experience; African 
Colonization; The Log College; and Moral Science, which was published after his death. 

ALEXANDER, JAMES WADDELL, D.D., 1804-59 ; b. Virginia ; son of Dr. Archibald ; 
graduated at Princeton college, 1820, and afterwards a tutor there; installed pastor of 
Presbyterian church at Charlotte C. H., Va., 1827, and of 1st church of Trenton, N. J., 
1829; professor of belles lettres and Latin in Princeton college, 1833-44; pastor of Duane 
street church, New York, 1844-49; professor of ecclesiastical history, church government, 
and sacred rhetoric in Princeton seminary, 1849-51, when the Duane street church being 
reorganized as the Fifth avenue church at the corner of 19th street, he again became its 
pastor and continued to be until his death. He wrote for the Biblical Repository, Princeton 
Review, Presbyterian, American Sunday School Union, American Tract Society, and, 
under the name ‘‘ Cesariensis,” for the Literary World. Among his many works are 
Consolation; Sacramental Discourses; Thoughts on Family Worship; Plain Words to a Young 
Communicant; Thoughts on Preaching; The American Mechanic and Workingman; Dis- 
courses on Christian Faith and Practice; and a biography of his father. 

ALEXANDER, JoHn Henry, 1812-67; b. Maryland; author of TZveatise on Mathe- 
matical Instruments, Contributions to the History of Iron, Dictionary of Weights and 
Measures, International Coinage, and other valuable works. 

ALEXANDER, JosEPH ADDISON, D.D., 1809-60 ; one of the most eminent American 
biblical scholars; son of Dr. Archibald; b. Philadelphia. He was a pupil of his father; 
graduated at Princeton college, 1826; was adjunct professor there of ancient languages 
and literature, 1830-33; instructor, associate professor, and professor of oriental and bib- 
lical literature in Princeton seminary, 1833-51; of church history and government, 
1851-59 ; of New Testament literature and biblical Greek, 1859-60. Among his published 
writings are The Psalms Translated and Explained; The Prophecies of Isaiah; a treatise 
on church government; two volumes of sermons; and commentaries on books of the 
New Testament. See his Life by H. C. Alexander (1869). 

ALEXANDER, STEPHEN, LL.D., b. New York state, 1806; educated at Union col- 
lege and Princeton theological seminary; became a tutor in Princeton college, 1833; 
adjunct professor of mathematics there, 1834-45; professor of mathematics, 1845-54; and 
eae of astronomy from 1840 to his retirement about 1877 as professor emeritus. 

uring a part of this time he was also professor of natural philosophy. In 1860 he was 
at the head of the expedition to Labrador to observe the solar eclipse of July 18. He is 
the author of many scientific papers, chiefly astronomical, such as Physical Phenomena 
attending Solar Kelipses; Origin of the Forms and Present Condition of some of the Clusters 
of Stars; and Harmonies in the Arrangement of the Solar System. He d. 1883. 

ALEXANDER, WILu1am, 1726-83 ; b. New York; a maj.-gen. in the revolution. 
He claimed the earldom of Stirling, and is generally known as lord Stirling. He was son 
of James Alexander, well educated and of high repute for scientific attainments. He 
was in England in 1755, and made an unsuccessful suit for the Stirling estates and titles : 
returned in 1761, and soon after married a daughter of Philip Livingston; succeeded his 
father as surveyor-gen., and was a member of the provincial council. He sided with 
the revolutionists and was made a col. in 1775, and brig.-gen. by congress in 1776. 
He was conspicuously brave in the battle of Long Island, where he was taken prisoner, 
after securing the retreat of most of his command; but he was soon exchanged, and 
made a maj.-gen. in Feb., 1777, and distinguished himself at Brandywine and German- 
town. At Monmouth he led the left wing, and did much to secure the victory. He was 
commander at Albany in 1781. He was prominent in founding King’s college (now 
Columbia University) and the Society Library of New York city. a 

ALEXANDER, Sir Wiuuiam, Ear! of Stirling, 1580-1640; a poet of an eminent 
Scotch family. He was educated at Glasgow university ; traveled on the continent: 
was tutor to the young earl of Argyle, and so found access to the court of James I He 
wrote sonnets, the Hour Monarchicke Tragedies, Elegy on the Death of Prince Henry the 
Day of the Lord’s Judgment, An Encouragement. to Jolonies, and many poems. In 1621 
Sept. 21, he received the most prodigious gift ever bestowed on a subject viz., a‘ ift 
and grant” of Canada, inciuding Nova Scotia and Newfoundland: a singular instence 
of royal ignorance of geographical limits in America; still Charles I. confirmed the grant 
but its further history must be sought in the romance of the peerage and of the law 


243 


Alexander. 


eourts. In 1626, A. was made secretary of state for Scotland, and in 1630 was created 8 
peer as lord Alexander of Tullibody and viscount Stirling, and was made judge of the 
sessions in 1631. The next year he built the Argyle house, still one of the sights of 
Bening: In 1633, he was made earl of Stirling and viscount of Canada, and in 1639 earl 
of Dovan. 

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM, D. D., LL. D., Anglican prelate; b. Londonderry, Ire., 1824. 
He graduated at Oxford; served a curacy in the n. of Ireland; was appointed dean of 
Emly, 1864, and bishop of Derry and Raphoe, 1867, and was elected primate of Ireland 
in 1896. He contributed frequently to periodical literature, has published Leading Ideas 
of the Gospel, The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity, 1877, ete. He married 
Miss Cecil Frances Humphries, author of Poems on Old Testament Subjects, ete. 

ALEXANDER (ALExIs, or ALExius)]., ComNnrentvs, 1182-1222; a descendant of 
the great Comneni family, rulers of Constantinople. His father was killed, and his mother 
fled with him and his brother David to a relative, the Georgian queen of Tiflis, who 
raised and educated the children. On the second capture of Constantinople, 1204, A: 
and his brother led some disaffected Greeks to the capture of Trebizond and the neigh- 
boring Black sea coast, while David took Sinope, and threatened Constantinople. A. 
became ruler of all Anatolia, but was in perpetual war with the Turks and the petty 
emperor of Nica. When he died his empire was a mere strip along the Black sea, 
between the Phasis and the Thermodon. 

ALEXANDER JANNZ’US, third son of John Hyrcanus and first prince of the 
Maccabees who for any considerable period enjoyed the title of king (from 104 to 78 B.c.). 
He was warlike and enterprising, but was badly defeated in Galilee by Ptolemy, the son 
of Cleopatra of Egypt. A. then made an alliance with Cleopatra, and after some defeats 
captured several towns on the Mediterranean, the last being Gaza, which he reduced to 
utterruin, B.c. 96. He was next called to Jerusalem to put down an insurrection, which 
he did after sacrificing 6000 lives, and soon after sacrificed 5000 more in a second insur- 
rection. In still another rebellion A. was victorious, when he made a great entertainment 
for his friends, at which, as a part of the enjoyment, he had 800 rebels crucified in his 
presence, and their wives and children butchered before their eyes before they expired. 


ALEXANDER NEWSKI, or NeEvsx1, a Russian hero and saint, b. at Vladimir in 1219 
A.D., was the son of the grand duke Jaroslav, of Novgorod. In order to defend the 
empire, which was attacked on all sides, but especially by the Mongols, his father quitted 
Novgorod, leaving the cares of the government to his sons, Fedor and Alexander, the for- 
mer of whom died soon afterwards. The latter vigorously resisted the enemy; yet Russia 
was forced to submit to the Mongol dominion in 1238 a.p. A. now fought to defend the 
western frontier against the Danes, the Swedes, and the Teutonic knights. He received 
the surname of Newski, on account of the splendid victory over the Swedes, which he 
achieved in 1240, on the Newa (Neva), in the province where St. Petersburg now stands. 
In 1248 a.p., on the ice of lake Peipus, he defeated the Livonian knights of the sword, 
who had been stimulated by the pope to attack the Russian heretics. At the death of 
his father in 1247, he became grand duke of Vladimir. Pope Innocent IV. now made a 
diplomatic attempt to reunite the Greek and Roman churches, since his military scheme 
had failed, and with this view sent an embassy to A., which, however, proved as 
ineffectual as the former. To the end of his life, however, he remained a vassal of the 
Tartars or Mongols. Thrice had he to renew his oath of fealty to the Asiatic barbarians, 
making in each instance a journey to theircamp. He died in 1263 A.D., at Kassimcow, 
on his return from the last of these journeys; and the gratitude of the nation perpetuated 
his memory in popular songs, and even canonized him. Peter the Great honored his 
memory by building a magnificent convent on the spot where A. had fought his 
great battle, and by founding the knightly order of A. N. 


ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS, lived in the 2d and 38d c., A.p.; the most cele- 
brated of Greek commentators on Aristotle, and styled ‘‘ the expositor.” He was a 
native of Aphrodisias, and taught peripatetic philosophy at Athens. ~ His commentaries, 
many of which are extant, were especially esteemed by the Arabs. He also wrote 
original works, of which the most important is On Fate, in which he argues against the 
Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one On Soul, in which he holds that the undeveloped 
reason in man is material and inseparable from the body. He identified the active - 
intellect with God. 


ALEXANDER OF HALES (in Latin, Alexander Halensis), a famous theologian, known 
as the ‘‘irrefragable doctor;” d. 1245. He was originally an ectlesiastic in Gloucester- 
shire, but had attended the schools of Paris, got the degree of doctor, and had become 2 
noted professor of philosophy and theology there, when (1222) he suddenly entered the 
order of the Minorite friars. From that time, he lived the life of a studious recluse. 
His chief and only authentic work is the Summa Universa Theologiw (best ed., Venice, 
1576, 4 vols.), written at the command of pope Innocent IV., and enjoined by his suc- 
cessor, Alexander IV., to be used by all professors and students of theology in Christen- 
dom. A. gave the doctrines of the church amore rigorously syllogistic form than they 
had previously had, and may thus be considered as the author of the scholastic theology. 
Instead of appealing to tradition and authority, he deduces with great subtlety, from 
assumed premises, the most startling doctrines of Catholicism, especially in favor of the 
prerogatives of the papacy, He refuses any toleration to heretics, and would have them 


94 9 Alexander. 


deprived of all property ; he absolves subjects from all obligation to obey a prince that is 
not obedient to the church. The spiritual power, which blesses and consecrates kings, 
is, by that very fact, above all temporal powers, to say nothing of the essential dignity 
of its nature. It has the right to appoint and to judge these powers, while the pope has 
no judge but God. In ecclesiastical affairs, also, he maintains the pope’s authority to be 
full, absolute, and superior to all laws and customs. The points on which A. exercises 
his dialectics are sometimes simply ludicrous; as when he discusses the question whether 
a mouse that should nibble a consecrated wafer would thereby eat the body of Christ. 


ALEXANDER (JOSEPH) I., former Prince of Bulgaria, the second son of Prince 
Alexander of Battenberg (Hesse) by a morganatic marriage with Countess von Kauck, 
was born in 1857 ; served with the Prussian army during the war with Turkey ; and 
subsequently did garrison duty at Potsdam as a member of the Prussian Life Guards. 
He was elected hereditary prince of Bulgaria by the Assembly of Notables in 1879, and 
in 1881 was invested with extraordinary legislative powers for seven years by a vote of 
the Grand National Assembly. His decision on the revolution of Philippopolis, led 
to a declaration of war by Servia, but Alexander conducted the campaign most brilliant- 
ly, and King Milan was obliged to sign a treaty of peace. By consenting to the union 
of the two Bulgarias, Alexander incurred the jealousy of his cousin, the Czar, Alexan- 
der III., who removed him from the army. Finally, Aug. 20, 1886, part of his army, 
through Russian intrigue, revolted, and compelled him to sign his abdication, and he was 
then carried a prisoner into Russian territory. Popular indignation in Bulgaria pro- 
cured his release, but he soon formally abdicated. His engagement to the Princess 
Victoria of Germany being opposed by Bismarck was broken off, and in 1889 he married 
Friulein Amalia Loisinger, an actress, and retired to his estate at Gratz. Died 1895. 


ALEXANDER I., Pavuntowrrscu, Emperor and autocrat of all the Russias (1801-25), 
was b. Dec. 23, 1777. His education, in which his father, Paul I., had no hand, was 
conducted by his grandmother, Catharine II., and Col. Laharpe and other tutors. He 
always showed great affection for his mother, Maria, daughter of Eugene, duke of 
Wirtemberg. With a humane and benevolent disposition, the ‘‘northern Telemaque” 
was imbued by Laharpe with the enlightened principles of the age. Prof. Kraft 
instructed him in experimental physics, and Pallas in botany. It was thought better not 
to devote his attention to poetry and music, as it would have required too much time to 
make any great acquirements. In 1793he married Elizabeth, daughter of Karl Ludwig, 
crown prince of Baden, and on the assassination of his father Paul (q.v.), on the 24th of 
March, 1801, succeeded him upon the throne. Although A. doubtless knew of the con- 
spiracy to dethrone his father, there is no reason to believe that he contemplated the 
crime of murder. His accession was celebrated by Klopstock in an ode, Zo Humanity, 
indicative of the high expectations formed of him. ‘The young ruler seemed deeply 
penetrated with a sense of his obligation to make his people happy and to promote their 
civilization and prosperity. He was the first to lay the foundation of the national cul- 
ture and popular instruction on aregular plan, to introduce organization into the interna] 
administration, and unshackle the industry of the nation. 

Of specific internal improvements effected by A., his exertions on behalf of the lan- 

uage, literature, and abe culture of the Slavonic nations deserve special notice. 
ath universities, at Dorpat, Kasan, Charkow, Moscow, Wilna, Warsaw, and St. 
Petersburg, were either instituted or remodeled by him; 204 gmynasiums and normal 
schools, and above 2000 district elementary schools, were erected; and fresh life and 
activity given to the higher scientific institutions in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He 
did more than any other sovereign in Europe for the spread of the Bible, by supporting 
the Bible society (which was suppressed, however, in 1826); and in 1820 he had a bishop 
instituted for the evangelical Lutheran church, and a general consistory in St. Peters- 
burg for the whole empire. He devoted large sums to the printing of important works, 
such as Krusenstern’s Zravels and Karamsin’s History of Russia, and prized and 
rewarded scientific merit both at home and abroad. Several scientific collections were 
ge by him, and in 1818 he invited two orientalists, Demange and Charmoy, from 

aris to St. Petersburg, to promote the study of the Arabic, Armenian, Persian, and 
Turkish languages. Young men of talent were sent to travel at his expense. By the 
ukase of 1816 he prepared the way for the abolition of slavery in the Baltic provinces; 
he also declared that no more gifts of peasants would be made on the crown-lands. As 
early as 1801 he had abolished the secret tribunal which is said to have extorted con- 
fession from political offenders by means of hunger and thirst. The practice of slitting 
the nose and branding, which had been customary in. connection with knouting, was 
also done away with. Laws were enacted to prevent the abuses of power by gov- 
ernors. The privilege of the nobles, that their inherited property could not be con- 
fiscated as a punishment, was raised by him to a common right for all subjects; and 
much was done in composing a code of civil law. He promoted the manufactures and 
trade of the empire by amending the laws regarding debt and mortgages, and by the 
institution of an imperial bank, the construction of roads and canals, making Odessa a 
free port, and, above all, by the ukase of 1818, permitting all peasants in the empire to 
carry on manufactures. 

A.’s far-sighted policy with regard to the foreign commerce of Russia is shown in vari- 
ous expeditions round the world sent out by him; in the embassy to Persia in 1817, in 
which was the Frenchman Gradanne, who was acquainted with all the plans of Napo- 
leon respecting India and Persia; in the missions to Cochin China and to Khiva: 


250 


Alexander. 


in the treaties with the United States, Brazil, and Spain ; in the naval and com: 
mercial treaties with the Porte ; and in the settlement on the n.w. coast of America. 

A.’s foreign policy was characterized at the outset by a desire for peace ; in 1801 he 
concluded a cenvention putting an end to hostilities with England, and made peace 
with France and Spain. He next entered, along with France, into negotiations respect- 
ing the indemnification of the minor states in Germany and Italy, but soon discovered 
how little the French ruler intended any real compensation. As Bonaparte encroached 
more and more, took possession of Hanover, and annihilated Holland, A. broke with 
France, and joined the coalition of 1805. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz, 
when the allied armies of Austria and Russia were defeated, and retired with the remains 
of his forces into Russia, declining to enter into the treaty that followed. Next year he came 
forwardas the ally of Prussia ; but after the disastrous battles of Eylau and Friedland, in 
1807, he was obliged to conclude the peace of Tilsit, in which he managed to prevent the 
restoration of the kingdom of Poland, and to mitigate the hard fate of the king of Prussia, 
During the war with France, A. had also to carry on hostilities with Persia and with 
Turkey. 

Dace by the fortune and genius of Napoleon, A., in pursuance of the stipulations 
of Tisit, acceded with his huge empire to the French continental system, thus altering 
entirely the foreign policy of Russia. He began by declaring war on England in 1808, 
and attacking her ally Sweden, wrested from that country, by the peace of Friedrichs- 
hamm (1809), the province of Finland. On the other hand, the Russian fleet, sent to the 
aid of the French at Lisbon, fell into the hands of the British. In the autumn of 1808, 
the two great potentates held a meeting at Erfurt, attended with great splendor, at which 
A. represented, as it were, the empire of the east of Europe, while Napoleon assumed the 
dominion of the west. In the war of France against Austria in 1809, A. took only a 
lukewarm part, although at the peace of Vienna he received the circle of Tarnopol as his 
share of the spoil of Galicia. Against the Porte, which had not observed the armistice 
of Slobosta, he renewed the war, which was continued till the peace of Bucharest 
in 1812. 

The alliance, however, of A. with the Corsican conqueror involved such an inconsist- 
ency, and was so contrary to the real interests of Russia, that a rupture and a complete 
change of the Russian policy were inevitable. The pressure of the continental system on the 
material resources of Russia, the despotic changes made by Napoleon, the augmentation of 
the duchy of Warsaw, the proffers of alliance by England and Sweden, awoke in A. first 
discontent and aversion, and soon the thought of a decisive contest against the subju- 
gator of Europe and the disturber of the peace of the world. When this gigantic struggle 
at last began (1812), Russia brought into the field an army of nearly 900,000men. Dur- 
ing this wat (see Russo-GERMAN WAR), A. repeatedly exposed himself to personal dan- 
ger, in order to fire the courage and patriotism of his troops. His magnanimity toward 
France after the taking of Paris facilitated the negotiations for peace, and won for him 
great personal regard, amounting toa kind of enthusiasm. He was received with the same 
feeling in London, which he visited after the treaty of Paris in June, 1814. When he 
returned to St. Petersburg, his first care was to provide for the wounded, and for the 
families of the soldiers that had fallen. The senate wished to give him the title of 
** blessed,” which, from Christian humility, he declined. After a short residence in his 
own capital, he repaired to the congress of Vienna. Here he laid claim to Poland as 
essential to the interests of Russia, but promised to confer on it a constitution, and, on 
the whole, appeared to act for the good of humanity and the freedom of nations. 

In the return of Napoleon, A. saw the confusion of Europe begun again, and there- 
fore urged the fulfillment of the treaty of Chaumont and the outlawry of the common 
enemy. His appearance in the French capital after the battle of Waterloo raised less 
enthusiasm than previously ; yet on this occasion, too, France owed much to his generos- 
ity. It was about this time that the tendency of A. to pietism fostered by intercourse 
with Madame Kriidener (q.v.), was most strongly manifested, and exercised decided influ- 
ence on his political views. It was under the influence of this religiosity that he founded 
the holy alliance (q.v.), the ostensible object of which was to make the principles of Chris- 
tianity be recognized in the political arrangements of the world, but which became, in 
fact, a mere handle for political reaction. 

In the end of Oct., 1815, A. returned to his own dominions. His policy, and the 
march of events, had completely changed the internal condition of Russia and her 
foreign relations. Her weight in European politics had become powerful ; the limits 
of the empire had extended in all directions ; and notwithstanding the war, the earlier 
legislative reforms had begun to act favorably on the industry and well-being of the 
nation. After 1805, A. had remodeled the army after the fashion of the western powers, 
and raised it to a condition that menaced Europe. When peace was attained, he not only 
sought to heal the wounds inflicted by the war, but to carry forward the work of reform 
formerly begun. Numerous administrative abuses were done away with, and the 
condition of the peasants was more and more alleviated. In 1816, the Jesuits, who were 
causing a great deal of disturbance, were made to leave St. Petersburg and Moscow, and 
in 1820 were sent out of the empire. On the other hand, proselytism was rigidly pro- 
hibited, and the Duchoborzes, a sect of the Russo-Greek church, were allowed the free 
exercise of worship, 


S 5 } Alexander. 


But however good A.’s intentions might be, his internal policy met with obstructions, 
partly arising from his personal views and character, partly from the nature of his 
position. Affected with a morbid religiosity, worn out and shaken perhaps in body and 
mind by the vast events in the vortex of which he had moved for the last ten years, the 
emperor became possessed of a dread of another European revolution ; and the political 
struggles against reaction in Germany, and the outbreaks against despotism in Italy and 
Spain, appeared to him as the beginning of a new and terrible catastrophe. The atten- 
tion now bestowed by A. on foreign relations threw internal improvements into the back- 
ground ; and the liberal reformer and pupil of Laharpe found himself involved in hopeless 
inconsistency, when he fully concurred in the policy of the Austrian cabinet, and, at the 
congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and Verona, helped to crush, along with the insurrec- 
fions, the just requirements and political progress of the nations. 

This complete reversal of policy could not fail to produce fruits, especially as Russia 

eculiarly abounded in fermentable materials. Poland saw itself completely disappointed 
In its national expectations, and required the actual carrying out of the promised constitu- 
tion. The contact into which the Russians had come during the war with the civiliza- 
tion and institutions of the western nations, had excited in different classes of Russian 
society wishes and views by no means compatible with their condition at home. On the 
other hand, there had long existed in the most influential circles an Old-Russian 
party, who either found their interests burt by the enlightened measures of the emperor, 
or saw in them the downfall of the ‘national church, and of the nation itself. Besides, 
the army was kept up on the war-footing, and in 1821 numbered about 880,000 regular 
troops ; and this pressed severely on the people, and produced discontent, along with 
exhaustion and disorder of the finances. To meet this evil, A. began the planting of 
military colonies, which, however, met with insuperable obstacles in the execution, and 
did not attain the end in view. But to exorcise the spirit of political discontent and the 
phantom of a Russian revolution, the emperor adopted the same measures that were very 
generally applied over the rest of Europe with similar views. The censorship of the 
press, and a rigid guard over the importation of books, were again introduced ; restric- 
tions were put on science, literature, and education ; inquiries instituted into all demo- 
cratic movements ; mason-lodges and missionary societies suppressed ; and gradually all 
plans for reform and progress given up. Over all the provinces of the empire, a net of 
police, open and secret, was spread, which interfered with the ordinary intercourse of 
society. 

The experience that, in spite of this system of repression, public opinion could not be 
stifled, and that parties and individuals only expressed themselves more bitterly ; the vari- 
ance with his former self in which A. found himself involved; and the difficulties of govern- 
ing the huge empire, which were now becoming more manifest and startling—all this 
tormented and embittered his morbid mind, and led him to complain of ingratitude and 
of a want of recognition of his good intentions. Sometimes he sought to forget his 
position in the dissipations of a splendid court, in which luxury and piety were strangely 
blended ; at other times, he plunged into the darkness of religious mysticism. The 
progress of the revolt in Greece brought the policy of the emperor into complete opposition 
to public opinion and the most sacred sympathies of the nation. The Russian people, 
restrained from all participation in political movements, were profoundly affected by the 
religious element of the Greek struggle ; but the emperor condemned the rising as insur- 
rection, disclaimed the favor he had formerly shown to the Greek cause, and confined 
himself to exhortations to the Porte to act with humanity. The death of his only and 
much-loved natural daughter, the terrible inundation suffered by St. Petersburg in 1824, 
in which he exposed himself to personal danger, and the alarm caused by a Russo-Polish - 
conspiracy against all the members of the house of Romanow, contributed not a little to 
break the heart of the emperor, and completely destroy the composure of his mind. Sick 
in body, weary of life, and possessed by thoughts of death, he commenced, in Sept., 1825, 
a journey to the Crimea, with a view to benefit the health of the empress, who was 
ailing, and that he himself might enjoy retirement. Leaving the empress at Taganrog, 
he continued his journey, but was suddenly seized by a fever peculiar to the country, 
and obliged to return to Taganrog. Here, in spite of all care, he became worse, and 
died, Dec. 1, 1825. The rumor that he had been poisoned is altogether groundless. He 
is said to have learned, shortly before his death, the details of the conspiracy which his 
brother and successor, Nicholas I. (q.v.), had to begin his reign by putting down.—See 
Choiseul-Gouffier’s Mémoires Historiques sur 1 Empereur Alexandre et la Cour de Russie, 
Paris. 1829; and Alevander I.: His Life and Times, by C. Joyneville, London, 1875. 


ALEXANDER II., Emperor of Russia, was b. April 29, 1818. He was carefully 
educated by his father, Nicholas, who professed himself delighted with the manifesta- 
tions of ‘‘true Russian spirit” in his son. At 16, he was declared of age, made com- 
mandant of the lancers of the guard, hetman of the Cossacks, first aide-de-camp of the 
emperor, and subjected daily to a life of manceuvring, reviewing, and military parade, 
Which at last seriously injured his health. He then traveled through Germany to recruit 
his energies, and while there, concluded a marriage with the Princess Maria, daughter of 
the grand duke of Darmstadt, in 1841. He now vigorously applied himself to his duties 
as chancellor of the university of Finland. By his dexterous and subtle manners, he 


252 


Alexander. 


insinuated himself into the affections of the Finns, and weakened.their love of inde- 

pendence. He founded a chair of the Finnish language and literature, and defrayed 

the expenses of remote explorations undertaken by their savans, such as Cygneus, 

Wallin, and Castren. In 1850, he visited southern Russia, Nicolaieff, Sebastopol, Tiflis, 

Erivan, etc. It is said that he witnessed with regret the attitude which his father 
assumed towards Europe, and that he altogether disapproved of the Crimean war, 

On his accession to the throne, Mar. 2, 1855, he found himself in a very critical position. 

He had two parties to conciliate at home—the old Muscovite party, blindly zealous for 
war, and the more peaceable and intelligent portion of the nation, who possessed his 
personal sympathies. He pursued a course calculated to encourage both ; spoke of 
adhering to the policy of his ‘‘illustrious ancestors,” and at the same time concluded 
peace. He subsequently showed a strong desire to purge the internal administration of its 
impurities ; he sharply rebuked the corruption of functionaries, and severely punished 
some, as a warning to the rest. An honorable recognition was ever given to public 
instruction, which he placed under his own superintendence. By aukase of May 27, 1856, 
he granted to all Polish exiles, who were willing to express repentance for the past, 
permission to return home ; but though desirous of preserving the nationality of Poland, 
he would not have it separated from the ‘‘ great Russian family.” The grand achieve- 
ment of his reign, however, was the emancipation of the serfs—23,000,000, souls—by @& 
ukase of Mar. 8, 1861. This marked an epoch in the national history. In 1865, A. es- 
tablished elective representative assemblies in the provinces. He carried on wars against 
Bokhara in 1866; Khiva, in 1873 ; and Khokan, in 1875-76. The czar took the field 
‘with the army in the war with Turkey, 1877-78. In 1880, the Emperor dissolved the hated. 
secret police, a concession to the revolutionists, who had thrice attempted to assassinate 
him, but on Mar. 13, 1881, while returning in his sleigh from a parade in St. Petersburg: 
he was killed by a dynamite bomb. 


ALEXANDER III. (Alexandrovitch) EMPEROR OF ALL THE Russias, was born Mar. 10, 
1845, and during his father’s lifetime served as aide-de-camp and general in the suite 
of the emperor, etc. He succeeded his father, who was assassinated by Nihilists, Mar. 
18, 1881, but through fear ofa like fate shut himself in his palace at Gatschina, and. 
his coronation was postponed until 1888, took place at Moscow, May 27, and was cele- 
brated with elaborate ceremonies and with national festivities. His policy, like that of 
his father, has been to repress Nihilism ; to extend the Russian frontier in Asia and. 
Europe ; to organize the Asiatic and Caucasian provinces, and to counteract the influence: 
of Austria in the Balkhan peninsula. His jealousy of his cousin, Alexander I. of Bul- 
garia (q.v.), led to the latter’s forced abdication, and his hatred of the Jews was shown in. 
1891 by the expulsion from Russia of thousands. Several attempts to assassinate the em- 
peror were made in 1887 and in 1883 he and his family barely escaped death by a railway 
accident. He married, Nov. 9, 1866, Mary Sophia Frederica Dagmar (Mary-Féodorovna): 
daughter of Christian [X. of Denmark, and has three sons (Nicholas, heir-apparent, b.. 
1868) and two daughters. Alexander’s reign was memorable for the relentless severity 
of the measures directed against the Nihilists (q.v.), and for a certain reactionary (old 
Russian) tendency in the policy of the government. Among the memorable incidents. 
of the reign will be remembered the overtures by Russian influence of Prince Alexander: 
of Bulgaria in 1885 (see BULGARIA); the persecution and expulsion of the Jews in. 
1890-91, and the apparent military rapprochement between Russia and France in 1891. 
See TRIPLE ALLIANCE. He died Nov. 1, 1894, and was succeeded by his son, Nicholas IL. 


ALEXANDER I., King of Scotland, a younger son of Malcolm Ceannmor (big-head), 
succeeded his brother, Edgar, in 1107, and amidst incessant disturbances, governed Scot- 
land for 17 years with great ability. In addition to good natural powers, he had enjoyed,. 
through his mother, Margaret of England, the advantages of a higher mental cultivation. 
than any of his predecessors, One of the most formidable insurrections which his. 
prompt energy enabled him to quell was that excited in 1120 by Angus, great-grandson 
of the wife of Macbeth. His determined resistance to the pretensions of the English 
hierarchy secured the independence of the Scottish church, while his liberal patronage: 
of the monasteries promoted her strength at home. In 1123 he founded the abbey of 
Inchcolm. He died at Stirling in 1124. 


ALEXANDER II. was b. in 1198; succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. 
He early displayed that wisdom and strength of character, in virtue of which he holds 
so high a place in history among Scottish kings. The first act of his reign was to enter 
into a league with the English barons who had combined to resist the tyranny of king John. 
This drew down upon him and his kingdom the papal excommunication ; but two years: 
subsequently (1218), the ban was removed, and the liberties of the Scottish church were. 
even confirmed. On the accession of Henry III. to the English throne, A. brought the 
feuds of the two nations to a temporary close by a treaty of peace (1217), in accordance 
with which he married Henry’s eldest sister, the princess Joan (1221). The alliance thus 
established was broken after the death, without issue, of queen Joan (1288), and the 
second marriage of A. with the daughter of a nobleman of France. In 1244, Henry 
marched against Scotland, to compel A.’s homage. In this emergency, the Scottish 
king received the steady support of the barons, whose ordinary policy was opposition to 
the crown, and is said, in a short time, to have found himself at the head of 100,000: 


~ 


z 3 3 Alexander. 


foot, and 1000 horse. A peace was concluded without an appeal to arms. While engaged 
in one of those warlike expeditions which the turbulence of his subjects so frequently 
rendered necessary, A. died of fever at Kerrera, a small island opposite Oban, on the w. 
coast of Argyleshire, in the 55th year of his reign, 1249. 

ALEXANDER III., 1241-86, succeeded his father, A. II., on the Scottish throne in 
1249, and, two years later, in 1251, he married the princess Margaret, eldest daughter 
of Henry III. of England. The tender age of the sovereign enabled Henry to prosecute 
successfully for some time his schemes for obtaining entire contro] over the Scottish 
kinedom ; but long before he reached manhood, A. displayed so much energy and wis- 
dom as to give assurance that when the administration of affairs should come under his 
personal direction, it would be vain to think of reducing him to submission. Very 
shortly after he had come of age, his energies were summoned to the defense of his king- 
dom against the formidable invasion of Haco, king of Norway (1263), who claimed the, 
sovereignty of the western isles. In attempting a landing at Largs, on the coast of Ayr, the 
Norwegian prince sustained a total defeat; and A., as the result of this important victory, 
secured the allegiance both of the Hebrides and of the Isle of Man. The alliance be- 
tween Scotland and Norway was strengthened in 1282 by the marriage of A.’s only 
daughter, Margaret, to Eric, king of Norway. This princess died in the following year, 
leaving an infant daughter, Margaret, commonly designated the Maiden of Norway, whose 
untimely death, on her way to take possession of her throne, was the occasion of so many 
calamities to Scotland. During the concluding years of A.’s reign, the kingdom enjoyed 
a peace and prosperity which it did not taste again for many generations. The justice, 
liberality, and wisdom of the king endeared his memory to his subjects, while the mis- 
fortunes that followed his death heightened the national sense of his loss. His only son, 
A., who had married the daughter of Guy, count of Flanders, died without issue in 1284. 
A. contracted a second marriage in 1285 with Joleta, daughter of the count de Dreux, 
but was soon after killed by falling from a precipice. 


ALEXANDER VI. (Borat), 1481-1503, pope 1492-1503, the most celebrated of the 
eight popes of this name, and at the same time the most powerful one that ever lived, as 
well as the most noted prince of his age. His most conspicuous quality was severity, united 
with great fearlessness in danger, an unwearied perseverance and vigilance in all his un- 
dertakings, a soft and pleasing manner toward his inferiors, a bold and grasping spirit 
toward the rich. He was born at Valencia, in Spain, 1480. His own name was Rod- 
rigo Lenzuoli, but he assumed the ancient and famous one of his mother’s family, Borgia. 
A. was made a cardinal by his uncle Calixtus III., and on the death of Innocent 
VIII., was elevated to the papal chair, which he had previously secured by flagrant 
bribery. The long absence of the popes from Italy had weakened their authority and 
curtailed their revenues. To compensate for this loss, A. endeavored to break the pow- 
er of the Italian princes, and to appropriate their possessions for the benefit of his own 
family. To gain this end he employed the most extreme means. He died in 1503, from 
having partaken, by accident, as is commonly asserted, of poisoned wine intended for 
his guests. Under his pontificate, the censorship of books was introduced. 


ALEXANDER I., king of Servia, born in 1876, son of king Milan, on whose abdication 
in 1889 he was proclaimed king. 


ALEXANDER SEVE’RUS, b. about 205, a Roman emperor (222-235 A. D.), the cousin- 
adopted son, and successor of Heliogabalus. The excellent education which he received 
from his mother, Julia Mamimea, rendered him one of the best princes in an age when 
virtue was reckoned more dangerous than vice in amonarch. He sought the society of the 
learned ; Paulus and Ulpian were his counselors, Plato and Cicero were, next to Horace 
and Virgil, his favorite authors. Although a pagan, he reverenced the doctrines of 
Christianity, and often quoted that saying : ‘‘ Whatsoever ye would that men should do 
to you, do ye even so to them.” Beloved as he was by the citizens on account of his 
equity, he soon became an object of hatred to the unruly pretorian guards. His first 
expedition, against Artaxerxes, king of Persia, was happily terminated by a speedy over- 
throw of the enemy. But during one which he undertook against the Germans on the 
Rhine, to defend the frontiers of the empire from their incursions, an insurrection broke 
out among his troops, headed by Maximin, in which Alexander was murdered, along with 
his mother, not far from Mentz. The grateful people, however, placed him among the 
gods. After his death, military despotism obtained the ascendency, 


ALEXAN'DER THE GREAT, son of Philip of Macedon and Olympias, daughter of 
Neoptolemus of Epirus, was b. at Pella, 856 B.c. Endowed by nature with a happy 
genius, he early announced his great character. Philip’s triumphs saddened him. On 
one occasion he exclaimed : ‘‘ My father will leave nothing for me to do.” His educa- 
tion was committed first to Leonidas, a maternal relation, then to Lysimachus, and after- 
wards to Aristotle. This great philosopher withdrew him to a distance from the court, 
and instructed him in every branch of human learning, especially in what relafes to the 
art of government, while at the same time he disciplined and invigorated his body by 
gymnastic exercises. As Macedon was surrounded by dangerous neighbors, Aristotle was 
anxious to inspire his pupil with military ardor, and with this view recommended him to 


254 


Alexander. 


study the Ziad, a revision of which he himself undertook for his use. A. was 16 years 
of age when his father marched against Byzantium, and left the government in his 
hands during his absence. Two years afterwards, he displayed singular courage at the 
battle of Chzeronea (338 B.c.), Where he overthrew the sacred band of the Thebans. ‘‘ My 
son,” said Philip, as he embraced him after the conflict, ‘seek for thyself another king- 
dom, for that which I leave is too small for thee.” The father and son quarreled, how- 
ever, when the former repudiated Olympias. <A. took part with his mother, and fled, to 
escape his father’s vengeance, to Epirus ; but receiving his pardon soon afterwards, he 
returned, and accompanied him in an expedition against the Triballi, when he saved his 
life on the field. Philip being appointed generalissimo of the Greeks, was preparing for 
a war with Persia, when he was assassinated (336 B.c.), and A., not yet 20 years of age, 
ascended the throne. After punishing his father’s murderers, he went into the Pelopon- 
nesus, and in a general assembly of the Greeks he caused himself to be appointed to the 
‘command of the forces against Persia. On his return to Macedon, he found the Illyrians 
and Triballi up in arms, whereupon he marched against them, forced his way through 
Thrace, and was everywhere victorious. But now the Thebans had been induced, by a 
report of his death, to take up arms, and the Athenians, stimulated by the eloquence of 
Demosthenes, were preparing tojoin them. To prevent this coalition, A. rapidly marched 
against Thebes, which, refusing to surrender, was conquered and razed to the ground: 
6000 of the inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold into slavery ; the house and family of 
the poet Pindar alone being spared. This severity struck terror into all Greece. The 
Athenians were treated with more leniency, A. only requiring of them the banishment 
of Charidemus, who had been most bitter in his invectives against him. 

A. having appointed Antipater his deputy in Europe, now prepared to prosecute the 
war with Persia. He crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 334 B.c., with 30,000 foot 
and 5000 horse, attacked the Persian satraps at the river Granicus, and gained a complete 
victory, overthrowing the son-in-law of Darius with his own lance. The only real resist- 
ance the Macedonians met with was from the Greek auxiliaries of the Persians, who were 
marshaled in phalanxes, under the command of Memnon of Rhodes, but finally they 
were all slain except 2000, who were taken prisoners.. <A. celebrated the obsequies of his 
fallen warriors in a splendid manner, and bestowed many privileges on their relations. 
Most of the cities of Asia Minor, Sardis not excepted, opened their gates to the conqueror, 
nor did Miletus or Halicarnassus offer longer resistance. A. restored democracy in all 
the Greek cities, cut the Gordian-knot (q.v.) with his sword as he passed through Gordium, 
and proceeded to the conquest of Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. His 
career was checked for a time by a dangerous illness, brought on by bathing in the Cyd- 
nus. On this occasion he displayed his magnanimity in the following circumstances. 
He received a letter from Parmenio, insinuating that Philip, his physician, intended to 
poison him, having been bribed by Darius. A. handed the letter to Philip, and at the 
same time swallowed the draught which had been prepared for him. As soon as he 
recovered, he advanced towards the defiles of Cilicia, in which Darius had stationed him- 
self, with an army of above 500,000 men. He arrived in Nov., 338 B.c., in the neighbor- 
hood of Issus, where a battle took place, between the mountains and the sea. The 
disorderiy masses of the Persians were thrown into confusion by the charge of the Mace. 
donians, and fled in terror. On the left wing 30,000 Greeks, in the pay of the Persian 
king, held out longer, but they, too, were at length compelled to yield. All the treasures 
as well as the family of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated the 
latter with the greatest magnanimity. The king, who fled towards the Euphrates, twice 
made overtures of peace, which A. haughtily refused, saying that Darius must regard him 

' asthe ruler of Asia, and the lord of all his people. One of the conditions of the second 
overture was that A. should possess all Asia to the Euphrates. On hearing which, his 
general, Parmenio, exclaimed : ‘‘I would do it, if Iwere A.” ‘‘So would I,” replied the 
monarch, ‘‘if I were Parmenio.” The victory at Issus opened the whole country to the 
Macedonians. A. now turned towards Syria and Pheenicia, to cut off Darius’s escape by 
sea. He occupied Damascus, where he found princely treasures, and secured to himself 
all the cities along the shores of the Mediterranean. Tyre, confident in its strong posi: 
tion, resisted him, but was conquered and destroyed, after seven months of incredible 
exertion (882 8B.c.). Thence he marched victoriously through Palestine, where all the | 
cities submitted to him except Gaza, which shared the same fate as Tyre. Egypt,weary 
of the Persian yoke, welcomed him as a deliverer ; and in order to strengthen his domin- 
ion here, he restored all the old customs and religious institutions of the country, and 
founded Alexandria in the beginning of 331 B.c., which became one of the first cities of 
ancient times. Thence he marched through the Libyan desert,in order to consult the 
oracle of Jupiter Ammon, whose priest saluted him as a son of Jove ; and at the return 
of spring went against Darius, who had assembled an army in Assyria. A battle ensued. 
in Oct., del B.C., on the plains of Arbela, or rather Guagamela—for Arbela, the point to 
which A. pursued the Persians, is 50 m. from the scene of the fight. See ARBELA. Not- 
withstanding the immense superiority of his adversary, who had collected a new army 
of 500,000 men, A. was not for a moment doubtful of victory. Heading the cavalry 
himself, he rushed on the Persians, and put them to flight ; but as soon as he had entirely 
dispersed them, he hastened to the assistance of his left wing, which, in the mean while, 
bad been sorely pressed. He was anxious to make a prisoner of the Persian king him- 


955 Alexander, 


self, but the latter escaped by flight on horseback, leaving his baggage and all his treasures 
a prey to the conqueror. Babylon and Susa, the storehouses of the treasures of the east, 
opened their gates to the conqueror, who next marched towards Persepolis, the capital of 
Persia, which he entered in triumph. 

The marvelous successes of A. now began to dazzle his own judgment, and to 
inflame his passions. He became a slave to debauchery, and his caprices were as cruel 
as they were ungrateful. Ina fit of drunkenness, and at the instigation of Thais, an 
Athenian courtesan, he set fire to Persepolis, the wonder of the world, and reduced it 
to a heap of ashes ; then, ashamed of’ the deed, he set out with his cavalry to pursue 
Darius. Learning that Bessus, the satrap of Bactriana, held the king a prisoner, he 
hastened his march, in the hope of saving him, but he found him mortally wounded o 
the frontiers of that country (3830 B.c.). He mourned over his unfortunate enemy, an 
caused his body to be buried with all the usual rites observed in Persia ; but he pursued 
Bessus, who himself aspired to the throne, through Hyrcania, Iran, Bactriana, over the 
Oxus to Sogdiana (now Bokhara), whose satrap, Spitamenes, surrendered Bessus to him. 
Having discovered a conspiracy in which the son of Parmenio was implicatea, he put 
both father and son to death, though Parmenio himself was innocent of all knowledge of 
the affair. This cruel injustice excited universal displeasure. In 329 he penetrated to 
the furthest known limits of northern Asia, and overthrew the Scythians on the banks 
of the Jaxartes. In the following year, he subdued the whole of Sogdiana, and married 
Roxana, whom he had taken prisoner. She was the daughter of Oxyartes, one of the 
enemy’s captains, and was said to be the handsomest of the virgins of Asia. A bnew con- 
spiracy broke out against A., at the head of which were Hermolaus and Callisthenes, a 
pupil of Aristotle, which occasioned the death of many of the culprits ; while Callisthe- 
nes himself was mutilated, and carried about in an iron cage through the army, till some 
one put an end to his sufferings by poison. 

In the year 327 B.c., A. proceeded to the conquest of India, then known only by name. 
He crossed the Indus near to the modern Attock, and pursued his way under the guid- 
ance of a native prince to the Hydaspes (modern Jelum), where he was opposed by Porus, 
another native prince, whom he overthrew after a bloody contest. Thence he marched 
as lord of the country through that part of India which is now called the Punjab, estab. 
lishing Greek colonies. He then wished to advance to the Ganges, but the general mur- 
muring of his troops obliged him, at the Hyphasis (modern Sutledge), to commence his 
retreat, which was accomplished under circumstances of extreme danger. When he had 
again reached the Hydaspes, he built a fleet, and sent one division of his army init down 
the river, while the other followed along the banks, fighting its way through successive 
Indian armies. At length, having reached the ocean, he ordered Nearchus, the com- 
mander of the fleet, to sail thence to the Persian gulf, while he himself struck inland 
with one division of his army, in order to return home through Gedrosia (now Beloochis- 
tan). Here he had to traverse immense deserts, where a great part of his army perished 
for want of food and water, and were buried in the sand. The other division marched 
through Arachosia and Drangiana (Afghanistan) under Craterus, but they united again 
in Carmania. Of all the troops, however, which had set out with A., only about a fourth 
part arrived with him in Persia (825 B.c.). At Susa he married Stateira, the daughter of 

arius, and he bestowed presents on those Macedonians (about 10,000 in number) who 
had married Persian women, his design being to unite the two nations as closely as pos- 
sible. He also distributed liberal rewards among his soldiers. At Opison the Tigris he 
declared it to be his intention to send home the invalids richly rewarded ; and this he 
accomplished, but not till he had with some difficulty repressed the mutiny which broke 
out on the occasion. Soon afterwards he was deprived, by death, of his favorite Heph- 
zestion, on which occasion his grief was unbounded, and he interred the deceased with 
kingly honors. As he was returning from Ecbatanato Babylon, it is said that the Magi 
foretold that the latter city would prove fatal to him ; but A. despised their warnings, 
and, in spite of the advice of his friends, marched to Babylon, before reaching which, 
however, he was met by ambassadors fromall parts of the world—Libya, Italy, Carthage, 
Greece, the Scythians, Celts, and Iberians. Here he again occupied himself with gigan- 
tic plans for the future, both of conquest and civilization, when he was suddenly taken 
ill after a banquet, and died eleven days afterwards, on the 11th or 18th of May or June, 
323 B.C., in the 82d year of his age, having reigned 12 years and 8 months. His body 
was deposited in a golden coffin at Alexandria, by Ptolemzus, and divine honors were 
paid to him, not only in Egypt, but in other countries. A. had appointed no heir to his 
immense dominions ; but to the question of his friends : ‘‘ Who should inherit them ?” he 
replied : ‘‘The most worthy.” After many disturbances, his generals recognized as kings 
the weak-minded Aridseus—a son of Philip by Philinna, the dancer—and <A.’s posthu- 
mous son by Roxana, while they shared the provinces among themselves, under the 
name of satraps. Perdiccas, to whom A.had, on his death-bed, delivered his ring, 
became guardian of the kings during their minority. 

It is but right to observe that A. did something more than shed blood during his life. 
He diffused the language and civilization of Greece wherever victory led him, and 
planted Greek kingdoms in Asia, which continued to exist for some centuries. At the 
very time of his death, he was engaged in devising plans for the drainage of the unhealthy 
marshes around Babylon, and a better irrigation of the extensive plains. It is 


Alexandra. 
Alexandria. 2 D 6 


even supposed that the fever which he caught there, rather than his famous drink- 
ing-bout, was the real cause of his death. To A. the ancient world owed a vast increase 
of its knowledge in geography, natural history, etc. He taught Europeans the road to 
India, and gave them the first glimpses of that magnificence and splendor which has 
dazzled and captivated their imaginatjon for 2000 years. 


ALEXAN’DRA, CAROLINE MARIE CHARLOTTE LOUISE JULIE, b. Dec. 1, 1844; daugh- 
ter of Christian IX , king of Denmark. She married, Mar. 10, 1863, Albert Edward, 
prince of Wales, eldest son of Victoria, queen of England, and heir to the British 
throne. 


ALEXANDRETTA. See ALEPPO. 


ALEXAN'DRI, or ALEKSANDRI, VAsILio (Basil), a Rouman poet and littérateur, was 
b. at Jassy, the chief city of Moldavia, in 1821. His family was of Venetian origin. 
After spending several years at a French boarding-school at Jassy, he was sent, in his 
fourteenth year, witha tutor to Paris; and in due course he obtained from the univer. 
sity uf Paris the degree of bachelor of letters. He is said to have thereafter made trial 
in succession of the study of medicine and the study of law, and to have found neither 
of them to his liking; he certainly followed up neither, but, without qualifying himself 
for any profession, went back to Jassy in 1839. He found at Jassy a band of young men 
educated, as he himself had been, in France, whose minds had been formed upon the 
literature and the political ideas of France; who, besides being ambitious of literary dis- 
tinction, were zealous for political equality and for Rouman nationality and independ- 
ence. He naturally became the associate of these men; and, soon after his return, made 
his début in literature by contributing a story, The Flower-Girl of Florence, to.a periodi- 
cal conducted by them under the editorship of Cogalniceano. He became a frequent 
contributor to this periodical. _ Unfortunately, it was not destined to live long, being 
suppressed by order of prince Stourdza. It was in 1842, after a long excursion among 
the mountains of his native province, that he first made his appearance as a poet, pub- 
lishing several pieces, most of them strongly tinged with national feeling. At this time, 
too, it was that hc began to write the songs aud ballads upon which his chief claim to 
literary reputation at present rests. In 1844 he suddenly attained to an almost unbound- 
ed local popularity as a play-writer. Having become concerned in the management of 
two theaters at Jassy, the. one French, the other Moldavian, he produced a series of 
pieces, some in French, others in Rouman, which, though mostly slight and hasty 
performances, had merit enough to excite the enthusiasm of his countrymen. Georges de 
Sadagoura, Jassy en Carnival, La Pierre de la Maison, La Noce Villageoise, are the 
titles of the most important of them. In 1844, he had also, in conjunction with Cogal- 
niceano and prince John Ghika, set on foot a new periodical, devoted to literature and 
science; but this, like the one already mentioned, was not suffered to live long—it was 
suppressed by the government, after a career of only nine months. 

A. was engaged in the revolutionary movement which took place at Jassy in the year 
of revolutions, 1848, and on its failure had to betake himself to Paris. There, through 
the press, during the short period of his exile, he labored to arouse public opinion in 
favor of the independence of the Roumans; and his efforts, though they were unsuccess- 
ful at the time, helped, with those of others, to prepare the way for what took place sev- 
eral years after. It was to the Russian war that Moldavia and Walachia were destined to 
owe their virtual emancipation from the yoke of Turkey, and the chance of obtaining 
self-government and union. The union of the two principalities was carried by the res- 
olution of their inhabitants, backed by the support of France, in spite of political obsta- 
cles that seemed almost insurmountable; and A. did not a little to inspire the resolution 
of his countrymen. A song which he wrote at the critical moment in 1856, The Hour of 
Union, became exceedingly popular, and by its stirring appeals to the feeling of Rou- 
manian nationality, helped to allay the jealousies which divided the two principalities,and 
to make them work together for the union. <A. took a prominent part in all the political 
transactions which culminated in this result. It should be stated that two years earlier, 
when the death of his father had put him into possession of the family estate, he had 
emancipated the serfs who lived upon it; and that this example found so many imitators _ 
that the government found itself almost immediately compelled to decree a general meas- 
ure of enfranchisement. 

A.’s Popular Ballads of Rowmania, which he had begun to compose in 1842, appeared 
at Jassy in two parts in 1852 and 1858. One of the parts, translated into French by him- 
self, was afterwards published at Paris under the title of Ballades et Chantes Populaires 
dela Roumanie. Wis collected dramatic works were published at Jassy in 1852. An- 
other volume of poems appeared at Paris in 1853; and of this volume a French transla- 
tion, with the title, Zes Doinas Poésies Moldaves, was soon afterwards produced by M. 
Vanesco. Le Collier Littéraire, a miscellaneous collection of pieces in prose and verse, 
many of which had previously appeared in periodicals, he published in 1857. A., as may 
be inferred from facts already stated, wrote largely in periodicals, but mostly on 
subjects of passing interest. He died in 1890. 

_ ALEXANDRIA, aco, in n. e, Virginia, on the Potomac, opposite the district of Colum- 
bia, and a part of that district until the recession in 1846; 32 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 18,597. 


Al dra. 
957 Riexandvia 


melu. colored. The surface is hilly and the soil thin. The chief productions are corn, 
wheat, oats, and hay. Co. seat, Alexandria. 


ALEXAN'DRIA (called Skanderi’eh by the Turks and Arabs) was founded by Alexap. 
der the great in the autumn of the year 332 B.c. It was situated originally on the low 
tract of land which separates the lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean, about 14 m.w. 
of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. Before the city, in the Mediterranean, lay the island 
of Pharos, upon the n.e. point of which stood the famous light-house (Pharos), and which 
was connected with the mainland by a mole, called, from its length, the heptastadium, 
or ‘“‘seven furlong” mole, thus forming the two harbors. The plan of A. was designed 
by the architect Dinocrates, and its original extent is said to have been about 4 m. in 
length, with a circumference of 15 m. It was intersected by two straight main 
streets, crossing each other at right angles in the middle of the city. Colonnades adorned 
the whole length of these streets, which were in general very regularly built. The most 
magnificent quarter of the city was that called the Brucheium, which was situated on 
the eastern harbor. This quarter of the city contained the palaces of the Ptolemies, with 
the museum and the old library; the soma or mausoleum of Alexander the great and of 
the Ptolemies, the poseidonum, and the great theater. Further w. was the emporium or 
exchange. The Serapeion, or temple of Serapis, stood in the western division of the 
city, which formed the Egyptian quarter, and was called Rhacdtis; a small town of that 
name had occupied the site before the foundation of A. To the w. of the city lay the 
great necropolis, and to the e. the race-course, beyond which was the suburb of Nicop- 
olis. The greater part of the space under the houses was occupied by vaulted subter- 
ranean cisterns, which were capable of containing a sufficient quantity of water to sup- 
ply the whole population of the city fora year. From the time of its foundation, A. 
was the Greek capital of Egypt.. Its pop. in the time of its prosperity is said by Dio- 
dorus to have amounted to about 300,000 free citizens, and if we take into account the 
slaves and strangers, that number must be more than doubled. This population con- 
sisted mostly of Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians, together with settlers from all nations of 
the known world. After the death of Alexander the Great, A. became the residence of 
the Ptolemies. They made it, next to Rome and Antioch, the most magnificent city of 
antiquity, as well as the chief seat of Grecian learning and literature, which spread 
tence over the greater part of the ancient world. The situation of the city, at the point 
of junction between the e. and w. rendered it the center of the commerce of the world, 
and raised it to the highest degree of prosperity. 

A. had reached its greatest splendor when it came into possession of the Romans, about 
30 sB.c. From this moment its prosperity began to decline—at first almost imperceptibly, 
but afterwards more rapidly, in consequence of the removal of the works of art to Rome, 
the massacres of Caracalla, the laying waste of the Brucheium by Aurelian, the siege and 
pillage of the city by Diocletian, and lastly the rising prosperity of the rival city of 
Constantinople. All these causes combined to destroy A. so speedily that in the 4th c. 
no building of any importance was left in it except the temple of Serapis. The strife 
between Christianity and heathenism gave rise to bloody contests in A. The Serapeion, 
“he last seat of heathen theology and learning, was stormed by the Christians in 889 a.D., 
and converted into a Christian church. This put an end to heathenism, and A.became 
henceforward a chief seat of Christian theology, and continued to be so till it was taken 
by the Arabs, under Amru, in June, 638 A.D. This siege, and still more its conquest 
by the Turks in 868 a.p., completed the destruction of the city. It revived, indeed, in 
some degree under the Egyptian caliphs, and continued during the middle ages to be the 
most important emporium of trade between the east and west ; but the discovery of 
America, and of the passage to India by the cape of Good Hope, very much diminished 
the trade of A.; and the dominion of the Mamelukes, and the conquest of Osmanli, anni- 
hilated even the little which the Arabs had restored. The result was that in 1778 a.p., A. 
contained no more than 6000 inhabitants. After the conquest of Egypt by the French in 
the end of the 18th c., A. once more began to revive; and under Mehemet Ali, who 
resided in it a part of every year, it prospered to such a degree that it may now be reck- 
oned one of the most important commercial places on the Mediterranean. It is specially 
important as the center of steam-communication between Europe and India. 

The present city is not situated exactly on the site of the old one, but is chiefly built 
on the mole called the heptastadium, which has been increased by alluvial deposits till it 
has become a broad neck of land between the two harbors, of which the eastern is called 
the new port, and the western the old port. A.isconnected with Cairo by rail (contin- 
ued to Suez) and by the canal of Mahmoudieh. Although originally, like other oriental 
cities, dirty and ill-built, it isimproving. In 1882, the population was 208,755—Arabians, 
Turks, Jews, Copts, Greeks, and Franks. Of the few remains of antiquity still to be 
seen in A., the most prominent is Pompey’s pillar, as it is erroneously called, the shaft 
of which, of red granite, is 73 ft. long. According to the Greek inscription on the base, 
which is still legible, this pillar was erected by the Egyptian prefect Publius, in honor 
of the emperor Diocletian. There were also the so-called Cleopatra’s needles; two 
Obelisks of the time of King Thotmes III., who lived in the 16th c. B.c. One of 
the needles, a monolith 72 feet high, was set up in New York in 1881; the other was 

L—9 2 


1 d se 
Fa peep teeny a 258 


erected on the Thames embankment in 1878. The other antiquities of A. are some 
catacombs of the ancient city of the dead, and some of the cisterns below the city, which 
are almost entirely filled up. The chief modern public buildings are the khedive’s 
palace, naval and military hospitals, a naval arsenal, custom house, bourse, two theatres, 
a naval school, and an Italian college. The Frank or European quarter, with its fine 
shops and hotels resembles a flourishing European city. Great destruction was caused 
by the bombardment by British ironclads in 1882. There are two ports, the old port 
or western having a breakwater mole and quays. Alexandria exports grain, cotton, 
dates, wool, gums, sugar, hides, etc. Pop. 210,000. 


ALEXAN’DRIA, city and port of entry in Alexandria co., on the Potomac river, about 
6m. below Washington, on the opposite side of the river; lat. 38° 49’ n., long. 77° 4’ w. 
Though A. is fully 100 m. from the entrance of the Potomac into Chesapeake bay, yet 
the stream in front of it, which forms its harbor, is still a mile wide. The place is 
accessible, all the way from the sea, to the largest vessels. It is on the Chesapeake 
and Ohio, the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, the Southern, and the Washing- 
ton, Alexandria and Mount Vernon railroads. Owing to these admirable transportation 
facilities, Alexandria is able to control an extensive and increasing trade. It does a 
large coal and cotton business, and has several shoe factories, flour mills, machine shops 
and other industries. There are churches, national banks, public schools, academies, 
public library and newspapers. ‘The city is lighted by gas and electricity. Pop. in ’90, 
14,339. 


ALEXAN’DRIA, town in Jefferson co., N. Y., on the St. Lawrence river, 25 m. n.e. of 
Watertown; reached by steamer from Clayton, on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdens- 
burg railroad. The Thousand Islands: (numbering really more than a thousand) are a 
little below in the St. Lawrence, and are among the most beautiful and popular resorts 
in America. Many of these islands are occupied by private owners, who have elegant 
villas and cottages, and the whole series, not long ago almost unvisited, is a grand natural 
and artificial park. Pop. town, ’90, 3300. 

ALEXAN'DRIAN CODEX, an important manuscript of the sacred Scriptures in Greek, 
now im the British museum. It is written on parchment, in finely formed uncial letters, 
and is without accents, marks of aspiration, or spaces between the words. Its probable 
date is the latter half of the 6th century. With the exception of a few gaps, it contains the 
whole Bible in Greek (the Old Testament being in the translation of the Septuagint), 
along with the epistles of Clemens Romanus. For purposes of biblical criticism, the text 
of the epistles ci: the New Testament is the most valuable part, for with respect to the 
gospels, it is clear that the original text which the copyist had before him must have been 
far inferior. This celebrated manuscript belonged, as early as 1098, to the library of the 
patriarch of Alexandria. In 1628 it was sent asa present to Charles I. of England, by 
Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, who declared that he had got it from 
Egypt; and that it was written there appears from internal and externalevidence. Grabe 
made this manuscript the foundation of his edition of the Septuagint (4 vols., Oxf. 1717- 

720). Fac-similes have been published of the New Testament, by Woide, (Lond. 1786), 
gad by Cowper (Lond. 1860) ; of the Old Testament, by Baber (Lond. 1816). 


ALEXAN'DRIAN LIBRARY. This remarkable collection of books, the largest of the 
ancient world, was founded by Ptolemy Soter, in the city of Alexandria, in Egypt. 
Even in the time of its first manager, Demetrius Phalereus, a banished Athenian, the 
number of volumes or rolls already amounted to 50,000 ; and during its most flourish- 
ing period, under the direction of Zenodotus, Aristarchus of Byzantium, Apollonius 
Rhodius and others, is said to have contained 400,000, or, according to another author- 
ity, 700,000. The greater part of this library, which embraced the collected literature 
of Rome, Greece, India, and Egypt, was contained in the museum, in the quarter of 
Alexandria called Brucheium. During the siege of Alexandria by Julius Cesar, this 
part of the library was destroyed by fire; but it was afterwards replaced by the collec- 
tion of Pergamos, which was presented to Queen Cleopatra by Mark Antony, to the great 
annoyance of the educated Romans. The other part of the library was kept in the Sera- 
peion, the temple of Jupiter Serapis, where it remained till the time of Theodosius the 
Great. When thisemperor permitted all the heathen temples in the Roman empire to be de- 
stroyed, the magnificent temple of Jupiter Serapis was not spared. A mobof fanatic Chris- 
tians, led on by the Archbishop Theophilus, stormed and destroyed the temple, together, 
it is most likely, with the greater part of its literary treasures, n 391 A.D. It was at this 
time that the destruction of the library was begun, and not at the taking of Alexandria 
by the Arabians, under the caliph Omar. ‘The story, at least, is ridiculously exaggerated 
which relates that the Arabs found a sufficient number of books remaining to heat the 
baths of the city for six months. The historian Orosius, who visited the place after the 
destruction of the temple by the Christians, relates that he then saw only the empty 
shelves of the library. See Petit-Radel, Recherches sur les Bibliothéques Anciennes et 
Modernes (Paris, 1819); and Ritsch!, Die Alerandrinischen Bibliotheken (Berlin, 1838). 


ALEXAN'DRINE AGE. After liberty and intellectual cultivation had declined in 
Greece, Alexandria in Egypt became the home and center of science and literature. The 
time in which it held this position is styled the A.A., and may be divided into two periods: 
the first including the reigns of the Ptolemies, from 323 to 30 B.c.; the second from 30 
B.C. to 640 A.D., or from the fall of the Ptolemzean dynasty to the irruption of the Arabs. 


Alexandria. 
2 59 Alexandrovsk. 


Ptolemzeus Soter, the first ruler who introduced and patronized Greek science and 
literature in Alexandria, was followed by that yet more munificent patron, Ptolemeus 
Philadelphus, who regularly established the celebrated Alexandrian library and museum, 
which had been probably begun by his father. This museum contained porticos, a lee- 
ture-room, and a large hall, in which the learned men—the professors and fellows, as 
they might be called—dined together. The A. school consisted of Egyptians, Greeks, 
Jews, and latterly, Romans. The grammarians and poets made the greatest figure. The 
grammarians were both philologists and littératewrs, who explained things as well as 
words, and were thus a kind of encyclopedists. Among these rank Zenodotus of Ephe- 
sus, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samothrace, 
Crates of Mailus, Dionysius the Thracian, Apollonius the sophist, and Zoilus. Their 
chief service consists in having collected the writings then existing, prepared corrected 
texts, and preserved them for future generations, The most noted of the poets of the A. 
school were Apollonius Rhodius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, Callimachus, 
Theocritus, Dionysius, and the seven tragedians called the A. Pleiades. 

The A. school has a spirit and character altogether different from the previous intel- 
lectual life of Greece. From the attention paid to the study of language, it was natural 
that correctness, purity, and elegance of expression should become especially cultivated ; 
and in these respects many of the A. writers are distinguished. But what no study and no 
efforts could give—the spirit, namely, that animated the earlier Greek poetry, was, in 
most of these works, wanting. In place of it, there was displayed greater art in compo- 
sition ; what had formerly been done by genius, was now to be done by the rules fur- 
nished by criticism. Only a few display real genius; the works of the rest, faultless 
according to rule, are destitute of life and soul. In a school, where imitation and rule 
thus took the place of inspiration, each generation of disciples became more artificial and 
lifeless than their masters. Criticism degenerated into frivolous fault-finding, and both 
prose and poetry became labored affectation. 

The ALEXANDRINE PuHILosopHy is characterized by a blending of the philosophies of 
the east and of the west, and bya general tendency to eclecticism, as it is called, or an en- 
deavor to reconcile conflicting systems of speculation, by bringing together what seemed 
true in each. Not that the A. philosophers were without their sects ; the most famous 
of which were the Neo-Platonists (q.v.). Uniting the religious notions of the east with 
Greek dialectics, they represent the struggle of ancient civilization with Christianity ; 
and thus their system was not without influence on the form that Christian dogmas took 
in Egypt. The amalgamation of eastern ideas with Christian, gave rise to the system 
of the Gnostics (q.v.), which was elaborated chiefly in Alexandria.—The A. school was 
no less distinguished for the culture of the mathematical and physical sciences, which 
here reached a greater height than anywhere else in ancient times. As early as the 3d c. 
B.c., Euclid had here written his great work on geometry. The astronomers of the A. 
school were distinguished from all their predecessors by their setting aside all meta- 
physical speculation, and devoting themselves to strict observation. Among the distin- 
guished physicists and mathematicians of the A. school were Archimedes, Eratosthenes, 
Aristarchus of Samos, Ptolemzus, etc. For about 4c. the A. school was the center of 
learning and science in the ancient world. Counting from its origin to its complete 
extinction, it lasted 1000 years. 


ALEXAN’DRINES are rhyming verses consisting each of 12 syllables or 6 measures, 
The name is most probably derived from an old French poem on Alexander the Great, 
belonging to the 12th or 18th c., in which this measure was first used ; according to 
others, it was so called from the name of one of the authors of that poem being Alex- 
ander. The A. has become the regular epic or heroic verse of the French, among whom 
each line is divided in the middle into two hemistichs, the sixth syllable always ending 
: word. In English, this rule is not always observed, as in the following verse from 

enser : 

F That all the woods shall an|swer, and their echo ring. 


The only considerable English poem wholly written in A. is Drayton’s Polyolbien; but 
the Spenserian stanza regularly ends in an Alexandrine, and the measure occurs occa- 
sionally in our common heroic verse, as the last line of a couplet : 
“ When both are full, they feed our blest abode, 
Like those that watered once|the paradise of God.—Dryden. 

ALEXAN’DROPOL, or Goom,r, a fortified t. in the Caucasus, 85 m. s.w. of Tiflis, an 
important strategic point commanding the entrance to Armenia. The fort is 300 ft. 
above the town level, and is large and strong. Pop. 791, 24,230. 


ALEXANDROV, town in the government of Vladimir, in the center of the empire. 
It was a favorite summer residence of the czar Ivan Vasiliewitch, who introduced 
there the first printing-press known in Russia. It has also a magnificent imperial 
stud, commenced by the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, and completed about 20 years 
after. Pop. 5700. 

_ ALEXAN’DROVSK, at. in the s. of Russia, capital of the district of the same name 
situated on the left bank of the Dnieper, below the cataracts. It is 56m. s. of Ekater- 


inoslav, is fortified, and has considerable trade. Inland productions are shipped here 
for the Black sea. Pop. about 6700. 


Alexei. 26 () 


Alfonso. 


ALEXEI, ALEXANDROVITCH, third son of Alexander II. of Russia, b. 1850. In 
1872 he traveled through the United States, meeting a very kind reception. He became 
a grand duke, admiral, major-general, etc. 


AIL'OWITCH, the 2d Russian czar of the house of Romanow (b. March 
10, “ere Ae 1676), succeeded his father, Michael Fedorowitch, in 1645. The 
oung czar A., yielding himself to the control of his chancellor, Plessow, and his tutor, 
Mercere. the avarice of these bad advisers caused an insurrection in 1648, in which Ples- 
sow lost his life. Popular discontent favored the plans of two pretenders to the throne— 
Demetrius [I]. (q.v.) and Ankudinow. The latter, professing to be a son of the czar 
Wasili Shuiskoi, was executed at Moscow in 1653. A. possessed good qualities, which 
appeared when he came to riper years. In his two campaigns against the Poles (1654— 
1656, and 1660-1667), he took Smolensko, conquered and devastated almost the whole of 
Lithuania, and even secured for himself the possession of several provinces. He also 
gained a part of the Ukraine; and though his war with Sweden (1656-1658) was unfor- 
tunate, he lost nothing by the following peace. A. conferred great benefits on his coun- 
trymen, by the introduction of various important reforms into the Russian laws ; he 
ordered translations of numerous scientific works, chiefly of a military nature, into Rus- 
sian; and even ventured on, some ecclesiastical changes. In his private character, he 
was amiable, temperate, and pious. His second wife, the beautiful Natalia Narischkin, 
was the mother of Peter the Great. 


ALEXEI, Perrowircs. The eldest son of Peter the Great of Russia, was b. at Mos- 
cow, Feb. 18, 1690. Having shown himself opposed to the reforms and innovations made 
by the emperor, he was excluded by Peter from the line of succession to the throne. 
With this decision he appeared to be satisfied, and declared his intention of spending 
the remainder of his days in a monastery. But when Peter the Great undertook his 
second tour in northern Europe, A., under the pretence of following the czar, escaped 
in 1717 to Vienna, and thence went to Naples. He was induced to return to Russia, 
where, by the ukase of Feb. 2, 1718, he was disinherited, and an investigation was 
ordered to detect all parties concerned in his recent flight from Russia. His mother, 
Eudoxia, with Marie Alexiewna, step-sister to the czar, and several other eminent per- 
sons, were made prisoners, and either executed or otherwise punished. A. was con- 
demned to death, but soon afterwards received a pardon. However, the terror and 
agitation of the trial so affected his health, that he d. June 26, 1718. The czar, to 
avoid scandal, ordered the trial to be published. Other accounts assert that A. was 
beheaded in prison. By his wife, Charlotte Christine Sophie, princess of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel, A. left a son, who, as Peter II. , was elevated to the throne, 


ALEXIS, See ALEXEI. 


ALEX'IUS COMNE'NUS, one of the ablest rulers of the Byzantine empire, was b. at 
Constantinople in 1048. He was the third son of Johannes Comnenus, the brother of 
the emperor, Isaac Comnenus. The family came originally from Italy, and settled in 
Asia Minor. His father having refused the purple on the abdication of Isaac, it was 
given to one Ducas, the son of a distinguished general. A. in his youth gave brilliant 
promise of the vigorous military genius which he afterwards manifested ; and at length, 
after a series of anarchic reigns of brief duration, his soldiers succeeded in elevating 
him to the throne, while the old and feeble Nicephorus Botaniates, his predecessor, was 
obliged to retire to a monastery. Gibbon graphicaily paints the position and achieve- 
ments of A. in the 48th chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Everywhere 
he was encompassed with foes. The Scythians and Turks were pouring down from the 
north and north-east ; the fierce Normans, who had violently effected a lodgment in 
Sicily and Italy, were menacing his western provinces ; and, finally, the myriad warriors 
of the first crusade had burst into his empire on their way to Palestine, and had encamped 
around the gates of his capital. Yet he contrived to avoid all perils and disgraces by 
the wisdom of his policy, the mingled patience and promptitude of his character, his 
discipline in the camp, and his humanity on the throne. He reigned for 37 years ; and 
if it had been possible to preserve the weak and corrupt Byzantine empire in its integrity, 
a ruler like A. might have done it. He could only delay its inevitable destruction. 
Undoubtedly, the great interest which attaches to A. arises from his relation to the cru- 
saders. Historians differ as to the purity and sincerity of his conduct towards them. 
His daughter Anna, who wrote his life, defends his ‘‘ policy” with filial piety ; but it 
seems clear that he entertained a profound dread and suspicion of the half-civilized 
Franks, and, knowing the weakness of his own empire, was compelled to dissimulate. 
He certainly promised them help, and persuaded them to go off into Asia; it is equally 
certain that he did not fulfill his promises, and that he simply used them as instruments 
to reconquer from the Turks the islands and coasts of Asia Minor. Perhaps, however, 
little apology is needed for a monarch who ‘‘ subdued the envy of his equals, restored 
the laws of public and private order, caused the arts of wealth and science to be culti. 
vated, and transmitted the scepter to his children of the third and fourth generation.’ 
He died in 1118. 

ALFA, one of the varieties of esparto (q.v.) valuable for paper-making. 


ALFALFA, the name given on the Pacific coast to Lucerne (q.v.), a perennial forage 
plant extensively grown both in America and in Europe, where it has been cultivated 


j Al ‘i. 
26 1 Altouwse 


from a remote period. It produces large crops, as it may be mown several times in a 
year ; is hardy, endures great drought, and is peculiarly adapted to light soils. Some 
farmers in the north sow it broadcast ; in the south it is generally sown in drills. 


AL-FARA'BI, anu NAsk MunamMMeED Ipn TarxKHAN, one of the earliest of Arabian 
philosophers, living in the 10th century. He was court physician, and a student of 
medicine and philosophy. He enumerates six orders of science: 1, language or gram- 
mar ; 2, logic ; 3, mathematics, embracing geometry, arithmetic, optics, the science of 
the stars, music, and weights and measures, the star science including astronomy, cli- 
mates, astrology, dreams and auguries ; 4, natural science ; 5, civil science, including 
jurisprudence and rhetoric; 6, divine science, or metaphysics. This remarkably 
approximates the modern classification. He assumes that there must be some supreme 
necessary existence to account for the existences which we perceive as actual ; and this 
supreme necessary existence has infinite life, wisdom, power, and goodness, but is an 
absolute unity without distinguishing attributes. 


ALFIE’RI, Virrorio, CouNT, a modern Italian dramatic poet, was b. at Asti, in 
Piedmont, on the 17th Jan., 1749. He received a very defective education in his father’s 
house, and was then sent to the academy of Turin, which he quitted, as ignorant and 
uninformed as he had entered it, to join a provincial regiment. After a hurried tour 
through the greater part of Europe, he returned to Turin in 1772. He then left the 
military service, and renouncing idleness and unworthy amours, devoted himself to lit- 
erary occupation. The appiause which his first attempts received, encouraged him in 
his determination to win fame as a dramatic author. But as he clearly saw the deficien- 
cies of his education, he began at a mature age to learn Latin, and also to study the Tus- 
can dialect, for which purpose he went to Tuscany. On his journey thither, A. made 
the acquaintance of the countess of Albany (q.v.), to whom he became deeply attached. 
To render himself worthy of her esteem, he strove with unremitting earnestness after 

oetic excellence ; and in order to be perfectly free and independent of all other cares, 
ie transferred his whole property to his sister, in exchange for an annuity. A. now 
lived alternately in Florence and in Rome. Afterwards, when his friend the countess 
was released from other ties by the death of her husband, they lived together in the 
closest intimacy in Alsace or in Paris, where A. was incessantly occupied in writing, 
revising, and publishing his works. There appears to have been a marriage, although 
it was never made public. On the first outburst of the French revolution, A. went to 
England, but soon returned to Paris. In 1792 he was again forced to flee from France, 
and he then settled with his inseparable companion in Florence. Here hed., on the 8th 
Oct., 1808. The ashes of A. and those of his friend repose in the church of Santa Croce, 
in Florence, under a beautiful monument by Canova, between the tombs of Michael 
Angelo and Macchiavelli. As a dramatic author, A. has attempted three different 
departments of his art. He published 21 tragedies, 6 comedies, and 1 ‘‘tramelogedia,”’ 
a name invented by himself. His dramatic works show a want of fresh imaginative 
vigor, and betray the laborious perseverance with which he did violence both to himself 
and to art. A. was inspired more by politics than by poetry. He wished to breathe a 
spirit of freedom into the dormant minds of his countrymen, and considered the theater 
as a school in which the people might learn to be ‘‘free, strong, and noble.” In order 
to preserve the purity of his muse, A. had resolved to read no other poet. He wished 
to produce an effect by the very simplest means, and, renouncing the aid of ornament, 
to please by manly strength and earnestness alone. His works are on this account cold 
and stiff, his plots simple even to poverty, his verse hard and unpleasing, and his lan- 
guage destitute. of that magic splendor of coloring which stirs the inmost soul. Not- 
withstanding this, A. did good service to Italian tragedy. He corrected the effeminate 
taste which had before prevailed, as well as the pedantry of an affected imitation of Attic 
models. Succeeding writers endeavored to imitate his strength and simplicity. A. was 
more unsuccessful in his comedies than in his tragedies. They manifest the same serious 
political tendency ; the invention is poor, the development of the plot uninteresting, and 
the characters are only general sketches, without individuality. The most successful of 
his dramatic works is Adel, a mixture of tragedy and opera, invented by himself, which 
he designated by the singular name of “‘ tramelogedia.” Besides the dramatic works of 
A., we possess an epic poem, in four cantos, written by him, also many lyrical poems, 
16 satires, and poetical translations of Terence, Virgil, and portions of Aschylus, 
Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, After his death, appeared his Misogallo, a 
memorial of his hatred to the French. The countess of Albany had a collected edition 
of his works published (85 vols. 4to, Pisa, 1805-1815) containing his autobiography ; 
Centofanti published 7’ragedie e Vita d@’ Alfieri (Florence, 1842). 


ALFON’SINE, or ALPHONSINE TABLES, certain astronomical calculations made by 
the ablest men of the period for Alphonso of Castile (1221-84). A room in the palace at 
Segovia is still shown as Alphonso’s observatory. The tables were compiled in 1252, the 
year that A. came to the throne, and first published in 1483. 


ALFONSO I., of Navarre and Aragon, succeeded Pedro I. in 1104. He united Castile 
to his kingdom by marrying the daughter and heiress of Alphonso VI. of Leon and 
Castile, and thereupon assumed the title of ‘‘Emperor of all Spain.” A. was surnamed 


262 


Alfonso. 


‘the fighter,” and his victories were mainly over the Moors. In 1118 he took Saragossa 
after a siege of three years. In 1120, he slew 20,000 Moors on the field of Daroca. In 
1123, he invaded Valencia, and two years later he went to the aid of the Christian Moors 
in Granada. In 1130, he crossed the Pyrenees and captured Bordeaux and Bayonne. He 
d. in 1184. 


ALFONSO V., King of Aragon, Naples, and Sicily (1416-58 a.p.), received the surname 
of ‘the magnanimous,” because on his accession to the throne he destroyed a document 
containing the names of all the grandees who were hostile to him. His historical impor- 
tance arises from his having brought southern Italy under the dominion of Aragon. In 
1420, he attacked Corsica, but speedily hastened to Naples, at the request of queen 
Joanna II., who besought his assistance against Louis of Anjou. For some time he 
enjoyed the highest favor; but in 1428, having thrown into prison her minion Caraccioli, 
who was his enemy, the queen declared for his rival, Louis. At her death, in 1485, A. 
resolved to claim the kingdom; but René of Anjou, whom Joanna had appointed her 
successor after the death of Louis, opposed him. Rome and Genoa sided with René, 
and the Genoese fleet attacked and defeated that of A., the monarch himself being taken 
prisoner. He was sent to duke Philip of Milan, who, charmed by his manner and talent, 
set him at liberty, and even formed an alliance with him. After several battles, and a 
long mountain-war in the Abruzzi, A. overthrew his adversary, and entered Naples in 
triumph. Having once firmly established his power, be proceeded to suppress the disorders 
which had sprung up during the worthless reign of Joanna, and honorably distinguished 
himself by his patronage of letters. Hed. at Naples while his troops were besieging 
Genoa, June 27, 1458. 


ALFONSO I., of Casriue (VI. of Leon), 1030-1109 ; surnained ‘“‘ the Valiant.” Leon 
was given to him by his father, while Sancho, the eldest son, received Castile ; and Gar- 
cia, youngest of the three, was given a part of Galicia and Portugal. War soon began 
among them, and in 1068 Sancho defeated A. in a bloody battle on the Pisurga. Three 
years later A. defeated Sancho on the Carrion; but during the night Sancho was rein- 
forced, it is said, by the renowned Cid, Roderigo Diaz de Bivar, nearly exterminated the 
Leonese army, took A. prisoner, compelled him to abdicate, and shut him up ina monas- 
tery. A. escaped and sought shelter with the Moorish king of Toledo. Sancho took 
possession of Leon and immediately went against Garcia, defeating and capturing him at 
Santarem. In 1078, Sancho was secretly killed, and A., upon solemnly declaring himself 
innocent of the murder, was reinstated in his kingdom of Leon, to which was added 
Castile. His brother Garcia, who was preparing to recover the throne of Galicia, was 
treacherously invited to A.’s court, made a prisoner, and ten years afterwards died in 
confinement. A. now ruled over nearly all of his father’s kingdom, and went to the 
assistance of the Moorish king who had befriended him, and whose kingdom was invaded 
by the Cordovans. A.’s gratitude ended with the death of the old king; he did not scru- 
ple to attack the son, and soon captured the city of Toledo. A. was monarch of nearly 
the whole of Spain, when a powerful Almoravide army from Africa, with the assistance 
of the king of Seville, gave him a terrible defeat, in 1086, near Zaiaca. He recovered 
after a time, but in 1108 the Moors destroyed his army and killed his only son. The 
next year A. died, and was succeeded by his daughter Urraca, who became the wife of 
Alfonso I. of Aragon. By an illegitimate daughter A. became an ancestor of the king 
of Portugal. 


ALFONSO III., surnamed THE GREAT, King of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia, b. 848 A.D. 
He succeeded his father, Ordofio I., in 866, but had to maintain his rights by force of 
arms against count Froila, who had usurped the throne. Having caused the latter to be 
murdered, he proceeded sternly to reduce to obedience the powerful nobility of the king- 
dom, who looked with a jealous eye on the monarchy remaining in one family; and then, 
carrying his arms against other enemies, he fought through more than 30 campaigns, and 
gained numerous victories over the Moors. He crossed the Douro, broke down the walls 
of Coimbra, penetrated to the Tagus and Estramadura, enlarged his territories by a por- 
tion of Portugal and old Castile, and repeopled the conquered and desolated Burgos. 
But these wars entailed great expense and misery on the nation. In 888, A. had to 
endure the pain of beholding, at the head of a rebel army, his own son Garcias, who _ 
wished to seize the crown, although pretending a simple desire for the prosperity of the 
commonwealth. A. collected his forces, conquered his son, and threw him into prison. 
But Garcias’ mother, by the help of several of the grandees, excited a new conspiracy, 
which resulted in the abdication of the monarch in favor of his imprisoned son. In 
order, however, to be still useful to his country, A. became commander of Garcias’ 
forces in an expedition against the Moors. After returning in triumph, he d. at 
Zamora, 910. 

ALFONSO VI, of Leon. See Auronso L., of Castile. 

ALFONSO X., surnamed ‘‘the astronomer,” ‘‘the philosopher,” or ‘‘ the wise” (el 
sabwo), king of Leon and Castile, b. 1221, succeeded his father, Ferdinand III., in 1252. 
As early as the storming of Seville in 1248, he had given indications of his courageous 
spirit. But, instead of wisely attempting to expel the Moors and subdue the nobility, 
he lavished the resources of his kingdom in fruitless efforts to secure his election to the 


26 3 Alfonso, 


imperial throne of Germanys Rudolph of Hapsburg was chosen in opposition to him. 
Nor would pope Gregory X. recognize his claims even to the duchy of Swabia. Soon after, 
his throne was threatened by the turbulence of the nobility and his wars with the Moors, 
The latter, however, he defeated in 1263, in a bloody battle, and took from them Xeres, 
Medina-Sidonia, San-Lucar, and a part of Algarve, uniting at the same time Murcia with 
Castile. In 1271, an insurrection broke out in his dominions, at the head of which was 
his son Philip. Three years elapsed before it was finally quelled. In the mildness with 
which he treated the rebels, men saw only indications of his weakness. But afterwards 
determining to employ more stringent measures, his son Sancho also rebelled, and in 1282 
deprived him of his throne. He now sought the help of the Moors, but after fruitless 
efforts to recover his power, he died at Seville, April 4, 1284. He was the most learned 
prince of his time, and has acquired lasting fame through the completion of the code of 
laws commenced (though this is disputed) by his father, and called Leyos de las Partidas, 
which in 1501 became the universal law of the land. There are still extant several long 
poems of his, besides a work on chemistry, and another on philosophy. He is also cred- 
ited with a history of the church and of the crusades, and is said to have ordered a trans- 
lation of the Bible into Spanish. He labored much to revive knowledge, increasing 
both the privileges and professorships of the university of Salamanca. e sought to 
improve the Ptolemaic planetary tables, whose anomalies had struck observers even at 
that early time. For this purpose, in 1240, he assembled at Toledo upwards of 50 of the 
most celebrated astronomers of that age. His improved tables, still known under the 
name of the Alfonsine tables, were completed in 1252. See ALFONSINE TABLES. 


ALFONSO I, of Napues and Sicrty. See Autronso V., of Aragon. 


ALFON’'SO I., earliest king of Portugal, was the son of Henry of Burgundy, conqueror 
and count of Portugal. He was born in 1110 A. pD., and being only 2 years of age at his 
father’s death, the management of affairs fell into the hands of his ambitious and disso- 
lute mother, Theresa of Castile, from whom he was compelled forcibly to seize it on attain- 
ing his majority. He then entered on a war with Castile, whose supremacy he did not 
recognize, and, leaguing himself with Navarre, made several conquests in Galicia, after 
which he proceeded to attack the Moors, whose invasions he had already begun to 
check by building the fortress of Leiria. A battle was fought in the plains of Ourique, 
July 25, 1139, when victory declared for the Portuguese, after a bloody struggle, in 
which, it is said, not less than 200,000 Moors perished. From that day, A. assumed the 
title of king, which the pope confirmed. On the 25th of Oct., 1147, he took Lisbon, by 
the help of the English fleet of crusaders ; and in 1158, after a siege of 2 months, made 
himself master of Alcazar-de-Sal and Evora. In 1171, he took by assault the fortress of 
Santarem from the Saracens, and annihilated the garrison ; and at the same place he 
defeated the Almohadian ruler, Jusuf-ben-Jakub, in 1184. He invited to his land the 
knights-tempiars and knights of St. John, and established the orders of Avis and of St. 
Michael. He died at Coimbra, Dec. 6, 1185. 


ALFONSO V., of Portucat, 1482-81; surnamed ** Africano,” in honor of his victo- 
ries over the Moors in Algiers. He succeeded his father in 1438, but did not govern 
until 1448, his uncle being regent in the meantime. A. declared this uncle to be a 
rebel, and defeated him in a battle in which he was slain. After a campaign in Africa 
A. undertook to seize upon Castile and Leon, but was defeated at Toro. <A. tried to get 
assistance from the king of France, but found that monarch deceiving him, and abdi- 
cated in favor of his son Juan. The son refused, and A. reigned two years longer 
when he fell into a deep melancholy and retired toa monastery, where he died. 


ALFONSO VI., b. 1643, King of Portugal, second son of John IV., was destined for the 
church, but the death of his elder brother in 1656 altogether changed his circumstances. 
Being then_a minor, the government of the kingdom was intrusted to his mother, 
Louisa de Guzman, a woman of great wisdom and prudence, who felt it her duty to 
retain the power in her own hands, even after A. had reached his majority; for the 
sickly and dissolute prince displayed little aptitude for business. But the court minions, 
who had their own reasons for wishing him to rule, urged him to remove his mother 
from her office. This was accomplished in 1662. The minister, count Castel-Melhor, a 
mere trifler, possessed supreme authority. Nevertheless, Portugal was victorious in the 
war which she undertook against Spain, although for this she had to thank her English 
and French allies. In 1666, A. married Maria-Francisca-Elizabeth of Savoy, who, how- 
ever, soon conspired with his brother Pedro against him. The plot succeeded. A. was 
seized and imprisoned at Cintra, where he died on the 12th of Sept., 1688. Pedro then 
obtained the throne, and married the widow of his deceased brother. 


ALFONSO XII., King of Spain, b. Madrid, Nov. 28, 1857, son of ex-queen Isabella 
Luk ; was proclaimed king, Madrid, 1874, Dec. 31. He married, 1878, Jan. 3, princess 
Maria de las Mercedes (youngest daughter of the duke de Montpensier), who d. 1878, 
June 26. He married, 1879, Nov. 29, archduchess Maria Christina of Austria (daugh- 
ter of archduke Charles Ferdinand, by whom he had three children. Returning from 
an informal visit to Germany, 1883, where he was made colonel of a Uhlan regiment (a 
distinction without political significance), he was publicly insulted in Paris, and war 
with France was for a few days thought probable. At the opening of the Cortes, 1883 
A. announced the extension of suffrage, and proposed bills for civil marriages and trial 
by jury. He d. 1885, Nov. 25. His posthumous child, Alfonso XIII., succeeded him. 


Alford. 264 


AL'FORD, Rev. HENRY, D.D., 2 biblical critic of the highest reputation, and also a 
poet of considerable genius, was born in London in 1810, but was educated first at Ilminster 
grammar-school in Somersetshire, and finally at Trinity college, Cambridge, where 
he took his degree, and entered the church. His first volume, published at Cambridge 
in 1831, was entitled Poems and Political Fragments, Three years afterwards, the young 
author was elected a fellow of Trinity, and in the following year, 1835, appeared his 
most popular work, The School of the Heart, and other Poems, which has been frequently 
reissued, especially in America. About the same time A. was appointed vicar of 
Wymeswold, Leicestershire, where he remained till 1853, gradually enlarging the circle 
of his studies, and obtaining fresh honors. In 1841 he published Chapters on the Greek 
Poets, which exhibit both purity of taste and breadth of scholarship. In 1844, appeared 
the first volume of his magnum opus, the Greek Testament, with notes and various 
readings ; the second was not published till 1852. In 1858, he was removed to Quebec 
street chapel, London, where he continued to maintain his high reputation as a sound 
and eloquent preacher, until, in 1857, he was appointed dean of Canterbury by lord 
Palmerston. A.’s poetry is characterized not so much by depth or originality as by 
freedom from affectation, obscurity, or bombast. His Greek Testament, which was com- 
pleted in 1861, occupies the first rank among English editions. Among his latest 
writings was A Plea for the Queen’s English, which excited considerable discussion. He 
also published several volumes of sermons. He d. Jan. 12, 1871. 


ALFRED, surnamed THE GREAT, was b. at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 849. His father 
was Ethelwolf, son of Egbert, king of the West Saxons; and though the youngest of four 
sons, he succeeded to the throne, on the death of his brother Ethelred, at the age of 23. 
He had already given decisive proofs of high ability as a general in repelling the incessant 
incursions of the Danes, at that time the most terrible warriors in Europe. After he 
succeeded to the throne, he redoubled his exertions to restere the independence of his 
country. At first he strove without success, whilst the Danes continued to pour fresh 
bands upon the coast, and the Anglo-Saxons either bent to the yoke or forsook their 
homes. In 878 the invaders had completely overrun the whole kingdom of the West 
Saxons. A., no longer able to collect an effective army, was obliged to seek security in 
the hills and forests, and for some time found refuge in a cowherd’s hut. He still, how- 
ever, kept up some communication with his friends; and as soon as the people began 
once more to arm against the Danes, he built a stronghold on an elevation or island (still 
known as Athelney, i.e., the ‘‘island of the nobles,” or the ‘‘royal island”) amid the 
marshes of Somersetshire, to which he summoned his faithful followers. From this 
fortress he made frequent successful sallies against the enemy, and after a comparatively 
short time, he found himself at the head of a considerable army, with which he totally 
routed them, 878, near Edington, in Wiltshire. After holding out for some time ina 
stronghold to which they had retreated, the invaders capitulated. A. accepted hostages, 
and their solemn oath to quit his territory of Wessex, and receive baptism. Their king, 
Godrun or Guthrun, was baptized, with thirty of his followers, and ever after proved 
faithful in his allegiance to A. 

After this decisive victory, the power of A. steadily increased, both by land and sea 
—for already he had built England’s first fleet—he beat the Danes in numerous battles, 
and gradually their possessions were confined to the northern and eastern coasts. In 
886, A., without any formal installation, became recognized as the sovereign of all 
England, a title to which he had proved his right by the most indisputable of arguments. 
During the ensuing years of peace, he rebuilt the cities that had suffered most during the 
war, particularly London; erected new fortresses, and trained the people to the use of 
arms; while at the same time he encouraged husbandry and other useful arts, and © 
founded those wise laws and institutions which contributed so much to the future great- 
ness and welfare of England. The grateful reverence of posterity has, as is usual with 
mankind, become prodigal in its awards, ascribing to A. the entire credit of having 
established many beneficial institutions, some of which had already existed among the 
Anglo-Saxons, but were by him revived, remodeled, and improved. Of his political 
institutions, little is known beyond the fact that he compiled a code of laws, divided 
England into counties, hundreds, and tithings, and thoroughly reformed the administra- 
tion of justice by making these tithings, hundreds, etc., so far as was practically possible, 
responsible for the offenses committed within their jurisdiction. William of Malmes- 
bury, with enthusiastic exaggeration, declared that a ‘‘purse of money, or a pair of 
golden bracelets,” might in A.’s day be exposed for weeks in complete safety on the 
common highways. A. is also said—though erroneously, as is now believed—to have 
been the author of ‘‘trial by jury.” In an age of ignorance and barbarism, A. was an 
accomplished scholar and a zealous patron of learning. No prince of hisage did somuch 
for the diffusion of knowledge, and few monarchs at any time have shown an equal zeal 
for the instruction of their people. He caused many manuscripts to be translated into 
Anglo-Saxon from Latin, and himself translated several works, such as Boéthius on the 
Consolation of Philosophy, the History of Orosius, Bede’s Heclesiastical History, and Selec- 
tions from the Soliloquies of St. Augustine. Among his original works in the Anglo-Saxon 
language are Laws of the West Saxons, Institutes, Chronicles, Meditations, etc. All his 
works strikingly indicate the serious, elevated, and yet practical character of the man. 
In his translations, A. is frequently more than a translator. He adds his own reflections 


i 
2965 Alea 


to those of his author ; and expands the geographical outline of Orosius by a chart of 
Germany, an account of the Baltic, and the icy regions towards the north pole, which 
are pretty accurate, considering the means which then existed for acquiring a knowledge 
of these places. Several works attributed to A. are believed not to be genuine. 

The peaceful labors of A. were, in 893, interrupted by a fresh invasion of Northmen 
under Hesten or Hastings, more formidable than any that had yet been attempted in his 
reign. The defection of the East Anglians and Northumbrians added to the difficulties 
with which he had to contend. A., however, was fully prepared, and though, during 
their protracted stay in his dominions, the invaders overran a large extent of country, 
and committed considerable depredations, they were beaten in almost every encounter 
with the English, and finally quelled. A. died on the 27th of Oct., 901, aged 52, 
leaving his country in the enjoyment of comparative peace and prosperity, the fruit of 
that wise and energetic rule which has made his memory dear to all generations of Eng- 
lishmen as that of their best and greatest king. We cannot perhaps realize the resolute 
patience of A., in his political and military capacity, for we have but a very imperfect 
knowledge of the obstacles which stood in his way; but it must excite both our highest 
wonder and reverence to be.iold a man pursuing solitarily, in the midst of ferocity, bar- 
barism, and ignorance, and in spite of the perpetual pains with which his body was 
racked, so many various and noble schemes for the civilization and true glory of his 
country.—The most authentic and interesting of the original sources of information on 
the history of A. is the life by Asser, bishop of Sherborne, a book distinguished by 
extreme simplicity and affection. The best edition is that of Wise, Oxford, 1782. Of the 
recént lives, the most complete and careful are that of Prof. Reinhold Pauli, edited by 
T. Wright, and that by Mr. T. Hughes, 1869. 


ALGA MARINA. See GRASSWRACK. 


ALG, a natural order of plants, belonging to the class eryptogamia of Linnseus, and 
to the acotyledones of the natural system. It contains a greut number of species, about 
2000 being known and described, and among these there is a great variety of forms. They 
grow for the most part in water, some in fresh and some in salt water, but some also on 
moist rocks or ground; whilst others are frequently found covering the glass and pots of 
hot-houses. Some species occur even upon diseased animal tissue, as achlya prolifera 
from the gills of fish, whilst sarcina ventriculi (q.v.) appears to be formed in the human 
stomach. They are most numerous in still or stagnant water and in warm climates. 
Their structure is very various; they are found of all grades, from the little microscopic 
vesicle to great sea-weeds, which ramify like trees. The diversity in size is as great as 
im form; some species being visible only through the microscope, and resembling mold 
or rust; some a few inches, others several feet in length; whilst the laminariew, which 
float in the South American seas, measure more than 100 ft.; and macrocystis pyrifera 
of the Pacific ocean reaches the length of 1500 ft. Yet they are seldom to be found as 
thick as the finger, or as broad as the hand, although some far exceed these dimensions, 
the trunk of lessonta fuseescins attaining the thickness of a man’s thigh. Some species 
are firmly fixed at the bottom of the water, some adhere to rocks and stones left dry by 
the retiring tide; some frequently break loose, and float about upon and beneath the sur- 
face. They have in no case proper roots, but merely processes for their attachment to 
the surfaces on which they are fixed; they seem to derive their nourishment by all 
parts of their surface from the water or moist air in which they grow. The gulfweed 
(sargassum) floats in long pieces in the Atlantic ocean and all the great seas; a large por- 
tion of the sea between the West Indies and the Canary islands is specially called the 
Mer de Sargasse. The weed is carried in such quantities by the current into the gulf 
of Mexico, that it covers the sea in tracts of many miles in breadth, and gives it the 
appearance of a meadow. Many fabulous stories were related of this gulfweed by the 
mariners of the 15th century. Ships were said to have been stopped in their course, 
and the crews obliged to cut their way through with hatchets. The discoveries of 
Columbus put an end to these exaggerated reports. 

A. are entirely cellular in their structure, however elongated may be their fronds, 
having no proper vessels, but consisting of an irregular tissue of utricular cells. The 
fronds of many are articulated. Some. of the simplest or lowest organization are 
propagated by spontaneous separation ; in others, the reproductive organs consist of 
spores (see ACOTYLEDONOUS PLANTs) inclosed in perispores, and variously disposed in 
receptacles of different kinds ; sometimes in the interior of the cells. Antheridia ‘q.v.) 
also occur in some ; and zoospores, or spores with moving ciléa, which exhibit phenomena 
of motion resembling those of animallife. The diatomace@, in which the ordinary mode 
of reproduction is by spontaneous separation, have by some been referred to the animal 
kingdom. They are entirely microscopic, resemble the animalcules called infusoria, 
and are generally found in still waters and moist places, but occur in prodigious 
numbers in some parts of the Antarctic ocean, where they give a color to the water. 

A differ from fungi (q.v.) in deriving their nourishment exclusively, as it would 
seem, from the medium by which they are surrounded, and not from the substance upon 
which they grow. The substance of which they are composed is also very uifterent. 
Yet it has been felt not a little difticuit to determine to which order some ot the lowest 
forms of vegetable life should be referred 

As to their substance, A. consist chiefly of vegetable gelatine, which dissolves in 


Algardi. 266 


Alger. val 


water when they are boiled in it. The harder parts of their fronds are sometimes 
coriaceous, or horny, or cartilaginous, but never really ligneous. Their color is not 
always green, but mostly brown or yellow, sometimes purple or violet, or rose-color ; 
and many of them present a ver beautiful appearance when examined through a 
microscope. Many containan abundance of iodine. Different species of WRACK (fucus) 
(q.v.), which are cast on shore in vast confused masses by the waves, are gathered and 
burned in the Orkney islands, in Normandy, and other parts of the world, the ashes 
forming an article of commerce under the name of KELP (q.v.), and containing much of 
the iodide of sodium. Sea-weeds of all kinds are an excellent manure. None of the 
species are poisonous, and some of them are used for food, a CARRAGEEN (q.Vv.) or 
Irish-moss, DuusE (q.v.), LAVER (q.v.), etc. The edible swallows’ nests of the Indian 
archipelago are composed of a species of sea-weed. Several kinds are eaten as articles 
of luxury by the Chinese. Plocaria tenaw, one of the species so used, furnishes them also 
with an admirable glue, of which great quantities are prepared and brought to the 
market. Plocaria helminthocorton, Corsican moss, a native of the Mediterranean, and 
found principally around the shores of Corsica, is used as a vermifuge. See PLOCARIA. 

This natural order is divided into 5 sub-orders, regarded by some as distinct orders— 
namely, CHARACE (q.v.), FUCACEA (q.v.), CERAMIACEA® (g.v.), CONFERVACE4 (see 
CoNnFERVA), and D1aToMACcE# (q.v.). The Characese are sometimes separated as a dis- 
tinct order of higher organization, whilst the rest are united under the name alge. See 
Kiitzing’s Phycologia Generalis (Leip. 1843), and his Species Algarwm (Leip. 1849) ; 
Greville’s A. Britannicew (Lond. 1830); British Sea-weeds, nature-printed (London) ; Har- 
vey’s British Marine A., and Nereis Boreali-Americana ; Farlow’s Marine A. of New 
England (Boston, 1881). 

ALGAR'DI, ALESSANDRO, an Italian sculptor, b. at Bologna 1602, d. 1654, ranked next 
to Lor. Bernini among Italian sculptors of the 17th c., and especially excelled in the repre- 
sentation of nude figures. His works, however, suffered from the faults prevalent in his 
time, especially from a striving after pathos and picturesque effects, opposed to the true 
character of sculpture. His most important work is a colossal relievo of Attila in St. 
Peters, Rome. His statue of the god of sleep in the villa Borghese has frequently 
been mistaken for an antique. 


ALGARO'BA. See CARos. 


ALGAROT TI, FRaNcEscO, Count, an Italian author, was b. at Venice in 1712; studied 
in Rome and Bologna, and when 21 years old published in Paris (1733) a work, entitled 
Newtonianismo per le Dame (The Newtonian Philosophy adapted to the Ladies), which 
was the basis of his subsequent reputation. Until 1739, he lived in France. On his 
return from a journey to Russia, A. became acquainted with Frederick IL. of Prussia, 
who elevated him to the rank of count, and made him, in 1747, lord chamberlain. He 
was also patronized by Augustus III. of Poland, and lived alternately in Berlin and 
Dresden until 1754, when he returned to Italy. Hed. March 3, 1764, at Pisa, where, in 
the Campo Santo, Frederick the Great raised a monument to his memory. In hisown 
time he was recognized as a good judge of painting and architecture, and his reputation 
is confirmed by his work Saggi sopra le Belle Arti (Essays on Fine Arts), and by the 
paintings he selected forthe Dresden gallery. His poetry displays no great genius ; but 
his other works show that he was an accomplished man ; and his letters rank with the 
best in the Italian language. 


ALGAROVIL’LA, an astringent product of Juga marthe, an acacia of New Granada ; 
said to be four times as rich in tannin as the best oak bark.” Black ink is made from it ; 
also a yellow dye ; and it is useful in medicine. 


ALGAR’'VE, the smallest and most southerly of the provinces of Portugal, lies between 
Andalusia and the Atlantic ocean. In ancient times it was much more extensive. It 
received its name from the Arabs, in whose language A. signifies ‘‘ a land lying to the west.” 
It was a Moorish province till 1253, when Alphonso III. united it to the crown of Portugal 
as a separate kingdom. Its area isestimated at 1873 sq.m., and its pop. is (1890) 228,551. 
The northern part of the province is occupied by a range of mountains of an average 
height of 4000 ft., which form the continuation of the Sierra Morena of Spain, and ter- 
minate in cape St. Vincent, the south-western extremity of Europe. The highest ridges 
are entirely destitute of vegetation ; and the mountainous tract in general admits of but 
little cultivation. From the main ridge the country slopes southward in jagged terraces 
and low hiHs, leaving a level tract of a few miles along the coast. The soil of this plain 
is but indifferently suited for the production of grain, or even of pasturage ; but it pro- 
duces abundance of the finest fruits of the south, even plantains and dates. The wine is 
also of excellent quality, The African heat of the climate is mitigated by the cool sea- 
breeze. The only river of importance is the Guadiana, on the frontiers of Spain. The 
inhabitants employ themselves chiefly in fishing, in manufacturing salt, and in cultivat- 
ing fruit. The chief t. is Faro (pop. 8600). 


AL-GAZALT, Apu Hamed Munammap, 1058-1111; a Moslem theologian of the 
Ascharite sect, the head of the college at Bagdad. He visited the holy sepulchre at 
Jerusalem, and spent 10 years in Damascus taught again in Bagdad 15 years, and 
spent his remaining life in retirement and philosophical speculation, settling finally with 


lencat 
267 aes 


the Sufis, and becoming satisfied with their mystical claim to an intuition of the laws 
of life and of the immanent Deity. 

AL’GEBRA is a branch of pure mathematics. The name is derived from the Arabs, 
who call the science al gebr wal mokdbala—i.e., supplementing and equalizing—in refer- 
ence to the transposition and reduction of the terms of an equation. Among the Italians 
in early times it was called arte maggiore, as having to do with the higher kinds of 
calculation, and still oftener 7vegola de la cosa, because the unknown quantity was denom- 
inated cosa, the ‘‘ thing :” hence the name of cosstke art, given to it by early English writers. 

The term algebraical is generally used somewhat vaguely, to denote any expression or 
calculation in which signs are used to denote the operations, and letters or other symbols 
are put instead of numbers. But it is perhaps better to restrict the name A. to the doc- 
trine of equations (q.v.). Literal arithmetic, then, or multiplying, dividing, etc., with 
letters instead of Arabic ciphers, is properly only a preparation for A.; while analysis 
(q.v.), in the widest sense, would embrace A. as its first part. A. itself is divided into 
two chief branches. The first treats of equations involving unknown quantities having a 
determinate value; in the other, called the diophantine or indeterminate analysis, the 
unknown quantities have no exactly fixed values, but depend in some degree upon 
assumption. 

The oldest work in the west on A. is that of Diophantus of Alexandria, in the 4th c. 
after Christ. It consisted originally of 18 books, and contained arithmetical problems ; 
only 6 books are now extant. They are written in Greek, and evince no little acute- 
ness. The modern Europeans got their first acquaintance with A.. not directly from 
the Greeks, but, like most other knowledge, through the Arabs, who derived it, again, 
from the Hindoos. The chief European source was the work of Mohammed Ben Musa, 
who lived in the time of caliph Al-Mamun (813-883) ; it has been translated into English 
by Dr. Rosen (Lond. 1831). An Italian merchant, Leonardo Bonaccio, of Pisa, traveling 
in the east about 1200, acquired a knowledge of the science, and introduced it among his 
countrymen on his return ; he has left a work on A. not yet printed, The first work on 
A. after the revival of learning is that of the Minorite friar Paciolo or Luca Borgo 
(Ven. 1494). Scipio Ferreo in Bologna, discovered, in 1505, the solution of one case of 
cubic equations. Tartaglia of Brescia (d. 1557) carried cubic equations still further, and 
imparted his discoveries to Cardan of Milan, as a secret. Cardan extended the discovery 
himself, and published, in 1545, the solution known as ‘‘ Cardan’s rule.” Ludovico Fer- 
rari and Bombelli (1579) gave the solution of biquadratic equations. A. was first culti- 
vated in Germany by Christian Rudolf, in a work printed in 1524 ; Stifel followed with 
his Arithmetica Integra (Niirnb. 1544). Robert Recorde, in England, and Pelletier, in 
France, wrote about 1550. Vieta, a Frenchman (d. 1603) first made the grand step of 
using letters to denote the known quantities as well as the unknown. Harriot, in Eng- 
land (1631), and Girard, in Holland (1638), still further improved on the advances made 
by Vieta. The Géométrie (1637) of Descartes marks an epoch in A.; it is rich in new 
investigations. Descartes applied A. to geometry, and was the first to represent the 
nature of curves by means of equations. Fermat also contributed much to the science ; 
and so did the Arithmetica Universalis of Newton. 'To these names may be added Mac- 
laurin, Moivre, Taylor, and Fontaine. Among the chief promoters of A., in more recent 
times, are Euler, Lagrange, Gauss, Abel, Fourier, Peacock, De Morgan, etc. 


ALGECI'RAS, or ALGEZIRAS, at. in Spain,in the province of Cadiz, on the gulf of 
Gibraltar. Its harbor is bad, but it possesses a-good dock, and the inhabitants are sup- 
plied with fine aqueducts. The citadel is in a very dilapidated condition, and the trade 
in corn and brandy is no longer important. The place, however, which is pleasantly 
situated, has a picturesque appearance. It was the first t. in Spain taken by the Moors 
(713), in whose possession it remained for 7 centuries; but in 1344, after a siege of 20 
months, it was retaken by the brave Alfonso XI., king of Castile. It is said that crusad- 
ers from all parts of Europe were present at this siege, which was the siege of the age, 
and is spoken of as such. Pop. 12,500. 


ALGER, a co. of Michigan, upper peninsula, on Lake Superior, organized 1885: 
983 sq. miles. It is watered by Au Train and White Fish rivers and other streams, 
and contains on its lake shore the noted ‘‘ Pictured Rocks,”’ and includes Grand island. 
Pop. 790, 1238. Co. seat, Au Train. 


ALGER, HorATIOo, clergyman and author, was born at Revere, Mass., in 1834, and 
graduated from Harvard College in 1852, He studied divinity at Cambridge, and in 1864 
was ordained over the Unitarian church at Brewster, Mass. He also engaged in jour- 
nalism, and published nearly fifty volumes of stories for youth, a volume of poems, Helen 
Ford, Adrift in the City (1895), and Frank Hunter’s Peril (1896). 


ALGER, RussELL ALEXANDER, b. in Lafayette, Ohio, Feb. 27, 1836. He was admitted 
to the bar in 1859, and removed to Michigan. At the beginning of the civil war, he 
enlisted asa private, and in June, 1865, was brevetted maj.-gen. of volunteers for services 
during the war. After the war he became wealthy in the lumber trade. He became 
governor of Mich. in 1884, and in 1888 was a candidate for the presidential nomination in 
the Republican National Convention. In 1889 he was elected commander-in-chief of the 
G. A. R.; accepted the position of secretary of war in McKinley’s cabinet (1897). 


Alger. 968 


Algeria, 


ALGER, WILLIAM RouUNSEVILLE, b. Massachusetts, Dec. 11, 1823; a graduate of 
Harvard in 1847: author of a Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, Genius of 
Solitude, Friendships of Women, The Sources of Consolation in Human Life (1892), ete. He 
was pastor of the church of the Messiah, Unitarian, in New York city, 1875-76. 


ALGER’BA, a double star in the sign Leo, noted as a test for telescopes ; one compo- 
nent is orange and the other green. 


ALGE’RIA (in French, ALGERIB), a country on the n. coast of Africa, which was a sub- 
ordinate part of the Turkish empire till 1830, and is now a French colony. It lies between 
2° 8’ w. long. and 8° 32’ e. long. It is bounded on the n. by the Mediterranean, on the 
e. by Tunis, on the s. by Sahara, and on the w. by Morocco. The French have extended 
their dominions more than 200 m. into the interior, but those of the deys—the former 
rulers of A.—comprehended territories lying nearly twice as fars. The area of A. is 
now calculated to be about 150,000 sq.m.; and the pop. (1881) 8,310,412, including about 
300,000 Europeans. The chief towns are Algiers, Bona, Constantine, and Tlemzen. 
Upwards of 7,000,000 acres are under cultivation. Physically, A. forms a part of the 
northern border of the great plateau of north Africa, which here rises from the sea in 
three terraces. The Atlas mountains run parallel to the coast-line. Behind these, a vast 
tract of healthy plains, called the sebkhas, interspersed with salt lakes, stretches south- 
wards, until bounded by a second chain of mountains of various heights ; beyond which, 
again, lies the great desert of Sahara, extending to the banks of the Niger. The plains 
and valleys which open out towards the sea in the n. of A., such as those around Bona, 
Algiers, Oran, etc., are extremely fertile, abound in wood and water, consist mostly of a 
calcareous soil, and are well adapted for agriculture. They form the Zell, which was 
once one of the granaries of Italy. In strong contrast to these are the sebkhas, or lesser 
deserts, covered with herbs and brushwood, but almost destitute of fresh water, except 
where here and there they are interrupted by an oasis. The most southern part of the 
country beyond the Atlas partakes of the nature of the Sahara, but contains oases covered 
with palm trees, and well peopled. This is a part of the ‘‘date country,” or ‘‘ Blad-el- 
Djerid.” There are no rivers of any importance in the entire colony, nothing beyond 
mere coast-streams, which rise in the neighboring Atlas. The largest is the Shelif, about 
230 m. in length. With respect to the climate, the heat in the Tell is sometimes very great. 
On the ceast it is mitigated by the sea-breeze, and among the high mountains of the 
interior the winters are even cold. The average temperature of Algiers is about 63° F. 
A. is not unfrequently visited by the s¢moom, or hot wind, called by the Italians s¢rocco, 
and by the Spaniards solane. Its mineral wealth is considerable ; iron, lead, copper, and 
manganese are found. The marble of Numidia was in requisition in ancient times. 
Extensive forests of oaks, cedars, pines, and pistachio-nut trees cover large portions of 
the country, and furnish an abundant supply of timber and resin. The cereals and the 
olive are cultivated in the Zell, and the oases of Sahara are famed for their dates. The 
domestic animals of A. are the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the camel ; but the once noble 
race of Numidian horses is degenerated. The population is composed of various elements. 
Besides Europeans, there are Kabyles and Arabs, who compose the bulk of the people ; 
also Moors, Negroes, and Jews. 

Language.—Four languages are spoken in A —the Berber, the Arabic, the Turkish, 
and the Negro dialects. The Berber, which is the most ancient of all, has a variety of 
dialects, and is spoken by all the Kabyle tribes. It possesses no literature written in its own 
alphabet; Arabic characters alone being used. The Arabic is of course an importation 
from the east, and has borrowed expressions and idioms from the various native lan- 
guages with which it came into contact; but its differences are comparatively slight. 
The Koran is the great bond of union. The Turkish, since the French conquest, has 
become almost extinct. The Negro dialects are of little consequence. 

History.—In the most ancient times we find the Numidians settled in the eastern part 
of the regency, and the Moors (or Mauri) in the west. Under the Romans, the former 
was included in the province of Africa, while the latter was called Mauritania Ceesar- 
iensis. Like the rest of north Africa, it had then reached its highest prosperity. It had 
numerous cities, which were principally Roman colonies. But its conquest by the Van- 


dals, under the famous Genseric, about 440, threw it back into a state of barbarism, from ~ 


which it only partially recovered after the Mohammedan immigrants had established their 
dominion. About the year 935, the city, Al-Jezira, i.e., the island, and later Al-Gazie, 1Le., 
the warlike, now called Algiers, was built by an Arabian prince, Zeirig whose successors 
ruled the land till 1148, after which it was governed by the Almohades (q.v.) till 1269. 
It was then split up into many small territories. In 1492, the Moors and Jews who had 
been driven out of Spain settled at A., and began to revenge themselves on their perse- 
cutors by piracy. Ferdinand, the Spanish monarch, attacked them on this account, took 
the city of Algiers in 1509, and erected fortifications on the island which forms its harbor. 
One of the Algerine princes, the emir of Metidja, whose territories were threatened by 
the Spaniards, now invited to his assistance the Greek renegade, Horuk or Harude Bar- 
barossa, who had made himself famous as a Turkish pirate chief. This laid the founda- 
tion of the Turkish dominion ; for when Barbarossa arrived in 1516, he treacherously 
turned his corsair bands against the emir, whom he murdered, and then made himself 
sultan of Algiers. His subsequent successes alarmed the Spaniards, who marched an 


Alger. 
2 69 Algeria. 


army against him from Oran. Barbarossa was defeated in many encounters, and at last, 
being taken prisoner, was beheaded in 1518. His brother was then chosen sultan. He 
put himself under the protection of the Ottoman court, by the help of a Turkish army 
drove the Spaniards out of the country, and established that system of military despotism 
and piracy which lasted till 1830, and which sunk A. into a state of ruinous degradation. 
In 1541, the emperor Charles V. made a bold attempt to crush this nation of corsairs. 
He landed in A. with a fleet of 370 ships and 30,000 men ; but a fearful storm, accom- 
panied by earthquakes and water-spouts, destroyed the greater portion of the former, 
and rendered the latter destitute of victuals, etc.; so that the expedition proved a failure, 
and Charles was glad to re-embark, which he managed to do with extreme difficulty. 

The history of A., under the Moslems, offers few episodes worthy of notice. The 
Algerines continued to carry on their piratical war against the powers of Christendom, 
venturing even to land on the Italian and Spanish coasts. Inland, too, they were con- 
stantly fighting to extend their territories. Before the end of the 16th c., they had sub- 
dued the whole country to the verge of Morocco, with the exception of Oran, which 
belonged to Spain. The Spaniards were invariably unsuccessful in their attempts at 
reprisals. Emboldoned by success, the Algerines pushed their piratical expeditions even 
beyond the straits of Gibraltar. In the year 1600, the Turkish janissaries of Algiers 
obtained from the Constantinopolitan court the right to choose a dey from among them- 
selves, who should share the power with the pasha appointed by the sultan, and be their 
commander-in-chief. The result of this divided authority was internal strife and confu- 
sion. Nevertheless, the insolence of the Algerines at sea increased. They attacked even 
the coasts of Provence, compelling Louis XIV. to chastise them thrice; which he did, 
however, with very little effect. An incident occurred during the first bombardment of 
Algiers by the French fleet in 1682, which illustrates the reckless ferocity of these corsairs. 
By way of answer to the cannonading of his enemies, the dey caused the French consul, 
Vacher, to be shot off from the mouth of a mortar! After the third bombardment, in 
1687, the dey scornfully inquired of the French how much money the burning of Algiers 
had cost their master, and on being told, coolly replied that ‘‘he would have done it 
himself for half the sum, and spared their king the trouble.” No more decisive result 
followed the attack of Admiral Blake in 1655, nor of the English and Dutch fleets in 
1669 and 1670; yet the English were the first to form treaties with the Algerines. In 
1708, the dey, Ibrahim, made himself master of Oran, and his successor, Baba-Ali, suc- 
ceeded in effecting the virtual emancipation of the country from the dominion of the 
porte. He banished the Turkish pasha; craftily persuaded the sultan of Turkey to leave 
the power solely in his hands: carried on war and concluded peace at his own pleasure, 
and paid no more tribute. 

A. was now ruled by a military oligarchy, at the head of which stood the dey, and 
after him the powerful Turkish militia, recruited from Constantinople and Smyrna, 
because their children by native mothers could not enjoy the same privileges as them- 
selves. Besides these, there was a divan, cr council of state, chosen from the sixty prin- 
cipal civil functionaries. The internal history of the country henceforth presents noth- 
ing but a bloody series of seraglio revolutions, caused by the lawless janissaries, who per- 
mitted few of the deys to die a natural death. In the year 1775, Spain undertook her last 
great expedition against A., with 44 ships of war, 340 transports, and 25,000 soldiers, 
This, however, was as singularly unfortunate as all her previous ones. Everything went 
wrong, and the Spaniards had to re-embark as speedily as possible, leaving behind them 
1800 wounded, and all their artillery. Thus A. continued to defy the greater Christian 
powers, and to enforce tribute from the lesser. During the French revolution and 
the time of the empire, its piracies were much diminished in consequence of the pres- 
ence of powerful fleets in the Mediterranean sea; but at the close of the war they 
were recommenced as vigorously as ever. This brought down upon “the nation of cor- 
sairs” the vengeance of the Christian powers. The Americans took the lead, attacked 
the Algerine fleet off Carthagena, on the 20th June, 1815; defeated it, and compelled the 
dey to acknowledge the inviolability of the American flag. About the same time, the 
English admiral, lord Exmouth, extorted from the other states of Barbary the recogni- 
tion of an international law respecting the treatment of prisoners. <A. alone refused to 
consent to it; and after a delay of six weeks, the English and Dutch fleets, under the 
command of lord Exmouth, fiercely bombarded the capital. The batteries of the pirates 
were soon silenced; and in a few hours the half of the city lay in ruins; its naval force 
and its magazines being all destroyed. The dey, an ignorant and obstinate barbarian, 
still wished to protract the fight, but his soldiery forced him to yield, and a treaty was 
concluded (1816), by which all Christian slaves were released without ransom (the num- 
ber was 1211), and a promise was given that both piracy and Christian slavery should 
cease forever. But nothing could keep these wretches from piracy. As early as 1817, 
they ventured as far as the North sea, and seized all ships in their course not belonging 
to any of the powers who sent them tribute or presents, as was done by Sweden, Den- 
mark, Portugal, Spain, Naples, Tuscany, and Sardinia. Nor did even treaties avail to 
protect European vessels at all times. The Spanish, the Papal,.and in particular the 
German shipping suffered severely; while the dey mocked by his insolent replies the 
remonstrances addressed to him. 

Meanwhile the internal condition of A. continued to present the spectacle of a crue: 


270 


Algeria. 


pretorian despotism. In the year 1817, the power of the janissaries was greatly weak. 
ened by the skillful tactics of the Dey Ali. Upon his death, which was occasioned by 
the plague in the following year, Hussein was chosen in his stead, under whom the 
Moslem dominion was terminated by a conflict with France. The causes of this conflict 
were various. A French trading brig was plundered in Bona in 1818; the dwelling of 
the French consul was attacked in 1823; Roman ships, sailing under the protection of 
the French flag, were seized; and even French ships were detained and plundered. But 
the chief cause of the quarrel was a dispute about the payment of a debt incurred by 
the French government to two Jewish merchants of Algiers at the time of the expedition 
to Egypt. This debt was fixed at seven millions of francs; four and a half millions 
were immediately paid; the rest was reserved until the counter-claims of certain French 
creditors should be decided in the French law courts. For three years the lawsuit dragged 
its slow length along, till the Dey became impatient—being himself a principal cred- 
itor of the Jewish-Algerine house—and angrily demanded payment from the king of 
France. To his letter no answer was returned. The feast of Beiram occurring soon 
after, when it was customary for the Dey to receive all the consuls publicly, he asked the 
French consul why his master had remained silent. The latter haughtily replied that _ 
‘‘a king of France could not condescend to correspond with a Dey of Algiers.” Upon 
this, the Dey struck him on the face, and fiercely abused his sovereign. In consequence 
of this insult, a French squadron was sent to Algiers, which received the consul on board, 
and blockaded the city, 12th June, 1827. Six days after, the dey caused the French 
coral-fisheries at Bona to be destroyed. For three years the blockade was listlessly cav- 
ried on; but in April, 1880, during the ministry of Polignac, a warlike manifesto appeared; 
and a month later, a fleet sailed for the African coast, consisting of 100 ships of war and 
357 transports, having on board an army of 37,000 infantry, 4000 cavalry, and a propor- 
tionate number of artillery, under the command of Lt.-gen. Bourmont. The landing 
was effected undcr trifling opposition. A perpetual skirmishing then took place pre- 
vious to the bombardment of Algiers, which commenced onthe 4thJuly. Next day 
a capitulation was agreed to. The Turkish soldiers marched out—for such were the 
conditions—with their families and private possessions, and the French took possession 
of the place. Fifteen hundred guns, 17 ships of war, and 50,000,000 francs fell into their 
hands as spoil. The Dey retired to Port Mahon, with his private property and a train of 
118 persons, while the greater number of the Turkish janissaries were conveyed to Asia 
Minor. The conduct of the French soldiery, however, it must be confessed, tarnished 
the glory of their conquest. They went about plundering remorselessly the beautiful] 
villas and gardens in the neighborhood of Algiers, as well as the ancient valuables and 
works of art; thus exciting a universal spirit of hostility in the natives, who kept up an 
incessant guerrilla warfare outside the capital. 

After the revolution of July, Marshal Bourmont resigned, and Gen. Clausel was 
appointed his successor. The latter, who was a prompt and vigorous man, set about 
subduing the country, and giving it a regular government. His predecessor had com- 
mitted a great mistake in driving out the Turks, who might have been usefully employed 
in subordinate functions of authority. After their banishment, the Kabyles and Bedouins, 
believing themselves emancipated from all subjection, and stimulated by intense fanati- 
cism against the new conquerors, rose in rebellion, or rather commenced a series of 
petty struggles, which obstructed the colonization of A. for many years, and which can- 
not be said to have altogether ceased even yet. The imposition of French laws and institu- 
tions was made not in the wisest spirit, most of the old Turkish regulations being summa- 
rily abrogated. Besides this, the natives were wounded in their most susceptible point. 
Their mosques and burying-grounds were frequently desecrated and destroyed ; and 
Clausel, whose vigor was more remarkable than his justice or prudence, confiscated—in 
direct contradiction to the very words of the capitulation—all the immovable property 
of the deys, and other exiled Turks, and of the townships, besides various religious 
institutions. The effect of these political crimes was instant. The entire provinces deter- 
mined obstinateiy to resist ; some even of the provincial rulers who had previously sub- 
mitted, now appeared in arms again. Clausel was compelled to undertake a military 
expedition against the refactor7 beys ; but his uncertain successes only inflamed the hatred 
and patriotism of the Kabyles and Arabs, who opposed him energetically. A young | 
emir at last appeared on the scene, Abd-el-Kader (q.v.), who soon became the rallying- 
point of the jad (‘‘ holy war’’), which the Marabouts had begun to preach. Under these 
circumstances, it became impossible for Clausel to carry out his scheme of colonization, 
and only a reckless speculation in land took place, which was in every way injurious. 
To strengthen his position, the French general, whose army was now greatly reduced, 
made a treaty with the Bey of Tunis; but the home-government disapproving of it, he 
was recalled in consequence. His successor, Gen. Berthezéne, having achieved noth- 
ing but defeat and disgrace in spite of his cruelties, was also speedily recalled, and 
It.-gen. the duke of Rovigo appointed to the command. He arrived in Algiers on 
the 25th of Dec., 1831, and established a most severe and relentless system. He 
scrupled not to perpetrate the most arbitrary acts, cruelties, and treacheries. His two 
most remarkable actions were, first, the complete annihilation of the whole Arab tribe 
El-Uffia, when even old men, women, and children were massacred during the night, on 
account of a robbery committed by some of the members of the tribe ; second, the exe 


2 yf 1 Algeria. 


cution of two Arab chiefs who were hostile to him, and whom he had treacherously 
allured into the city by the written promise of a safe conduct. Such monstrous proceed- 
ings fired the entire nation. The most peaceful tribes flew to arms, and the French were 
attacked on all sides. ‘The emperor of Morocco, who secretly fomented the strife, and 
even meditated the conquest of Oran, assisted the fierce and impetuous Abd-el-Kader in 
his designs. The health of the duke now declined. He returned to France in March, 18383, 
and the administration of affairs was provisionally intrusted to gen. Avizard, who gained 
some credit by establishing the bureaw Arabe. After the death of the duke, gen. Voirol, a 
man exactly the reverse of his predecessor, was made interim commander-in-chief. His 
efforts were more directed to promote the material interests of the colony, than to extend the 
power of France. He met with little opposition in the province of Algiers, and in the east- 
ern districts; but, on the other hand, the war raged fiercely in the west, where Abd-el-Kader 
had either gained over or subdued all the tribes between Mascara and the sea. At length 
a treaty was effected with him, in which he pledged himself to make peace, and to 
deliver up all his prisoners. In return, he received a monopoly of the corn-trade, and 
the right to buy arms and ammunition inthe French ports. ‘Towards the end of 1834, 
the French government, having resolved to retain permanent possession of the colony, 
organized its administration anew, placing the supreme power, both civil and military, 
in the hands of a governor-general, who received his orders from the minister of war. 
Gen. Drouet d’Erlon was the first appointed to this high dignity. Under him there 
were a commander of the troops, a commander of the naval force, a military intendant, 
a civil intendant, and a director of finance. The administration of justice was also regu- 
lated by the erection of many tribunals, Frenchmen and foreigners were to be subject 
to French laws, but the natives to theirown. Moreover, the old Algerine courts of jus- 
tice were still to be kept up. D’Erlon apparently desired, at first, to occupy himself 
with the internal administration of the regency, and, in truth, deserved much credit for 
the introduction of French municipal institutions, and the French system of education 
and police arrangements ; but a disgraceful defeat suffered by the French army at Makta, 
on an expedition against Abd-el-Kader, who had secretly broken the treaty, caused the 
recall both of the officer in command and of D’Erlon himself. Clausel was now sent 
back to A. with the title of marshal. He arrived on the 10th of August, 1835, his first 
anxiety being to wipe away the disgrace of the defeat at Makta. About three months 
after, he marched out at the head of 11,000 men, to attack Mascara, the center of Abd- 
el-Kader’s power: he had to fight many petty battles on his way, but was always suc- 
cessful. On reaching Mascara, he resolved to set it on fire, which he did on the 8th 
Dec., and then commenced his retreat, in which his army suffered severely from 
bad weather, and from perpetual harassments by the enemy. Abd-el-Kader was soon 
more powerful than ever, and Gen. Bugeaud had to be sent out from France with rein- 
forcements ; but nothing came of this save a few fruitless victories over Abd-el-Kader, 
which did the latter no real harm. Bugeaud was at length compelled to make peace on 
the 380th May, 1837. Abd-el-Kader recognized the sovereignty of France over the regency : 
he received, in return, the government of the provinces of Oran, Titeri, and Algiers, 
with the exception of the cities of Oran, Arzeu, Masagran, Mostaganem, Algiers, Blidah 
and Koleah, Sahel (or the ‘‘sea-coast’’), and the plain of Metidja. In exchange for the 
city of Tlemzen, he delivered to the French army 60,000 sacks of corn, and 5000 oxen : 
he was likewise permitted to buy arms and ammunition in France. In Feb., 1837, 
Marshal Clausel was recalled, and Lt.-gen. Damrémont succeeded him. The con- 
dition of the colony was at this moment desperate, for the disgraces which followed the 
rash and even reckless measures of Clausel had everywhere lowered the prestige of the 
French army. The duty of the new governor-general was clear, but difficult : he had 
to wipe out the stain which attached to the honor of his soldiery, and to re-create the 
conviction of their superiority. He first attacked the Kabyles of the province of Algiers, 
and chastised them with considerable severity, and then commenced his great work of 
taking Constantine, from which his predecessor had been compelled ignominiously to 
retire. In the month of May, with an army of 12,000 disciplined troops, besides Zuav 
(originally light infantry raised among the natives), bataillons d Afrique (convict-battal- 
ions at first), the tradlleurs d Afrique, and the chasseurs d Afrique, as well as the Spahis 
(a cavalry corps composed of native soldiers commanded by French officers), Damrémont 
marched to the attack of Constantine, and, in spite of fearful weather, succeeded in 
storming the city on the 13th. This victory laid the foundation for the entire subjuga- 
tion of the province of Constantine, which was completed in the course of the two fol- 
lowing years without any great effort. 

On Dec. 1, 1837, Gen. Valée was appointed governor-general in the stead of 
Damrémont, who had fallen at the storming of Constantine. He, like the others, mis- 
understood the character of Abd-el-Kader when he considered it possible for him to 
remain quiet. .New treaties were made, which only delayed hostilities. Meanwhile, 
the work of colonization went on in spite of numerous obstacles. The province of 
Constantine was much improved by the building of towns and the making of roads ; but 
suddenly, in Oct., 1839, Abd-el-Kader, whose power had now become formidable to 
an unprecedented extent, violated the treaty on an insignificant pretext, and fell upon 
the unprepared French with an overwhelming force. The European settlements in the 
open plain were attacked and laid waste, bodies of French troops were surprised on their 


272 


march and cut to pieces, small outposts and encampments were taken in a moment, and 
by the 24th of Nov. the dominion of the French was confined to the fortified cities and 
camps. Even the settlements in the plain of Metidja were lost. Forty thousand Arabs 
swept over it, and threatened Algiers itself. This state of things demanded energetic 
measures. The spring campaign was vigorously opened on both sides : everywhere the 
French gained splendid successes ; while the heroic defense of the fort of Masagran, 
near Mostaganem (garrisoned by only 128 men), against from 12,000 to 15,000 Arabs, 
who stormed it incessantly, and with the utmost fury, for three days, raised the prestige 
of the invaders higher than ever. Still, however, nothing was really accomplished. 
After repeated bloody defeats, the native tribes again rushed to arms, swept the plains, 
and rendered life insecure at the very gates of Algiers. The only thing of any practical 
importance which took place during the whole year was the beginning of the circum- 
vallation by which the fertile plain of Metidja was to be secured against the hostile in- 
cursions of the Arabs. Marshal Valée was now recalled, and Lt.-gen. Bugeaud appointed 
his successor. The latter arrived at Algiers on Feb. 22, 1841, and adopted a new system, 
which was completely successful. A brave, inexorable, and unscrupulous man, he 
resolved to employ any and every means for the attainment of his purpose. He wearied 
out the enemy by incessant razzias Le Sanaa excursions) against individual tribes, cor- 
rupted them (not a difficult thing to do) by all the arts of bribery, and on special occasions. 
undertook great expeditions to annihilate the regular power of Abd-el-Kader, whose 
strong defensive positions he destroyed, and whose authority he spared no pains to 
undermine. The French army was raised to 80,000 or 100,000 men. Its operations 
were carried on from three principal points. Victory followed Bugeaud wherever he went. 
He relieved and victualed hard-pressed garrisons; intimidated the surrounding country; 
penetrated to Tekedempt—the very stronghold of Abd-el-Kader himself—which he laid 
in ashes ; marched thence to Mascara, which was also taken; and on all sides received 
the submission of the terrified Arabs. Even the hottest period of the summer was made 
use of. Bugeaud bribed and seduced from their allegiance those Arabs who were under 
the sway of Abd-el-Kader. The autumn campaign was for the time decisive. Saida, 
the last fortress belonging to the gallant emir, was utterly destroyed, and now almost 
the entire country was subdued. Abd-el-Kader retired into Morocco, where he raised a 
new army, for his old one had been completely annihilated. He was, however, defeated 
by Gen. Bedeau, and again compelled to retreat into Morocco, from which, however, 
he issued a second time, in the summer of 1842, and contrived to maintain a fierce but 
desultory warfare, for two or three years, aided by the sultan of Morocco. At last, 
however, deserted by most of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in fact, 
hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to surrender toGen. Lamoriciére, at the close 
of Dec., 1847. See ABD-EL-KADER. 

The revolution of Feb., 1848, somewhat disturbed the progress of conquest and sub- 
jugation in A. That superb race of mountaineers, the Kabyles, descendants of the 
ancient Numidians, and possessed of the same fiery and dauntless spirit, broke out into 
a new insurrection, which, however, was speedily quelled. The national assembly 
now offered to the European population of A.to incorporate the country with the republic 
of France, and to grant it all the accompanying political privileges of a French 
province ; but intelligent men of all parties acknowledged the uselessness and 
danger of this step. It was, therefore, simply declared to be a permanent possession 
of the republic. Four deputies from the colony were permitted to take a part in all dis- 
cussions in the national assembly on Algerian affairs. Meanwhile, the work of conquest, 
colonization, and, in some respects, civilization went on. The French troops penetrated 
into the far south, almost to the borders of Sahara, sternly reducing to obedience the 
desert tribes, who manifested a not unnatural antipathy to these inroads, and in some 
cases fiercely resisted the invaders. Various tribes of the Kabyles, too, opposed every at- 
empt at organized taxation, and the imposition of civilized discipline ; the result of which 
ee obstinacy was, anew campaign against them by the French Gen. Bugia. 

ortune again declared for the invaders ; but the most alarming insurrection was that 
excited by the Cherif Bou-zian, who fled for freedom to Zaatcha in the oases. The 
French pursued him thither ; but were beaten, and had to retreat. Some months after, 
they returned largely reinforced, and in spite of the broad belt of palm-trees which 
hindered their operations, and the wild and strenuous heroism of the besieged, the place 
was stormed and destroyed. The defenders all perished. 

In 1853-54, and again in 1856-57, expeditions were organized against the Kabyles, 
though not altogether with the will of the colonists, who could not but recognize the 
great intelligence and industry displayed by that highland race. The struggle was 
sanguinary and barbarous on both sides, but the French at last subdued their enemies. 
For two years (1858-60) the military government of A. was superseded by the institu- 
tion of a special ministerial department for A. and the colonies, which was first of all 
intrusted to Prince Napoleon. In Dec., 1860, however, a military government was re- 
instituted, and Marshal Pelissier made gevernor-general, with a vice-governor under 
him, a director-general for civil affairs, and a council of thirty members. In 18638, the 
Emperor Napoleon announced that he was willing to give the colony a new constitution, 
with a chamber of representatives for provincial affairs; he also addressed a letter to 


Algeria. 


273 


Algeria. 


the governoy-general, in which he explained that A. was no colony in the strict sense of 
the word, but an Arabian kingdom ; and that the natives had the same right to protec- 
tion as the colonists. In 1864, however, strife again arose between the colonists and the 
Arabs ; and it was only after several engagements, during the months of April and May, 
that peace was restored by the submission of the conquered tribes. Pélissier having died 
in May, 1864, Marshal MacMahon was appointed to succeed him. In the following year, 
the emperor himself made a journey to A., and, on March 5 issued a proclamation, in 
which, although explaining to the Arabs that A. must continue to be united to France, 
he promised to maintain their nationality, and at the same time gave them assurance 
that they should always remain in undisturbed possession of their territories. Yet these 
and other measures for conciliating the Arabs were all in vain ; for, shortly after the 
emperor’s return to France, insurrections broke out in the province of Oran and else- 
where. Si-Hamed, a native chief, with 12,000 horsemen at his command, began to har- 
ass those tribes which remained in submission, until he was routed by col. Colomb of 
Geryville, and forced to escape into Sahara: after which, in the beginning of 1867, 
two expeditions, led by Colomb and Souis, succeeding in reducing to submission the 
other tribes which had revolted. In 1867 and 1868, a severe and general famine checked 
the military enterprises of the Arabs ; and there was peace till 1870, when, the Franco- 
Prussian war having begun, the emperor found it necessary to withdraw to Europe the 
greater part of the forces in Africa. _MacMahon’s place was then taken by Gen. Durieu, 
as interim governor-general ; and the natives began to entertain hopes of freeing them- 
selves from the yoke of France. Movements were begun in the provinces of Constantine 
and Oran, which it required all gen. Durieu’s vigilance and activity to hold in check. 
After this, again, some disorder arose among the colonists themselves, who strongly de- 
sired the abolition of the military government—a change which the new republican 
government at Paris soon gratified them by effecting. To Durieu’s place was appointed 
a civil governor, and under him prefects for each of the three provinces. A council was 
formed—composed of the prefects, archbishop, commander of the army, and other mem- 
bers appointed by the French government—with which, in all important cases, the gov- 
ernor has to take counsel. The territory of the Sahara and adjoining districts remain 
exclusively under military rule. 

The French troops still stationed in A. consist of one “corps d’armée, and a terri- 
torial army reserve of Zouaves, cavalry, and artillery. It is said that the possession of 
A. has cost France the lives of 150,000 men, besides $600,000,000 in money. The revenue 
of A..is derived chiefly from indirect taxes, licenses, and customs duties on imports. In 
1896 it was about 53 million francs a year, and the expenditure about 74 million. The 
cost of maintaining the army, however, is not included in the expenditure, being pro- 
vided out of the French budget. 

Since the subjugation of A., the French have conferred various benefits on the colo- 
nists and native tribes, not the least important of which has been the digging of Artesian 
wells (q.v.). In May, 1856, a ‘“‘ boring’’ was commenced in an oasis of the Sahara or 
desert of the province of Constantine. A civil engineer, a sergeant of Spahis, and a de- 
tachment of soldiers of the foreign legion, succeeded in bringing to light a splendid foun- 
tain or river, yielding not less than 4010 quarts of water per minute. The work was 
considered a miracle. From all quarters the Arabs flocked to behold and enjoy it. The 
native priests blessed it, naming it the ‘‘ Fountain of Peace.’’ Another well was termed 
the ‘‘ Fountain of Benediction.’’ In the oasis of Sidi-Rached, unproductive for want of 
water, a well was dug, and a depth of 54 métres yielded 4800 quarts per minute. It is 
known as the ‘‘ Fountain of Gratitude,’’ and the enthusiasm excited at its opening was 
boundless. The idea of providing such wells has rightly been considered ‘‘a stroke of 
strong political wisdom.”’ 

The government has done service to the colonists by encouraging the formation of 
banking-companies, etc. In 1895 there were about 1961 m. of railway in operation, 
including the lines into Tunis, from Algiers to Oran, from the sea to Constantine and 
Setif and from Bona to the mines of Ain Mokra, A telegraph cable was laid in 1870 
between Bona and Marseilles. In 1894, 3602 vessels of 2,164,628 tons entered Algerian 
ports. 

It would be too much to affirm that the colonization of A. has advanced rapidly. 
The French government has acted neither very promptly nor very liberally towards set- 
tlers; and the number of formalities which require to be gone through before one can 
properly secure the land which he has purchased, often disgusts the poor farmer. How- 
ever, great efforts have been made for the improvement of agriculture. The population 
engaged in agriculture in 1894 was 3,481,285, of whom 201,541 were Europeans. The 
total exports of A. amounted (1894) to over $48,000,000; the imports to about $52,000,000. 
In 1894, £310,822 worth of alfa fibre or esparto and other fibres for making paper 
were exported to Great Britain. A number of Mohammedan schools for instruction in: 
French and Arabic have been established, and are regularly attended by pupils of both 
sexes, who learn to read and write fluently in the French language, and to keep accounts. 
In Algiers itself there are several of these schools, where female children are taught sew- 
ing. Thus, although progress is slower than might have been anticipated, it is real, and 
its pace accelerating. When fierce memories have been softened by time, and such atroci- 


Alghero. 974 


Alhambra. 


ties as those of Dahra (q.v.) have been forgotten in the substantial blessings which an 
enlightened civilization cannot fail to bestow, the presence of the French in A. will 
cease to be deplored by the natives. Being anxious to secure land in Algeria, and pro: 
mote colonization among Europeans, the government appropriated lands belonging tc 
nomadic tribes and Kabyles. This action was severely censured, as a breach of the set- 
tlement of 1830, which agreed to the protection of all Mohammedans, in regard to both 
property and religion. It is not the intention of the government to refuse compensation 
for the lands or to reduce the necessary amount of pasturage required by the sheep-grow- 
ing tribes. 

“The country is divided officially into civil territory and military territory, and there 
are three divisions of each. Pop. in 1891: 


Territories. Sq. Miles. - Civil Districts. Military Districts. 
Algteva Qtnn. eae 65,929 1,275,650 192,477 
Oran sts neatibes ene 44,616 817,450 124,616 
Constantine s<cec-ss cess 73,929 1,543,867 170,672 

Total cc ces cktecste sire 184,474 3,636,967 487,765 


ALGHER'0, or ALGHERI, a sea-port on the w. coast of the island of Sardinia, 15 m. 
s.w. from Sassari. It is well defended towards the sea, being built on a rocky point, 
and surrounded by thick walls, but is commanded by some hills which overhang the town. 
A. has a cathedral, several convents, a college, and public schools. It exports wine, 
tobacco, anchovies, skins, coral, bones, etc. It was a favorite residence of Charles V., 
in whose time it belonged to Spain. Pop. 10,000. 


ALGIERS’ (Arabic, Al-jezira, the island), the capital of Algeria, was built about 9385 
A.D. by an Arab chief. It rises from the sea-shore up the sides of a precipitous hill in 
the form of an equilateral triangle. The apex is formed by the Casbah, the ancient 
fortress of the deys, which is 500 ft. above the sea-level, and commands the whole town. 
The base is a mile in length. The present city may be regarded as divided into two parts: 
the old, or high town; and the new, or low town. With the exception of some mosques, 
the latter consists of wharfs, warehouses, government houses, squares, and streets, 
principally built and inhabited by the French, while the former is almost wholly Moorish 
both in its edifices and inhabitants. The great center of bustle and activity in A. is the 
Place Royale—a large oblong space in the center of the town, planted with orange and 
lime trees, and surrounded by houses in the European style. Here may be found as 
motley a crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of all nations—Arabs, Moors, Jews, 
French, Spaniards, Maltese, Germans, Italians, etc. The city is intersected by two large 
parallel streets, Bab-el-Ouad and Bab-azoun, running n. and s. for more than half 
a mile. They are flanked by colonnades, but are very narrow, and therefore incon- 
venient for traffic; as promenades, however, nothing could be more agreeable. In 1833, 
A. had upwards of 100 mosques and marabouts. The mosques are divided into two 
classes—the djamas, or principal mosques, and the mesjids, or inferior mosques. The 
marabouts are the tombs and sanctuaries of saints. Everywhere A. wears the aspect of 
a rising colonial city. Other towns in the province still retain their oriental character, 
with the exception of a few military buildings; but the new town of A. might deceive 
the traveler into the belief that he is still in Europe, were it not for the throng of 
swarthy faces he meets. The streets are regular, spacious, and elegant; some of them as 
handsome as the Parisian boulevards, and adorned with arcades. The shops, too, are 
occasionally very good. The houses are in some instances five stories high, which, 
though it gives a massive and imposing appearance to the city, is yet a very perilous 
innovation in a place which has suffered dreadfully from earthquakes. } 

But perhaps greater interest attaches to the old Moorish town, which is connected with 
the new by a steep, narrow, jagged-looking street called the Casbah, leading down from 
the fortress of the deys. The houses are square, substantial, flat-roofed; rise irregularly 
one over the other, and have no windows, but only peep-holes, which are intended to 
exclude impertinent eyes, and are therefore fortified with iron gratings instead of glass, 
so that the houses have a very prison-like appearance. Although the streets at first _ 
contrast unfavorably with those of Europe, on account of their narrowness, the coolness 
which this secures soon reconciles the traveler to other inconveniences. The inhabitants 
have recourse to their flat roofs or terraces in the evening, to enjoy the delicious sea- 
breeze. The French have introduced many useful reforms. There are conduits in every 
part of the city, public baths, coffee-houses, hotels, omnibuses, etc. The markets are 
held in the squares de Chartres, Mahon, and d’Isly. Horse-racing is the great amuse- 
ment. The Arabs are passionately fond of it. The French have also improved, at great 
expense and labor, the port, which was in a precarious condition. The town has 
supreme courts of justice, a chamber and tribunal of commerce, a college and schools, a 
Catholic cathedral and several churches, a French Protestant church, a synagogue, a 
bazaar for the exhibition of native industry, theaters, and banks. 

A., which had been wretchedly misgoverned by a long succession of Turkish deys, fell 
into the hands of the French in 1830 (see ALGERIA), Who swept away every trace of the 
ferocious despotism that had prevailed. The Turks withdrew in great numbers to Tunis 
and Alexandria. Pop. in ’91, 82,585 : of which about a third was French. 


yi i 5 Alghero. 
Alhambra. 


ALGIERS, a former village of Orleans parish, La., opposite the city of New Orleans on 
the s. bank of the Mississippi; now a part of New Orleans, with which it is connected 
by ferry. 


ALGO’A BAY, an extensive inlet at the e. extremity of the s. coast of Africa, being 
intersected by the parallel of Cape Town, from which it is distant about 8 degrees of 
longitude. Its anchorage is sheltered, excepting on the se., the holding-ground being 
excellent. It receives two rivers, the Sunday and the Baasher. At the mouth of the 
latter is Port Elizabeth. A. B. is the harbor of the eastern province, by far the most 
flourishing section of the colony; and it will ever be locally memorable as the landing- 
place of about 4000 souls in 1820, the first British emigration to this once Dutch posses- 
sion, Since then, the trade of the bay has steadily and rapidly increased. See further, 
Cape oF Goop Hope, 


AL’GOL, a remarkable variable star in the constellation Perseus. It continues of 
the second magnitude for about 62 hours, then in three and a half hours it dwindles to 
the fourth magnitude, remains so for about 20 minutes, and in three and a half hours 
more gradually returns to its greatest brilliance, its variations being completed in about 
69 hours. 


ALGOMA, a n.w. district of the province of Ontario, on lakes Huron and Superior ; 
famous for mines of silver, copper, tin, iron, and for abundance of lumber. Pop. in 1891, 
41,856 ; chief t., Sault Ste. Marie. 


ALGON’QUINS. The A. formed the most prominent of the three aboriginal races that 
the French found in the great basin of the St. Lawrence. They were then the lords not 
merely of the best part of Canada, but of much adjacent territory to then. and w. At 
the present day, the A. as well as the Hurons and Iroquois, exist, at least within the | 
pale of settlement, only as the shadow of a mighty name, being chiefly confined to 
several miserable villages, with hardly anything of civilization but its individual help- 
lessness. This deplorable result, from whatever causes it may have arisen, is certainly 
not to be imputed either to oppression or to indifference on the part of the French, who, 
politically, religiously, and socially, have always treated the red man with consideration 
and humanity. On this interesting subject, see further under the general head of 
AMERICA. 


AL 'GUACIL, or ALGUAzIL (derived from the Arabic Wasil, i.e., the ‘‘ power” derived 
from the king), is the general name in Spain of the officers intrusted with the execution 
of justice. There are ‘‘ Alguaciles mayores,” who either inherit the office of executing 
justice in a town asa hereditary right belonging to their families, or are chosen to the office 
by the municipality; formerly, the name was also given to the officers that executed the 
sentences or orders of tribunals, such as the tribunal of the Inquisition, and of the vari- 
ous orders of knights. But usually, under the name of A. is understood the ‘‘ Algua- 
ciles menores,” or ‘‘ ordinarios,” that is to say, the attendants or officers of the courts of 
justice, gens-d’armes, bailiffs—in short, all the inferior officers of justice and police. 


ALHA’GI. See Manna. 


ALHAMA (Arab. The Bath; the Roman Astigia Juliensis), a t. of Andalusia, Spain, 
in the province of Granada, 25 m. s.w. from Granada. Its situation is extremely pic- 
turesque, on the edge of a projecting rock, overhanging a deep chasm of limestone hills, 
through which the river Marchan foams, and with mountains in the background rising 
to a height of 8000 ft. Vineyards and gardens mingled with the houses on the steep 
slopes add to the interest of the scene. A. is a decayed t., although its warm sulphu- 
reous baths are still frequented by visitors in the beginning and end of summer. The 
Moors derived a large revenue from its baths. It was a famous fortress of the Moors: 
and its capture, in 1482, prepared the way for that of Granada. There are still remains 
of the Moorish castle and town wall. There are ruins also of a Roman aqueduct: the 
principal bath still in use is a Moorish edifice; and a smaller one is supposed to be 
Roman. It was visited by an earthquake in 1884. Pop. 7758. 


ALHAMA, at. of Murcia, Spain, 19 m. s.w. from Murcia. Ii is celebrated for its 
warm mineral waters, and is resorted to for bathing. It hasa ruined castle. Pop. 7000. 


ALHAM’BRA is the name given to the fortress which forms a sort of acropolis or 
citadel to the city of Granada, and in which stood the palace of the ancient Moorish 
kings of Granada, The name is a corruption of the Arabic Kal’-at al hamra, ‘‘the red 
castle.’”’ It is surrounded by a strong wall, more than a mile in circuit, and studded 
with towers. The towers on the n. wall, which is defended by nature, were used as 
residences connected with the palace. One of them contains the famous Hall 9f the 
Ambassadors. The famous Hall of the Abencerrages, the most beautiful in the palace, was 
the scene of the massacre of the Abencerrages (q. v.). The remains of the Moorish palace 
are called by the Spaniards the Casa Real. It was begun by Ibnu-l-ahmar, and con- 
tinued by his successors, 1248-1348. The portions still standing are ranged round two 
oblong courts, one called the Court of the Fishpond, the other the Court of the Lions. They 
consist of porticoes, pillared halls, cool chambers, small gardens, fountains, mosaic 
pavements, ete. The lightness and elegance of the columns and arches, and the richness 
of the ornamentation, are unsurpassed. The coloring is but little altered by time. 
The most characteristic parts of the Casa Real have been reproduced in the ‘‘ Alhambra 


Alhaurinel. re 
Alien. 2 ( 6 


Court”? of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. A great part of the ancient palace was 
removed to make way for the palace begun by Charles V., but never finished. ‘The palace 
was partially restored by Isabella in 1862, but was damaged by fire in 1890. See illus., 
Sparn, vol. XIII., ARCHITECTURE, Vol. L., fig. 6. 


‘EL GRAN'DE, at. of Granada, Spain, in the province of Malaga, and 19 
m. Be ecaae on the n. side of the Sierra de Mijas, and near the Faala, an affluent 
of the Quadalherce. It is a well-built t., with a number of squares, wide, well-paved 
streets, and many fountains. There are remains of a Roman aqueduct and of an Arab 
fortification. Many of the inhabitants are employed in quarries and mines. Pop. 8400. 


ALHA’ZEN, or Apu Att AL-HAsAN Inn AL-HASAN, d. 1038: a mathematician. He 
declared that he could construct a machine that would regulate the inundations of the 
Nile, but when the caliph directed him to make it he feigned madness. A. made valu- 
able discoveries in optics, and it was he and not Ptolemy who explained why planets 
appear largest when near the horizon. He also taught, in advance of Vitello, that 
vision does not result from the emission of rays from the eye. 


ALHON’DEGA, a fortified granary near Guanajuato, Mexico, where, in 1810, in 
the beginning of the revolution against Spain, the commander of the city of Mexico 
took refuge and was captured after severe fighting by the insurgents under Hidalgo. 
About 2000 were slain in the city, a single family losing 17 members; and all their 
houses were destroyed. When the Spaniards in the granary had exhausted their stock 
of cannon bails, they used quicksilver flasks—some say bags of silver dollars, also— 
whach did terrible execution. 


ALTA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 30 m. s.e. from Palermo, pictu- 
resquely situated on the crest of a hill, in a mountainous and craggy district, near a 
torrent called the Fiume Torto. Pop. 5000. 


A’LIAS, at ‘‘another time,” or by ‘‘another name;” as Jones alias Smith ; ie., he 
calls himself by either name. An “A. writ’ is one issued where one of the same kind 
has issued before in the same cause. 


ALIBAUD, Louts, 1810-36, notorious for his attempt to murder King Louis-Philippe, 
was, at the revolution of July, quarter-master in the 15th regiment of the line. Having 
been degraded subsequently for an accidental brawl in the streets of Strasbourg, he de- 
manded his discharge in 1834, and went to live at Perpignan, and then at Barcelona, 
where, having become a fanatical republican, he returned to Paris, with the determination 
to murder the king. A weariness of life had also seized him, so great, that he thought of 
suicide. It was on the 25th of June, 1836, at the moment that the king, when driving 
through the gate of the Tuileries, bowed to the national guard as they presented arms, 
that A. fired the well-aimed ball, which passed close by the king’s head. Being 
immediately seized, he regretted nothing but the failure of his attempt. After a short 
trial he was sentenced to death, and was guillotined on the 11th of July. 


A’LI-BEN-ABI-TA’LEB, the first convert to Mohammedanism, and fourth caliph, was 
the bravest and most faithful follower of the prophet, whose daughter, Fatima, he mar- 
ried. Being made caliph in the place of the murdered Othman, he was victorious over 
the rebels in ninety engagements. He took prisoner Ayesha, the young widow of 
Mohammed, and his greatest enemy, in the battle of the Camel—so called because Ayesha 
appeared in the field riding ona camel. Ali was murdered by a fanatic in the year 660. 
He was buried near Kufa, where a monument was afterwards erected to him, to which 
his votaries still go on pilgrimage, and which caused the building of the city Medjed 
Ali. The religious sect formed by the followers of Ali, called Shiites (q.v.), has 
spread extensively under that name in Persia and Tartary. The descendants of Ali and 
Fatima, called the Fatimides (q.v.), although much persecuted by the Ommiades, have 
nevertheless ruled on the banks of the Nile and of the Tagus, in West Africa and in 
Syria. The best edition of the proverbs or maxims ascribed to Ali has been published 
by Fleischer (Ali’s Hundred Proverbs, Arabian and Persian, Leip. 1887); Ali’s Divan, the 
most complete collection of his lyrical poems, mostly on religious subjects, appeared 
in 1840 at Bulak, near Cairo. 


ALIBERT, JEAN Louis, 1766-1837; physician to Louis XVIII. and author of 
Description of Diseases of the Skin, and other useful works. 


A'LI-BEY, 1728-73 ; a native of the Caucasus, and a slave when a boy. He rose to 
be governor of the province ; intrigued for more power, but voluntarily fled from Eysin 
to upper Egypt. In 1766, he returned to Cairo, and, seizing the government, freed him- 
self from_the power of the sultan, coined money, and assumed the rank of sultan of 
Egypt. Soon afterwards he captured and plundered Mecca, and undertook to conquer 
all Syria. At Damascus, June 6, 1771, he routed the Turks with great slaughter and 
took possession of the city through his general, Mohammed; but the latter turned 
against him and drove him from Cairo, when A. fled to Syria, defeated the Turkish 
army, and captured Sidon and Jaffa. On the way to Egypt he was attacked in the 
desert by Murad Bey, his wife’s lover, and made prisoner, dying soon afterwards from 
wounds or poison. 


' Alhaurinel 
2 § 7 Alien. 


AL'IBI, Lat., signifying ‘‘elsewhere.” This is a defense resorted to in criminal 
prosecutions, when the party accused, in order to prove that he could not have com- 
mitted the crime with which he is charged, tenders evidence to the effect that he was in 
a different place at the time the offense was committed. When true, there can be no 
better proof of innocence ; but as offering the readiest and most obvious opportunity for 
false evidence, it is always regarded with suspicion. In the case of crimes the place of 
committing which is immaterial—as, for example, the act of fabricating the plates, or 
of throwing off the spurious notes, in a case of forgery—a proof of A. is of no avail. 

ALICANTE, chief t. of a province of the same name in Spain. The province, formed 
of parts of the old kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, contained, ’87, 489,638 inhabitants. 
The t., one of the most considerable seaports of Spain, is strongly fortified, has 33,050 
inhabitants, and is the staple place for the products of Valencia, especially soda, cotton 
and linen fabrics, ropes, corn, oil, silk, and the wine of the neighboring district, 
known as A. or vino tiénto, on account of its dark color. A good dea! of this rough, and 
at the same time sweet, wine is used to doctor thin clarets for the British market. In 
1331 the t. was besieged by the Moors; and again by the French under Asfeld in 1709. 
In 1878, it was unsuccessfully bombarded by the Cartagenan insurgents. 


ALICA'TA or LICATA, at. of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, and 26 m. s.e. 
from Girgenti. It is most beautifully situated on the sea-coast, at the mouth of the 
Salsa (anc. Himera Meridionalis), one of the largest rivers, if not the largest, in Sicily ; 
its buildings stretch along the shore, and occupy the steep slope of the hill, which is 
crested by the great old fortress, now indeed of little strength, but of imposing appear- 
ance. On the brow of a hill to the w. of the town is the dismantled castle of St. 
Angelo, said to occupy the site of that in which the tyrant Phalaris kept the brazen bull, 
his celebrated instrumeftt of torture. A. itself is generally believed to stand on the spot 
where the ancient PAzntias was built (280 B.c.) by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, after 
he had destroyed Gela, the inhabitants of which he transferred hither. The place and 
immediate neighborhood were the scene of some memorable battles in the wars between 
the Carthaginians and Sicilians, and between the Carthaginians and Romans. In the 
middle ages A. suffered severely from the depredations of Barbary corsairs. It has a 
very bad port, the sea being so shallow that only vessels of small size can approach the 
town; larger vessels are compelled to anchor about a mile from the town, and are 
loaded and unloaded by the aid of small craft. Yet A. has a considerable trade, 
exporting corn, macaroni, fruit, almonds, pistachio nuts, sulphur, soda, and wines. 
Pop. 17,600. 


ALICE MAUD MARY, Princess, 1843-78 ; second daughter of Queen Victoria, prin- 
cess of England, grand duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt. She was the best known and most 
beloved of all the queen’s daughters, and became especially dear to the English during 
herfather’s fatal illness, when hername became ‘‘synonymous with a father’s farewell and 
a mother’s consolation.” She was married to Prince Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, July 1, 
1862. The young couple remained a year or more in England, and their eldest daughter, 
Princess Victoria, was born in Windsor Castle. Her married life was happy, and prom- 
ised to be as fruitful as that of her mother, for at her death she left five daughters and 
two sons, but of the last two only the eldest is living, the other having been accidentally 
killed by falling from a window in May, 1878. The youngest girl died of diphtheria a 
few days before the mother, whose death was occasioned by the same disease. Princess 
A. was active in hospital work during the Franco-German wur : was a constant visitor at 
the Alice Hospital, in Darmstadt, and presided over the ‘‘ Alice Frauenverein,” an associ- 
ation of women for charitable purposes. She was zealous in many reform movements, 
and was a generous patron of literature and education. Her only son was sent to = kin- 
dergarten for education, and she positively stipulated that no distinction whatever was to 
be made or permitted between him and the other pupils. She died on the anniversary 
of the death of her father. See her Letters, with memoir (1884). 


A/LIEN. In the United States, an alien is a person born out of the national 
jurisdiction of the country, who has not been made a citizen according to law. Chil- 
dren of U. S. ministers, born abroad, are citizens ; so are children born abroad whose 
father has been a citizen and resident of the United States ; so are children of American 
parents born at sea on vessels under the flag. An A. is not subject to military or jury 
duty ; nor, though naturalized, can he be president or vice-president of the United 
States. With regard to the two usual modes of acquiring property, by purchase, and 
by descent, an A. may acquire title by purchase, conveyance, or devise ; and may hold, 
in the absence of restraining statutes, subject to an inquiry by the state ; then if he be 
found legally an A., the land may be adjudged to the state. But such confiscation is 
rare, the occasions being generally met by special acts of legislature authorizing by his 
name ‘‘an alien to hold,” etc. An A. can convey no better title than he possesses. In 
case of descent, no title passes and no inquest is necessary; so a citizen’s brother may 
inherit froma brother though their father was an A. The drift of statutes, and especially 
of late legislation, is liberal towards aliens. In most states an intention to become a 
citizen puts the A. almost on the plane with a citizen. In taking, holding, and dispos- 
ing of personal property there is no difference between the rights of an A. and of a citi- 
zen. But laws of congress prevent an A. from procuring copyrights. An A. enemy 


“ 


A apr 278 


cannot make a legal contract with a citizen ; such contract is unlawful from its incep 
tion : but an A. friend, resident or not, may sustain an action in our courts for invasions 
of personal or property rights. The act of 1798 authorizes the removal of the aliens of 
a country with which we may be at war; and, on the commencement of a war, the A. 
of the enemy loses his status in courts, and his property can be confiscated; but these 
statutes have never been enforced. There was once a custom of having a jury half of 
aliens when an A. was party to a suit, but that custom is disused. 


ALIGARH’. See ALLYGURH. 


ALIGN’MENT, a term used in military tactics, equivalent to ‘‘in line.” Thus the 
A. of a battalion is effected when the men are drawn up in line; the A. of acamp is a 
rectilinear arrangement of the tents, according to some prearranged plan. 


ALIMEN TARY CANAL, in mammalia, is that portion of the digestive apparatus 
through which the food passes after mastication. It is lined by a mucous membrane, 
which extends from the lips to the anus, being modified in each region. See Mucous 
MEMBRANE. The A. C. really begins at the back of the mouth, in the lower part of 
the bag called the pharynx, which communicates with the nostrils above, and the gullet 
or esophagus below, and also with the mouth and the larynx. The pharynx is sur- 
rounded by three muscles, the constrictors, which grasp the food, and force it into the 
next portion of the A. C., the cesophagus. This is a tube composed of an outer layer 
of longitudinal muscular fibers, and an inner of circular, which extend down to, and 
spread out upon the stomach. These fibers, by a series of peristaltic contractions, carry 
the morsel of food along into the stomach. In vomiting, there is a reversal of these 
actions, which ruminating animals can accomplish at will. The cesophagus passes 
through an opening in the diaphragm, and joins the stomach, which is a pouch curved 
with the concavity upwards, expanded into a cul de sac on the left side (the cardiac 
extremity), and gradually narrowed to the right or pyloric end. It consists of muscular 
fibers continuous with those of the cesophagus, which become thicker towards the 
pylorus. Its external surfaces are covered by peritoneum, and it is lined by a thick soft 
mucous membrane, which, when the stomach is empty, lies in folds. Between the mus- 
cular and mucous layers is a fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels lie before they pass 
into the mucous layer. See Stromacu. At its pyloric or left extremity the stomach 
communicates with the small intestine, which is about 20 ft. in length, becoming gradu- 
ally narrow towards its lower end, and arranged in numerous convolutions, which occupy 
the middle of the abdominal cavity, and are kept in position by the peritoneum, which 
attaches them to the back of the abdomen. 

The small intestine is subdivided into three parts. The first, 10 inches from the 
stomach, is the duodenum, into which open the duct of the pancreas and the common 
bile duct ; of the remainder, the jeyunwm includes about two fifths, and the zlewm, three 
fifths. The differences between these last two are not visible externally, but consist in 
modifications of their internal structure. The tube consists of peritoneum, longitudinal 
and circular muscular fibers, a fibrous layer, anda mucous membrane. See INTESTINES, 
SMALL. 

The ileum ends at the right iliac region in the large intestine, which is from 5 to 6 
ft. in length. It begins at the pouch called the blind gut (caput caecum coli) or cul 
de sac (see Cacum), which has a small worm-like appendage (appendix vermiformis) ; 
a double valve guards the opening of thesmall into the large intestine. The colon passes 
upwards on the right side to below the liver (ascending colon), then crosses from the 
right hypochondrium across the upper umbilical to the left hypochondrium (transverse 
colon), then descends to the left iliac fossa (descending colon), when it bends twice like 
an § (sigmoid flexure), and then joins the rectum at the left margin of the true pelvis. 
The colon is distinguished by its pouched or sacculated appearance, the sacs being 
separated by three flat bands of longitudinal muscular fibers. The peritoneum only 
covers itin parts. See Coton. The rectum is not sacculated, but its muscular coat 
becomes much thicker ; at its lower end the longitudinal fibers stop, but the muscular 
become more numerous, forming the internal sphincter muscle. The rectum is not 
straight, but takesa curved course. 

The A. C. thus consists of a continuous passage lined by mucous membrane, which 
rests on a fibrous and muscular basement. Its length is generally about five or six times 
the length of the body, or, in other words, about 30 ft. It begins below the base of the 
skull and passes through the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, and consists shortly of the 
mouth, pharynx, cesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The above 
is the description of the A. C. in human anatomy ; its parts are variously modified in 
different animals, as will be found in the articles on its several subdivisions. 


AL'IMONY signifies, in American law, the allowance which a married woman is entitled 
to receive out of her husband’s estate, on separation or divorce a mensé et thoro. It is 
generally proportioned to the rank and quality of the parties. Where the wife elopes 
and lives with an adulterer, the law allows her no A. By Scotch legal writers the term 
is sometimes used as synonymous with aliment. 


279 AT Eth. 


In the United States jurisdiction with regard to alimony is conferred in general on 
courts of equity. A.is of two sorts, pendente lite, and permanent. The object of the 
first is to enable a wife to carry on litigation with her husband, by securing her support 
during the pendency of suits. Should she have sufficient means of her own, no allow- 
ance would be made; the amount is fixed at the discretion of the court, and may be 
changed by the same authority. Permanent A. isa periodical allowance from a husband 
decreed to a wife as the result of litigation in her favor. If the result be against her, no 
allowance is made. The amount varies with the means or position of the husband, but 
is usually from a third to one half of his income, and is subject to change from time to 
time as the court finds circumstances to warrant. The court can prevent a husband 
from leaving the state if he means thereby to avoid payment ; or the wife can enforce 
her claim in the federal courts, if the two are citizens of different states. In some states 
A. becomes a lien on the husband’s real estate ; or the court may compel him to give 
security for its prompt payment ; or, in proper cases, the husband may be restrained by 
injunction from so disposing of his property as to place it beyond the reach of the 
court. 


ALI PASHA, one of the most ferocious and unscrupulous men that even the east has 
produced, was descended from an Albanian pasha, who perished at the siege of Corfu 
in 1716. He was b. at Tepelen, a small place at the foot of the Klissoura mountains, 
in Albania, in 1741. His mother was a vindictive and merciless woman, who never 
hesitated to employ the most revolting means of accomplishing her purposes. Hav- 
ing lost his father, a comparatively quiet and enlightened man, his education necessarily 
devolved upon her ; and she did not fail to inspire him with the same remorseless senti- 
ments that animated herself. His youth was passed in extreme peril and hardship, for 
the neighboring pashas combining, had robbed his father of nearly all his possessions, in 
the ‘effort to recover which, young Ali was repeatedly defeated, and at last had to 
betake himself to the mountains, and even to pledge his sword to save himself from dying 
of hunger. These calamities were not calculated to soften the native ferocity of his dis- 
position ; they only nurtured a mingled boldness and cunning, which afterwards devel- 
oped itself in a variety of qualities, such as subtlety, dissimulation, foresight, treachery, 
vigor, and diabolical cruelty. It is said that the change in his fortune arose from his 
having accidentally discovered a chest of gold, with which he raised an army of 2000 
men, gained his first victory and entered Tepelon in triumph. On the very day of his 
return, he murdered his brother; and then imprisoned his mother in the harem on the 
charge of poisoning him, where she soon after died. He next reconciled himself to the 
porte by helping to subdue the rebellious vizier of Scutari ; and thus acquired not only the 
lands that had been wrested from his father, but likewise several Greek cities. He also 
attacked and slew (with the permission of the sultan) Selim, pasha of Delvino, and, as a 
reward, was appointed lieutenant to the new pasha of Derwend ; but instead of attend- 
ing to the security of the high-roads (which was his office), he rendered them more 
insecure than ever, by participating in the plunder which the klephtis (robbers) were 
allowed to make. The result was, his deposition by the porte ; but he speedily purchased 
back its favor, for he was a master-hand at bribery. Shortly after this, he acquired a 
high reputation as a soldier, and did such good service to the Turks in their Austro- 
Russian war of 1787, that he was named pasha of Trikala in Thessaly ; at the same time 
he seized Janina or Joannina, of which he got himself appointed pasha by the instru- 
mentality of terror, a forged firman, and bribery. It must be admitted that, as a ruler, he 
now displayed many excellent qualities. He swept his old friends, the robbers, from 
the mountain-roads, incorporated them into military troops, quelled the wretched 
factions that prevailed, and everywhere introduced order in the place of anarchy by the 
vigor and vigilance of his administration. 

A short time after this, he entered into an alliance with Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
sent him engineers. When Bonaparte was defeated in Egypt, Ali, in 1798, took the 
places in Albania possessed by the French. After a three years’ war, he subdued the 
Suliotes, for which the Porte promoted him to be governor of Roumania. About this 
time, he revenged upon the inhabitants of Gardiki an injury done to his mother 40 
years before, by the murder of 789 male descendants of the original offenders, who 
themselves were all dead. 

In the interior of his dominions, Ali maintained the strictest order and justice. Secu- 
rity and peace reigned, high-roads were constructed, and industry flourished, so that 
the European travelers, with whom he willingly held intercourse, considered him an 
active and intelligent governor. From the year 1807, when he once more entered into 
an alliance with Napoleon, the dependence of Ali on the porte was merely nominal. 
Having failed, however, in his principal object, which was to obtain, at the peace of 
Tilsit, through the influence of Napoleon, Parga, on the coast of Albania, and the Jonian 
islands, he now entered into an alliance with the English, to whom he made many con- 
cessions. In return for these, they granted Parga, nominally to the sultan, but really 
to Ali. As he now considered his power to be securely established, he caused the 
commanders of the Greek armatoles (or Greek militia), who had hitherto given him 
assistance, to be privately assassinated one by one, while at the same time he put to 
death the assassins, to save himself from the suspicion of having been their instigator. 


- 


li t. 
Aiea 2 80 


The porte at length determined to put an end to the power of this daring rebel ; and 
in 1820, Sultan Mahmoud sentenced him to be deposed. Ali resisted for a time several 
pashas that were sent against him ; but at last surrendered, on the security of an oath 
that his life and property would be granted him. Regardless of this, he was put to 
death, Feb. 5, 1822. Ali possessed, indisputably, great natural gifts, but along with 
them a character of the worst description. He never scrupled to use any means, pro- 
vided it speedily secured his end. Yet we can hardly help admiring the singular talent 
which he invariably displayed. Like many other half-civilized monarchs and chiefs who 
have lived within the sphere of European influence, he was keenly alive to whatever 
transpired among the powers of Christendom. Though utterly illiterate himself, he 
had all the foreign journals translated and read to him. He watched every political 
change, as if conscious that the interests of his little region depended for their future 
prosperity on the west, and not on the east; and made friendly advances to both the 
French and the English. 
ALI PASHA. See AALI PASIA. 


AL'IQUOT PART. One quantity or number is said to be an A. P. of another, when it 
is contained in this other an exact number of times without remainder. Thus 2, 24, 4, 
and 5 are A. parts of 20, being contained in it 10, 8, 5, and 4 times. The consideration 
of A. parts occurs chiefly in the rule of Practice. Suppose we have to find the price of 
a number of articles at 63d. : since 3d. is the 8th part of 6d., to the price at 6d. (which 
is found at once in shillings, by taking half the number of articles) add 4 of that price. 


ALISMA'CEZ, a natural order of monocotyledonous plants, consisting of herbaceous 
plants either floating in water or growing in swamps. The leaves have parallel veins, 
even if expanded into a broad blade. The flowers are in umbels, racemes, or panicles ; 
the sepals 3, the petals 3, the number of stamens definite or indefinite. The ovaries 
are several, superior, one-celled, distinct or united ; the styles and stigmas equal to them 
in number. The fruit is dry, with one or two seeds in each carpel ; the seeds exalbumi- 
nous.—There are about 50 known species, excluding the natural order JUNCAGINEA, 
which is very nearly allied, and is included in this by some botanists. The species of 
both orders are chiefly natives of the northern parts of the world. WATER PLANTAIN 
(alisma plantago) is a very common plant in stagnant waters in Britain, and is not desti- 
tute of beauty. Its leaves, which have. long footstalks, shoot up above the water, and 
amongst them but far above them rises the erect scape or leafless stem, dividing into 
slender whorled branches and branchlets, among which the little flowers appear to lie 
thinly scattered. The fleshy rhizome, or root-stock, is eaten by the Calmucks, after it 
has been deprived of its acridity by drying. The corms of the ARROWHEAD (sagittaria\ 
possess somewhat similar properties. See ARROWHEAD. 


ALISON, Rev. ARCHIBALD, was b. in Edinburgh in 1757. He studied at the university 
of Glasgow, and afterwards at Oxford. He took orders in the church of England in 
1784, and subsequently held several preferments, among others a prebendal stall in 
Salisbury, and the perpetual curacy of Kenley, in Shropshire. From 1800, Mr. A. ceased 
to reside in England, and officiated in a chapel in his native city, where he d. in 1839. 
A. is principally known by his Hssays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, first pub- 
lished in 1790. The second edition, in 1811, gave occasion to an article by Jeffrey, in 
the Hdinburgh Review, which brought the book more before the public. It has since 
gone through several editions, and been translated into German and French. The 
Essays advocate what is called the ‘‘association” theory of the sublime and beautiful, 
and are distinguished for their pleasing and elegant style, and the fine feeling that per- 
vades them. See AXSTHETICS. 


ALISON, Sir ARCHIBALD, Bart., b. at Kenley, Shropshire, in 1792, was the younger 
son of the Rev. Archibald A., author of the Hssays on the Nature and Principles of Taste. 
His mother was Dorothea Gregory, daughter of Dr. John Gregory of Edinburgh. In 1800, 
his father removed to the Scottish metropolis, where he had accepted the senior charge 
in the Episcopal chapel in the Cowgate, and thus A. had the advantage of studying ina 
city then, as now, distinguished for its politeness and learning. At Edinburgh univer- 
sity he obtained the highest honors in Greek and mathematics. After he had finished 
his curriculum, he became a member of the Scottish bar in 1814, but spent a consider-. 
able number of years on the continent, before devoting himself to legal avocations. 
In 1822, he was named advocate-depute, which office he held till 1830. He now began 
to appear as a writer on law, politics, and literature. His Principles of the Criminal Law 
of Scotland, published at Edinburgh in 1832, is considered a standard authority on the 
subject. In the following year he published a sequel to the work, entitled The Practice 
of the Criminal Law. In 1834, he was appointed sheriff of Lanarkshire, by Sir Robert 
Peel; in 1845, the students of Aberdeen elected him ‘‘lord rector” of Marischal col- 
lege ; in 1851, he received the same honor from Glasgow university, and subsequently 
the title of D.c.1. from the university of Oxford. He received a baronetcy in 1852. His 
arent work is undoubtedly The History of Europe during the French Revolution (10 vols. 

VO, 1839-42), which narrates the events from 1789 to 1815 ; a continuation, under the 
title of The History of Europe from the Fall of Napoleon to the Accession of Louis Napo- 
leon (9 vols.), was finished in 1859. He also published a Life of the Duke of Marlborough, 
The Principles of Population, etc., Free Trade and Protection, England in 1815 and 1845, 


| Allonow 
281 Albuh el etee, 


besides contributing for many years to Blackwood's Magazine a series of tedious articles 
on tory politics. It is very difficult to characterize Sir A. A.’s magnum opus, The History of 
Hurope. Although a work of immense industry, of very respectable accuracy, written 
with great animation and tolerable candor, it has failed to impress critics with a high 
idea of Sir A. A.’s abilities. The style is at times excessively wordy, and even when 
animated it is never picturesque. Neither has he much insight into events or charac- 
ters. Nevertheless, as his work supplied a felt want, and is sufliciently entertaining for 
a large class of readers, it met with an excessive popularity. It has gone through 
numerous editions, and has been translated into German, French, Arabic, and other lan- 
guages. A. d. May, 1867. 

ALISON, GENERAL Sir ARCHIBALD, Bart., K.c.B., son of the historian ; b. at Edin- 
burgh, 1826; entered the army in 1846; served in the Crimea; in India, where he lost 
an arm ; in the Ashantee expedition, 1873-4, and in Egypt, 1882. He became lieutenant- 
general in 1882, but in 1883 resigned on account of ill health ; was promoted to gen- 
eral, 1889. 


ALISON, WILLIAM PULTENEY, M.D., b. 1790 ; political economist, physician, and pro- 
fessor of the practice of medicine in the univ. of Edinburgh, from which last office he 
retired in 1855; was an elder brother of the historian. He was extremely popular 
with all classes of the community, from the amiable and humane disposition which 
he invariably showed in his efforts to alleviate the sufferings of the poor. A pamphlet 
published by Dr. A., in 1840, to show how the inadequate provision for the poor in 
Scotland led to desolating epidemics, was the principal means of bringing about an 
improved poor-law for that country. His other writings are—Outlines of Physiology 
and Outlines of Pathology and Practice of Medicine. In a work published at Edinburgh 
in 1850, entitled a Dissertation on the Reclamation of Waste Lands, he fully examines 
the subject, and recommends the colonization of these by paupers and criminals. He d. 
Sept., 1859. 

ALIWAL'’, a village near the southern bank of the Sutlej, and not far from the town 
of Loodiana, in lat. 30° 57’ n., long. 75° 36’ e. It was the scene of a fierce conflict 
between the British and Sikh forces on the 28th of Jan., 1846. The latter having 
crossed the river for the purpose of foraging, or otherwise obtaining supplies, had 
threatened Loodiana, when they were attacked by Sir Harry Smith, defeated, and 
driven back with great slaughter. The victory of A. is said by good judges to have 
been ‘‘ without a fault.” 

_ ALIZ’ARIN, the coloring matter used in the dyeing of Turkey red, exists in the mad- 
der root as a glucoside, which, when boiled with acids or alkalies, gives glucose and A. 
In 1869 Graebe and Liebermann discovered a method of manufacturing it from the coal- 
tar product anthracene, this synthesis being the first instance of the artificial production 
of a natural coloring matter. The manufacture of A. is now one of the most important 
branches of the coal-tar coloring industry, and threatens to put an end to the growing of 
madder root. The 14,000 tons of A. produced in 1880 were reckoned equal in coloring 
power to 126,000 tons of madder. But the artificial dye is inferior to the natural in 
permanence. A. is represented by the formula Ci,HeO2OH2). See ANTHRACENE 


AL’KAHEST, or ALCAHEST, the universal solvent of the alchemists. See ALCHEMY. 


AL'KALIES. The word alkali is of Arabic origin, kali being the name of the plant 
from the ashes of which an alkaline substance was first procured. The name now 
denotes a class of substances having similar properties. The alkalies proper are potash, 
soda, lithia, caesia, rubidia, and ammonia. The first five are oxides of metals: the 
last is a compound of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and, being in the form of a gas, 
is called the volatile alkali. Potash being largely present in the ashes of plants, is called 
the vegetable alkali ; and soda, predominating in the mineral] kindom, is designated the 
mineral alkali. The alkaline earths, as they are called—lime, magnesia, baryta, and 
strontia—are distinguished from the former by their carbonates not being soluble in 
water. The distinguishing property of alkalies is that of turning vegetable blues green, 
and vegetable yellows reddish brown. Blues reddened by an acid are restored by an 
alkali. The alkalies have great affinity for acids, and combine with them, forming salts, 
in which the peculiar qualities of both alkali and acid are generally destroyed ; hence 
they are said to neutralize one another. Ina pure state alkalies are extremely caustic, 
and act as corrosive poisons. Combined with carbonic acid, especially as bicarbonates, 
they are used to correct acidity in the stomach ; but the injudicious and continued use of 
them is attended with greut evil. 

ALKALIMETER. Commercial potash and soda always contain greater or less quan- 
tities of foreign substances, such as sulphate of potash, common salt, silicates, oxide of 
iron, water, etc., which diminish the percentage of real alkali in a given weight. It is 
important, then, for the manufacturer to have some simple and ready means of 
determining the proportion of pure carbonate of potash or soda contained in any sample, 
that he may be able to judge of its value. Ordinary chemical analysis takes too much 
time. The A. serves this purpose. It consists of a graduated glass tube, filled with 
diluted sulphuric acid, and containing as much absolute sulphuric acid as would neutral- 
ize a given weight, say 100 grains, of carbonate of potash; 100 grains of the article to 
be judged of is then dissolved in water, and as much acid is gradually added to it from 


Alkaloids. 
Allahabwa. 982 


the tube as to neutralize the solution, that is, take up all the alkali. The application of 
colored tests determines when the neutralization is complete. The purer the article, the 
more of the acid will be required ; and if the tube, which is divided into 100 degrees, 
has been emptied to the 80°, the impure article contains 80 per cent of pure carbonate of 
otash. 

3 This method of determining the strength of alkalies is called the alkalimetry process; 
but the instrument 1s not confined in its use to the estimation of the strength of alkaline 
substances. It is likewise employed in the determination of the strength of acids, such as 
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and acetic acid (vinegar). For this end, the 
graduated instrument is charged with a solution of an alkali of known strength, such as a 
given weight of crystallized carbonate of soda (washing soda), dissolved in water, and ac- 
cording to the number of divisions of the liquid poured from the A., the strength of the 
acid into which the alkaline liquid has been decanted, is calculated. The latter application 
of this instrument is called accdimetry. Again, the same graduated glass tube has been 
recently employed in many other ways, such as the determination of the strength of a 
solution of silver, by charging the instrument with a known or standard solution of 
common salt ; and for this purpose it is used largely by the assayers to the royal mint, 
and other metallurgic chemists. This mode of analysis is every day becoming of more 
and more importance, and, in fact, has given rise to a new department of analytical 
chemistry, which has been designated volumetric analysis. 


AL'KALOIDS form an important class of substances discovered by modern chemistry. 
They are divided into two classes—namely, natwral and artificial. The natural A. are 
found in plants and animals, and are often designated organic bases. Those obtained 
from plants are likewise called vegeto-alkalies. They are composed essentially of carbon, 
hydrogen, and nitrogen ; besides which, the greater number contain oxygen. The A. have 
generally an energetic action on the animal system, and hence are every day employed 
In small doses as medicine ; whilst in comparatively large doses they are powerful 
poisons. They have, although in a low degree, the characteristic alkaline properties on 
vegetable colors, etc.; have generally a bitter acrid taste ; and form the active principles 
of the plants in which they are found. Such are morphia, codeine, and narcotine, found 
in opium; quinine and chinconine, in chincona bark; strychnine, in nux-vomica ; 
hyoscyamine, in henbane ; nicotine, in tobacco; piperine, in black pepper ; caffeine or 
theine, in coffee and tea, etc. 

The animal A. are few in number, the more important being urea, found in the urine 
of the mammalia ; and kreatine and kreatinine, two of the constituents of the juice of 
flesh. The artificial A. are those organic bases which are not found in any known plant 
or animal, but of which the later researches of chemists have contrived to form a large 
number. As the artificial A. do not differ essentially from the natural A. in composition. 
structure, or properties, it is confidently believed that the day is not far distant when all 
of the A. will be prepared artificially; indeed, recently several of the natural A. have been 
manufactured on the small scale without the intervention of the living plant or animal. 
For instance, urea can be formed from the simplest form of dead organic nitrogenous 
matter. 


AL’KANET (anchusa), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order boraginea, 
and having a 5-partite calyx, a funnel-shaped or salver-shaped corolla, with five scales 
closing its mouth, five stamens, an obtuse stigma, and ovate achenia, which are sur- 
rounded at the base by a plaited tumid ring. The species are herbaceous plants, rough 
with stiff hairs, and having lanceolate or elongato-ovate leaves, and spike-like, bracteated, 
lateral, and terminal racemes of flowers, which very much resemble those of the species 
of myosotis, or forget-me-not.—The Common A. (A. officinalis) grows in dry and sandy 
places, and by waysides, in the middle and n. of Europe. It is rare and a very doubtful 
native in Britain. The flowers are of a deep purple color. The roots, leaves, and 
flowers were formerly used in medicine as an emollient, cooling, and soothing applica- 
tion.—The EVERGREEN A. (A. sempervirens) is also a native of Europe, and a doubtful 
native of Britain, although not uncommon in situations to which it may have escaped 
from gardens, being often cultivated for the sake of its beautiful blue flowers, which 
appear early in the season, and for its leaves, which retain a pleasing verdure all winter. 
It is a plant of humble growth, rising only a few inches above the ground.—A number 
of other species are occasionally seen in our flower-borders.—<A. ténctoria, to which the 
name A. or ALKANNA (Arab. al-chenneh) more strictly belongs, is a native of the 
Levant and of the s. of Europe, extending as far n. as Hungary. The root is sold under 
the name of A. or alkannaroot ; it is sometimes cultivated in England ; but the greater 
part is imported from the Levant or the s. of France. It appears in commerce in pieces 
of the thickness of a quill or of the finger, the rind blackish externally, but internally 
of a beautiful dark-red color, and adhering rather loosely to the whitish heart. It con- 
tains chiefly a resinous red coloring matter, called alkanna red, anchusic acid, or 
anchusine. 'The color which it yields is very beautiful, although not very durable. It is 
readily soluble in oils, and is therefore in very general use amongst perfumers for color- 
ing oils, soaps, pomades, lip-salves, etc. It is extensively used for coloring spurious port- 
wine. It also enters into compositions for rubbing and giving color to furniture. Its 
solutions in oils and alcohol have almost a carmine red color, although to water it gives 


A Vien Inde 
288 Allahabad. 


only a brownish hue. It combines with alkalies, forming blue solutions ; with chloride 
of tin, it becomes of a carmine red ; with acetate of lead, blue ; with sulphate of iron, 
dark violet ; with alum, purple; and with acetate of alumina, violet.— VIRGINIAN A, 
(A. Virginica) yields a similar coloring-matter, and is used in the same way. 


ALKAN'NA (al-henna) is also a name given to a coloring-matter prepared from the 
leaves of Lawsonia inermis, and used by oriental ladies to give a red color to their nails. 
See HENNA. 


AL-KIN’DI, Anu YusuF, lived in the first half of the 10th c., called ‘‘ The Philoso- 
pher of the Arabs ;” author of more than 200 works on philosophy in general, logic, poli- 
tics, ethics, arithmetic (under which he discusses the unity of God), spherology, theory of 
music, astronomy, meteorology, geometry, cosmology, astrology, medicine, and various 
arts, besides controversial writings. Only those in astrology and medicine remain. He 
was one of the earliest translators and commentators of Aristotle, and his name marks 
the first philosophical revolt against Islamism. 


ALKMAAR’, an old t. in the province of North Holland, in the Netherlands, situated 
on the Helder canal, 20 m. n.n.w. of Amsterdam, in lat. 52° 38’ n., long. 4° 43’ e.; pop. 
90, 15,838. It is well built, has very clean streets, and is intersected by broad canals. 
It possesses a town-house, ornamented with curious gothic carving, and the church of 
St. Lawrence which dates from the fifteenth century. The inhabitants support them- 
selves by important manufactures of sailcloth, sea-salt, etc., as well as by trade in 
grain, butter, and cheese. A. exports great quantities of the last mentioned commodity. 
It is the birthplace of Henry of A. (See ALKMAAR, HEINRICH VON.) Here, on Oct. 
18, 1799, the duke of York signed a not very honorable capitulation, after his Russo- 
British army had been twice defeated by the French gen. Brune. 


ALKMAAR’, HEINRICH Von, a German writer, lived in the latter half of the 15th c. 
He was the translator of the famous satirical historical poem, Reineke Vos (Reynard the 
Fox, q.v.), which he declared that he took from the Walsch language, now supposed to 
be the Walloon. He was tutor of the duke of Lorraine, and little is known of his history. 
Some have thought A. to be a pseudonym. 


AL'LA BREVE. In old music, the breve, |||, as the longest note, was equivalent to 
our semi-breve, =, the longest note commonly used in modern music. Consequently, 
the minims anciently used were equivalent to our crotchets. Music written with four 
minims in a bar is signed alla breve, which implies that the four minims must be sungas 
four crotchets. The difference between the two styles of writing is merely formal. 
Other signs for A. B. time are—#, 2, or G, or alla capella. 


AL’LAH (compounded of the article aJ and ddh—i.e., ‘‘the worthy to be adored ”) is 
the Arabic name of the one God, to whose worship Mohammed pledged his followers ; 
and the word has passed into all languages wherever the name of Islam has been heard. 
The notions of the character of this God given by Mohammed in the Koran bear mani- 
fest traces of Jewish and Christian influence, and are much superior to the national 
superstitions and impassioned fancies of the orientals in general. Above all other things, 
Mohammed inculcated the unity of God in the strictest sense, in opposition not only 
to idolatry, but also in some points to the belief of the Jews aud Christians, as is seen in 
the following formula or creed: ‘‘There is no God but the God (Allah). This only 
true, great, and highest God has his existence of himself, is eternal, not begotten, and 
begets not, suffices for himself, fills the universe with his infinity, is the center in whom 
all things unite, manifest and concealed, Lord of the corporeal and spiritual worlds, 
creator and ruler, almighty, all-wise, all-good, merciful, and his decrees are irrevocable.” 
Mohammed has ventured on very bold illustrations of these attributes for popular repre- 
sentation, as in the passage of the Koran where he says : ‘‘If all the trees on earth were 
pens, and if there were seven oceans full of ink, they would not suffice to describe the 
wonders of the Almighty.” The different attributes of God, divided under his 99 
names, and connected together in a certain order in a litany, form the rosary of the 
Mohammedans, which concludes with the name A., as the hundredth, including in 
itself all the former epithets. 


AL'LAHABAD’, a British district in the n.w. provinces of India, between Jat. 24° 49’, 
25° 44’; long. 81° 14’, 82° 26’. It is 85 m. in length by 50 in breadth—area, 2765 
sq.m. The surface of the country is in general level, with a slope towards the gs.e. 
The principal rivers are the Ganges (flowing partly within it, and partly dividing it from | 
Oude and Mirzapore), and its great affluent the Jumna, which joins it at the city of A. 
The district is well watered, and vegetation is luxuriant. The native agriculture at the 
end of the last century was singularly rude and deficient, but the efforts of British resi- 
dents have done much for its improvement. The principal products of the district are 
cotton and salt; and there is a brisk transit trade by the Jumna in cotton, indigo, and 
sugar. The four principal towns of the district of Allahabad, are Allahabad, Shahzadpore, 
Bhugeisur, and Adampore.—The province or ‘‘ division” of A. comprehends the dis- 
tricts of Cawnpore, Futtehpur, Hameerpore, and Jhansi, Jalaun, Lalitpur, Banda, and 
A. Itis bounded n. by Oude and Agra, e. by Behar, s. by Gundwana, and w. by Malwa. Its 


Allahabad, 
Aliantor: 284 


length is about 270 m.; breadth, 120; area, 17,264 sq.m.; pop. 5,757,000, It comprises 
one of the most populous and productive territories in India. 


AL’LAHABAD (‘‘city of God”), the seat of the government of the n.w. provinces of 
British India, occupies the fork of the Ganges and Jumna, lat. 25° 26’ n., long. 81° 85’ e., 
thus forming the lowest extremity of the extensive region which, as lying between those 
natural boundaries, is distinguished as the Doas, or the country of Two Rivers—an analo- 
gous term to the Punjab, or the country of Five Rivers. The situation of A., at the con- 
fluence of the holy streams of India, besides giving the city its sacred appellation, has 
rendered it a much frequented place of pilgrimage for the purposes of ablution, some of 
the devotees sinking themselves with weights to riseno more. In point of appearance, 
A. was scarcely worthy of its character and renown. With the exception of a few 
ancient monuments of costly, elaborate, and tasteful workmanship, the native part of 
the city consists of mean houses and narrow streets. Asin the towns generally of India, 
the European quarter, on the whole, is vastly superior. Its nucleus appears to have been 
the native fort, which, on the e. ands., rises directly from the banks of both rivers, 
while towards the land its artificial defenses, of great strength in themselves, are not com- 
manded from the neighborhood by any higher ground. This citadel, described by Heber 
as having been at one time ‘‘a very noble castle,” has lost much of its romance by having 
had its lofty towers pruned dewn to bastions and cavaliers. The Europeans of the garri- 
son occupy well-constructed barracks. Beyond the fort are the cantonments for the 
native troops. In connection with these are numerous villas and bungalows, few other 
spots in India boasting such handsome buildings of this kind; and these showy retreats 
are rendered still more attractive and agreeable by avenues of trees, which wind between 
them, and connect them with the fort, the city, and several of the circumjacent localities. 

The summer of 1857 brought disaster to A. On the 6th of June of that year, the 
insurrection, which had began at Meerut on 10th May, extended itself to A. Though 
the Europeans continued to hold the fort, yet the mutineers were, for some days, undis- 
puted masters of all beyond; and between the ravages of the marauders and the fire of 
the garrison, the city soon became little better than a heap of blackened ruins. In the 
history of this fearful outbreak, A. must be ‘‘a magic word” to every English ear, as 
the spot where the fiery Neill entered on his brief career of glory. It was here also that 
Lord Canning, after the close of the mutiny, distributed three millions sterling in 
presents to the chiefs who had remained loyal. But although situated thus in the heart of 
the outbreak, and feeling its disastrous effects, the city possesses natural advantages that 
have allowed it to recover. Its position at the confluence of the holy rivers, which has 
so long made it a center of superstitious reverence and worship, now renders it naturally 
a center of commerce and civilization, and has been fully appreciated by government. 
It commands the navigation both of the Ganges and of the Jumna. It is on the direct 
water-route between Calcutta and the upper provinces; and is a main station, not only 
on the Grand Trunk road, but also on the East Indian railway. New buildings, many of 
them possessing great architectural merits, have accordingly sprung up with rapidity 
since 1857; the most noteworthy buildings being still, however, the great mosque and 
the Sultaun Khossor’s caravanserai—a fine cloistered quadrangle. The fort is of red 
stone, and is approached by a very handsome gate: it contains the palace or residency, 
and the Gada pillar or club of Bhin Sen, in the Chalee Satoom temple, which is said te 
communicate with Benares by a subterranean passage, through which flows a third holy 
river, the Sereswati, visible only to the eye of faith. A. possesses a college, a hospital, 
theaters, bazaars, etc. The inhabitants number (1891)176,870. So many poor pilgrims 
throng the city, especially at the time of the great fair, which is held once every twelve 
years, that instead of Allahabad, the natives call it ‘‘ Fakirabad,” or the city of beggars. 
The cotton, sugar, and indigo produce of the fertile district of A. is brought in large 
quantities into the city, to be transported thence to Calcutta and elsewhere. Steamers 
sail to Calcutta and barges to Delhi. A. is distant from Calcutta, by land, 496 m. ; by 
water, 808 m. in the rainy season; by water, 985 m. in the dry season. From Delhi it 
is distant 886 m.; and from Bombay by the Jubbulpore branch of the East Indian rail- 
way, 840 m. 


ALLAMAKEPF’, a co. in n.e. Iowa; 615 sq.m.; pop. ’90,17,907. It is fertile and 
well timbered ; agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat, Waukon. 


ALLAMAND’, JEAN NicHOLAS SEBASTIEN, 1713-87; a Dutch philosopher and 
professor of natural history at Leyden. He did good service to science in translating 
Buffon’s and other works, collecting plants, and investigating electricity. He was a 
member of the British royal society. 


ALLAMAN’DA, a genus of plants of the natural order apocynacee (q.v.), distinguished 
by a 5-parted calyx without glands, a funnel-shaped corolla with its limb campanulate, 
and the fruit a prickly capsule. A. cathartica, a native of the West Indies, is a shrub with 
whorled or opposite oblong leaves, and large yellow flowers on many-flowered footstalks. It 
has violently emetic and purgative properties; but in small doses, an infusion of the 
leaves is esteemed a valuable cathartic medicine, especially in the cure of painter’s colic. 
All the species are natives of the tropical parts of America. 


habad, 
285 a tlenratan 


ALLAN, Davi, a distinguished Scottish painter of domestic subjects, in which he 
was the forerunner of Wilkie, was b. at Alloa in 1744. In 1755, he entered the 
academy for drawing, painting, and engraving, established in Glasgow by the celebrated 
printer Foulis, where he studied for seven years, The liberality of friends enabled him, 
in 1764, to go to Rome, where he resided for 16 years, In 1778, he gained the gold medal 
given by the academy of St. Luke for the best historical composition. The subject was 
the ‘‘Origin of Painting,” the old legend of the Corinthian maid who drew her lover’s 
profile from the shadow. This picture, the highest effort of Allan’s powers, was engraved 
by Cunego. Of his other pictures executed at Rome, the best known are four humorous 
pieces illustrating the carnival, which were engraved by Paul Sandby. In 1777, A. came 
to London, where he painted portraits; after a year or two, he removed to Edinburgh ; 
and in 1786, succeeded Runciman at the head of the art academy established there by the 
board of manufacturers. His works subsequent to this date were chiefly of a humorous 
description, and illustrative of Scottish domestic life. Hisillustrations of Allan Ramsay’s 
Gentle Shepherd became very popular, but are of no great merit. A. died at Edinburgh 
in 1796. ‘‘His merits,” says Allan Cunningham, ‘“‘are of a limited nature ; he neither 
excelled in fine drawing nor in harmonious coloring ; and grace and grandeur were 
beyond his reach. His genius lay in expression, especially in grave humor and open 
drollery.” 

ALLAN, Sir Hueu, 1810-S2. He came from Scotland to Canada as aclerk, 1826, 
and in 18385 became a shipbuilder and commission merchant. During the Canadian re- 
bellion, 1837-8, he entered the army as a volunteer, and was finally made captain. He 
helped establish, after many disasters, the Allan line of screw-steamers, and was one of the 
projectors of the Canadian Pacific railroad. The Montreal Telegraph Co., Canada Inland 
Navigation Co., and many manufacturing and mining companies owed their success 
largely to his enterprise. He was knighted, 1871, for his services to commerce. He 
was one of the wealthiest men in Canada. 


ALLAN, Sir WiLu1AM, a distinguished Scottish historical painter, was b. in Edin- 
burgh in 1782. He was educated at the high school ; and having early displayed a taste 
for drawing, was entered as a pupil in the School of Design connected with the royal 
institution, with the intention of becoming a coach-painter. Among his fellow-students 
and friends were David Wilkie, John Burnet, and others who afterwards rose to eminence. 
He subsequently studied for some time at the Royal Academy of London. Finding diffi- 
culties in the way of professional advancement in the metropolis, he determined to go 
abroad ; and in 1805, set out for St. Petersburg, where the friendly interest of his 
countryman, Sir Alexander Crichton, the imperial family physician, soon procured him 
employment. In the Russian capital he spent several years, diligently pursuing his 
professional labors, and making occasional tours to the s. of Russia, the Crimea, Turkey, 
and Circassia, where he made numerous sketches, some of which supplied the materials 
of his best known works. In 1814, he returned to Edinburgh, and soon after exhibited 
his ‘‘ Circassian Captives,” a large picture, distinguished by the picturesqueness of the 
subject and the elaborate fidelity and spirit of its treatment. He had exhibited several 
pictures before this, but not till now was his reputation as an artist fairly established. 
The remuneration of his labors, however, was not so ready as the public acknowledg- 
ment of their worth. The purchase of two of his pictures by the grand duke Nicholas, 
afterwards emperor, when on a visit to Edinburgh, contributed in no small degree to 
promote the sale of his works. A severe attack of ophthalmia obliged him for a time to 
suspend his exertions. He employed his leisure in visiting Italy, Turkey, Greece, and 
Asia Minor. On returning home he resumed his brush, and for many years labored 
with great assiduity. In* 1826 he was elected an associate of the London Academy ; in 
1835, an academician. In 1838, onthe death of Mr. George Watson, the Royal Scottish 
Academy elected him as its president, and on the death of Sir David Wilkie, in 1841, he 
was appointed limner to her majesty for Scotland. He was at the same time knighted. 
At intervals he made excursions into the continent, visiting Spain and Morocco in 1834, 
St. Petersburg in 1841, and Germany and Belgium in 1847. At St. Petersburg, he received 
a commission from the emperor to paint a large picture of ‘‘ Peter the Great teaching 
Shipbuilding to his Subjects ;” it was exhibited at London in 1845, and is now in the 
imperial winter palace. For some time before his death, he had been diligently working 
at a great picture of ‘‘ Bruce at Bannockburn.” He died in his painting-room, to which 
his bed had been removed, on the 22d of Feb., 1850. The great meritsof Sir W. A. asa 
painter consist in his conscientious fidelity, his skill in composition, and the dramatic 
force of his representations. The impulse contributed by him to historical painting, 
especially of national subjects, entitles him to a very high place in the history of Scottish 
art. Among his chief works, many of which are well known through engravings, are— 
“John Knox admonishing Queen Mary,” 1823; ‘‘Queen Mary signing her Abdication,” 
1824; ‘‘ Death of the Regent Moray,” 1825 ; ‘‘ Polish Exiles,” 1834; ‘‘The Slave-market 
at Constantinople,” 1887 ; ‘‘ Battle of Prestonpans,” 1842; ‘‘ Waterloo,” two pictures, 
from the French and English positions, the first of which was bought by the duke of 
Wellington. 

ALLAN'TOIS, a delicate membranous bag, which makes its appearance in the eggs of 
birds during incubation, and is a provision chiefly for the aération of the blood of the 
embryo or chick. Itsprouts from the lower part of the intestine of the chick, and rapidly 


ll F 
tbr tr 286 


enlarges, so as almost completely to inclose it, lining nearly the whole extent of the 
membrana putaminis—the double membrane which is bite diately within the egg-shell. 
It is covered with a net-work of arteries and veins, corresponding to the umbilical artery 
and vein of mammalia ; and the aération of the blood is accomplished by the air which 
enters through the pores of the shell ; but as the lungs become capable of their function, 
the circulation in the A. diminishes, and its footstalk contracts, and at last divides, 
leaving only a ligamentous remnant. The A. is never developed in the eggs of fishes 
and amphibians, hence these are called anallantoid vertebrates ; while reptiles, birds, 
and mammalia, in which itis present, are called allantoid. In the mammalia, it is super- 
seded at an early period of foetal life by other contrivances, but continues to exist in the 
lower animals for receiving the urinary secretion through the urachus, a purpose which 
it serves in birds and reptiles likewise. In the human species, it disappears very early, 
only a minute vesicle remaining. 


ALLARD, generalissimo of the army of Lahore, and previously adjutant to marshal 
Brune under Napoleon, was b. in 1783. After the murder of marshal Brune (q.v.), A. 
left France (1815), intending to emigrate to America ; but changed his plan, entered into 
the service of Abbas-Mirza of Persia, and afterwards went to Lahore (1820), where he 
engaged in the service of Runjeet Singh (q.v.), by whom he was made generalissimo, and 
whose forces he organized and trained in the European modes of warfare. Havin 
married a native of Lahore, he identified himself with the interests of his adopte 
country, but could not entirely forget France. The July revolution brought him back 
to Paris, where he was received with distinction, and was made French chargé d'affaires 
in Lahore. He presented to the royal library of Paris a valuable collection of coins, and 
returned to Lahore (1836), leaving his wife and children in Paris. In the subsequent 
battles of Runjeet Singh with the Afghans, A. repeatedly distinguished himself, and 
died at Peshawur, Jan. 23, 1839. His remains were, according to his own wish, buried 
with military honors at Lahore. 

AL'LEGAN, a co. in w. Michigan, on lake Michigan; 835 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 38,961. 
A navigable river, the Kalamazoo, flows through it, and several railways intersect it. 
The soil is fertile, lumber is produced, and brick and carriages are made. Co. seat, 


Allegan. 

ALLEGAN, the capital of A. co., Mich., at the head of navigation on Kalamazoo 
river; 83 m.s. of Grand Rapids. It is on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the 
Chicago and West Michigan, and the Cincinnati, Jackson and Mackinaw railroads. It 
has national banks, a high school, newspaper offices, mills, manufactures of paper and 
furniture, machine shops and foundries. Pop. ’90, 2669. 


ALLEGA’NY, aco. in the extreme n. w. of Maryland; 477 sq. m.; pop. 790, 41,571— 
inclu. colored. The Potomac river is on the s.; the Alleghany mountains occupy part 
of the co. Bituminous coal, limestone, and iron ore are found; dairy produce, lumber, 
leather, hydraulic cement, and fire-brick are produced. There is abundant water-power. 
Co. seat, Cumberland. 


ALLEGA’NY, a co. in w. s. w. New York, on the Pennsylvania border; intersected by 
Genesee river and New York and Erie raiiroad; 1060 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 43,240. Bog ore 
and limestone are found, cattle, wool, hay, and grain are produced; leather, lumber, 
flour, etc., manufactured. Co. seat, Belmont. 


ALLEGHA/’NIES, a name perhaps originally limited to the mountain-cradle of the 
river next mentioned, but often popularly extended to the whole chain, otherwise called 
the Appalachians (q. v.). 


ALLEGHA’NY, a river, which, rising in the n. part of Pennsylvania, unites with the 
Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio. Though it flows through a hilly country, 
yet it is navigable for nearly 200 m. above Pittsburg, whence by the Ohio and the 
Mississippi the navigation extends to the gulf of Mexico. 


ALLEGHANY, a co. in n. w. North Carolina; 284 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 6528, inclu. colored. 
Jt is in the Alleghany mountains, and the region is noted for copper ore. Co. seat, 
Sparta. g 

ALLEGHA’NY, a co. in western Virginia, drained by Jackson river, one of the heads 
of the James; 510 sq. m.; pop. 790, 9283, inclu. colored. The Chesapeake and Ohio 
railroad connects it with the seaboard. Tobacco, grain, and wool are raised. There 
are valuable mineral springs. Co. seat, Covington. 


ALLEGHEN’Y, a co. in w. s. w. Pennsylvania; 750 sq. m.; pop. 790, 551,950. Near 
the middle of the co. the A. and Monongahela rivers join and form the Ohio. Oo. seat, 
Pittsburg. 


ALLEGHENY, city in Allegheny co., Pa.; at the confluence of the Allegheny and the 
Ohio rivers, and on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago, the Pittsburg and Lake 
Erie, the Pittsburg and Western, and the Western New York and Pennsylvania rail- 
roads, opposite Pittsburg, with which it is connected by several bridges. It was 
chartered as a city in 1840; has an area of eight square miles: and is noted for its 
manufactures of iron and steel, glass and locomotives, and for its large coal interests. 
In the centre is the Public Park, with fountains, lakes, and a monument to Humboldt. 


m8 iT Allard. 


Allegiance, 


The City Hall is at the crossing of Ohio and Federal Streets, and directly opposite is the 
free library presented by Andrew Carnegie. On a conspicuous elevation in the eastern 
part is an imposing monument to the memory of the Union Soldiers from the county 
who lost their lives in the civil war, and near by is the Hampton Battery monument. 
In the northern part, also on an elevated site, is the Allegheny Observatory, belonging 
to the Western University of Pennsylvania. The Western, or Riverside, Penitentiary 
is a large stone building on the bank of the Ohio. Other notable public buildings are 
the Western Theological Seminary (Presbyterian, established in 1827); the Theological 
Seminary of the United Presbyterian Church (established in 1826); the Reformed 
Presbyterian Theological Seminary (organized in 1840); the Allegheny General Hospital; 
Presbyterian Hospital; St. John’s General Hospital; Home for Friendless; House of 
Industry; orphan asylum; United States arsenal; public school library; and, among 
the numerous churches, St. Peter’s (R. C.), Trinity (Evan. Luth.), North Avenue 
(M. E.), Second (Unit. Pres,), and Sandusky Street (Bapt.). The city has electric lights 
and street railroads, waterworks system that cost over $1,000,000. Several national and 
other banks, numerous building and loan associations, and daily, weekly, and monthly 
periodicals. Besides its importance as a manufacturing centre, the city has exceptional 
advantages as ashipping point, being readily accessible by more than 20,000 miles of 
inland navigation, much of which is facilitated by the Davis Island movable dam,.which 
cost over $1,000,000. Pop. ’90, 105,287. 


ALLEGHENY COLLEGE was founded at Meadville, Pa., in 1815, when this place was 
a village of about 400 people. It was incorporated as a college in 1817, and its first 
president was Rev. Timothy Alden, D.D., of the Presbyterian Church. He and Rey. 
Robert Johnston, the vice-president, were for some years all the faculty that the college 
had. Ex.-Goy. Winthrop, of Mass., gave it a private library valued at $6000. In 1833 
it passed under the control of the Methodist Church. Rey. Martin Ruter, D.D., was 
president from 1837 to ’47. Its next president, Dr. Homer J. Clark, collected $100,000 
for its benefit, of which $60,000 were invested for a permanent endowment. The other 
presidents have been Rey. John Barker, elected in 1847, Rev. George Loomis, D.D., 
elected in 1860; Rev. L. H. Bugbee, D.D., 1875; Rev. D. H. Wheeler, LL.D., 1883; 
Rey. G. H. Williams, D.D., 1888; Dr. Wheeler again 1889; and Dr. William H. Craw- 
ford, 1893. The late Bishop Simpson was vice-president in 1837-38, and the late Bishop 
Kingsley was a professor here from 1841 to 1856. The value of the buildings, grounds, 
and apparatus is now estimated at $300,000, and the productive endowment is $160,000. 
The college has no debts. There are four courses of study. Instruction in military 
science and practice is given by an officer detailed from the U. S. army. In 1896 the 
number of professors and tutors was 21, and of students, 355. Young women are 
admitted as students to equal privileges with young men. Tuition is free; a contingent 
fee is charged of $15 per term. 


ALLE'GIANCE (Fr. allégeance, from Lat. alligo or ad-ligo, to bind to, or attach). ‘ A.” 
says Blackstone, ‘‘is the tie or igamen which binds the subject to the sovereign, in re- 
turn for that protection which the sovereign affords the subject. A. is the highest legal 
duty of the subject, and consequently its violation, Treason (q.v.), is the highest legal 
offense. A.isof three kinds: 1. Natural or implied A., which every native or natural- 
ized citizen owes to the community to which he belongs. Independently of any express 
promise, every man, by availing himself of the benefits which society affords, comes 
under an implied obligation to defend it, and this equally whether the attack be from 
without or from within. In time of war, this obligation involves the duty either of 
bearing arms in defense of the state, or of contributing to the additional taxes and other 
impositions which the support of a standing army may render necessary. In peaceful 
times it will be adequately fulfilled by an efficient performance of ordinary citizen 
duties. 2. Hrpress A. is that obligation which arises from an expressed promise, or oath 
of A. The old English oath of A. corresponded in the case of the sovereign, as absolute 
superior of all the lands in England, to the oath of fealty which, by the feudal law, all 
vassals were required to take to subject superiors: ‘‘As administered for upwards of 
600 years, it contained a promise to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, 
and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honor, and not to know or hear 
of any ill or damage intended him, without defending him therefrom.”—Blackstone, 
Kerr’s edition, vol. i. 368. This oath being thought to favor too much the notion of non- 
resistance, another form was introduced by the convention parliament. That in use 
since the passing of the new naturalization act in 1870 (83 Vict. c. 14), is as follows: ‘1 
do swear that I will be faithful and bear true A. to her majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs 
and successors, according to law. So help me God.” From the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth down to the present time, the oath of A. has been required from all public func- 
tionaries, before entering on their offices, and by all professional persons before being 
rmitted to practice. 3. Local or temporary A. is thatobedience and temporary aid due 

y an alien (q.v.) to the state or community to which he resides. 
It is but recently that the various governments of Europe have been willing to rec- 
ognize the right of persons to change their allegiance as well as their residence. The 
nited States always held it to be a natural right, and our legislation so recognizes it. 


Alten. "”* 12 


-The difference was strikingly manifest in the war of 1812, when the prince regent pro- 
claimed that every native-born Briton taken prisoner while fighting for the Americans 
should be shot for treason, to which President Madison replied that if any naturalized 
American of the United States should suffer death in such manner he would execute two 
British prisoners. There were no executions of the sort which England had threatened. 
Very recently the question has been discussed as to the right of a government to subject 
to military service men who were once its citizens but were afterwards citizens of another 
country; and late decisions tend to show that most governments are abandoning the old 
claim, ‘‘once a citizen always a citizen.” For instance, Germans naturalized in the United 
States on returning to Germany were formerly required to enter the army; but now they 
plead American citizenship, and with success. Allegiance is often transferred en masse, 
as on the treaty of peace in 1783, when British subjects who should so elect became 
Americans; also, when Louisiana and Florida were purchased and Texas was annexed; no 
inquiry was made about allegiance, but the official transfer made the creoles and the Tex- 
ans as completely citizens owing allegiance as though born under the U. 8. flag. The law 
of congress, July, 1868, very clearly sets forth the extent and obligations of allegiance. 
The preamble states that the right of expatriation is natural and inherent in all people and 
indispensable to the enjoyment of rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit ef happiness; 
that, recognizing this right, our government has received emigrants from all nations and 
given them citizenship and protection; that it is necessary for the maintenance of public 
peace that the claim of foreign allegiance as to such adopted citizens should be promptly 
and finally disavowed; and therefore it was enacted that any declaration, opinion, order, 
or decision of any officer of this government which denies, impairs, restricts, or questions 
the right of expatriation, is inconsistent with the fundamental principles of the govern- 
ment ; that all naturalized citizens of the United States, while in foreign states, are entitled 
to, and shall receive from this government, the same protection of person and property 
that is accorded to native-born citizens in like circumstances. This broad declaration of 
our rights and duties was followed in May, 1870, by the British parliament in an act 
revising all British laws on alienage, expatriation, and naturalization—the government 
for the first time recognizing the right of subjects to renounce allegiance to the crown. 


AL'LEGORY, as a figure of rhetoric, signifies properly, the embodiment of a train of 
thought in a visible form, by means of sensible images, having some resemblance or 
analogy to the thoughts. <A., therefore, is one of the tropes (q.v.), for it involves a trans- 
fer of meaning. It differs from metaphor chiefly in extent ; metaphor is confined to a 
single expression, or at most to a sentence. A.is carried through the whole represen- 
tation. It is not abstract ideas alone that are adapted to allegorical treatment ; not only 
may virtue and vice, for instance, be personified and treated allegorically, but real per- 
sons may be represented by allegorical persons. 

We find A. in use from the earliest ages. Oriental people are specially fond of it. As 
examples from antiquity may be cited, the comparison of Israel to 4 vine in the 80th 
psalm; the beautiful passage in Plato’s Phedrus, where the soul is compared to a chario- 
teer drawn by two horses, one white and one black ; the description of fame in the 4th 
book of the A/neid. Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress is perhaps the most fully carried out A. 
of modern times.—A. is not confined to language, but is carried into painting and sculp- 
ture, and also into scenic representation—as in the ballet and pantomime; the considera- 
tion of it is, therefore, of importance in the fine arts generally. 

ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION is that kind of interpretation by which the literal 
significance of a passage is either transcended or set aside, and a more spiritual and pro- 
found meaning elicited than is contained in the form or letter. The common idea is that 
it originated with the Alexandrine school, but this is by no means the case, as we find it 
employed by the older Hindus. From the scholars of Alexandria, however, it was 
adopted by the Jews of Palestine, a sect of whom in particular, namely, the Essenes, 
made abundant use of it. The apostle Paul himself allegorizes, or at least spiritually 
interprets the history of the free-born Iaaac and the slave-born Ishmael (Gal. iv. 24). 
Allegorical interpretation, however, with reference to the Old Testament, was most exten- 
sively employed by Philo Judzus, a philosophical Jew of Alexandria, and a contemporary 
of Jesus Christ. His writings stimulated the allegorizing tendencies of the Alexandrine 
school of Christian theologians, the most famous of whom are Clemens Alexandrinus and 
Origen. The latter went so far as to say that ‘‘the scriptures are of little use to those 
who understand them as they are written.” As a specimen of his method of biblical 
interpretation, we may adduce the following : He maintained that the Mosaic account of 
the garden of Eden was allegorical ; that paradise only symbolized a high primeval spirit- 
uality ; that the fall consisted in the loss of such through spiritual and not material 
temptation ; and that the expulsion from the garden lay in the soul’s being driven out of 
its region of original purity. The Neo-platonists were at first averse to allegorizing, but 
gradually acquired a relish for it from the Jews and Christians, and applied it to the 
ancient myths. 


ALLEGRI, ANTonrIo. See CORREGGIO. 
ALLE'GRI, Grecorio, 1580-1652 ; a musical composer, b. in Rome, probably of the 


Correggio family. He studied under Nanani, and was a friend of Palestrina. He com- 
posed motets and sacred pieces ; was appointed to the choir of the Sistine Chapel, Rome, 


oa Z 


289 Alleeerz: 


a! 


by Urban VIII., remaining until his death. He was one of the earliest composers for 
stringed instruments ; but his most celebrated work is the Méserere, still annually ren- 
dered in the Sistine chapel on every Good Friday. Mozart, at the age of fourteen, per- 
formed the wonderful feat of writing the entire work fiom memory after having heard 
it but once. Allegri is regarded as a link between the Roman and Neapolitan periods 
of Italian music. 


ALLE'GRO, the fourth of the five principal degrees of movement in music, imply- 
ing that the piece is to be performed in a quick or lively style. A., like all the other 
degrees of movement, is often modified by other terms, such as A. non tanto, A. 
ma non troppo, A. moderato, maestoso, giusto, commodo, vivace, assat, di molto, con brio, 
etc. Asa substantive, A, is used as the name of a whole piece of music, or a movement 
of a symphony, sonata, or quartet. Allegretto, a diminutive of Allegro, somewhat slower 
than the latter and faster than Andante. 


AL'LEMANDE, a French dance said to have been invented in the time of Louis XIV., 
and which again became popular at the Parisian theatres during the reign of the first 
emperor. It has a slow waltz kind of tempo, and consists of three steps (pas marchés) 
made in a sliding manner, backward and forward, but seldom waltzing or turning 
round. The whole charm of the dance lies in the graceful manner of entwining and 
detaching the arms, in the different steps. In England it was called Almain and is 
mentioned in Ben Jonson’s play she Devil is an Ass, acted in 1610, which proves it of 
earlier origin. The name has also reference to a German dance of Swabia, of which 
Beethoven’s 12 Deutsche Tanze for orchestra are specimens. The Allemande is also the 
name of a movement in the Suite (q.v.), having no relation to the dance of the same name. 
It usually consists of a figurative melody, which has a simple accompaniment. 


AL'LEINE, or ALLEIN, Joseru, 1633-68 ; an English nonconformist divine ; author 
of An Alarm to the Unconverted. He was educated in Corpus Christi college, and 
became a tutor there. He was offered a political place, which he declined, but gladly 
took the office of assistant to George Newton, rector of the church of St. Mary Magda- 
lene, Taunton. About this time he married Theodosia, daughter of Richard Alleine. 
He was not only constant in religious work, but deeply learned in various sciences, and 
on intimate terms with the patriarchs of the royal society. When the persecution of non- 
conformists came, he and his senior pastor were ejected, and A. became an itinerant 
preacher of the gospel wherever he could find opportunity. For this he was imprisoned, 
but released in May, 1664; yet in spite of the conventicle act or five-mile act, he pur- 
sued his work and was again imprisoned. His later years were full of persecution 
and suffering. No Puritan nonconformist name is more affectionately cherished than 
his. 

AL'LEINE, or ALLEIN, Ricuarp, 1611-81; an English writer and theologian, 
author of Vindicte Pietatis ; educated at Oxford ; assistant in the ministry to his father, 
Richard A., and noted for eloquence. He declared for the Puritans, but continued for 
20 years rector of Batcomb in Somerset. On the passage of the act of uniformity he 
went with the ejected, and, after the five-mile act, preached where he could find occa- 
sion. His Vindication of Piety was refused license, and Roger Norton, the king’s printer, 
caused a large part of the first edition to be seized and sent to the royal kitchen for kin- 
dling ; but, on reading it, he brought back the sheets and sold the work from his own 
shop, for which he had to beg pardon on his knees at the council table. 


ALLEMAN'NI. See ALEMANNI. 
ALLEN, a co. in Indiana, on the Maumee river, and intersected by four railroads ; 


650 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 66,689. It is level and fertile ; agricultural products are the sta. 
ples ; machinery, flour, metal ware, and carriages are made. Co. seat, Fort Wayne. 


ALLEN, a co. ir s.e. Kansas ; intersected by the Neosho river, and the Galveston 
and Leavenworth railroad ; 504 sq.m. ; pop. 790, 18,509. It has good timber ; the soil is 
good for stock raising and general agriculture. Coalis found. Co. seat, Iola. 


ALLEN, a co. in Kentucky, on the Tennessee border, 335 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 18,092, 
inclu. colored. Thesurface is level ; soil moderately fertile. Limestone caverns abound. 
Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Co. seat, Scottsville. 


ALLEN, a co. in w.n.w. Ohio; intersected by the Auglaize and Ottawa rivers, and 
the Wabash and Erie canal ; 447 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 40,644. Itislevel, well timbered, and 
fertile ; cattle, hay, wool, lumber, and grain are produced, and wheeled vehicles are 
made ; two railroads intersect it. Co. seat, Lima. 


ALLEN, ALEXANDER VIETS GRISWOLD, D.D., b. Otis, Mass., 1841; educated at 
Kenyon college and Andover theological seminary. He was rector of St. John’s church 
(Prot. Epis.), Lawrence, Mass., 1865-7 ; and since 1867 has been professor of ecclesiasti- 
cal history in the Episcopal theological school, Cambridge, Mass. He has published Con- 
tinuity of Christian Thought: A Study of Modern Theology in the Light of its History, 
1884; a life of Jonathan Edwards, 1889, etc. He advances, with an admirable spirit, 
views whose freshness has awakened thought and discussion. 

ALLEN, CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIE, B.A., a popular scientific author, better 
known as Grant Allen, was born at Kingston, Canada, in 1848, and was graduated at 


L—10 


Allen. ¥ 9 0 


Alliaceous. 


Merton college, Oxford, in 1871. He has written a number of works treating of plants and 
animals as affected by evolution, among them, Physiological 4sthetics (1817); The Color Sense 
(1879); The Evolutionist at Large (1881); Anglo-Saxon Britain (1881); Vignettes from Nature 
(1881) ; Colin Olout’s Calendar (1883); Flowers and their Pedigrees (1884); Zhe Story of the Planis 
(1895). He has also written a life of Charles Darwin and a number of novels: Philistia 
(1884); The Devil’s Die (1888); The Woman Who Did (1895); A Bride from the Desert (1896), ete. 

ALLEN, ExvizABETH AKERS, an American poet, known by her vom de plume of * Flor- 
ence Percy’’; b. Me., Oct. 9, 1832. She married Paul (Benjamin) Akers, an American 
sculptor, and afterwards married E. M. Allen, of New York. She published volumes of 
poems in 1867 and 1891, and is best known as the author of Rock me to sleep, Mother. 

ALLEN, ErHan, 1737-89, b. Conn. He early settled in Vermont with four brothers, 
and became conspicuous in the contest in which both New Hampshire and New York 
claimed territorial jurisdiction. He was the agent of the settlers in a suit at Albany ; 
the suit went against them, and they resolved upon resistance, making A. colonel of a 
force which drove out the New York settlers ; whereupon Gov. Tryon offered £150 
reward for his arrest. In this condition they were when the war of the revolution began, 
and one of the first points decided upon was the occupation of Ticonderoga. Allen 
starting at once with his Green Mountain boys, was soon joined by others, including 
Arnold; and on the morning of May 10, 1775, he surprised the English captain, Dela- 
place, in his bed, demanding surrender ‘‘ in the name of the great Jehovah and the Con- 
tinental congress.” This stroke wrested all the northern region from the English. The 
Americans also took Skenesborough and Crown Point. A dispute between A. and 
Arnold about the command was ended by the arrival of a Connecticut regiment, with col. 
Hinman, who ranked both; and then A. proposed an invasion of Canada, but was not 
heeded. He went to Philadelphia, where congress acknowledged his services. Then he 
joined Gen. Schuyler’s army, and was employed in secret missions to Canada, rendering 
valuable aid in Montgomery’s expedition. He was taken prisoner, Sept. 25, 1775, in an 
unfortunate demonstration by Major Brown upon Montreal, and was sent to England. 
Some months later he was returned to this country and kept in the prison ships and jails 
in Halifax and New York until May 3, 1778, when he was exchanged. While aprisoner 
he was for the most part barbarously treated and kept heavily ironed. He was warmly 
received by Washington, and was going into the army again when he was diverted towards 
the old boundary troubles between New York and New Hampshire. While thus engaged 
an effort was made by the English through a conspicuous tory, Beverly Robinson, 
to seduce A. from his American loyalty, but of course without success, though he made 
the affair serve to preserve the neutrality of the English towards his mountaineers. A. 
was twice married and left a widow and seven children. He was noted as a free-thinker, 
or deist, and wrote Reason the only Oracle of Man, in which the Bible and religion are 
assailed with considerable vehemence. 

ALLEN, FrREDERIC DE ForeEsT, Ph.D., was born at Oberlin, Ohio, in 1844. He 
studied at Oberlin college, graduating in 1863, and at the University of Leipsic; was ap- 
pointed to the chair of classical philology at Harvard University in 1880. Among his 
works are an edition of the Medea of Euripides, 1876; Remnants of Early Latin, 1880: 
Revision of Hadley’s Greek Grammar, 1884; Greek Versification in Inscriptions, 1888, and 
contributions to the classical journals. 

ALLEN, HoRArio, civil engineer, 1802-89; was the operator at Honesdale, Pa., of the 
first locomotive in the United States; was afterwards one of the engineers of the Croton 
Aqueduct and of the High Bridge over the Harlem River, and consulting engineer of the 
New York and Brooklyn bridge; invented the four-wheel truck for passenger cars. 

ALLEN, IRA, 1751-1814; brother of Ethan. He served in the revolutionary army; 
was a member of the Vermont constitutional convention ; was secretary of state; then 
treasurer, sSurveyor-general, and held other offices. While in France, in 1795, he bought 
20,000 muskets and 24 cannon, intending to sell them to Vermont ; but he was captured 
at sea, and taken to England on charge of furnishing arms to Irish rebels. He was 
acquitted after a lawsuit that lasted eight years. He published The Natural and Politi- 
cal History of Vermont. 


ALLEN, Jozi Asapu, an American zoologist, born at Springfield, Massachusetts, in 
1838, accompanied Agassiz to Brazil in 1865, and in 1885 was appointed curator of Orni- 
thology and Mammology in the New York Museum, after holding a similar office at 
Cambridge. He is the author of monographs on the buffalo, pinnipeds, rodentia, etc., 
of high scientific and literary value. 


ALLEN, SaMvuEL, 1636-1705 ; a London merchant, who bought a large tract in New 
Hampshire, including Portsmouth, and extending 60 m. inland, which purchase caused 
a lawsuit with the actual settlers that lasted until A.’s family became extinct. Heacted 
as governor of New Hampshire until the arrival of the earl of Bellamont in 1699. 


ALLEN, Wiuu1aMm, 1770-1848 ; an English chemist, lecturer in Guy’s Hospital, fellow 
of the royal society, and one of the founders of the pharmaceutical society. With Mr. 
Pepys he established the proportion of carbon in carbonic acid, and showed that the 
diamond was pure carbon. 


ALLEN, Wixi, 1806-79 ; b. N. C. He studied law, and became partner of col- 
King, son of Rufus King, of New York. He settled at Chillicothe, O., and was 
twice elected to congress by the democrats, but was beaten in the third trial. He was 
elected senator from Ohio and took his seat, March 4, 1837, and was re-elected six 


: 291 Rinccnie, 


years later. In 1848, he was offered the nomination for president, but declined it on the 
round that he was pledged toGen. Cass. In 1878, he was elected governor of Ohio. 
n the last year or two of his life he became prominent as an advocate of ‘‘soft money” 
or greenbacks, and was credited with originating what was inaptly styled ‘‘the Ohio 
idea” in national finance. 


ALLEN, WILLIAM, D.D., 1784-1868; b. Mass.; a graduate of Harvard in 1802; 
licensed to preach in 1804. He preached in western New York, became regent and 
assistant librarian in Harvard college, at which time he prepared his American Biograph- 
tcal and Historical Dictionary, the first work of general biography published in the United 
States. The third edition has notices of nearly 7000 Americans, while the first edition has 
only 700. In 1810, he became his father’s successor in the pulpit in Pittsfield. He was 
president of Dartmouth college in 1817; from 1820 to 1839, president of Bowdoin college. 
He spent his later life in literary work, publishing Junius Unmasked, Accounts of Ship- 
wrecks, Psalms and Hymns, Christian Sonnets, Poems of Nazareth and the Oross, Wun- 
nissoo, or the Vale of the Hoosatunnuk, etc. He was a philologist, and contributed many 
thousands of words to Webster’s and Worcester’s dictionaries. 


ALLEN, WiLi1AmM Henry, 1784-1813; b. R. I. Tle was in the American navy 
as a lieutenant on the frigate United States in the action with the Macedonian, Oct. 
25, 1812, in which the latter was captured. Afterwards he commanded the brig 
Argus, cruising off England in 1813, and capturing $2,000,000 worth of property, 
until, Aug. 14, he encountered the British brig Pelican, and lost his own vessel, and 
died the next day of wounds received in the fight. 


ALLEN, WiuLLiAM HENRY, LL.D., b. Me., 1808; a graduate of Bowdoin college in 
1833 ; Latin teacher in Cazenovia, N. Y., seminary, 1833-36 ; professor of natural philos- 
ophy and chemistry in Dickinson college, Carlisle, Pa., 1886-46 ; professor of philoso- 
phy and English literature in the same, 1846-49; and acting president, 1847-48; president 
of Girard college, Philadelphia, 1849-62; and for one year president of Pennsylvania 
agricultural college. In 1867, he returned to Girard college as president. In 1872, he 
was chosen president of the American Bible society. Hed. 1882. 


ALLENTOWN, city and co. seat of Lehigh county, Pennsylvania, on the Lehigh river 
and canal, 60 miles northwest of Philadelphia, and on the Lehigh Valley, Central of 
New Jersey, Philadelphia and Reading, and Allentown Terminal railroads. The place 
was settled in 1762, and called Northampton until 1836, when its name was changed to 
Allentown by act of legislature. It is one of the largest producers of furniture in the 
United States, and has extensive manufactures of pig, forged and rolled iron, silk, shoes, 
hosiery, wire, etc. Muhlenberg college (Luth.) is established here (170 students and a 
library of 9000 vols. in 1894), also Allentown College for Women, and a business college. 
There are churches, national banks, publie schools, a high school, libraries, and daily 
and weekly newspapers. Population, 1880, 18,063; 1890, 25,228. 


ALLERTON, Isaac, about 1583-1659; one of the Plymouth pilgrims in the Mayflower ; 
at first he had much influence, but he became unpopular and removed to New York, 
where he was for some time a merchant of note. He was married three times. 


ALLES’TREE or ALLES’TRY, RIcHARD, D.D., 1619-81; an English divine; modera- 
tor in philosophy; canon of Christ’s church, Oxford; doctor of divinity; chaplain-in- 
ordinary to the king. and regius professor of divinity. He served with distinction in 
the royalist army, undergoing much suffering and imprisonment for his devotion to the 
royal cause. He built a portion of Eton college and Christ church grammar school. 


ALLEYN, EpwArbpD, a distinguished actor, the contemporary and friend of Shake- 
speare, was born in 1566, and died in 1626. His connection with the English stage during 
the period of its highest prosperity invests his life with interest to the student of literary 
history; but it is as the munificent and pious founder of Dulwich college (q. v.) that he 
principally claims the remembrance of posterity. The building of the college was begun 
in 1613, and in 1619 the institution obtained the royal charter, after some obstruction on 
the part of lord Bacon, who wished the king to apply part of the grant to the foundation 
of two lectureships at Oxford and Cambridge. 


ALL FOOL’S DAY. See APRIL. 
ALL'GAIER, JoHANN, d. Prague, 1826; a German chess-player and writer. He was 


captain in the Austrian service, and lived chiefly in Vienna. Fis name is preserved in 
the ‘‘ Allgaier gambit,” a chess opening which he devised. 


ALL-HALLOW. See Au Saints’ Day, 

AL'LIA, asmall stream whicu fell into the Tiber, 11 m. n. of Rome. It is celebrated 
as the scene of the defeat of the Roman army by the Gauls under Brennus in 387, or, 
according to others, 390 B.c. Immediately afterwards, Rome was taken, plundered, and 
burnt. It is difficult to identify the A. with any of the modern streams ; but the evidence 
seems in favor of the Scolo del Casale. 


ALLIA'CEOUS PLANTS are those of the genus alliwm (q.v.), or others nearly allied to 
it. The term is generally employed to denote not only the possession of certain botani- 
cal characters, but also of a certain smell and taste, well known by the term alliaceous, 
and of which examples are readily found in the onion, leek, garlic, and other familiar 
species of alliwm, much employed for culinary purposes. These plants contain free 
phosphoric acid, and a sulphureted oil, which is partly dissipated in boiling or 
roasting, The A. flavor is, however, found also, although in comparatively rare instances, 


Alli . 
Alliterattan:. 292 e 


in plants of entirely different botanical affinities—for example, in alliaria officinalis, of 
the natural order crucifere (see ALLIARIA), In the young shoots of cedrela angustifolia, a 
tropical American tree of the natural order cedrelacee, allied to mahogany ; and in certain 
species of dysoxylon and hartighsea, of the kindred order meliacew, the fruit of which is used 
instead of garlic by the mountaineers of Java. 


ALLIANCE, a compact between independent families or nations. See TREATY, Hony 
ALLIANCE, TRIPLE ALLIANCE. 

ALLIANCE, a city in Stark county, Ohio, on the Mahoning river, on the Alliance 
and Northern, the Lake Erie, Alliance and Southern, and the Penn. company’s 
railroads; fifty-seven miles south-southeast from Cleveland. It has newspapers, 
banks, churches, high school, a college, and libraries; manufactures engines, steam 
hammers, boilers, etc., and has a large steel plant. The town has electric street- 
cars. Mount Union College, one mile distant, is an excellent institution, Population 
1890, 7607. 

ALLIANCE, FARMERS’, See FARMERS’ ALLIANCE, 

ALLIA’RIA, a genus of plants of the natural order crucifere (q.v.), closely allied to 
sisymbrium and erysimum, but differing from both in having the stalks of the seeds flat 
and winged. The best known species is A. officinalis (erysimum A. of Linnzeus, and 
ranked by some botanists in the genus sisymbrivm), known by the popular names of 
sauce-alone and jack-by-the-hedge. | It is a native of Britain, not unfrequently found 
on hedge-banks and in waste places in dry rich soils, and is common in most parts of 
Europe. It isa biennial, with a stem 2 to 3 feet high ; large, stalked, heart-shaped leaves; 
white flowers, and pods much longer than their stalks, which are somewhat spreading. 
It seems more deserving of cultivation than many other plants which have long received 
the constant care of the gardener, being wholesome, nutritious, and to most persons, 
pleasant. The powdered seeds were formerly employed as a sternutatory. 


ALLIBONE, SAMUEL AUSTIN, LL.D., b. 1816; an American bibliographer, com- 


piler of A Critical Dictionary of English Literature, and British and American Authors, 
Living and Deceased, from the earliest accounts to the latter half of the Nineteenth Century, 
with notices of 46,499 writers; contributor to various periodicals. In 1876 he pub- 
lished two volumes of English quotations, one of prose and one of verse. He was libra- 
rian of the Lenox Library, New York, from 1879 till his death in 1889, 


ALLICE, or Atuts. See SHAD. 


AL'LIER, a river in France, a tributary of the Loire, has its source in the water-shed 
of the e. of the department of Lozére; flows with a northerly course through Haute- 
Loire, Puy-de-D6me, and Allier; and after a course of more than 200 m., falls into the 
Loire below the t. of Nevers. It is navigable for a considerable portion of its length. 


ALLIER, a department in the center of France, has an area of 2810 sq.m., and a pop. 
of (96) 424,378. It is a hilly district, especially in the s., sloping down towards the 
river Loire in the n., and is partly woody, but generally well cultivated, producing the 
usual kinds of grain with wine and oil. It is also rich in minerals, especially iron, 
coal, antin ony, manganese, and marble. There is some manufacturing industry in 
cotton, wool, linen, carpets, pottery, and glass; but the majority of the population is 
engaged in agriculture. Mineral springs are found at Vichy, Neris, and Bourbon-l Ar- 
chanbault. The chief t. is Moulins. Other important places are Montlucon, La 
Palisse, Gannat. At Chantelle-le-Chateau are the extensive ruins of King Pepin’s castle. 


ALLIGA'TION, from a Latin word signifying ‘‘to bind together,” is arule in arithme- 
tic which teaches to solve such questions as the following : 3 lbs. of sugar at 6d. are 
mixed with 5 Ibs. at 10d.; what is the price of a pound of the mixture ? or: In what pro- 
portion must sugar at 6d. be mixed with sugar at 10d., to produce a mixture at 83d.? 


8xX645x10 _ 
Ste = oe 


In the second, the proportional number for one ingredient is the difference between 
the price of the other and that of the mixture ; the number for the cheap sugar is there- 
fore 14, and for the dear, 24, which are as 3:5, so that there must be 3 lbs. at 6d. for 
every 5 lbs. at 10d. If there are more than two ingredients, the problem becomes inde- 
terminate ; that is, it admits of a variety of answers. Thus: Of three metals, whose 
specific gravities are 10, 15, and 16, it is required to compose an alloy, whose specific 
gravity shall be 14. The conditions will be answered by mixing them in any of the 
following proportions: 1, 2, 1; 2, 2, 3; 6, 2, 11, etc. : 

ALLIGATOR, a genus of saurian reptiles, of the family of the crocodilida, and still 
regarded by some naturalists as a mere sub-genus of crocodilus; although it has recently 
been proposed to constitute a family or sub-family of alligatoride, and to divide it into 
the genera jacare, alligator, and caiman. The alligators differ from the true crocodiles in 
the shorter and flatter head, the existence of cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which 
(and not into mere notches between the teeth, as in the crocodiles) the long fourth teeth 
of the under jaw are received, and the much less webbed feet. In consequence of the 
different manner in which provision is made in the upper jaw for the reception of the 
longest teeth of the lower, the head of the alligators is broader and the snout more obtuse 
than in the crocodiles. Their habits are less perfectly aquatic ; they frequent swampg 
and marshes, and may be seen basking on the dry ground during the day, in the heat of 


The solution of the first is 


Alliance: 
298 Alliteration, 


the sun. They are most active during the night, and then make a loud bellowing. They 
have great strength in their tails, with which the larger ones can easily upset a light 
canoe. They feed chiefly on fish, but do not object to other animal food. The females 
lay their eggs, 20 to 60 in number, in the mud, and leave them to be hatched by the heat 
of the sun, but keep watch over the spot, and show much affection for their young ones, 
many of which, however, fall a prey to the old males, and to vultures and fishes. There 
are several species, varying from 2 to 20 ft. and upwards in length. Perhaps the 
most fierce and dangerous is that found in the southern parts of the United States, as 
far up the Mississippi as the Red river, A. lucius. The snout is alittle turned up ; and its 
resemblance to that of a pike has led to the specific name luctus. In cold weather, these 
animals bury themselves in the mud, and become so torpid, that they may be cut to pieces 
without showing signs of sensibility; but a few hours of bright sunshine are enough to 
revive them. Like the other species, they are so protected by their mailed plates, that 
they are not easily killed, except by a shot or blow over the eyes. A very strong kind of 
leather is prepared from the skin, which is used for making saddles. Itis said that a 
considerable quantity of oil can be extracted from an A., which is transparent and burns 
well. The alligators of South America are there very often called caymans, probably an 
Indian name, and some of them bear the name of yacaré, particularly A. sclerops, also dis- 
tinguished as the spectacled cayman, on account of a prominent bony rim surrounding 
the orbit of each eye. This species appears to be widely distributed over tropical America, 
and attains a great size. Alligators are not known to exist in any quarter of the world 
except America, in which, however, true crocodiles are also found. But among the fossils 
of the s. of England are remains of a true A. (A. hantoniensis) in the Hordle beds. The 
flesh of alligators is eaten by Indians and negroes. It has a musky flavor.—The origin 
of the name is uncertain, but it is supposed to be a corruption of the Portuguese lagarw, 
a lizard. Cuvier adopted it as a scientific name. 


ALLIGATOR APPLE. See CusTARD APPLE. 


ALLIGATOR PEAR. See Avocapo PEAR. 


ALLISON, Wiiu1aM B., b. Perry, O., 1829; studied law, and removed to Iowa ; in 
1857 became a republican leader ; served in the house of representatives, 1863-71 ; was 
elected to the U. S. senate, 1872, re-elected, 1878 and 1884. 

ALLITERA'TION is the frequent occurrence in a composition of words beginning 
with the same letter. In old German, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandinavian poetry, A. took the 
place of rhyme. This kind of verse, in its strict form, required that in the two short 
lines forming a couplet, three words should begin with the same letter, two in the first 
line or hemistich, and one in the second; as in the following couplet of Anglo-Saxon 
poetry: 

Firum foldan 
Frea almihtig.—Cedmon. 


A. has not quite disappeared from Icelandic poetry to this day. Alliterative poems 
continued to be written in English after it had assumed its modern form; the most 
remarkable is Pierce Plowman, a poem of the 14th c., of which the following is a speci- 
meu, the two hemistichs being written in one line : 

Mercy hight that maid, | a meek thing withal, 

A full benign burd, | and buxom of speech. 
Even after the introduction of rhyme, A. continued to be largely used as an embellish- 
ment of poetry, and is so, though to a less extent, to this day: 

The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, 

The furrow followed free.—Coleridge. 

Besides the Gothic, there are other nations widely separated from each other, among 
whom the essential distinction of verse is A.; the Finns, for instance, and the Tamils in 
the s. of India. 

But A. is not confined to verse ; the charm that lies in it exercises great influence 
on human speech generally, as may be seen in many current phrases and proverbs in 
all languages: Ex., ‘‘life and limb,” ‘‘house and home,” ‘‘ wide wears, tight tears,” 
etc. It often constitutes part of the point and piquancy of witty writing. Among 
modern writers this application of A. is perhaps most felicitously exemplified by Sidney 
Smith, as, when in contrasting the conditions of a dignitary of the English church and 
of avoor curate, he speaks of them as ‘‘ the right reverend Dives in the palace, and Laza- 
rus-in-orders at the gate, doctored by dogs and comforted with crumbs.” 

In the early part of the 17th c., the fashion of hunting after alliterations was car- 
ried to an absurd excess ; even from the pulpit, the chosen people of God were addressed 
as ‘‘the chickens of the church, the sparrows of the spirit, and the sweet swallows of salva- 
tion.” Ane New-Year Gift, or address, presented to Mary queen of Scots by the poet, 
Alexander Scott, concludes with a stanza running thus : 


Fresh, fulgent, flourist, fragrant flower formose, 
Lantern to love, of ladies lamp and lot, 
Cherry maist chaste, chief carbuncle and chose, ete. 


lium. 
Allotment. 294 


In the following piece of elaborate trifling, given (but without naming the author) in H. 
Southgate’s Many Thoughts on Many Things, alliteration is combined with acrosticism: 


A n Austrian army, awfully arrayed, 

B oldly by battery besieged Belgrade; 

C ossack commanders cannonading come, 

D ealing destruction’s devastating doom; 

E very endeavor engineers essay 

F or fame, for fortune, forming furious fray. 

G aunt gunners grapple, giving gashes good; 

H. eaves high his head heroic hardihood; 

I braham, Islam, ismael, imps in ill, 

J ostle John Jarovlitz, Jem, Joe, Jack, Jill; 

K ick kindling Kutusoff, kings’ kinsmen kill 

L abor low levels loftiest, longest lines; 

M en march ’mid moles, ‘mid mounds, ’mid murd’rous mines. 
N ow nightfall’s near, now needful nature nods, 

O pposed, opposing, overcoming odds. 

P oor peasants, partly purchased, partly pressed, 

Q uite quaking, ‘* Quarter! quarter!’’ quickly quest. 
R eason returns, recalls redundant rage, 

§ avessinking soldiers, softens signiors sage. 

T ruce, Turkey, truce! truce, treach’rous Tartar train! 
U nwise, unjust, unmerciful Ukraine, 

V anish, vile vengeance! vanish, victory vain! 

W isdom wails war—walls warring words. What were 
X erxes, Xantippe, Ximenes, Xavier? 

Y et Yassy’s youth, ye yield your youthful yest. 

Z ealously, zanies, zealously, zeal’s zest. 


AL'LIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order liliaceew (q.v.) containing a large 
number of species, perennial—more rarely biennial—herbaceous plants, more or less 
decidedly bulbous-rooted, natives chiefly of the temperate and colder regions of the 
northern hemisphere. The flowers are umbellate, inclosed in a spathe, and the umbel 
often bears also small bulbs along with its flowers. The perianth is of six-spreading 
pieces, resembling petals, having the stamens inserted in their base. The fruit is a tri- 
angular capsule, and the seeds are angular. The leaves are generally narrow, although 
in some species, as A. wrsinum, they are rather broad, and in a considerable number they 
are rounded and fistulose. GARLIC (q.v.), ONION (q.v.), LEEK (q.v.), SHALLOT (q.V.), 
CHIVE (q.v.), and RoCAMBOLE (q.V.), are species of this genus in common cultivation. 
The first four are cultivated in the gardens of India as well as of Europe, along with 
A. tuberosum ; and the hill-people of India eat the bulbs of A. leptophyllum, and dry 
the leaves, and preserve them as a condiment. A number of other species are occa- 


sionally used in different countries.—Eight or nine species are natives of Britain, of - 


which the most common is Ramsons (A. ursinum), a species with much broader leaves 
than most of its congeners. It is most frequently found in moist woods and hedge- 
banks ; but occasionally in pastures, in which it proves a troublesome weed, communi- 
cating its powerful odor of garlic to the whole dairy produce. Crow garlic (A. vineale), 
another British species, is sometimes very troublesome in the same way, in drier pastures. 
Both are perennial, and to get rid of them their bulbs must be perseveringly rooted out, 
when the leaves begin to appear in spring. 


ALLIX, Prerre, 1641-1717; a divine of the French Reformed Church, pastor ot 
Charenton, near Paris. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes he went to London, 
where he opened a church for French exiles, in which the service was in that language 
but according to the English ritual. He wrote much, chiefly controversial works. His 
learning was great. 


AL'LOA, aseaport t. in Clackmannanshire, Scotland, is situated on the left bank of the 
Forth, where the river widens into its estuary, 7 m. (by road) below Stirling. Population, 
12,643. It isa t. of considerable antiquity, and is an active center of trade and manu- 
factures. The principal articles manufactured are whisky and oil, the latter of which is 
highly esteemed. There are extensive glass, iron, and brick works, and ship-building 
yards. Copper utensils, shawls and blankets, leather, tobacco, and snuff are manu- 
factured to a considerable extent ; and a large quantity of coal is regularly exported 
from the pits in the immediate neighborhood of the t. The latter forms one of the chief 
items in the coasting trade, besides which there is a considerable foreign trade, chiefly 
outwards. The port has a wet dock. The harbor is good, with 154 ft. of water at neap 
and 174 at spring tides; it is furnished with a dry dock. There is a steamboat ferry 
across the Forth, connecting the t. by a short junction line with the Scottish Central 
railway. It is also connected with that line, and with the Edinburgh and Northern rail- 
way, by the Stirling and Dunfermline branch. There is regular steam-communication 
by the river with Edinburgh and Stirling. In the neighborhood is Alloa House, the 
seat of the Earl of Mar and Killie, with Alloa tower, 89 ft. high, supposed to have been 
built in the 18th c., once the residence of the Erskines, and at different times of Scottish 
princes. 

ALLOB’ROGES, a people of Gaul whose territory is now Savoy and Dauphin. Vienna 
(the modern Vienne) was their chief town. They were subjected to Rome, 121 B.c., by 
Fabius Maximus, and remained loyal. 


ee eS —e——eeeEEeEeEeEeEeEeEeeeereleeeee ee le 


as Alliam. 
295 A Tioementes 


ALLOCU'TION, which simply means an ‘‘ address, is applied, in the language of the 
Vatican, to denote specially the address delivered by the pope at the college of cardinals 
on any ecclesiastical or political circumstance. It may be considered as corresponding 
in some measure to the official explanations which constitutional ministers give when 
questions are asked in pariiament, or to the political messages of the French emperor. 
The court of Rome makes abundant use of this method of address, when it desires to 
guard a principle which it is compelled to give up in a particular case, or to reserve & 
claim for the future which has no chance of recognition in the present. 


ALLO’DIUM, or ALLOpDIAL TENURE (in law), is the free and absolute right of 
property in land, independent of any burden of homage or fidelity to a superior. When 
the principal land-holders of England submitted to the yoke of military tenure, and 
surrendered their lands into the hands of the conqueror at the council of Sarum, 
feudality, the previous existence or non-existence of which has been a subject of much 
discussion, was formally recognized, and it henceforth became a fundamental maxim 
in the jaw of real property, that ‘‘the king is the universal lord and original proprietor 
of all the lands in his kingdom, and that no man doth or can possess any part of it, but 
what has mediately or immediately been derived as a gift from him, to be held upon 
feudal services” (Blackstone, vol. ii. p. 51, Kerr’s edition). This maxim, though, as 
Blackstone remarks, it was even at first little more than a fiction, was not peculiar to 
England, but prevailed wherever the feudal system obtained, and still forms what may 
be called the starting-point in all feudal tenures of land. Even where subinfeudations 
have prevailed to the greatest extent, every title is traceable, in the last instance, to the 
paramount and universal superiority of the crown. See FeupAL SysTEM. The sur- 
render of lands in England being the result of political measures, was one universal 
national act, and, consequently, allodial tenures at once ceased to exist; but in many 
other countries it was accomplished by private arrangements between the allodial pro- 
prietors and the prince, the former being anxious to exchange their normal independence 
for the greater security enjoyed by the vassals of the sovereign, the latter being willing 
to receive them as dependents, for the sake either of their personal services in war, or 
latterly, for the equivalents of these services in money or the produce of the lands. In 
such countries, feudality, though general, was not universal ; and allodial tenures con- 
sequently continued to subsist alongside of those originating with the crown. In this 
position was Denmark, and it is curious that the only examples of allodial tenures to be 
met with in Great Britain are the Udal rights in the islands of Orkney and Shetland, 
which formerly belonged to that country. ‘‘ When these islands,” says Mr. Erskine, 
‘were first transferred from the crown of Denmark to that of Scotland, the right of 
their lands was held by natural possession, and might be proved by witnesses, without 
any title in writing, which had probably been their law formerly while they were sub- 
ject to Denmark ; and to this day, the lands, the proprietors of which have never 
applied to the sovereign, or those deriving right from him, for charters, are enjoyed in 
this manner.” By the law of Scoiland, all property and superiorities belonging to the 
crown itself, and all churches, churchyards, manses, and glebes, the right to which does 
not flow from the crown, are regarded as allodial ; and the term in a wider sense, as 
opposed to fewdal generally, is sometimes used with reference to movable property. 

The etymology of the word A. has been much discussed, and both Celtic and Teutonic 
origins have been assigned to it. The latter seem the more probable conjectures, as the 
word, in senses closely resembling that which we attach to it, is to be found in all Scan- 
dinavian and Germanic languages. On this supposition, its derivation from aU (all, or 
wholly) and od (property), seems probable. Another conjecture assigns it to all and cede 
(waste). That adopted by Mr. Erskine, of its having been composed of a@ privative, and 
leude or leute, people (taken from the people), seems wholly inadmissible, as being incon- 
sistent with the forms of Teutonic speech. 


ALLONGE, AUGUSTE, b. Paris, 1833; artist; pupil of M. L. Cogniet. He has been called 
‘‘one of the kings of charcoal,’’ his best-known works having been done in that material. 
These generally represent landscapes with water, as in his ‘‘ Brook in Morvan”’ and ‘‘ Mill 
of the Soucy.’’? His little book, Charcoal Drawing, is an authority in its department. 

ALLOP’ATHY. See HomEoPatuy. 

ALLO’RI, Cristorano, 1577-1621: a Florentine painter, son of Alessandro. He 
studied with Pagani, and became one of the foremost of the Florentine school. His pic- 
tures are distinguished by their close adherence to nature, and for delicacy and technical 
perfection of execution. His finest work is ‘‘ Judith and Holofernes” in the Pitti palace, 
the model for ‘‘ Judith” having been the beautiful Mazzafirra, the artist’s mistress. 

ALLOTMENT OF LAND, although not a technical, is a well-understood expression in 
the law of England; and under the general inclosure act (41 Geo. III., c. 109), is used to 
denote the kind of conveyance or distribution directed to be made to the person or persons 
who at the time of the division and inclosure shall have the actual possession of the 
lands, tenements, or hereditaments, in lieu of, or in right of which the allotment is made, 
but without prejudice to any question of title. By the ancient statute of Merton (20 
Henry IIL, c. 4), the lord of the manor, or any other owner of a common, may inclose 
so much of the waste as he pleases for tillage or wood-ground, provided sufficient is left 
for other parties entitled to the use of the same. This right to inclose common fields 


Alloteopr. 296 


and waste lands has in modern times been very generally extended throughout England 
by means of local acts of parliament, a number of the regulations of which have been 
consolidated by the act above referred to, by section 7 of which commissioners are 
appointed to make the allotment. 


ALLOT’ROPY is the term applied in chemistry to the existence of the same element in 
various forms, each of which, though containing no extraneous substance, possesses dif. 
ferent properties from the others. The various conditions in which a single element 
can be obtained are known as its allotropic modifications, and though as yet only a few 
elementary substances have been observed to exhibit such modifications, yet it is gener- 
ally believed that every ele.nent is capable of existing in several allotropic forms. Phos- 
phorus affords an excellent illustration of this doctrine. In ordinary circumstances, and 
when freshly prepared, phosphorus is a pale, yellow solid, of the consistence and aspect 
of wax, and to some extent flexible and translucent. It requires to be placed in a vessel 
with water to keep it from taking fire spontaneously. At any ordinary natural tempera- 
ture it appears luminous, and evolves an alliaceous odor when exposed to air, owing to 
a slow process of combustion taking place ; when warmed to 140° F. (60° C.), it bursts 
into flame, and burns vividly. Common phosphorus is soluble in alcohol, ether, the fixed 
and volatile oils, and especially in bisulphuret of carbon, 100 parts of which, when warm, 
dissolve 20 parts of phosphorus. But the same element, when dried and kept for some 
days, with little or no access of air, at a temperature ranging from 446° to 482° F. (230° 
to 250° C.), passes, weight for weight—without addition or subtraction of matter—into a 
substance ‘known to chemists as amorphous phosphorus. The color of this new variety 
is scarlet, brownish red, or even blackish red; and it exists as a powder or cake, which 
does not evolve any odor, or readily take fire, and therefore needs not to be preserved 
under water. Heated to 140° F. (60° C.), or to a little short of 482° F. (250° C.), it 
Tefuses to burn ; and, in fact, it is questionable if phosphorus in this condition will take 
fire at all ; though at 482°, and above, the red variety passes back again to the ordinary or 
yellow phosphorus, and then bursts into flame. Moreover, amorphous phosphorus is 
insoluble in alcohol, ether, the fixed and volatile oils, and even in bisulphuret of carbon. 
Probably the most striking difference between these two forms of the same substance is, 
that ordinary phosphorus is a deadly poison, as is too often evidenced in the death of 
children from sucking the ends of lucifer-matches ; whilst the red or amorphous phos- 
phorus is not known to be poisonous at all.—Besides the two varieties already men- 
tioned, and which are best known, there are black phosphorus, white phosphorus, and scaly 
phosphorus. The only manner of accounting for the difference of properties evinced by 
ordinary and red phosphorus, is to refer the change to an absorption of heat during the 
passage of the ordinary into the red variety. It is an observed fact that such absorp- 
tion or disappearance of heat does then take place ; whilst, when the red phosphorus is 
heated till it passes back to the ordinary kind, a very rapid disengagement of heat occurs. 

Sulphur furnishes another example of A. In the ordinary condition of roll-sulphur, 
it is a pale, yellow, brittle, crystalline solid ; insipid to taste, odorless when cold, and 
evolving a peculiar odor when heated or rubbed. It dissolves in small quantity in tur- 
pentine and the fixed oils, and to the extent of 35 per cent in bisulphuret of carbon. 
Common sulphur heated to 232° F. (111° C.) fuses, and forms a thin, yellow, limpid 
liquid like olive-oil ; at 480° F. (249° C.) it passes into a thick, dark-brown, viscid liquid, 
resembling ordinary treacle; and if, at this stage, it be poured into water, the sul- 
phur forms itself into a thread-like mass or net-work, possessing great elasticity, like 
india-rubber, not at all brittle, and so soft that it can be molded by the fingers into casts 
and seals. Again, this elastic form of sulphur is not soluble in turpentine and the fixed 
oils, or even in bisulphuret of carbon. There are also other allotropic forms of sulphur. 

Oxygen may be taken as a third illustration of the same doctrine. In the ordinary 
form in which oxygen exists in the atmosphere and elsewhere, it is a gas with no odor, 
no bleaching properties, and no disinfectant powers. To a certain extent it oxidizes 
metals, etc.; but feebly, as compared with its allotropic form, ozone. By several 
processes—viz., the introduction of a heated glass rod into a jar containing ordinary 
air and a little ether; or the presence of clean-scraped sticks of phosphorus in a glass 
vessel with a confined portion of air; or the passage of electric discharges through or 
round a glass tube or bottle with air—the oxygen of the atmospheric air is transformed 
into an allotropic form called ozone. In the latter condition, oxygen possesses a very 
strong and peculiar odor, jong known as the electrical odor ; has great bleaching powers, 
and is regarded as the agent in the air which bleaches clothes on the household bleach- 
ing-green ; and possesses such powerful disinfecting properties, that tainted meat intro- 
duced into ozonized air has the disagreeable odor destroyed, and smells fresh when 
taken out. Ozone is doubtless the great natural agent which removes many deleteri- 
ous gases and vapors, and destroys infectious matter floating in or diffused through 
the air. See OZONE. 


ALL/OTTAVA (Italian), inthe octave. A passage marked all. 8oa., or 8va., and placed 
over the notes in pianoforte music signifies that the phrase is to be played an octave 
higher than written, or, if placed below the notes, an octave lower. Its duration is 
indicated by a dotted line, and when the music is to be played as written, the Italian 
word doco (in its place) is printed over cr under the music. In orchestral scores, or 
manuscripts, ald 8va. signifies that one instrument plays in octaves with another. 


Al 
297 Al 


Occurring in figured bass, the term shows that no harmonies are to be employed, the 
upper parts simply doubling the bass in octaves. 


ALLOUVEZ, CLAUDE JEAN, 1620-90 ; one of the early Jesuits who visited the Ameri- 
can lakes ; trained in work in the Algonquin missions on the St. Lawrence. He founded 
the mission of the Holy Ghost on lake Superior in 1665, explored Green Bay, and 
established missions among the Illinois Indians, settling at Kaskaskia and continuing the 
mission begun by Marquette ; but he retired in 1679 on the approach of La Salle, an 
enemy of the Jesuits. He died among the Miamis on St. Joseph’s river. A contributed 
much valuable matter to Indian history. 


ALLOWANCES, OrrFricrers’. At all posts and stations where there are public quarters 
in buildings belonging to the United States officers are furnished with quarters, each 
one being allotted the number of rooms to which his rank entitleshim. If the quarters 
are insufficient those necessary are hired. An officer can select quarters occupied by a 
junior, but, having made his choice, he must abide by it, and cannot again at the post 
displace a junior unless he himself is displaced by a senior. A room is set aside as a 
mess-room when a majority of officers at a post unite in a mess, but never when the 
officers to be accommodated are less than three in number. 

A certain quantity of fuel is allowed, which is paid for at the rate of three dollars a 
cord of standard oak wood, or its equivalent in other kinds of fuel. For any additional 
quantity than that allowed the contract price is paid, or three dollars per cord if the 
contract price is less than three dollars. One sixth of the allowance of fuel can be 
taken in kindling wood if desired. If ata military post between the 36th and 48d 
degrees of latitude the mean temperature for twenty consecutive days in a month is not 
above 20° F. an increase of fuel of one third the usual quantity is allowed. Officers 
can buy at the Quartermaster’s Department lamps, oil, wicks, and chimneys. 

Stationery is also allowed officers in quantities depending upon the rank and employ- 
ment of the officer. The price paid for a horse purchased by an officer shall be its cost 
to government when that can be ascertained ; if thisis not possible, then the price shall 
be the average yearly cost of government horses for the previous year. All officers are, 
as a rule, required to keep the private horses necessary for the efficient performance of 
their duties. Horses of mounted officers can be shod at government expense by public 
blacksmiths, but government will not pay for shoeing done by private parties. Forage 
is allowed for horses owned and actually kept in the performance of official duties, and 
for the following number of horses: To the lieutenant-general, 4; major-general or 
brigadier-general, 3; colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, captain or lieutenant, mounted, 
and adjutant and regimental quartermaster, each 2. One hundred pounds of straw per 
month is allowed for bedding for each horse. When troops are moved transportation 
is provided for the whole command. On transports cabin passage is provided for 
officers, and reasonable and proper accommodation for the troops. When practicable a 
separate apartment is set aside for the sick. Officers traveling at public expense are 
allowed 150 pounds of baggage, but when mileage is drawn the expenses of baggage 
transportation are borne by the individual. 

In changing stations the baggage to be transported at public expense, including mess- 
chests and personal baggage, cannot exceed the following amount: Major-general, 2500 
\bs., brigadier-general, 2000 lbs., field officers, 1800 lbs., captain, 1500 Ibs., first lieutenant, 
1300 lbs., second lieutenant, 1200 lbs., which allowances are in excess of the weight 
transported free of charge under the regular fares by public carriers. 


AL’LOWAY KIRK, an old ruined church in the parish of Ayr, near the mouth of the 
Doon, celebrated in Burns’s Tam o’ Shanter. At very short distances from it are the 
cottage in which the poet was born, the monument erected to his memory in 1828, and 
‘the Auld Brig 0’ Doon,” over which Tam o’ Shanter made his escape. 


ALLOY’ (in chemistry) is a mixture of two or more metals, either natural,or produced 
artificially by melting them together. The A., or mixture, has often different properties 
from the component metals, and bears a distinct name. Thus, bell-metal is an A. of 
copper and tin; tombak, of copper and zinc; brass, of copper, with a larger proportion 
of zinc, etc. Alloys are generally harder than the metals that compose them, and this is 
the motive for alloying the precious metals. Both gold and silver, when pure, are very 
soft, and easily worn away by use; and therefore, a certain proportion of copper is 
added, to give these metals the requisite hardness. In this case the word ‘‘alloy” 
signifies the inferior metal added, and not the mixture. For coin, the proportion of 
copper to be added is fixed by law (see the following article), and differs in different 
states. It has been found by experiment that ;, of A. gives the greatest durability. 
‘This is exactly the proportion in British gold coin, a pound troy of the metal containing 
{1 parts gold and 1 part copper. The A. in the silver coin is somewhat less, being 18 
dwts. in the pound instead of 20 dwts. Forconvenience in reckoning, the standard of 
the coinage in France, and other countries that adopt its monetary system, as well as in 
the United States, is made 5, pure:metal and 74 A., usually stated 900 (in 1000) parts 
fine. Brit. gold and silver standards similarly stated would be 917 and 925 respectively. 
Gold is sometimes alloyed with silver, or with a mixture of silver and copper. The 
color of gold and silver is affected by the nature and amount of the A. A strong A. of 
copper makes gold red; of silver, green; and a still stronger of silver, a bright yellow. 
A compound of mercury with, another metal is an amalgam (q.v.). 

Alloys seldom possess the density which theory or calculation from the specific gravity 


The ints. 
Spee 298 


of their constituents would indicate. Thus, many alloys possess a greater density than 
the mean density of their constituents, whilst others have a less density. The increase 
in density of the A. indicates that the metals have contracted; in other words, that the 
metallic molecules have approached each other more closely ; whilst the decrease in 
density denotes a separation of the molecules to greater distances from each other. 


ALLOYS ALLOYS 


which exhibit a greater density than the| which possess a less density than the mean 
mean density of the metals composing; density of the metals composing them. 
them. 


Gold and zinc. Gold and silver. 

$ Pee tinny cs “eiTOn, 

e “« bismuth, z + ead. 

ey ‘« antimony. sf “copper. 

a ** cobalt. 23 ‘* iridium, 
Silver ‘‘ zine. ae ‘« nickel. 

5 Siti: Silver ‘‘ copper. : 

. ‘¢ bismuth. Iron ‘‘ bismuth. 

ze ** antimony. me ** antimony. 
Copper ‘‘ zinc. _ “lead. 

ss atin: Tin <* lead. 

YY ‘* palladium. <s “palladium. 

x ** bismuth. ‘* antimony. 
Lead ‘‘. antimony. Nickel ‘‘ silver. 
Platinum and molybdenum. Zinc ‘‘ antimony. 


Palladium ‘ bismuth. 

The strength or cohesion of an A. is generally greater than that of the mean cohesion 
of the metals contained therein, or even of that of the most cohesive of its constituents, 
Thus, the breaking weight of a bar of copper or tin (meaning the longitudinal strain it 
can bear) is very much lower than the breaking weight of a bar composed of an A. of 
tin and copper. The following tables represent the 


COHESION OF METALS. 


Bar, 1 in. square, Bar, 1 in. square, 
ear aa pe: wit 
Barbary copper. ...cssseceee. 22,570 Malaccatin .... ....0. 1s tener 
J puted is CET Cote s 20,272 Bismuth? Sissies. Heelan 3,008 
English block tin..... oulety. 4116, 650 ZiNCRRGIN, PE doe 0) 2, 688 
43 hs a Ae, 76 Leer. Sees ANGINIONY 1/7.) aN ae et are 1,060 
Banca tin Pies Sh. Wee 8,679 Tseady FR Ate, 2a Se ee 885 


When any two of the above metals combine together, they generally—though not 
always—yieid an A. which is much stronger than we should expect ; thus the 


COHESION OF ALLOYS. 
Bar, 1in. square, 


need ie 
Ss. 
10 parts-of copper:and 1 part ol stn... aes seo ceeee een 32,093 
bie des ‘ phe MER Me atetine acne celton ates 36,088 
“GEE “s 1k oh Se aa aie Celere ee ss cama a eee 44,071 
Aig pS Sas SEaralate ee ere teeene sare eter rate 35, 739 
Deen aS Leer Ems ttre aw slate Sareea st sreree eae 1,017 
1 Oe ss Lene El R PIR kare aaa 725 
4 “ English tin andl ‘“ Jead tic. a at ee 10,607 
4 '){Stobancadrays (Gal es am tinromy: Jii56. MhGee ave ae 13,480 
te £ Sachin th ons bismmuthy 7eceb eee hee 16,692 
4ii‘e Enplishitin ts fanless TANCEU Ss PINTTA TO 10,258 
mites a bets Shas antimony, {ctv Paes eee. 11,323 


The power of conducting electrical currents is not so great in an A. as the mean con- 
ducting power of its components. 

The composition of the more commonly occurring and commercially important alloys 
is as follows : Plumber’s solder, 2 tin and 1 lead ; soft solder, 1 tin and 2 lead; common 
pewter, 4 tin and 1 lead ; gun-metal, 9 copper and 1 tin ; bronze, 9 copper and 1 tin and 
zinc ; cymbals and Chinese gongs, 4 copper and 1 tin ; bell-metal, 3 copper and 1 tin ; 
speculum metal, 2 copper and 1 tin: pot-metal or cock-metal, 2 copper and 1 lead; gilding- 
metal, 16 copper and 1 to 1} zinc ; Mannheim gold—pinchbeck or bath-metal, 16 copper 
and 4 zinc ; Bristol brass, for soldering, 16 copper and 6 zinc ; ordinary brass, for cast- 
ing, 16 copper and 8 zinc ; Muntz sheathing-metal, 16 copper and 103 zinc ; spelter solder, 
for copper and iron, 16 copper and 12 zinc ; spelter solder, for brass-work, 16 copper and 
16 zinc ; Mosaic gold, 16 copper and 16} zinc ; hardest silver solder, 4 silver and 1 copper ; 


AlloeSaint 
299 Ail-soulne 


hard silver solder, 8 silver and 1 copper ; soft silver solder, 2 silver and 1 copper ; Ger- 
man silver, 100 copper, 50 zinc, and 50 nickel ; type-metal, ordinary, 15 lead, 4 antimony, 
and 1 tin, or 14 lead, 5 antimony, and 1 tin—small types, 4 lead and 1 antimony—large 
types, 6 lead and 1 antimony ; stereotype metal, 48 lead, 6 antimony, and 1 tin ; Britan- 
nia metal, 50 tin, 4 antimony, 4 bismuth, and 1 copper. 


ALLRIGHT-ISLAND is one of a small group of islands known as the Magdalen 
Islands, and situated near the centre of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, though counted as a 
part of Gaspé Co., Quebec. The group are the property of the descendants of Admiral 
Coffin of the British navy. Area of the island, 8600 acres. 


ALL-SAINTS’ BAY, in the province of Bahia, Brazil, in 12°-18° s. lat., and 88°-39° 
w. long. It forms a superb natural harbor, in which the navies of the whole world 
might anchor. Its length from n. tos. is 37 m.; its breadth from e. to w. 27. It con- 
tains several islands, the largest of which, Itapasica, is 18 m. long and 3 broad. The 
entrance to the bay is easy. The t. of Bahia (q.v.) lies just within it, on the right hand. 


ALL-SAINTS’ DAY, in old English, All-Hallows, All-Hallowmas, or simply Hallow- 
mas, a festival of the Roman Catholic church, introduced because of the impossibility of 
keeping a separate day for every saint. As early as the 4th c., on the cessation of the 
persecution of the Christians, the Sunday after Easter was appointed by the Greek church 
for commemorating the martyrs generally ; and in the church of Rome a similar festival 
was introduced about 610 a.p., when the old heathen pantheon (the present rotunda, or 
Santa Maria del Martiri) was consecrated, on the 13th Mar., to Mary and all the Martyrs. 
But the real festival of All Saints was first regularly instituted by Gregory I1V., in 835, 
and appointed to be celebrated on the 1st Nov. It was admitted into England about 870. 
The choice of the day was doubtless determined by the fact that Nov. 1, or rather the 
eve or night preceding it, was one of the four great festivals (Ist Feb., Ist May, 1st Aug., 
and 1st Nov.) of the heathen nations of the north ; for it was the policy of the church to 
supplant heathen by Christian observances. See BELTEIN and HALLOW-EVE. 


ALLSOPP, SAMUEL, born in the year 1780, was a member of the great brewing estab- 
lishment of Allsopp & Sons, at Burton-on-Trent, which ranks third among the 
brewing firms of the United Kingdom. He was a descendant of an old family, and was 
noted for the charities of his public and private life. On his death in 1838, he was 
succeeded in the business by his sons, Charles, James, and Henry, to the last of. whom 
the modern development of the firm is chiefly due. He represented Worcestershire in 
Parliament (1874-80), and in 1880 was created a baronet. After his retirement from the 
firm he was raised to the peerage under the title of Lord Hindlip, of Hindlip, and Alsop- 
en-le-Dale. He died April 3, 1887. The three breweries of the Allsopps employ about 
1600 workmen, and are connected with the malthouses and cooperages by ten miles of 
railway. A few years since when the business was organized as a limited company, it 
was valued at £3,300,000 ; and the shares were eagerly sought by capitalists for invest- 
ments. 


ALL SOULS’ COLLEGE, Oxford, was founded in 1487 by Henry Chichele, sometime 
fellow of New college, and successively bishop of St. David’s and archbishop of Canter- 
bury, for a warden, 40 fellows, 2 chaplains, and clerks. However, by an ordinance 
framed by the commissioners appointed under the statute 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81, ten of the 
fellowships have been suppressed in order to the endowment of two professorships, to be 
called ‘‘the Chichele professorship of international law and diplomacy,” and ‘‘the 
Chichele professorship of modern history.” The remaining fellowships are open to all, 
irrespective of birth (date or place), position, or profession, provided only the candidates 
have passed all the examinations required for B.A., and have obtained either some prize 
or scholarship open to general competition, or a ‘‘ first-class” place in one of the public 
examinations of the university. The candidates ‘also must be examined in jurispru- 
dence and modern history. The patronage includes 19 benefices, situated in Kent, Ox- 
ford, Essex, Gloucester, Berks, Bucks, Herts, Northampton, Salop, Surrey, and Wilts, 
of an annual value of $7925. In 1891 this college had 40 members on its books. 


ALL-SOULS’-DAY, a festival of the Roman Catholic church, which falls on the 2d of 
Noy. The object of it is by prayers and almsgiving to alleviate the sufferings of 
the souls in purgatory. It was first instituted in the monastery of Clugny, 993, and the 
following is the account given of the circumstance in which it originated: A pilgrim 
returning from the holy jand was compelled by a storm to land on a rocky island some: 
where between Sicily and Thessalonica. | Here he found a hermit, who told him that 
among the cliffs of the island was situated the opening into the under-world, through 
which huge flames ascended, and the groans and cries of souls tormented by evil angels 
were audible. The hermit had also frequently heard the complaints and imprecations of 
the devils, at the number of souls that were torn from them by the prayers and alms of 
the pious; they were especially enraged, he said, against the abbot and monks of Clugny. 
The pilgrim on his arrival acquainted Odilo, abbot of Clugny, with what had come 
to his knowledge, and the abbot thereupon appointed the day after All Saints to be kept 
in his monastery as an annual festival for ‘‘all souls.” The observance was quickly 
adopted by the whole Catholic world. By another account, the scene of the incident is 
transferred to Sicily, and the institution to the year 998, 


Allspice. 8300 


Almagro. 


In some parts of western Engiand it is still ‘‘ the custom for the village children to go 
round to all their neighbors sowling, as they call it—collecting small contributions, and 
singing the following verses, taken down from two of the children themselves : 

Soul! soul! for a soul-cake; 
Pray, good mistress, for a soul-cake. 


One for Peter, two for Paul, 
Three for Them who made us all. 


Soul! soul! for an apple or two; 

If you’ve got no apps pears will do. 

Up with your kettle, and down with your pan; 
Give me a good big one, and I'll be gone. 


The soul-cake referred to in the verses is a sort of bun, which, until lately, it was ap 
almost general custom for people to make, and to give to one another on the 2d of No- 
vember.” 


ALL’'SPICE, a name frequently given to the kind of spice called PrmEnTA (q.V.) or 
Jamaica pepper, the fruit of eugenia pimenta and H. acris. The name originated in its 
being supposed to combine the flavour of different spices. particularly cinnamon, nut- 
meg, and cloves. —The name CAROLINA A., or AMERICAN A., is given to the aromatic 
bark of calycanthus floridus (see CALYCANTHDS), which is employed in the United 
States as a substitute for cinnamon.—The berries of benzoin cdoriferum, natural order 
lauracee, are said to have been used for A. in the same country during the war with 
Great Britain. 


ALL'STON, WASHINGTON, one of the best known of the painters and poets of 
America, was b. at Waccamaw, S. C., in 1779. He at first prosecuted the 
study of medicine, but was afterwards induced, by his acquaintance with the 
painter Malbone, to devote himself to art. When he bad completed his studies in 
America, he went to London, where he became a friend of his countryman West, who 
was at that time president of the academy. In the year 1804, he proceeded to Rome, 
where he lived for some years in the closest intimacy with J. Vanderlyn, Thorwaldsen, 
and Coleridge. After a short stay in America, to which he returned in 1809, he once 
more visited England in 1811, when he gained the 200-guinea prize of the British insti- 
tution. In 1817, he went to Paris with Leslie, and the year after returned to America. 
In 1819, he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy of London. He now perma- 
nently fixed his residence at Cambridgeport, near Boston, where he lived, cultivating 
his art and the muses, till his death on the 9th of July, 1843. His pictures are very 
numerous. The subjects of them are mostly taken from scripture, such as Jaccb’s 
dream, Elijah in the wilderness, Saul and the witch of Endor, the deliverance of 
Peter out of prison, etc. The style of A. is noble, his ideas are imaginative, and many 
of his paintings evince a true poetic spirit. In coloring, he comes nearer the old masters 
than most modern painters do. Among his printed works, the most remarkable is the 
poem, Zhe Sylphs of the Seasons (London, 1813), and the art-novel, Monaldi (Boston, 
1841), His Lectures on Art appeared posthumously (1850). See Life by Flagg (1892). 


ALL-THE-TALENTS-MINISTRY. Lord Grenville’s administration, formed after the 
death of William Pitt, was by its friends claimed as possessing ‘‘all the talents,” 
and this phrase, thrown back in derision by opponents, clung to it ever afterwards as 
an appellation. : 


ALLU’VION. This is a legal term signifying land gained from the sea or other body 
of water by the washing up of sand and earth so as to make it terra firma. The right of 
property thus arising is regulated as follows in the laws of England and the United 
States. The land created by the action of the tide belongs to the owner of the estate 
to which it has been added, but it must be the result of a gradual and imperceptible 
increase, whether on the shores of the sea or on the banks of a running stream. The 
test of its gradual nature is that the witnesses shall have been unable to perceive the 
additions to the soil while they were being made, though from time to time they may 
observe that such increase has taken place. It makes no difference whether the increase 
is due to natural or artificial causes. It belongs to the owner of the land at the water’s 
edge where the accretion is going on. In this respect it is distinguished from avulsion 
or the sudden tearing away of land and the transferring of it from the estate of one 
person to that of another, in which case in the United States and in Scotland the trans- 
ferred soil belongs to the former owner. According to the law of England, however, in 
case of a sudden and considerable acquisition on the shore, the ground acquired shall 
belong to the crown. Where, however, the crown may have made a grant to a subject 
cum littore maris, —that is, the space between the high and the low water-mark, — it 
would seem that a sudden or considerable increase of land by alluvion within these 
limits must belong to the grantee. In Scotland the shore is not considered to be the 
property of the sovereign, but it is presumed to be granted as a part and pertinent of 
the adjacent land under the burden of the crown’s right as trustee for the public uses, 
of which navigation and fishing are the chief. 


ALLU'VIUM, a term originally applied to those deposits which were supposed to have 
been formed subsequently to the flood, while diluvium (q.v.), included its products. In 
modern geological classification, these two terms, in this sense, have been abolished, as 
their connection with the deluge is denied. The diluvial and alluvial deposits are 
included under the pleistocene formation (q.v.). The name is now given to those depos 


A llspice. 
801 Ries 


its of mud, soil, sand, gravel, etc., which are brought down by streams and rivers and 
spread over lower lands. See DeLtra ; DENUDATION. 


ALLYGURH,, a fort in the district of the same name in India. Lat. 27° 56’ n., long. 
78° 8’ e. It lies on the route between Agra and Delhi, being 55 m. from the former, 
and 74 from the latter. Partly to this commanding situation, and partly to the strength 
derived from its surrounding marshes, it owes any importance that. it possesses. It was 
stormed by the British in 1808, being then the principal depot of the French party in the 
Doab—an exploit of sufficient consequence to be commemorated by a medal in 1851. 
But within 6 years after 1851, A. became the arena of a still more desperate struggle. 
Ten days after the outbreak at Meerut, the native troops in garrison mutinied. Fortu- 
nate:y, the Europeans escaped with comparatively little sacrifice of life. But the tempo- 
rary loss of the place almost cut off the communications between the s.e. and the n.w.— 
The district of A. (or Aligarh), in the n.w. provinces, has an area of 1952 sq.m.; pop. 
"91, 1,043,000. 


AL'LYL (Lat. alliwm, garlic) is an organic radical, represented when in combination 
by CsH;, and when in the free state by CeHio. The first compound discovered was 
iodide of allyl, which was obtained by Berthelot and De Luca in 1854 ; two years later, 
they isolated allyl ; and shortly afterwards, Wertheim demonstrated its existence in the 
oils of mustard and garlic. Its properties, and those of some of its most important 
compounds, are described in the article GARLIC, OIL OF. 


AL'MA, a river in the Crimea, rising at the foot of the Tchadir Dagh, and flowing 
westward into the bay of Kalamita, about half-way between Eupatoria and Sebastopol. 
On the steep banks of this stream, througli the channel of which the British troops waded 
amidst a shower of bullets, a brilliant victory was won on the 20th of Sept., 1854, by the 
armies of Britain, France, and Turkey, under lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, over 
the Russian army commanded by Prince Menschikoff. 


AL'MACK’S. A suite of assembly rooms in King street, London. They were built 
in 1765 by Almack, a tavern-keeper, and were hence called Almack’s Rooms ;* they are 
now generally called Willis’s Rooms, from the name of the present proprietor. The 
name of A. is chiefly associated with the balls that have, since the opening of the rooms, 
been held there under the management of a committee of ladies of high rank; and has 
become synonymous with aristocratic exclusiveness. 


ALMADA, a t. of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, on the s. bank of the 
Tagus, opposite to Lisbon, and distant from it less than 2m. There is frequent steam 
communication with Lisbon. A. is built upon a height, from the summit of which, above 
the t., there is a magnificent view of Lisbon and the Tagus. A. has a strong castle on a 
rock. The surrounding country is well cultivated. A.has long been celebrated for its 
figs. Near itis the gold mine of Adissa. Pop. 10,000. 


ALMADEN’, or ALMADEN DEL AZOGUE (Arabic, ‘‘the mine of quicksilver”), a t. in 
Spain, 50 m. s.w. of Ciudad Real, is the césapona cetobrix of the Romans, and is situated 
between two mountains in the chain of the Sierra Morena. Pop. 8200. It is famous 
for its exceedingly rich quicksilver mines. These mines were worked by the ancient 
Iberians; afterwards by the Romans. They were rented by the Fuggers of Augsburg in 
the 16th c., but were taken under the care of the Spanish government in 1645. Some 


years since (1843), the Rothschilds undertook the working of these mines. There is a 
school of mines in the place. . 


AL’MADEN, a t. in Santa Clara co., Cal. ; pop. ’90, 1932. It is noted for the New 
Almaden quicksilver mines near by. The deposit was found at an early period by the 
Indians, who used the crude cinnabar for paint. It was first worked for mercury in 
1851. The product of the mines has greatly declined since 1887, when it reached 20,000 
flasks. In 1892 the output was only 5563 flasks, This placed New Almaden third in 
production among American mines, although previously, ever since 1851, it had easily 
held first place. 


Teepe the name given by the Arabs to the great work of Ptolemy the astrono- 
mer (q.V.). 

ALMAGRO, a t. of New Castile, Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, and 12 
m. e-s.e. from Ciudad Real. It is situated ina high arid plain, but is very well 
built, with wide paved streets, a fine square, and a public walk lined with trees. Its 
most noteworthy building is an old church of beautiful architecture. It isa place of 
eee activity than most Spanish towns, and its whole appearance indicates prosperity. 

randy, soap, and earthenware are manufactured, and lacemaking gives employment to 
large numbers of women in A. and the neighboring villages. The surrounding country 


is celebrated for its mules. ‘There are two great annual fairs, at which mules and lace 
are sold. Pop. about 8500. 


ALMA'GRO, Dreco D’, a Spanish conquistador—i.e., adventurer—in the conquest of S. 
America, was b. in 1475. He wasa foundling, and derived his name from the town in the 


* Almack, it is said, was originally a poor Scottish Highlander, named McCall. As a preparato 
step to rising into importance in London, he inverted the syllables of his name. be 4 


jAimalee. 802 


imanac 


vicinity of which he was found. Aiong with many other adventurers, he went, as wa; 
common in those days, to seek his fortune in the new world which Columbus had opened 
up. There he amassed considerable wealth by plunder, and became one of the most infki- 
ential persons in the new colony of Darien, when he was persuaded to join Pizarro in his 
attack on Peru. The undertaking was crowned with astonishing success. He was 
now appointed, it the absence of Pizarro, who had returned to Spain with rich 
presents, governor of the conquered country, and received permission of the Span. 
ish court to conquer for himself a special province s. of the territory subdued 
by Pizarro. In 1534, therefore, he marched on Chili, penetrated deeply into, 
the land, and returned in 1536, just when the Peruvians had flown to arms under: 
their young inca, Mungo Capac, and shut up the Spaniards in Cuzco and Lima. 
As these towns lay s. of Pizarro’s district, they were claimed by A. He dispersed the 
Peruvian army before Cuzco, and advanced with his forces against Lima, hoping to make 
himself sole master of the country. But the crafty Pizarro contrived, by means of a 
truce, to gain time for collecting his forces. On the 6th of April, 1538, a desperate 
engagement took place near Cuzco, in which A. was defeated and taken prisoner. He 
was condemned to death ; and on the 26th of the same month, he was strangled in prison, 
and his corpse beheaded in the market-place of Cuzco. His son, Diego d’A., gathering 
together several hundreds of his father’s followers, stormed the palace of Pizarro, whom 
he assassinated (1541); he then proclaimed himself capt.-gen. of Peru ; but the friends 
of the murdered governor resisting his claims, Baca de Castro was sent out from Spain, 
as supreme arbiter, to quell all disturbances. Diego was now requested to submit ; and 
on his refusing, was attacked by the troops of Baca, when the bloodiest battle took place 
that had ever been known in America (1542). Diego, having been defeated and taken 
prisoner, was executed along with 40 of his companions. 


ALMALEE’, or ALMALI, a large t. of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Konia. It 
is situated on the river Myra, about 25 m. from the sea, and is much frequented by 
European merchants from Smyrna, etc., who purchase the various products of the place. 
A. has numerous mills propelled by water, tan-yards, dye-works, and factories. The 
inhabitants are very industrious, and everywhere may be seen indications of their pros- 
perity—in the clean and comfortable houses, neat apparel, excellent roads, fences, 
bridges, etc. A.is built in a picturesque valley at the edge of a large plateau, 5000 ft. 
above the sea, and is embosomed in gardens, which, together with the minarets and 
lofty pillars interspersed through the town, give it a striking appearance. Pop. esti- 
mated at from 4000 to 25,000. 


AL'MA MA'TER (Lat., nourishing mother) is a name given to a university in relation 
to those who have studied at it, to distinguish it from inferior schools of learning. The 
word alma (nourishing, sustaining, or kind) was applied by the Latin authors to such of 
the deities as were friendly to men—Ceres, Venus, etc., and also to the earth, the light, 
the day, wine. and the soil. 


AL-MAMUN’, or AL-MAMOUN, AntL-ABBAS-ABDALLAH, b. 786, a renowned caliph of 
the Abbasides, son of Haroun al-Raschid. When Haroun died, Mamun was governor 
of Khorassan, and his brother Amin took the Bagdad caliphate; but his treatment of 
jamun led to war, and after five years of fighting Amin was slain and Mamun took his 
place, Oct. 4, 8138. The early part of his reign was disturbed by revolts and heresies; 
but when affairs settled down he fostered the cultivation of literature and science in all 
his empire, and Bagdad became the seat of academical instruction and the center of 
intelligence. He had books translated from old and living languages, founded astro- 
nomical observatories, determined the inclination of the ecliptic, had a degree of the 
meridian measured on the plain of Shinar, and constructed astronomical tables of 
remarkable accuracy. He paid more respect to science than to orthodoxy, and drew his 
men from all countries and all creeds. This liberalism resulted in the caliph’s conver- 
sion in 827 to the heterodoxy of the Motasali, who asserted the free will of man and 
denied the eternity of the Koran. In the latter years of his reign he was in hostilities 
with the Greek emperor Theophilus; revolts broke out in various parts of his empire; 
Spain and n.w. Africa asserted their independence, and Egypt and Syria were inclined 
to follow. - In 838, after quelling a disturbance in Egypt, he marched into Cilicia against 
the Greeks, but died suddenly near Tarsus, leaving his crown to Motassem, a younger 
brother. Mamtin was the author of Inquiries into the Koran, a tract on Signs of 
Prophecy, and one on The Rhetoric of the Priests and Panegyrists of the Caliphs. 


ALMANAC, from the Arabic article a/, and manah, to count, a word received by the 
European nations from the east, denoting a book or table containing a calendar of the 
civil divisions of the year, the times of the various astronomical phenomena, and other 
useful or entertaining information. Till a comparatively modern date, this additiona\ 
matter consisted of astrological predictions and other analogous absurdities ; it now 
embraces, in the best almanacs, a wide variety of useful notes and information, chrono- 
logical, statistical, politicai, agricultural, etec.—The Alexandrian Greeks had almanacs. 
The time at which they first appeared in Europe is not precisely known. The oldest of 
the copies (manuscript) existing are of the 13th-14th c.; there are specimens in the 
libraries of the British museum and of Corpus Christi college, Cambridge. The earliest 
known printed European A. was compiled by the celebrated astronomer Purbach, and 


I ° 
803 Tinnaae 


appeared between the years 1450, 1461 ; but the first A. of importance was that composed by 
his pupil, Regiomontanus, for the fifty-seven years from 1475 to 1531, for which he received 
a munificent donation frem Mathias Corvinus, king of Hungary. Bernard de Grano- 
lachs of Barcelona commenced the publication of an A. in 1487; the printer Engel of 
Vienna, in 1491 ; and Stéffler of Tiibingen, in 1524. Copies of these are now very rare. 
In 1538, Rabelais published, at Lyon, his A. for that year, and renewed the publication 
in 1535, 1548, and 1550. The fame and popularity of the celebrated astrologer, Nostra- 
damus, who prophesied minutely the death of Henry II. of France, the execution of 
Charles I. of England, the great fire of London, the restoration, etc., gave such an 
impulse to the publication of predictions, that in 1579, Henry III. of France prohibited 
the insertion of any political prophecies in almanacs—a prohibition renewed by Louis 
XIII. in 1628. Before this, in the reign of Charles [X., a royal ordonnance required every 
A. to be stamped with the approval of the diocesan bishop. 

Prophetic almanacs still circulate to an incredible extent in France in the rural dis- 
tricts, and among the uneducated. The most popular of all these is the Almanach 
Liégeois, a venerable remnant of superstition. It was first published at Liege—according 
to the invariable title-page which takes no note of time—in 1686, by one Matthieu 
Laensbergh, whose existence, however, at any time seems very problematical. The 
Almanach Liégeois is a most convenient one for those who are unable to read, for by 
certain symbols attached to certain dates, the most unlettered persons can follow its 
instructions: thus the rude representation of a vial announces the proper phase of the 
moon under which a draught of medicine should be taken; a pill-box designates the 
planet most propitious for pills; a pair of scissors points out the proper period for cut. 
ting hair, a lancet for letting blood. Of course, amidst innumerable predictions, some 
may naturally be expected to come to pass. Soin 1774, this A. predicted that in the 
April of that year a royal favorite would play her last part. Madame Dubarry took the 
prediction to herself, and repeatedly exclaimed: “I wish this villainous month of 
April were over.” In May, Louis XV. died, and Madame Dubarry’s last part was really 
played. The credit of old Matthieu was established more firmly thanever. In 1852, a 
number of commissioners, appointed by M. Maupas, minister of police, having examined 
between 7000 and 8000 of the national chapbooks, which included a great number of 
almanacs, pronounced them so deleterious, that it became necessary forcibly to check 
their circulation. Although stillin vogue amonxgst the ignorant peasantry, it is gratify- 
ing to learn that their popularity is greatly on the wane, and that various periodicals on 
a better plan have started up in France of late years. 

In England, so far was any restraint from being put upon the publication of pro- 
phetic almanacs, or ‘‘ prognostications,” as they were usually called, that the royal 
letters-patent gave a monopoly of the trade to the two universities and the stationers’ 
company, under whose patronage, and with the ¢mprimatur of the archbishop of Canter- 
bury, such productions as Moore's A. and Poor Robin’s A. flourished vigorously; 
although ‘‘it would be difficult to find, in so small a compass, an equal quantity of 
ignorance, profligacy, and imposture, as was condensed in these publications.” The 
memory of Partridge, long employed as the prophet of the stationers’ company, is pre- 
served in the lively diatribe of Swift, writing under the name of Bickerstaff. In 1775, a 
decision of the court of common pleas, in favor of a bookseller named Carnan, abolished 
the monopoly of the stationers’ company. In 1779, lord North brought in a bill 
renewing their privileges. After a powerful speech against the measure by Erskine, 
who exposed the pernicious influence of the productions published under the monopoly, 
it was rejected. The stationers’ company, however, still maintained their ground by 
buying up all rival almanacs ; and it was not until the publication, in 1828, of the British 
A. by the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, that the eyes of the English 
public became opened to the irrational and deleterious nature of the commodity which 
their own indifference or folly, as much as the selfishness of their purveyors, had 
hitherto maintained in existence. The success of this admirable publication—which 
still continues to appear annually—stimulated the stationers’ company to improvement, 
and they accordingly published the Anglishman’s A. The British A. is itself now pub- 
lished by the stationers’ company. Whitaker’s A. is a valuable compendium. 

In Scotland the earliest almanacs seem to have been produced about the beginning of 
the 16th c. Shortly atter the beginning of the 17th c. the almanacs or “‘ prognostica- 
tions” published at Aberdeen had begun to establish that celebrity which is hardly yet 
extinct. About the year 1677 they were sold for a plack each; and the annual circula- 
tion amounted, on an average, to 50,000 copies. In 1683, appeared a rival publication, 
under the title of Hdinburgh’s True Almanack, or a New Prognostication. For a long 
time Scottish almanacs continued, like all others of that age, to contain little besides a 
calendar, with a list of fairs, and—what constituted the great attraction—predictions of 
the weather. But something more instructive and comprehensive became requisite, and 
the Edinburgh A. seems to have been among the first to respond to this requirement of 
advancing civilization; for, by various editions, such as a list of Scottish members of 
parliament, it had, in 1745, been extended from the original 16 pages to 86. In 12 
years from that date it had swelled to 72 pages; in 1779 it had reached 252 pages. Since 
1837, it has been published under the title of Oliver and Boyd’s New Edinburgh A., and 
now extends to above 1000 pages. It contains an amount of information on all public 


Al : 
Sheena 304 


matters, especially those connected with north Britain, which, in its completeness, 
leaves little to be desired. 

What Oliver and Boyd’s Edinburgh A. is to Scotland, is Thpm’s Irish A. to Ireland—a 
work not less excellent, and even more extensive. 

Almanacs containing astrological and other predictions are still published in Great 
Britain, but their influence is extremely limited, even among the most ignorant portion 
of the commvnity, and their contents are fitted to excite amusement rather than any 
stronger emotion. 

Of important national almanacs are the French Almanach Impérial, begun in 1679, 
a bulky octavo volume, full of useful information; the Belgian Royal A., very similar 
in character; the Prussian Royal A.; and the American A., a very meritorious publica- 
tion. The Almanach de Gotha, begun in 1763, has a European, or rather a cosmopolitan, 
character. See Gorua, A. DE. 

The most important astronomical A. published in Britain is the Nautical A., projected 
by the astronomer-royal, Dr. Maskelyne, and first published, with the authority of 
government, in 1767. After his death it gradually lost its character, and in 1830, in 
consequence of the numerous complaints made against it, the government requested the 
astronomical society to pronounce upon the subject. The suggestions of the society 
were adopted, and, in 1834, the first number of the new series appeared, with such 
additions and improvements as the advanced state of astronomical science rendered 
necessary. Still older than this A. is the French Connovssance des Temps, commenced 
in 1679 by Picard, and now published under the authority of the Bureau des Longitudes. 
Its plan is similar to that of the Nautical A., but it contains a larger amount of original 
memoirs, many of them of great value. Equally celebrated is the Berlin Lpemeris, 
published so long under the superintendence of the late prof. Encke, being an improve- 
ment on the Astronomisches Jahrbuch, conducted by his predecessor Bode. 

Another kind of A., which has especially flourished in Germany and France, belongs 
rather to the class of publications known in Britain as Annuals. Such have been the 
Almanach des Muses, des Dames, Populaire, Icarien, Napoléonien, etc., the latter of 
which were specially devoted to the interests of particular parties, political or religious. 
Of this kind, the examples in Britain are innumerable, and, in fact, the publication of 
an A. has now become a favorite medium of advertising and puffery. 

In this country The American Nautical Almanac was begun in 1849 by Charles 
Henry Davis, U. 8. navy, and the first volume (for 1855) was published in 1853. It is 
believed that the first common A. in this country was for 1687, from Bradford’s press 
in Philadelphia. Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac, begun in 1732, was kept up by 
him about 25 years, and was widely known in this country and abroad for its wise 
and witty sayings. The American Almanac, and Repository of Useful Knowledge, was 
issued in Boston from 1828-61; acontinuation, The National Almanac, came out for 
two years only, 1863-64. In 1878, A. R. Spofford, librarian of congress, began an 
American Almanac and Treasury of Facts, Statistical, Financial, and Political, a com- 
prehensive and valuable work. Political almanacs were headed by Zhe Whig, now The 
Tribune Almanac, regularly issued from 1841, and still continued. The New York Herald, 
Philadelphia Ledger, and other great journals issue almanacs. Nearly every religious 
denomination has its special annual, either A. or year-book; and many trades, profes- 
sions, and enterprises have similar publications. Not the least noticeable are the 
almanacs of the patent-medicine dealers, in English, German, French, Spanish, and 
other languages, which are given away by millions. 

ALMANAC is also the term applied by antiquaries to calendars found carved, usually 
on staves, but also on tablets of wood, scabbards of swords, handles of hatchets, etc. 
The inscribed characters are sometimes the Runic—hence the name of runstajfs, Scipiones 
Runici—and sometimes the Gothic.. The saints’ days are denoted by symbols, as a pair 
of shoes for St. Crispin’s day. These primitive almanacs were in use among the 
Scandinavian nations, and the examples of them found in Britain are thought to have 
been introduced by the Norsemen. 

ALMANACH DE GOTHA. See GotHa, ALMANACH DE, 

AL'MANDINE (Fr., almandine, from Lat., alabandina, so called from Alabanda, a town 
in Caria, where it was first found), the red transparent variety of garnet (Q.¥u): 


ALMAN'SA, a t. of Murcia, Spain, in the province of Albacete, and 48 m. e. by 
s. from Albacete, on the Madrid and Alicante railway. It is situated in a wide 
plain, and is tolerably well built, and rather flourishing. The vega, or plain around the 
{. is irrigated by water from a large reservoir called the Pantano of Albufera, and is 
very fertile. Many of its ague-breeding swamps have been drained and brought under 
cultivation. A. carries on manufactures of linen, hempen, and cotton fabrics, the 
materials of which are supplied from the neighborhood, also of brandy, leather, and 
soap. Pop. 9700.—Near A. the French, under the duke of Berwick, natural son of 
James II. of England, gained a victory, on 25th April, 1707, over an army of Spanisk 
and English troops, commanded by Henry de Ruvigny, earl of Galway. The French 
were more than twice the number of their opponents. Ruvigny fought under orders 


¢ 


305 Almeida.” 


from home, contrary to his own judgment, and was deserted by the Spaniards almost 
as soon as the battle began. The battle of A. was, in its results, one of the most im- 
portant in the war of the Spanish succession. See Successron WARS. 


ALMANSOR,, or, with his full name, Abu-Jafer-A bdallah-ben-Mohammed-al-Mans¢ 
(al-mansor, ‘‘ helped by God”), the second caliph of the house of the Abbasides (q.v.), reigned 
from 754 to 775. Warfare, treachery,and murder were his steps to the throne, and his whole 
rule was as cruel as its beginning. He specially persecuted the Christians in Syria and 
Egypt. In war against external foes he had but little success. He removed the seat of 
the caliphate from Kufa to Bagdad, which he built at immense cost, raising the money by 
oppressive taxation. He introduced the pernicious custom of making his freed slaves, 
mostly foreigners, rulers of provinces. The best feature in his character was his patron- 
age of learning. He caused the Elements of Euclid to be translated from the Syriac, and 
the famous fables of Bidpai (q.v.) from the Persian language. <A. d. during a pilgrimage 
to Mecca, in the 63d year of his age. 


ALMA-TADEMA, LAURENCE, painter, b. at Drouryp, Netherlands, in 1836; became a 
student at the Antwerp Academy in 1852, and subsequently studied with the late Baron 
Henry Leys; settled in London in 1870, and was naturalized in 1873. He made a special 
study of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman life; was appointed an officer of the Legion of 
Honor in 1878, elected a royal academician in 1879, and appointed a foreign Knight of 
the German order Pour le Mérite by the emperor in 1881. Among his works, which are 
very numerous, are The Vintage, Catullus, An Audience at Agrippa’s, The Seasons, Sappho, 
The Way to the Temple, Comparisons, and At the Close of a Joyful Day, the two last-named 
being in 1893 and 1894 respectively. His wife (LAURA Epps) was a noted painter be- 
before her marriage, and afterward a frequent exhibitor in the galleries. 


AL’MEH, or ALMAI, a class of singing girls in Egypt. To enter the A. one must have 
a good voice, understand the language well, know the rules of verse, and be able to 
improvise couplets adapted to circumstances. They are in demand at all entertainments 
and festivals, and at funerals as hired mourners. ‘They are distinct from the ghawazee, 
or dancing girls, who are of a lower order, and perform in the streets. 

ALMEIDA, one of the strongest fortified places in Portugal, is situated on the river 
Coa, on the Spanish frontier, in the province of Beira. Pop. about 2000. In 1762 it was 
captured by the Spaniards, who soon afterwards surrendered it. Here, in 1810, when the 
French, under Marshal Ney, attempted to cross the Coa into Portugal, the English colo- 
nel, Cox, defended the town against Marshal Massena; but the explosion of a powder- 
magazine compelled him to capitulate. In their retreat from Portugal, 1811, the French, 
under Gen. Brenier, destroyed a great portion of the fortifications of A.; which, how- 
ever, were speedily repaired by the English. 


ALMEIDA, Don FRANCESCO D’, a famous Portuguese warrior, who flourished in the 
latter part of the 15th and the beginning of the16the. He was the seventh son of the 
count of Abrantes, and at an early period distinguished himself in the wars with the 
Moors, but especially at the conquest of Granada, in 1492. In 1505, his sovereign, Eman- 
uel I., in consideration of his great abilities, appointed him viceroy of the Portuguese 
possessions in the East Indies. On the 25th of March he set sail from Lisbon with a fleet 
of 36 vessels, containing 1500 men, many of whom were noblemen, and all of good 
family. On the 22d of July he reached Quiloa, on the Mozambique coast, where he was 
soon involved in a quarrel with the king of that city, the result of which was that A. 
deprived him of his crown, built a fortress to overawe the inhabitants, and proceeding to 
Zanzibar, destroyed the t. of Mombaza. He then sailed for the Indies, asserting every- 
where the superiority of the Portuguese flag. At Cananor, Cochin, Coulan, Ceylon, and 
Sumatra, he either built fortresses to protect the factories and commercial interests of his 
nation, or established new factories. With the king of Malacca a commercial treaty was 
formed about the same time. His son, Lorenzo, carried on several expeditions as his 
father’s lieutenant, visited Ceylon, and discovered the Maldive islands and Madagascar. 
The chief design of A. was to make the Portuguese sole masters of the Indian seas, and, 
by blockading the Persian and Arabian gulfs, to exclude the Egyptians and Venetians 
from commerce with the east. To frustrate his endeavors, the Egyptian sultan fitted 
out, by the help of the Venetians, a large fleet, which, under command of the Persian, 
Mir-Hakim (or Hossein, according to others), was sent to the assistance of the king of 
Calicut. In the port of Chaul, young Lorenzo was attacked in very disadvantageous 
circumstances by Mir-Hakim. He fought with astonishing bravery; his ships had all 
but made their escape out to the open sea, when his own was separated from the others 
and struck upon a rock; one chance shot carried off one of his legs, and another, tearing 
away a part of his side, killed him. His father speedily took measures to revenge the 
death of his son upon the hated Mussulmans, when Alfonso d’Albuquerque appeared 
on the scene (1507), having been sent out by the Portuguese government to supersede A.., 
whom it had begun to distrust on account of his brilliant successes. The latter refused to 
recognize Albuquerque as viceroy, and for some months kept him prisoner at Cochin. 
He now sailed along the coasts, burning and plundering various sea-ports, amongst others 
Goa, and at length utterly destroyed the Egyptian fleet at Diu. From this fierce and 
avenging expedition he returned to Cochin, resigned his office into the hands of his suc- 
cessor, and set out on his homeward voyage, Nov. 18, 1508. But he was not destined to 
see his native land again, for he was slain March 1, 1510, in an affray with the savages at 


Almonds, 306 


cape Saldanha, in the s. of Africa, where his men had landed. He wasa man of stern, 
vigorous, and yet impulsive character, capable of severe retaliation of injuries, but 
not destitute of clemency and generosity. 


ALMERIA (Arab, Al-Meryah, ‘‘the conspicuous”), anciently Murgis, or Portus 
Magnus, the chief t. in the Spanish province of the same name, at the mouth of the 
river Almeria. It has a well-defended harbor, a cathedral, besides 26 churches and 
monasteries, and a grammar school. In the time of the Moors it was, next to Granada, 
the richest and most important t. in the kingdom, and flourished alike in arts, 
industry, and commerce, being the ‘‘ great port” of traffic with Italy and the east. At 
one time, it was as terrible a nest of pirates as Algiers itself, under the Moorish chief 
Ibn Mayman, when even Granada, according to the proverb, was merely its ‘‘ farm.” 
Now it has only a few trifling manufactures, although it still keeps up considerable 
trade in cochineal, red silk, lead, grapes, and especially wine. The cotton tree has been 
planted in the environs of A. by English merchants. Pop., (1887) 36,200 


ALMODO'VAR DEL CAM'PO, a t. of New Castile, Spain, in the province of Ciudad 
Real, 22 m. s.w. from Ciudad Real. It.stands on the summit of a ridge, near the Vega, 
a branch of the Guadiana. The streets are tolerably clean, but ill paved. There are 
ruins of an ancient castle. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture, and 
the only manufactures are domestic. Pop. about 8000. 


AL'MOHADES, the name of a dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain during the 
12th and 18th c. The word is Arabic, and signifies Unitarians. It was taken as a 
term of distinction ; for the A. considered themselves the only Mohammedans who 
worshiped God properly. The founder of this sect, which at first was religious rather 
than political, was called Mohammed Ibn-Youmert, a native of the Atlas region. He 
was a man of a bold and subtile intellect, and extremely ambitious. He had traveled 
much, and acquired a manifold knowledge and experience. His first measures were 
extremely prudent. He commenced preaching with great zeal the reformation of 
all abuses, affecting himself an austere and unselfish life. He went about covered with 
rags, prohibiting wine, music, and all pleasures. At first his denunciations were 
generally held in contempt ; but at length his partisans became so numerous, that Ali, 
king of Morocco, was compelled to take measures against him. It was, however, too 
late. The Arabs and Berbers flocked to his standard ; and at the end of a few years he 
was master of the provinces of Fez, Morocco, Tlemzen, Oran, and Tunis. Mohammed 
imposed on his disciples new ceremonies, and composed for their benefit a special 
treatise entitled On the Unity of God. The A. extended their conquests into Spain, 
subjugating Andalusia, Granada, Valencia, and a part of Aragon, and Portugal as far 
as the Ebro and Tagus. Mohammed was succeeded in his authority by Abdelmoumen, 
who had formerly been his lieutenant. Under him and his descendants, Jussuf and 
Jacob, the dynasty of the A. continued to flourish in great splendor. But in 1212 they 
were completely defeated by the Spaniards in the famous battle of Tolosa, the result 
of ~vhich was a general revolt of the Christian provinces under their sway. The power 
o: cae A. was destroyed in Spain in 1257, and in Africa in 1269. 


AL'-MOKANNA, or Moxenna. See MOHAMMEDAN SECTS. 


AL'MOND, Amygdalus, a genus of the natural order rosacee (q.v.), sub-order amyg- 
dalew or Drupacee, consisting of trees or shrubs, distinguished by the coarsely furrowed 
anc wrinkled shell (endocarp or putamen) of the drupe, and by the young leaves being 
conduplicate, or having their sides folded together. According to the greater number 
of botanists, it includes the Ppacn (q.v.), constituted by some into a distinct genus, 
persica, in which the drupe has a fleshy covering (savcocarp), whereas in the species to 
which the name A. is commonly given, this part is a dry fibrous husk, which shrivels at 
the fruit ripens, and finally opens of its own accord. The A.-tree (wmygdalus communis) 
is very similar to the peach-tree, and is distinguished from it principally, besides the 
difference of the fruit, by the fine glandulous serratures of the leaves, the stalk of which 
equals, or even exceeds, in length the breadth of the blade. It is a tree about 20 to 80 ft. 
high, a native of the east and of Africa, but has now become completely wild in the 
whole s. of Europe. Even in the more northern parts of Germany and of Britain it 
is planted for the sake of its beautiful flowers, which are produced in great abundance, 
and resemble those of the peach in form and often in color, although generally paler and 
sometimes white. The blossoms appear before the leaves, and are very ornamental in 
shrubberies in March and April; and even when frosts destroy the germ of the fruit, 
the brilliancy of the flower is not impaired. The wood of the A.-tree is hard, and of 
a reddish color, and is used by cabinet-makers, etc. But it is chiefly valued on account 
of the kernel of its fruit, well known by the name of AtMonps, and forming an iImpor- 
tant article of commerce, for the sake of which it is extensively cultivated in the s 
of Europe and other countries of similar climate. It is mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment, and appears to have been cultivated from a very early period. It was introduced 
into Britain as a fruit-tree before the middle of the 16th c.; but it is only in the most 
favored situations in the s. of England that it ever produces good fruit.—Almonds 
are either sweet or bitter. The bitter appear to be the original kind, and the sweet to 
be an accidental variety, perpetuated and improved by cultivation. SwreT ALMONDS 


Almeria. 
307 Rimonua 


contain alarge quantity of a very bland, fixed oil, emulsion, gum, and mucilage sugar, aré 
of a very agreeable taste, and very nutritious, and are used in the dessert, in confec- 
tionery, and medicinally in an emulsion, which forms a pleasant, cooling, diluent drink. 
Brrrer ALMonps contain the same substances, and, in addition, a substance called 
amygdalin, from which is obtained a peculiar volatile oil. (For the oils derived from 
almonds, see the following articles)—The muddy water of the Nile is clarified by 
rubbing bitter almonds on the sides of the water-vessels, in the same way in which the 
nuts of the strychnos potatorum (see CLEARING Nut) are used in India, The principal 
varieties of A. in cultivation are: the common sweet A., with thick hard shell; the 
brittle-shelled, with a very thin, almost leathery, brittle shell, and sweet kernels ; the 
bitter A., with thick hard shell (sometimes also with a brittle shell), and bitter kernels ; 
the large-fruited, with large flowers of a whitish rose-color, and very large sweet fruit; 
the small-fruited, with very small sweet fruit; and the peach A., with a slightly succulent 
blackish sarcocarp (see above), yellow shell, and sweet kernels. The sarcocarp is, in 
the different varieties, more or less dry, or somewhat fleshy and juicy, so that some 
authors have disputed even the specific distinction between the A. and the peach. In 
commerce the long almonds of Malaga, known as Jordan almonds, and the bread 
almonds of Valencia, are most valued. Large quantities of almonds are annually im- 
ported into Britain and America from France, Spain, Italy, and the Levant. Bitter 
almonds are brought to Britain chiefly from Mogadore.—The Dwanrr A. (A. nana) is 
very similar to the common A., except that it is a low shrub, seldom more than 2 or 3 ft. 
in height. Its fruit is also similar, but much smaller. It is common in the plains of 
the s. of Russia, and is frequently planted as an ornamental shrub in Britain, flower- 
ing freely in March and April, but not producing fruit. It is very beautiful when 
covered with its pink flowers in spring, and deserves to be more frequently planted than 
itis. A sheltered but sunny situation is favorable to it.—Other species, little known, 
but very similar to these, are found in the east, and one on arid hills in Mexico. 


ALMONDBOURY, s.e. of Huddersfield, is practically a part of that place. There isa 
free grammar school, founded in 1609. A. is of great antiquity, and is supposed to have 
been the residence of some of the Saxon kings. 


ALMON'DE, Puriiprus vAN, 1646-1711; a Dutch vice-admiral, serving under De 
Ruyter in the fights of 1666, and after the admiral’s death commanding the Dutch Medi- 
cerranean fleet, gaining fame in the defeat of the French at La Hague in 1692. He was 
with Van Tromp in subduing the naval power of Sweden. 


ALMONDS, Frxep O11 or. When almonds are subjected to pressure, a fixed greasy 
oil exudes. Either bitter or sweet almonds may be employed; but the former are gener- 
ally used, as they are cheaper than the sweet almonds, and the expressed cake is valuable 
in the preparation of the essential oil. One cwt. of the almonds generally yields 48 to 52 
Ibs. of the fixed oil. When first obtained it possesses a turbid or milky appearance; but 
when allowed to stand at rest, the impurities settle, and a clear, light, yellow oil remains 
above. It has the specific gravity of -920, and solidifies when cooled to between +- 14° 
and — 5° F. (— 10° and — 20° C.). It has no odor, and when fresh has a mild, nutty 
taste, but soon becomes rancid by exposure to the air ; it is not, however, one of the dry- 
ing oils. It consists almost wholly of ¢trzoléén, a compound of glycerine with oleic acid. 
The fixed oil of A. is used in medicine, and possesses a mild laxative property when 
administered in large doses. It is beneficial, also, in allaying troublesome coughs. 


ALMONDS, VoLATILE OIL oF, OR ESSENTIAL O1L oF. The cake which is left after the 
expression of the fixed oil from bitter A., contains, among other matters, a portion of 
two substances, called, respectively, amygdalin, and emulsin or synaptase. When the 
cake is bruised and made into a paste with water, the synaptase acts as a ferment upon 
the amygdalin, splitting it up into the volatile oil of A., hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, grape- 
sugar, ammonia, formic acid, and water. The oil is not originally present in the bitter 
A. ; in fact, the latter do not contain a trace of the oil ready formed, so that the oil is 
purely the product of the fermentation of amygdalin, 100 parts of which yield 47 of crude 
oil. This action takes place very rapidly, and is complete in 24 hours. The paste having 
been placed in a retort, heat is very cautiously applied, to prevent the lumping and froth- 
ing to which the almond infusion is liable. In the distillation, the hydrocyanic acid and 
the volatile oil unite in an unstable compound which passes over into the receiver, along 
with much water. The crude oil thus obtained decomposes gradually, the prussic acid 
being set free, and on this account it is very poisonous, many fatal cases having occurred 
from its willful, accidental, or careless use. The crude oil is purified and freed from 
prussic acid by means of sulphate of iron and lime. On redistillation it has a specific 
gravity of 1:049, as compared with 1°:064 in the crude state, and must be carefully freed 
from water by being shaken with fused chloride of calcium. The yield of crude essen- 
tial oil is very variable, ranging from 4 to 9} Ib. from 1000 Ib. of bitter almonds, and this 
again is reduced by about 10 per cent. during its purification from prussic acid. The 
volatile oil (CsH;COH) is the aldehyde of benzoic acid (CsH;COOH), into which 
substance it rapidly changes when exposed to the air in a moist state. It has an 
agreeable odor, an acrid, bitter taste, and burns with a smoky white flame. It is 
soluble to the extent of 1 part in 80 parts of water, and is very soluble in alcohol and 
ether. Heated to 356° F. (180° C.), it boils, and distills over unaltered. In medicine 


ATMOREE 808 


loes. 


the volatile oil is used in place of prussic acid, but is perry variable in strength, being 
sometimes four times the strength of medicinal prussic acid, The dose is a quarter of a 
drop to a drop and a half in an emulsion. The cook and confectioner employ the oil for 


flavoring custards, etc., and the perfumer uses it for scenting toilet-soap, etc. 


AL'MONER is the name given originally to that member of a religious order who had 
the distribution of the money and other things set apart for alms, which, by canonical 
law, was to amount to at least a tenth of the revenues of the establishment. Afterwards 
those ecclesiastics also received this name who were appointed by princes to the same 
office in their households. The grand A. of France was one of the principal officers of 
the court and of the kingdom, usually a cardinal, and, in right of his office, commander 
of all the orders, and also chief director of the great hospital for the blind. Queens, 
princes, and princesses had also their almoners, and bishops were usually appointed to 
this office. In England, the office of hereditary grand almoner is mow a sinecure, his 
only duty being to distribute the coronation medals among the assembled spectators. 
The lord high almoner, who is usually a bishop, distributes twice a year the queen’s 
bounty, which consists in giving a silver penny each to as many poor persons as the 
queen is years of age. 


ALMON'TE, Don Juan Nepomucino, 1804-69 ; a Mexican general and diplomat, of 
Indian blood in part, and reputed son of Morales. He filled diplomatic positions in the 
United States, England, Peru, and France. He was captured while on Santa Anna’s 
staff at the battle of San: Jacinto in 1886, but was released six months later. He became 
Mexican minister of war, and during the war with the United States he fought under 
Santa Anna. At Paris he was active in promoting the French invasion of Mexico and 
the election of Maximilian. A. was appointed dictator of Mexico in 1862, but was dis- 
trusted by all parties, and was removed the same year. The next year he was president 
of a junta styled the ‘‘ regency of the Mexican empire.” In 1864 he was made regent 
and grand marshal, and in 1866 he was sent as minister to Paris, where-he died. 


ALMO’RA, the principal t. of the British district of Kumaon (q.v.), India, 87 m. n. 
from Bareilly, on the crest of a mountain ridge, 5337 ft. above the sea, on the head- 
waters of the Kosila, a branch of the Ramgunga. It consists chiefly of one street, three 
quarters of a mile long. The houses have a ground story of stone ; the upper stories are 
of wood, covered with a sloping roof of heavy gray slate, on which small stacks of hay 
are sometimes erected. The ground story is generally white-washed and tricked out 
with grotesque paintings. Detached houses, both of Europeans and Brahmans, are scat- 
tered along the face of the mountain below the t. A. isa British military station, the 
lines of the regular troops and fort Moira being close to the t. Since it came under Brit- 
ish sway it has been rapidly increasing in prosperity. Pop. 8000. 

AL'’MORAVIDES (‘‘ the Moravides”), or MornA-BETHUN, the name of an Arab dynasty 
that ruled in Africa and Spain in the 11th and 12th c. of the Christian era. The name 
A., which is commonly given to this dynasty by western writers, is a corruption of the 
Arabic word Al-morabeth, ‘‘the champion of religion.” This sect took its rise about 1050 
among the Arab and Berber tribes which dwelt on the slopes of the Atlas range facing the 
Atlantic, and was founded by a Moslem teacher called Abdalla-ben-Yasim, who under. 
took to rescue these tribes from the gross ignorance in which they were plunged, and 
instructed them in the doctrines of the Mohammedan faith. The new proselytes soon 
exhibited the fruits of this teaching by descending from their hills, under the leadership 
of achief named Abu-bekr, and conquering the kingdom of Fez. The adjoining king- 
dom of Morocco shared the same fate; and the victorious enthusiasts, under the famous 
Yussuf-ben-Taxfin, the cousin of Abu-bekr, next crossed the strait of Gibraltar, and sub- 
dued Spain to the Tagus on one side, and to the Ebro on the other. But this extensive 
and powerful dominion was of too rapid growth to possess much stability; and during 
the reign of Ali, the son of Yussuf, arose the sect of the Almohades (q.v.), which after a 
time expelled the A. from Africa, and in 1144 subdued their powerin Spain. It was the 
Almoravide princes who introduced the Maravedi (q.v.) into Spain, and in that and the 
word Marabuts (q.v.) their name is still preserved. 


ALM’QVIST, Kart Jonas Lupwie, 17938-1866; a native of Sweden, remarkable in 
the history of literature. He quitted the university to lead a colony into the wilds of 
Wermeland; but the utopian colony was a failure; and he settled in Stockholm as a 
writer, producing several educational works and rising at a bound into fame by his novel 
Lhe Book of the Thorn-Rose. He ran rapidly on with astonishing fecundity of brain, pro- 
ducing lyric, epic, and dramatic: poems; philosophical, esthetical, moral, political, and 
educational treatises; works on religion, lexicography, history, mathematics, and phi- 
lology, all good and most of them excellent. He left one political place after another, 
at last living entirely by literary efforts, and gradually became an extreme socialist. 
The public was astonished in 1851 to learn that he had been convicted of forgery and 
charged with murder, and had fled from Sweden. For many years he was not traced, 
living in the United States under an assumed name, and experiencing a variety of misfor- 
tunes, among them the loss of his manuscripts, including several unpublished novels He 
finally returned to Europe, still under an alias ; and his strange and unhappy career ended at 


309 teen 


Bremen in i866. His romances, as a whole, are considered the best in the Swedish 
language. 


ALMS HOUSE. See Poor. 


AL'MUG TREE, or AuGuM TrEE, This name, occurring in the Old Testament, was 
formerly supposed to denote a species of acacia, or a coniferous tree like the cypress; but 
it is now thought more probable that it was one of the kinds of sandal-wood (q.v.), the 
red (pterocarpum santalum). 


ALMUNECAR’ (Arab. Al Munnecad, the gorge), a seaport town of Andalusia, Spain, in 
the province of Granada, 31 m. s. of Granada. The port is somewhat exposed. The t. 
is generally well built. It was a place of importance in Moorish times, when the coast 
of Granada was highly cultivated and extremely productive, particularly in sugar and 
cotton. Efforts have recently again been made to extend the culture of both. The 
inhabitants of A. are chiefly engaged in agriculture and sugar refining. There is a con- 
siderable trade in cotton, sugar, and fruit. Pop. 8800. 


ALMY, JoHNn J., b. R. I., 1814-95; officer in the United States navy. He began as a 
midshipman, and rose to be commodore and rear-admiral. He was on blockade service 
during the civil war. 


ALMY, Wi1aM, 1761-1836 ; a Quaker philanthropist, who used much of his fortune 
in charitable works in Providence, R. 1. He endowed the New England Boarding- 
School, and defrayed the cost of educating 80 students. 


ALNUS. See ALDER. 


ALN’WICK (t. upon the Alne), the co. t. of Northumberland, is situated in lat. 55° 25’ 
n., long. 1° 42’ w., and is distant about 34m. from Newcastle. The streets are broad, 
well paved, and well lighted, the houses modern, built of stone, and in some instances 
handsome. A large market-place occupies the center of the town. The town-hall is a 
spacious building crowned with a tower. A. was at an early period a fortified t., and 
some fragments of the ancient wallseven yetremain. Anancient gate, built by Hotspur, 
still forms one of the entrances to thecity. A. castle, the residence of the dukes of Nor- 
thumberland, stands at the n. entrance of the town. It was repaired some years ago, and 
is considered one of the most magzificent baronial structures in England. During the 
middle ages it was a bulwark against the invasions of the Scots, who thrice besieged it. 
A. is the election t. for the n. division of the county. Pop. 91, 6746. 

ALOE (aloé), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order liliacew (q.v.) sub-order 
aloinee, distinguished by a regular cylindrical perianth in six pieces, expanded at the 
mouth, and nectariferous at the base, the stamens hypogynous, or springing from beneath 
the germen, the ovules indefinite in number, the fruit a membranous three-celled cap- 
sule. ‘The species are numerous, natives of warm countries, especially of the southern 
parts of Africa. About 50 m. from Cape Town is a mountainous tract completely cov- 
ered with aloes, and the hills on the w. side of Socotra exhibit them in similar profusion. 
The species all have stems, but vary in height from a few inches to 30 ft. They have 
‘permanent succulent leaves. The negroes of the w. coast of Africa make cords and nets 
of the fibers of their leaves, and stockings are woven from the fibers of a species found in 
Jamaica. But aloes are chiefly valuable for their medicinal properties. The well-known 
drug called ALOEs (q.v.) is the inspissated juice of the leaves of several almost tree-like 
species, and particularly of A. socotrina, a native of the island of Socotra; A. purpuras- 
cens; A. spicata, and A. fruticosa, which principally yield the cape aloes; A. Indica; A. 
rubescens; A. Arabica; A. lingueformis; A. Commelini; and A. vulgaris, which is found 
in the East and West Indies, in Italy, and in some of the islands of the Mediteranean, 
being the only species which can be reckoned European, although it also is probably an 
introduced plant. The extract prepared from its leaves is known as hepatic aloes, or as 
Barbadoes aloes. The bitter principle of aloes has been called aloesin. It forms several 
compounds with oxygen, which possess the properties of acids. The juice of aloes was 
anciently used in embalming, to preserve dead bodies from putrefaction. In the Hast 
Indies it is employed as a varnish to prevent the attacks of insects; and has even been 
applied to bottoms of ships to protect them from marine worms. A beautiful violet 
color is obtained from the leaves of the Socotrine A., which does not require any mor- 
dant to fix it. It also affords a fine transparent color for miniature painting.—Moham- 
medan pilgrims suspend an A. over their doors on their return from Mecca, to signify 
that they have performed the pilgrimage. 

The AMERICAN A. is a totally different plant. See AGAVE. 


AL'OES is a drug of great antiquity, for we find Dioscorides (50 a.D.) making mention 
of aloé as a substance obtained from a plant, and possessing cathartic properties. The 
great demand for A. in Britain has led to its importation from numerous sources, includ- 
ing Bombay, Arabia, Socotra, Madagascar, the cape of Good Hope, the Levant, and the 
West Indies. The drug is the inspissated juice of various species of aloe (q.v.). All 
these are characterized more or less by producing large, thick, fleshy leaves, stiff and 
brittle, pointed, and generally terminating in a strong spine, filled with a mucilaginous 
pulp internally, and containing in the proper vessels of their exterior portion an intensely 
bitter juice, which yields the medicinal substance A. It is obtained, sometimes in the 


Alp. 310 


form of tears, by incision, spontaneous exudation, and inspissation upon the plant; 
sometimes by spontaneous evaporation of the juice which drops or exudes by pressure 
from the leaves when cut away near the base; sometimes by evaporating the same juice 
with the aid of heat; and lastly, by evaporating together the juice and the decoction of 
the leaves. 

Owing to the great difficulty of determining the true botanical source of any given 
sample, the following names are made use of in commerce to denote the various kinds 
ef A. found in the market—namely, Socotrine, Clear, Cape, East Indian, Barbadoes, and 
Caballine A. The most important are: 

1. Socotrine A. (Aloé Socotrina), so called from its supposed source, the island of 
Socotra, near the mouth of the Arabian gulf. This is the most esteemed of all the vari- 
eties used in medical practice. Many hold that this is only a fine variety of East Indian 
A., but the characters given in the Hdinburgh Pharmacopweia—a garnet-red translucency 
in thin pieces, and almost complete solubility in spirit of the strength of sherry—define 
a particular species, which is the true Socotrine A. of pharmacologists. 

2. East Indian A. (Aloé Indica), also called hepatic A., from its liver-brown color, is 
imported into Bombay from Arabia and Africa, and is known in India by the name of 
Bombay A. A considerable portion is probably obtained from the same sources as the 
Socotrine A., which it resembles in color; and according to Dr. Pereira, ‘‘the two are 
sometimes brought over intermixed, the Socotrine occasionally forming a vein in a cask 
of hepatic A.” 

3. Barbadoes A. (Aloé Barbadensis) is prepared in the West Indies from A. Socotrina, 
and from a variety of A. vulgaris. We learn from Browne’s Natural History of Jamaica 
that the largest and most succulent leaves are placed upright in tubs, that the juice may 
dribble out. This evaporated, forms what is sold as Socotrine A.; but the common A. 
is obtained by expressing the juice out of the leaves, boiling it with water, evaporating 
and pouring it into gourds; whence this kind is often called gourd A. It is much used 
for veterinary medicine, and thus brings a high price in the market. 

Caballine A. (Aloé caballina) is a very coarse kind, and is so called because it is con- 
sidered fit only for horses. It contains many impurities, such as wood, sand, and char- 
coal, and evidently constitutes the lowest stratum in the vessels in which the better sorts 
are allowed to cool. It is now in a great measure superseded in veterinary practice by 
Barbadoes A. 

All kinds of A. are remarkable for their disagreeable taste. The odor is peculiar, and 
is more perceptible when the drug is breathed upon. A. isin a great measure soluble in 
water, and more so in hot than cold water. A. was formerly considered to be a gum-resin ; 
but the portion which was thought to be of the nature of gum is now regarded as a variety 
of extractive, and to it the name of aloesin has been given. 

Action.—When employed in small doses, A. exerts a tonic, and in larger doses, a cath- 
artic action. It is considered by some authorities to stimulate the liver, and also to 
supply the place of deficient bile in torpidity of the intestinal canal, and more especially 
towards its lower part. Both taken singly, and alsoin combination with other cathartics, 
A.is perhaps the most important and the most extensively used of vegetable remedies of 
its class ; and there is no end to the variety of cases in which it may be employed with 
advantage. 


ALOES WOOD (called also agila wood, eagle wood, or agallochum) is the inner 
part of the trunk of aquilaria ovata and a. agallochum, trees of the natural order 
aquilariacee (q.v.), natives of the tropical parts of Asia, and supposed to be the aloes or 
lign aloes of the Bible. They are large spreading treees with simple alternate leaves. 
Aloes wood contains a dark-colored, fragrant, resinous substance, and is much prized in 
the east as a medicine, and for the pleasant odor which it diffuses in burning. It has 
been prescribed in Europe in cases of gout and rheumatism. The resinous substance is 
found only in the inner part of the trunk and branches; the younger wood is white, 
and almost scentless. A similar substance, still more esteemed, is obtained in the south- 
eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, from the central part of the trunk of 
aloexylon agallochum, an upright-growing tree with simple alternate leaves, and terminal 
panicles of small flowers, of the natural order leguminose, sub-order cesalpiniee. This 
tree abounds particularly on the highest mountains of Cochin-China and the Moluccas ; 
a character of sacredness is attached to it, and it is cut with religious ceremonies. The A. 
W. which it yields is not only much prized in the east as a perfume, but many medicinal 
virtues are ascribed to it. The ancients ascribed to it similar virtues, and so valued it for 
these and its fragrance, that Herodotus says it once sold for more than its weight in gold. 
It was regarded almost as a universal medicine. Its very fragrance was supposed to havea 
beneficial influence, and it was therefore worn about the person. As it admits of a high 
polish, and exhibits a beautiful graining, precious gems were set in it; and it was cut 
into fantastic forms and worn in head-dresses, etc. There seems to be allusion to a sim- 
ilar use of it in Psalm xlv. 8, ‘‘ All thy garments smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia.” 
Or perhaps this merely refers to its being employed to perfume clothing. It was also 
from a very early period much used to perfume the apartments of the great. The fra- 


grance continues undiminished for years. ign aloes is a corruption of lignum aloe 
faloes wood). 


311 Alp.” 


ALOGIANS or ALOGI, a sect of heretics in the second century, who opposed the 
Montanists (q.v.), denying that Christ was the Zogos and ascribing the Gospel of St. 
John and the Apocalypse to the Gnostic Cerinthus. Lardner doubts their existence, but 
it appears that there were certain opponents of the Montanists who not only denied the 


prophetic gifts claimed by the latter, but rejected from the creed all those things out of 
which the error had sprung. 


ALOI'D#, or ALorap#, the name of Otus and Ephialtes, legendary sons of Neptune 
by Iphimedea, wife of Aloeus. They were celebrated for gigantic stature, being 27 cubits 
high and 9 broad when but 9 years of age. In the war with the gods they piled the 
mountain Pelion upon the mountain Ossa, intending to pile both upon Olympus in their 
effort to scale heaven. Homer says Apollo destroyed them before their beards had 
grown. Apollodorus says they did pile up the mountains, threatening to change sea into 
land. It is said they aspired to secure the goddesses for wives, one suing for the hand 
of Hera, the other for Artemis ; but Artemis appeared to them in the form of a stag, 
running between them; when both shot at the supposed animal, and each killed the 
other. 


ALONG-SHORE, a phrase applied in navigating near a coast, to denote a passage near 
to, and parallel with, the shore. ‘‘ Along-shore-men,” or ‘‘ ’long-shore-men,” is a pecul- 
iar designation given to some of the humbler and rougher men employed about docks 
and shipping, in the Hudson and other rivers. 


ALOOF’, at sea, is simply ‘‘ at a distance.” To ‘‘ keep the loof,” or ‘‘keep the luff,”’ 
isa command given to the man at the helm. 


ALOPECIA (Gk., alopéx, a fox, because this disease is common among foxes), a disease, 
called also the fow-evtl or scurf, causing a falling off of the hair from any part of the 
body. See BALDNESS 


ALOPECU'RUS. See FoxtTarint GRASS. 


ALO RA, at. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Malaga, 18 m. n.w. of Malaga, 
on an elevated site near the right bank of the Guadalhorce. Some of the streets are 
well built and well paved ; some are very steep and irregular. There are ruins of an 
ancient Gothic castle. The inhabitants are mostly employed in agriculture. It has 
mineral springs. The neighborhood produces much oil and excellent wine. Pop. 
10,500. 


ALO’SA. See SHAD. 


ALOST, or AALsT (the name signifies ‘‘ to the east,” and was probably given to the town 
because it lay near the eastern frontier of the province), a t. in Belgium, the old capital 
of the province of east Flanders, is situated on a tributary uf the Scheldt, called the 
Dender, which is here converted into a canal. It isa walled city with five gates, has 
considerable trade in hops, corn, etc., and large manufactures, besides numerous brew- 
eries, distilleries, bleach-fields, print-works, copper and iron foundries, flax and cotton 
mills, etc. The finest building in A.is the church of St. Martin, an unfinished edifice, 
but one of the grandest in Belgium, and containing a famous painting by Rubens—‘‘ St. 
Roch beseeching our Saviour to stay the Plague of A.,” and also the mausoleum of 
Thierry Martens, who was born here, and who introduced the art of printing into Bel- 
gium, 1475 a.p. A. has a town-hall (founded in 1200 a.D.), a college, a hospital, chamber 
of commerce, academy of design, etc. Pop. 1891, 24,479. 


ALOY’'SIA, a genus of plants of the natural order verbenacee (q.v.), to which belongs a 
shrub, A. cétriodora, much cultivated in greenhouses and apartments in Britain for the 
grateful fragrance which its leaves emit when slightly bruised. It is frequently to be 
seen in the windows of cottagers, and is by them generally named verbena. It was 
formerly known to botanists as verbena triphylla, and has also been referred to the 
allied genus lippia. The leaves are in whorls of three. It is a native of Chili. In 
the Channel islands and the s. of Ireland, it becomes a luxuriant shrub in the open air, 
reaching a height of 10 to 25 ft., with osier-like shoots. 


ALP, Ap, also called the Rauhe or Swabian Alp, is a chain of mountains above 60 
m. in length, and from 12 to 15 in breadth, situated between the Neckar and the Danube. 
It forms the water-shed between these two rivers and the basin of the Rhine, and lies 
almost entirely within the kingdom of Wirtemburg. It is also in the vicinity of the 
Black Forest, but presents a totally different appearance, on account of its being clothed 
with forests of hard wood instead of pine. It forms a table-land intersected by a few 
narrow deep valleys. The average height of the svstem is rather more than 2000 ft. 
On the n., it descends to the Neckar in ridges of rocky cliffs,.and abrupt pointed head- 
lands; but on the s., it gradually slopes away to the level of the valley of the Danube. 
The scenery is often very picturesque, for the sharp, precipitous crags are frequently 
crowned with the strongholds, generally ruins, of the famous old German families, such 
as the Hohenzollerns, Hohenstaufens, etc. The geological formation of the A. is cal- 
careous, and presents a regular stratification. Caverns of a very remarkable character 
abound among the rocks. The valleys at the base of the hills are fertile, and produce 


Al . 
Alphabet. 312 


abundance of wine and fruit, but the high table-land has an extremely poor and barren 
soil. 


ALPAC’A, or Paco (auchenia paco; see AUCHENTA), an animal of the same genus 
with the llama (q.v.), and so closely allied to it, that many naturalists regard it as a 
variety rather than a distinct species. It is remarkable for the length and fineness of the 
wool, which is of a silken texture, and of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic 
appearance. The A. is smaller than the llama; the legs and breast are destitute of callosi- 
ties. In form, it somewhat resembles the sheep, but with a longer neck and more 
elegant head. It carries its long neck erect; its motions are free and active, its ordinary 
pace arapid bounding canter. The eyes are very large and beautiful. The wool, if 
regularly shorn, is supposed to grow about 6 or 8 in. in a year; but if allowed to remain 
upon the animal for several years, attains a much greater length, sometimes even 380 in., 
and not unfrequently 20. Its color varies; it is often yellowish brown; sometimes gray, 
or approaching to white; sometimes almost black. 

The A. is a native of the Andes, from the equator to Terra del Fuego, but is most 
frequent on the highest mountains of Peru and Chili, almost on the borders of perpetual 
snow, congregating in flocks of one or two hundred. In a wild state it is very shy and 
vigilant; a sentinel on some elevated station gives notice of the approach of danger by 
snorting to alarm the flock. Alpacas seem instinctively to know when a storm is coming 
on, and seek the most sheltered situation within their reach. Flocks, the property of 
the Peruvian Indians, are allowed to graze throughout the whole year on the elevated 
pastures, and are driven to the huts only at shearing-time. When one is separated from 
the rest, it throws itself on the ground, and neither kindness nor severity will induce 
it to rise and advance alone. It is only when brought to the Indian huts very young, 
that they can be domesticated so as to live without the companionship of the flock; but 
then they become very bold and familiar. Their habits are remarkably cleanly. 

The Indians have from time immemorial made blankets and ponchos or cloaks of A. 
wool. It is not quite fifty years since it became an article of commerce, but its use for 
the manufacture of shawls, coat-linings, cloth for warm climates, umbrellas, etc., has 
gradually increased, and more than 3,500,000 lbs. are now annually imported into Britain. 
The credit of introducing and raising to its present magnitude the A. wool-manu- 
facture in Britain, is due to Sir Titus Salt. 

Attempts have been made to introduce the A. into Europe; but not yet with very 
satisfactory results. The only considerable flock lately existing was in the Pyrenees. 
There seems no reason, however, to doubt that the mountains of Wales and Scotland are 
suitable for this branch of husbandry; and it is to be hoped that enterprise such as has 
been directed to the manufacture of A. wool in Britain, will soon, and with equal suc- 
cess, be directed to the production of it. There are probably not yet more than two or 
three hundred alpacas in Britain, and these mostly in parks connected with the resi- 
dences of noblemen and gentlemen, not in the situations for which they seem to be pecu- 
liarly adapted. An attempt was made in 1821 to introduce the A. into the United States; 
a fund was raised, and, in 1857, a cargo of them was shipped to Baltimore, but the result 
showed that they could not be acclimatized. 

A. wool is straighter than that of the sheep, very strong in proportion to its thickness, 
and breaks little in combing. The fiber is small, and it is very soft, pliable, and elastic. 
—The flesh of the animal is said to be very wholesome and pleasant. 


ALP-ARSLAN’, a Persian sultan, the second of the Seljukide dynasty, b. in Turkestan 
in 1028 or 1030. In 1058, he ascended the throne of Khorassan, after the death of his 
father Daoud, and in 1063 he became sultan of Oran. His first act was to unite the 
whole of his dominions in one vast monarchy. He next embraced Islamism, and it was 
on this occasion that he took the surname of Alp-Arslan (the lion-heart), his real name 
being Mohammed-Lhaz-ed-Dyn-Abou-Choudja. The caliph of Bagdad gave him the title 
of Adhad-eddin (defender of the faith), with this extreme honor—namely, that prayer 
should be made in his name. He had an excellent vizier, Nisam-al-Mulk, one of those 
lettered ornaments of early Mohammedanism. This vizier was the founder of all the 
colleges and academies in the kingdom. While he directed the internal administration 
of affairs, A. made war successfully. He suppressed revolts, and extended the northern 
boundaries of his dominions. From 1064 to 1071, he pursued the course of his conquests, 
carrying off the gates of the church of St. Basil at Caesarea, which were enriched with 
gold and pearls, and overthrowing the Greeks under Nicephorus Botoniates. In 1069, 
he invaded Armenia and Georgia, at that time Christian kingdoms. The most remark- 
able incident in this expedition was the blockade of the convent of Mariam-Nishin, 
situated on an island in the middle of a lake, and considered impregnable. An earth- 
quake overthrew the walls during the siege, when it immediately surrendered. He next 
proceeded against the Greeks, who, under their brave emperor, Romanus IV., had thrice 
driven back the Turks beyond the Euphrates. In Aug., 1071, a bloody battle was 
fought near the fortress of Malaskerd, between the towns of Van and Erzeroum. A. 
Arne the victory. The Greek emperor was taken prisoner, and only obtained his 

iberty by a ransom of £1,000,000, and an annual tribute of £160,000. Rather more 
than a year after this (Dec. 15, 1072), A. perished at Berzem in Turkestan by the poniard 
of Jussuf Kothual, whom he condemned to death. He was buried at Mervé. 


: AS pnoa 
alo Alphabet 


ALPE’NA, a co. in n. e. Michigan, on lake Huron, drained by Thunder Bay river; 
700 sq. m.; pop. 790, 15,581. Co. seat ALPENA. 

ALPENA, city and co. seat of Alpena co., Mich., on Thunder Bay, and Detroit, Bay 
City and Alpena railroad, 125 miles n.e. of Saginaw City. It has high and graded 
schools, newspaper offices, banks, foundries, paper and spool factories, lumber mills, 
etc. It exports large amounts of lumber. Pop. 1880, 6153; 1890, 11,288. 

ALPENHORN, a straight instrument about three feet long, and made of wood and 
bark, with a cupped mouthpiece. It is used by the Swiss to convey signals and to play 
simple melodies. The notes are the open harmonics of the tube, the quality of tone 
being modified by the material, and by the smallness of the bore in relation to the length 
of the tube. The melody usually played on this instrument is called the Ranz des 
Vaches (q.v.), which tune has been introduced into the overture of Rossini’s Willzam 
Tell, by Beethoven in his Pastoral Symphony, op. 68, and by Schumann in his music 
to Byron’s Manfred, op. 115. The Alpenhorn is usually represented in the orchestra 
by the oboe, English-horn, or the bassoon. The Swedish Lwre resembles the Alpenhorn, 
and kindred instruments are used in the Himalayas. 


ALPENSTOCK (Ger., Alp, Alps, Stock, staff), a long staff, pointed with iron, used in 
traveling among the Alps or other mountains. 


ALPES is the name of two departments in France, the Basses-Alpes (or tower Alps) 
and the Hautes-Alpes (or upper Alps). The department of the BAssEs-ALPES occupies 
the n.e. part of Provence, and includes an area of 2685 sq.m. It is, for the most part, 
mountainous, consisting of spurs or offshoots from the Maritime Alps, which run in 
numerous chains towards the Rhone. In the n., the climate is cold, the soil poor, and 
the cultivation bad; in the s., the climate is much better—almonds, apricots, peaches, and 
various other choice fruits are grown, amongst which the plums of Bignolles form a 
well-known article of commerce. The wines of this region are reckoned excellent. On 
the sides of the Alps oxen and sheep find admirable pasturage. The mines produce lead, 
green marble, etc. At Digne and Gréoulx there are hot mineral springs. Pop. 96, 
118,142 ; the trade carried on is insignificant. The chief t. is Digne ; pop. 5540. 

The HavrEs-ALpEs, lying n. of the Basses-A., and forming a part of the old province 
of Dauphiné, is traversed by the chief range of the Cottian Alps, which here rise, in 
Mt. Pelvoux, to the height of 13,400 ft., and Mt. Olan to 13,120 ft. The scenery, 
especially along the course of the impetuous Durance, is singularly picturesque. The 
area is 2158 sq.m.; pop. 796, 113,229. 

ALPES MARITIMES, a dep. of France, in the extreme s.e., on the shores of the Medi- 
terranean and confines of Italy, formed in 1860, of the ancient co. of Nice, then ceded 
to France, and formerly belonging to the kingdom of Sardinia, and of the arrondissement 
of Grasse, detached from the department of Var. The chain of the A. M. forms the 
northern boundary of the department, and from it numerous spurs run seaward, among 
which are lovely and fertile valleys. The chief rivers of the department are the Loup, 
the Var, and the Paillon, at the mouth of which Nice is situated. The climate is mild 
and pleasant in the vicinity of the sea, and in the lower valleys, although the higher 
mountains reach to altitudes where winter always reigns. The vine and olive are much 
cultivated in the more favored localities ; oranges, lemons, and figs are produced 
in abundance and of excellent quality ; a considerable extent of land is devoted to 
tobacco, and not a little to the cultivation of herbs and flowers for the preparation of 
essences and perfumes. Grasse is particularly famous for the manufacture of perfum- 
ery. In many parts of the department, there are noble forests. In the more elevated 
parts, much land is used for the pasture of sheep, and also of goats, of which these 
regions possess a highly esteemed breed. The silk-worm is reared to a considerable 
extent, and the keeping of bees is a source of no little wealth, honey being largely pro- 
duced and exported. The mineral riches are not great. There are some quarries of 
white marble, and some mineral springs. Among the chief branches of industry, 
besides those which are strictly rural, are brass-foundiag and the making of bijouterie. 
The tunny, anchovy, and sardine fisheries give employment to many people on the shores 
of the Mediterranean, and great quantities of anchovies and sardines are exported from 
the port of Cannes. The department is divided into three arrondissements—Nice, Puget- 
Théniers, and Grasse. The capital is Nice (q.v.), and the other principal towns are 
Antibes (q.v.), Villefranche, Cannes (q.v.), Grasse (q.v.), and Menton, or Mentone (q.v.), 
on the eastern frontier.—The co. of Nice was bestowed in 1888 on Amadeus VII., duke 
of Savoy, and latterly formed part of the kingdom of Sardinia till 1860, except that it was 
seized by France in 1792, and for a time formed into the department of Alpes Maritimes. 
It was restored to Sardinia in 1815. After the treaty of 1860 was concluded, it was 
apprehended that the people of this region, on account of their race, customs, and lan- 

uage, would not show the same willingness to be transferred to France as the people of 

avoy ; but no transference of territory was ever more easily accomplished, or with less 
apparent dissatisfaction of those most nearly concerned. The pop. of the dep. in 1886 
»was 238,057; in 1891, 258,571; and in 1896, 265,155. 

AL’PHABET. The A. of any language is the series of letters, arranged in a fixed 
order, with which that language is written. Picture-writing was doubtless the earliest 
method invented of conveying thought through the eye. The idea of an ox was readily 
expressed by a sketch of the animal, or, for shortness, by an outline of his head and 


Alphabet, 314 


horns. Or the picture was used symbolically ; as the figure of an eye, to express the 
action of seeing, or the attribute of wisdom. In process of time, some of those pic- 
tures came to be used phonetically—i.e., to represent, not ideas, but sounds. But the 
sounds so represented would at first be whole words, or, at all events, syllables ; and the 
important step was yet to be taken of analyzing syllables into their elementary sounds, 
and of agreeing upon some one unvarying picture or sign (a letter) to represent each. 
This constituted the invention of the A. By what steps alphabetic writing most proba- 
bly rose out of picture-writing, will be seen under the head of HIkROGLYPHICS. See also 
CHINESE LANGUAGE and CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS. 

Taylor (The Alphabet, 1883) proves Rougé’s theory that the Phcenician, the oldest 
true A., is derived from an old hieratic series of alphabetic symbols, compiled by the 
Egyptians out of their hieroglyphs, but not used simply as an A.; this was a Phoenician 
invention or discovery. From Pheenician and cognate Shemitic alphabets have originated 
almost all the modes of writing now used. Hence came Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, 
and the Indian alphabets. Chinese, and apparently ancient Hittite, Syrian and Cypriote 
syllabaries were distinct. As many as 400 alphabets have been enumerated ; but of those 
now in use, if we set aside slight variations of form, the number does not exceed 50. 
Auer’s Sprachhalle (Vienna, 1849) contains a rich collection of alphabets. We must con- 
fine ourselves here to those more immediately connected with the history of the English A. 

A point of considerable importance is the order of the letters. In modern alphabets, 
this appears at first sight to be quite arbitrary; but traces of a principle of arrangement, 
or natural system according to which the series grew, have recently been brought to 
light.* Theevidences of such a natural order are best seenin the Hebrew A., which was 
almost identical with the Phenician. The following table exhibits the Hebrew letters, 
with their names, and sounds or powers ; and also the names of the letters composing 
the early Greek A., as borrowed from the Pheenician: 


HEBREW. GREEK. 
Name. Sound or Power. 
ty Aleph, a vowel or breathing. Alpha. 
4/2 Beth, B. Beta. 
3 Gimel, G (gun). Gamma. 
= Daleth, D. Delta. 
7 He, a vowel-or breathing. E(psilon). 
\ Vau, V orF. F—V (digamma), 
24 [} Zayn, Z.] Zeta. 
m Kheth, KH or CH. Eta. 
16 Theth, TH. Theta. 
Siey cls J. Tota. 
[> Kaph, K, variety of. ] Kappa. 
3) 5 Lamed, t: Lambda. 
vy Mem, M. Mu. 
3 Nun, N. Nu. 
| [co Samekh, S, variety of.] Sigma. 
y Ayn, a vowel. O(mikron). 
ED Pe, A Pi. 
[y Tsadi, TS.] 
4 P Koph, K orQ Koppa. 
f Resh, R.] Rho. 
w/Sin, S.] San. 
pm Tau, Tey Tau. 


Leaving out of account the letters inclosed in brackets, which are not easily accounted 
for, and are possibly later interpolations, the whole fall into four groups, the law of 
which will best appear in the following scheme : 


w ow Re w 

5 2 = = 
> Pe ee fe Pi 

a b g d Flats or medials. 

e v ch th Aspirates. 

7) p k t Sharps. 

4 y m n Liquids. 


*The theory was first propounded in 1833, by Prof. Key, of University college, London, in the 
Penny Cyclopedia, art. ‘’ Alphabet.”’ 


815 Alphabet. 


Without entering at present into the nature of the relation between the letters in the 
several rows horizontal and vertical, of the scheme (for which see LETTERS), it will be 
seen that.group (1) in the Hebrew A. consists of a vowel followed by three mute letters, all 
having one character (flats or medials); that group (2) consists of a vowel followed by 
three mutes, also having one character (aspirates); and that group (4) consists in like 
manner of a vowel followed by three mutes, all of the same character (sharps). The 
order, moreover, according to the organ of utterance, in which the mutes follow in each 
group, is invariable: the labial (lip-sound) coming first; the palatal (palate-sound), 
second; and the dental (tooth-sound), last. This principle of arrangement is charac- 
terized by Dr. Latham as a céreulating order. Group (8) likewise consists of a vowel 
and four consonants of one character (liquids); but in this case the order of the vocal 
organs is not observed—at least in the form in which the Hebrew A. is known to us; in 
order to be symmetrical with the other groups, the sequence would require to be m, J, n. 

The nucleus of the original A. would thus seem to have consisted of 16 letters, grouped 
in four tetrads or quaternions, on an organic principle of arrangement. This principle 
is obscured in English and other modern alphabets, by some of the letters having gradually 
come to represent quite other sounds than their original. There is sufficient evidence, 
for example, that in the earliest Latin alphabet, from which the English is derived, the 
third letter, C, had the power of G (in gun). There was a subsequent period in the 
development of that language when the distinction between the sharp and flat palatal 
sounds seems to have been lost, and when two syllables like kam and gam would have 
been both pronounced alike (kam). C thus acquired the power of K, and the letter K 
itself went almost out of use. But about the time of the first Punic war (264-241 B.c.), 
the distinction between the sharp and the flat sounds revived; and while the original C 
continued ever after to have the power of K (Cicero, for instance, was pronounced 
Kikero), a new character (G) was formed from it, by a very slight alteration, to express 
the flat sound. Again, the modern H, which has in most cases become a mere evanes- 
cent breathing, can be traced back until it becomes a strong guttural, like CH in the 
Scotch word loch. The place of the third consonant in the cycle of aspirates is a com- 
plete blank in the alphabets derived from the Latin; because that language being originally 
destitute of the sound, dropped the sign of it, from the first. The Latins were, in fact, 
completely destitute of the genuine aspirate sounds; for even the letter F had not the sound 
we give it. Therefore, when they had to represent the aspirate consonants of the Greek 
language, ~, 7,9, they had recourse to the combinations ph, ch, th—a clumsy expedient 
still followed in modern alphabets derived from the Roman, and constituting one of 
their most serious defects.—The cycle of the sharps is pretty perfect in the English 
alphabet, for Q is only a variety of K. 

It is easy to conceive a language represented by 16 characters of the nature above 
described. The most serious deficiency would seem to be the want of rand s. But 
the sound of th is very nearly allied to that of s (witness ‘‘loves or loveth;” also the pro- 
nunciation of a person who lithpth), and one character might be made to stand for both, 
as easily as in English ¢ is made to represent two sounds so different as those exemplified 
in cat and city. Some nations, again, are said to make no distinction between 7 and /, 
so that one character might stand for both these sounds. 

But whether or not the Pheenician A. had originally only 16 letters, it is evident 
that when transplanted into Greece, it had 21 letters, if not 22. In accommodating 
itself to the necessities of the Greek tongue, it gradually underwent a series of changes. 
Some of the letters were modified: He became e; Cheth, ee; Sigma became & = 2, and 
the name Sigma was transferred to San. Other letters were altogether dropped, as 
Digamma (=v) and Koppa. On the other hand, for such simple sounds as had no 
(Spree DHE in the Phcenician, new characters were invented, and annexed to the end 
Vv, RP, X; > @ = 

Another important change was in the direction of the writing. In the Pheenician and 
other Semitic languages, the writing proceeded from right to left. The Greeks, on bor- 
rowing the Pheenician A., also wrote for some time from right to left. The mode called 
bustrophedon (turning like an ox in plowing), of writing alternately from right to left and 
from left to right, was then introduced; and finally the direction from left to right pre- 
vailed throughout the west, to the exclusion of the other modes. 

In the classical period of the Greek language, the A. had come to consist of 24 
letters, as in columns 2, 3, 4 of the following table. Column 1 (copied from Ball- 
horn’s Alphabete) gives some of the earlier forms of the Greek letters, found on coins 
and other inscriptions, of the period when writing still proceeded from right to left; 
column 2 is from the Alexandrian Codex (q.v.), as given in Key’s Alphabet; and cols. 3 
and 4 are the modern printed forms of capitals and small letters. The small characters 
are merely cursive forms or variations of the capitals; and it would not be difficult to 
show how, in each case, the endeavor to trace the capital on soft material rapidly and 
without lifting the hand, would give rise to the form now used as the small letter. 

With regard to the figures or shapes of the letters, it is believed that they all arose out 
of pictures or hieroglyphic characters. The names of the Hebrew letters are also the 
names of material objects; and the letters themselves were at first, in all probability, 
rude outlines of the objects. Aleph, for example, means an ‘‘ ox,” and the letter was 
in its origin an outline of an ox’s head. The history of Gimel, which means ‘‘ camel,” 


Alpha. 316 


Alpheius,. 


is probably similar. The Hebrew characters known to us are believed to be compara- 
tively modern, and much corrupted from their original forms, and the likenesses are 
more difficult to trace in them than in the Samaritan and the early Greek, or even in 
the Latin. Mem, again, is the Hebrew word for ‘‘ water,” and some of the earliest forms 
of the letter M are zigzag lines, similar to the sign of Aquarius (“) in the zodiac, 
intended no doubt to represent the undulations of water. Ayn, the name of the Hebrew 
jetter equivalent to O, also means an ‘‘eye,” and the picture of an eye would naturally 
degenerate into a circle, first with a dot in the center (which some ancient O’s actually 
have), and then without a dot. 


Lire. Name. Pom, 
Nel A 2» Lambda 1 
exams | TANIM) «em 
‘A.a Alpha a ae a fr ; 
; ; un ‘ 10 |Q]o « Omikron 0 (short) 
‘ : ‘| ne Pi Pp 
4 3 Delta d | 
E « Epsilon  e (short) Fea: 
OTP |e e Rho r 
ze Zeta dis IMA|C | 2 os Sigms 6 
0 El 6 (long) rT. Tm 
@ Theta th Eka to Y¥psilon 
« {ota i Pais & @ Phi f pb 
x Kappa &k X x Chi ch 
TTA] y y Pai ops 
MCS 


The A. came into Italy not directly from Pheenicia, but from Greece, and that at a 
time when the Greek A. had undergone some of the changes described above, although 
not all of them; v, g, and y had been added, but not ~ and w. Moreover, there must 
have been distinct and independent inrportations into more than one part of Italy, and 
that, probably, from different parts of Greece, or, at all events, at different periods. The 
Etrurian A.is evidently an earlier importation than the more southerly Latin, as it departs 
less from the Pheenician. There are even differences in different parts of Etruria itself. 
The alphabets of Etruria north of the Apennines (for numerous inscriptions recently 
discovered show that this remarkable race must have extended at one time as far north 
as the Alpine valleys of Provence, Tyrol, Graubiindten, and Styria) differ slightly from 
the alphabets of the inscriptions in Etruria proper, which are demonstrably taken from 
the A. of the Greek colony of Cere. 


2a AA AA 12.m MWM, UIP 


OME yea 3 1b: 13.n IN, N, 

SFomn ye les i440 >, %,0,0 
ade), bd Fg Be 

be E,W, 16.4 Q, 
Oita Wer RR, 

22 Z, ws 5 S, 
Bh H, 19.'t hide 

* Loads 20. v (),.V 

30. KK. (E) 2.x X 


= 
nN 
= 
om 
is 


The Latin A., which became that of Rome, and thus of the whole western world, was 
borrowed from a newer form of the Greek—namely, that imported by the Dorian 


» 


« A : 


Greeks of Cume and Sicily. The writing in the oldest Latin inscriptions is never from 
right to left, as is mostly the case in Etrurian. On the other hand the Kaph and the 
Koph (K and Q) of the Pheenician, which disappear in Etrurian, are retained in Latin. 
The Greek A. of Cume had not yet received the addition of y and » ; but it still retained 
the representative of the Phoenician Vaw, the Digamma, and also Koppa, and thus con- 
sisted of 24 letters. The Latin tongue, being destitute of aspirate sounds, dropped the 
three letters 9, ¢, v, so that the original Latin A. consisted of 21 letters, the forms of 
which, as seen on the oldest inscriptions, were as in the following table. See Corssen’s 
Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache (Leip. 1858) ; Taylor, 
The Alphabet, 2 vols. (1883). 

Z was early dropped, and the new letter G (see above) substituted for it; and thus the 
Latin A. continued to the last to consist of 21 letters, until it was applied to the modern 
tongues of western Europe. The distinction made between w and v, and between 7 and j, 
in printing Latin books, is a modern innovation; and no Latin word contains either y 
orz. The five additional letters that make up the 26 of the English A., arose from the 
addition of z, and the development of 7 intoy, and of w into w, », and y. 

The Anglo-Saxon A. had two useful letters, which have disappeared from modern 
English—namely, one for the sound of ¢/ in thin, and one (or rather two) for that of th 
in thine. 'These were derived, in all probability, from the M«so-Gothic A., which (as 
well as the Russian and other Slavonic alphabets) was founded on the Greek rather than 
the Latin. The loss of these letters is owing to the influence of the Norman-French, 
Pa nenebet of which is exclusively Latin. The forms of the Anglo-Saxon letters are as 
under 


A a (4) N :u 

& «2 (V€) 0 o 

B »b P p 

c c« (CD) R +r (p) 

p da (6) s s {f) 
Ee (¢) tT & (6) 

eae Ns 0 ou 

Gg &Z W w 
Hr h (DB) X x oi PP) 
Rhea Say 

aE oats PP th Win 


‘The characters between brackets were written by the Anglo-Saxons, but, being for 
the most part mere corruptions of the Roman forms, are now seldom printed.” —Vernon’s 
Anglo-Saxon Grammar. 

The peculiarities of the several letters will be noticed in their proper places. For their 
classification, and the defects and redundancies of the English A., see LETTERS AND 
ARTICULATE Sounps. Other points connected with this subject will be found under 
BuackK-LETTER, ORTHOGRAPHY, and PHONETIC WRITING. 


ALPHA AND OMEGA, the first and last letter of the Greek alphabet, employed to 
convey the idea of completeness or infinity; used ‘in Rev. xxii. 13, to signify Christ in 
His immeasurable fullness. In early church symbolism the letters combined with a cross 
in a monogram represented faith in the divinity of Christ, or in Christianity in general. 


ALPHE'IUS (now Ruféa, Rufia, or Rofia) is the chief river of Peloponnesus (Morea), 
rising in the se. of Arcadia, and flowing w. through Elis, and past the famous Olympia, 
into the Ionic sea. This river is one of the most celebrated in ancient song, and is cen- 
nected with a beautiful and characteristic Greek legend. The nature of the upper 
course of the A. was calculated to affect strongly the imagination of the Greeks. In its 
passage through Arcadia, a country consisting of cavernous limestone, and abounding 
in shut-in basins and valleys, it repeatedly disappears under ground and rises again. 
After these feats, it was capable of anything—even of flowing under the sea—and 
the Greek colonists of Sicily thought they recognized it in theirnew country. Close on 
the margin of the sea in the island of Ortygia (the site of Syracuse), there was a 
beautiful and copious fountain; and just where the water of this fountain joined the 
sea, another strong spring bubbled up under the salt water. This could only be another 
freak of the A.; and it was popularly believed that the sweepings of the temple of 
Olympia, after the great festival, when thrown into the river, reappeared in the springs 
at Ortygia. Strabo asserts as a fact that a cup did so. 


eae 818 


This wonderful phenomenon found its explanation, as usual, in a myth, connecting 
it with the history of the gods. The river-god Alpheius became enamored of the 
nymph Arethusa while bathing in his stream. ‘Toescape him, she prayed to Diana, who 
changed her into a fountain, and opened up an underground passage for her to Ortygia. 
The river still pursued the object of his love, passing from Greece to Sicily below the 
sea, without mingling his waters with it, and appearing in the spring that bubbles up by 
the shore. 

ALPHONZO. See ALFONSO. 


ALPINE, a co. in e. California, on the Nevada border ; drained by the Carson and 
forks of the Stanislaus and Mokelumne ; 1000 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 667. Co. seat, Mark- 
leeville. 


ALPINE CLUB, an English society to promote mountain explorations, formed in 
1858. Three members, Lord Francis Douglas, Mr. Hudson, and Mr. Haddo, lost their 
lives while descending the Matterhorn in July, 1865. There are similar clubs in other 
countries. See APPALACHIAN CLUB. 


ALPINE HUSBANDRY. The characteristic feature of A. farming is, that the prepa- 
ration of fodder is the chief object, and the cultivation of grain only secondary. In 
the less elevated regions bordering on the flat country, it is the practice to break up the 
grass from time to time, and take a succession of grain crops. In more elevated districts, 
the moisture of the climate and the shortness of the season of vegetation, prevent crops 
requiring tillage from coming to perfection, and there the whole attention is devoted to 
pasturage and the preparation of meadow-hay. The top-dressing of the plots devoted to 
hay-growing, with the solid and liquid manure of the cattle, the cutting and making of 
the hay, and transporting it to the farm-offices, occupy a great part of the labor of the 
population of the Alps. They turn to account for hay-making those shelves and crevices 
among the mountains which are inaccessible to cattle, and even goats; the herbage, 
which often grows luxuriantly in such situations, is cut, bound up in cloths or nets, and 
carried down difficult paths on the head, or is flung over the precipices. 

The grass-lands in the lower regions near the dwellings being mostly reserved for 
hay, the cattle are pastured in summer in those regions that lie too high or too remote to 
be inhabited in winter. These pastures consist of plateaus and slopes, which imme- 
diately on the disappearance of the snow, become clothed with a rich carpet of herbage 
and flowers. Each separate locality or pasture is called an alp. Some of these ‘‘ alps” 
belong to individuals; others to the commune or parish. The more rocky and steep 
places are pastured by sheep and goats. There are three zones or stages in the A. 
pastures. The cattle are driven to the first and lowest stage about the end of May; about 
a month later, they ascend to the ‘‘middle Alps;” and by the end of July, they reach 
the upper Alps. As the days shorten, they descend in the same gradual way, so that the 
whole ‘‘ Alp-time” lasts about 20 weeks. The pastures are provided with huts for those 
who have charge of the cattle, who also convert the milk into cheese. 


ALPINE PLANTS. This appellation is given not only to those plants which are found 
at elevations approaching the limit of perpetual snow in the Alps of central Europe, but 
also to plants belonging to other mountainous regions in any part of the world, whose 
natural place of growth is near snows that are never melted even by the beams of the 
summer’s sun. As the elevation of the snow-line, however, varies very much in different 
countries, according to the latitude, and also from peculiar local circumstances, the term 
A. P. is not so much significant of the actual elevation of the habitat, as of the average 
temperature which prevails there. On the Andes, near the equator, at an elevation of 
12,000 to 15,000 ft. above the level of the sea, many kinds of plants are found, of humble 

rowth, resembling in their general appearance those which occur in Germany and 

witzerland at an elevation of 6000 ft.; and these, again, either resemble, or are even iden- 
tical with, the species which in Lapland grow upon hills of very little elevation, or which, 
in the northern parts of Siberia, are found at the level of the sea. Similar plants occur 
also in the Himalaya mountains, at elevations varying remarkably within very narrow 
geographical limits from local causes, which also create great differences in the general 
dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. The laws of this natural distribution of plants 
have been in our own day for the first time investigated and elucidated by Humboldt, 
Wahlenberg, Schouw, Decandolle, and others, and form the most essential part of a 
branch of science still in its infancy, and much requiring further study, phytogeography, 
or the science of the geographic distribution of plants. When the A. P. of central Europe 
are spoken of, those are meant which grow at an average height of 6000 ft., marking 
what, in the language of phytogeographic science, is called zone. ‘This, on its northern 
limit, the Riesengebirge, or Giants’ mountains, falls as low as 4000 ft., and rises, in the 
southern Alps and Pyrenees, to an elevation of 9000 ft., and sometimes even above it. 
Although very rich in forms peculiarly its own, this zone contains many plants which are 
likewise found on much lower hills, and even in the plains. The number of these, how- 
ever, diminishes as the elevation increases. Hence the small spaces clear of snow in the 
highest regions possess a very characteristic flora, the plants of which are distinguished 
by a very low diminutive habit, and an inclination to form a thick turf, frequently, also, 


819 AE: 


by a covering of wooly hairs, whilst their stems are very often either partly or altogether 
‘woody, and their flowers are in proportion remarkably large, of brilliant colors, and in 
many instances very odoriferous, upon which accounts, they remarkably attract and 
please the occasional visitors from the plains. In the Alps of central Europe, the eye is 
at once caught by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, and various species of primrose. 
With these and other phanerogamous plants, are associated a number of delicate ferns 
and exceedingly beautiful mosses. The highest mountains in Scotland exhibit a some- 
what similar flora, and beautiful plants, both phanerogamous and cryptogamous, are 
found on them, which never appear in lower situations, as the Alpine speedwell (veronica | 
Alpina), the small Alpine gentian (gentiana nivalis), the rock scorpion grass, or Alpine . 
forget-me-not (myosotis Alpestris), azalea procumbens, woodsia tlvensis, and hyperborea, etc. 
Many A. P. are limited to a very small district. Thus, the flora of Switzerland differs 
considerably from that of Germany, the latter being now known to contain 3400 phan- 
erogamous plants, of which the former contains 2200, and along with them also 126 
species which have hitherto been found only in the Swiss Alps.—There are, moreover, 
particular species of plants which are found only in single localities, as hypertewm corvs, 
upon the mountain of Wiggis in the canton of Glarus; wulfenca carinthiaca, upon the 
Kiweger Alp, in upper Carinthia, and many others. There are, however, many species 
which, occurring on the mountains of central Europe, appear also in those of Britain and 
of Scandinavia at lower altitudes, but are not found in the intervening plains. See D1s- 
‘TRIBUTIONS OF Lire.—Cryptogamic plants are generally found in Alpine regions in 
much greater abundance than elsewhere. The transplanting of A. P. into gardens is 
attended with great difficulties, and is rarely successful. Their great beauty, even when 
dried, makes them favorites with those plant collectors who have amusement more in 
view than the mere interests of science. Small herbaria of them are offered for sale every- 
where in Switzerland; and in some places, large collections have been prepared and 
thrown open to the public. 


ALPY’NI, Prospero, 1553-1617, a Venetian botanist and physician. He served in 
the army when young, but left it to study medicine, to which he added a passion for 
botany. Being made physician to the Venetian consul at Cairo, A. spent three years in 
Egypt in his favorite study. He anticipated Linneus in learning the sexual differences 
of plants, and one of his papers gave Europe the first notice of the coffee shrub. He 
filled the botanical chair in the university of Padua for many years. The genus Alpint, 
order Zingiberacee, is named after him. 


ALPINIA. See GALANGALE. 


ALP'NACH, or ALPNACHT, a Swiss village, in the canton of Unterwalden, at the foot 
of Mt. Pilatus, 14 m. from that part of lake Lucerne called lake A. It is known princi- 
pally on account of its celebrated ‘‘slide.” This was a sort of wooden trough by which 
the felled timber of Mt. Pilatus was conveyed with amazing velocity from a height of 
2500 ft. down tothe lake. In order to prevent friction, the trough was perpetually lubri- 
cated by a slender rill of water. It is no longer used, the wood bemg now drawn down 
‘by horses and oxen. Pop. about 2000. 


ALPS, the most extensive system of lofty mountains in Europe, raise their giant 
masses on a basis of 90,000 sq.m., between 6° 40’ and 18° e. long., and extending in some 
places from the 44th to the 48th parallel of latitude. The word Alp or Ald signifies in the 
Celtic language ‘‘ height ;” but the Latin albus (white) may have given the name to these 
mountains, perpetually crowned with snow. The Alpine system is bounded on the n. by 
the hilly ground of Switzerland and the upper plain of the Danube; on the e. by the 
low plains of Hungary; on the s. by the Adriatic sea, the plains of Lombardy, and the 
gulf of Genoa; and on the w. by the plains of Provence and the valley of the Rhone. A 
string of lakes encircles both the northern and southern bases of these mountains, the 
former at an elevation of 1200 to 2000 ft.; the latter, 600 to 700 ft. The varied natural 
scenery of France, Italy, Germany, and Hungary has a common center of union in this 
lofty region. Valleys open out in all directions, sending their melted snows on one 
side into the North sea, on another into the Black sea, and on another into the 
Mediterranean. 

The water-system of the A. may be thus briefly sketched: 1. In the basin of the Rhine 
there is the Rhine itself, which partly forms the lake of Constance, at the north-eastern 
extremity of Switzerland, and receives on the left the important tributaries of-the Thur 
and the Aar; the latter of which flows through lakes Brienz and Thun, and is itself 
augmented by various affluents, the largest of which are the Reuss and the Limmat. 2. 
In the basin of the Danube there flow from the s. the Iller, Lech, Isar, and the Inn. 
Still further e., the Danube has for its tributaries the Traun, the Eas, the Raab, the 
Drave, and the Save, the last three of which have their sources in the extreme eastern A. 
3. In the basin of the Po there are numerous streams, which rise in the southern A.; the 
principal of these are the Dora Baltea, the Sesia, the Ticino from lake Maggiore, the 
Mincio from lake Garda, and the Adige. 4. In the basin of the Rhone there are the Rhone 
(flowing through the lake of Geneva), and various Alpine tributaries, the most important 
of which are the Arve, the Isére, and the Durance. 5. The Var is the principal Ligurian 
coast-stream; the Piave, and the Tagliamento, the largest of those which fall into the 
Adriatic from the southern A. 


520 


Alps. 


Divisions.—In order to give a clear view of the manifold ranges of this mountain-land, 
a distinction is generally made between the e., the w., and the middle A.; the last of 
which is again divided into a northern, central, and southern chain ; while a natural sep- 
aration by river-valleys into groups is also made. I. Wrest A.—The principal ranges of 
these are: 1. The Maritime A., extending from the middle Durance southwards to the 
Mediterranean, and rising in the Rocca dell’ Argentera to 10,795 ft. 2. The Cottian 
A., north of these, whose highest summit, monte Viso, is 13,599 ft. 3. The Graian A., 
forming the boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, and attaining in mont Iséran an 
elevation of 13,272 ft., and in mont Cenis, an elevation of 11,457 ft. Il. MippLeE A. 

Yentral Chain.—1. The Pennine A., between the plains of Lombardy and the valley of 
the Rhone. Highest summits: Mont Blanc, 15,744 ft.; monte Rosa, 15,151 ft.; mont 
Cervin, 14,836 ft. 2. The Lepontian or Helvetian A., from the depression of the Sim- 
plon, along the plateau and masses of St. Gothard (12,000 ft.), to the pass of mont 
Spliigen. 38. The Rhetian A., between the Inn, the Adda, and the Upper Adige. North- 
ern Chain.—1. The Bernese A., between the Rhone and the Aar; highest summits: 
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft.; Jungfrau, 13,716 ft.; Schreckhorn, 13,397 ft. 2. The A. of the 
four ‘‘ Forest Cantons,” the Schwytz A., etc. The Southern Chain.—1. The Oertler A., 
between the Adda and the Adige; highest summit, Oertlerspitz, 12,822 ft. 2. The 
Trientine A., between the Adige and the Piave ; highest summit, La Marmolata, 9802 ft. 
III. Easr A.—The principal chains of these are: 1. The Noric A., between the plains of 
the Drave and the Danube; highest summit, Gross-Glockner, 12,481 ft. 2. The 
Carnic A., between the Drave and the Save. 3. The Julian A., between the Save and 
the Adriatic sea; highest summit, mont Terglu, 9366 ft. 

Elevation.—With respect to height, it isa general rule that the A. are lowest where 
the system is broadest, that is, in the e., and highest where the system is narrowest, that 
is, towards the w. Making a threefold distinction of crests, summits, and passes, the 
principal ranges may be characterized as follows: The crest-line : (1) of west A., 6000 to 
11,000 ft.; (2) of middle A., 9000 to 13,000 ft.; (8) of east A., 8600 to 9000 ft. The sum- 
mits : (1) of west A., 9000 to 14,000 ft.; (2) of middle A., 9000 to 15,800 ft.; (8) of east A., 
6000 to 12,000 ft. Height of the passes: (1) of west A., 4000 to 8000 ft.; (2) of middle 
A., 6500 to 11,000 ft.; (8) of east A., 8500 to 6000 ft. 

A comprehensive classification leads to a division of the elevations into three regions : 
1. The lower range forming the buttresses of the main masses, and reaching a height of 
2500 to 6000 ft.; that is, to the extreme limit of the growth of wood. 2. The middle zone 
lying between the former limit and the snow-line, at the elevation of 8000 to 9000 ft. 3. 
The high A., rising to 15,744 ft. The middle zone forms the region of mountain-pastur- 
ages, where the characteristic Alpine dairy-farming is carried on. These pastures con- 
sist of a rich carpet of grass and flowers. This threefold division of heights, however, 
does not everywhere coincide with the same phenomena of vegetation : the line of per- 
petual snow descends lower on the n. side, and the boundaries of the zones above de- 
scribed vary accordingly. 1. The line of demarkation between the region of mosses and 
Alpine plants and that of perpetual snow, is from 8000 to 9000 feet on the northern de- 
clivities ; but on the southern it approaches 10,000 ft. 2. The highest limit to which 
wood attains on the n. is about 6000 ft., while on thes. it is nearly 7000 ft. 38. Grain, 
beech, and oak on the n. disappear at the elevation of 4000 ft.; on the s. they contrive to 
exist some hundreds of ft. higher. 4. The region of the vine, as well as of maize and 
chestnuts, extends to an elevation of 1900 ft. on the northern declivity, and on the south- 
ern declivity to 2500 ft. The ranges of outlying lower mountains which flank the high 
central A. on the n., e., and w. are mostly wanting on the s., especially where the mid- 
dle A. descend into the plains of Lombardy. ‘Thus the A. rise in steep rocky precipices 
from the level of the flat plains of the Po, whilst they sink more gradually into the plains. 
on the n.; hence their mighty masses closely piled together present an aspect from the 
s. more grand and awful ; from the n. more extended and various. 

Valleys.—The variety of the valleys as to form and arrangement is not less striking 
than in the elevations. Most worthy of notice is the characteristic form of the wide: 
longitudinal valleys that lie at the foot of the high central chains. On the e. side they 
open directly into the plain; on the n. they are connected with the plain through 
transverse valleys which often end in lakes. The transverse valleys on the s. side are 
mostly in the shape of steep rocky ravines, forming in some parts long-stretching lakes. 
Besides the deep-sunk principal valleys, there are extensive series of basin-shaped sec. 
ondary valleys, which are the scenes of Alpine life, properly so called. Many of the 
Alpine valleys have names distinct from the rivers flowing through them. Thus, the 
valley of the Rhone is styled the upper and lower Valais ; that of the Adda, the Valte- 
line ; of the Arve, Chamounix. 

Communications—Passes.—The valleys of the high A. form the natural means of com. 
munication. Some are more accessible than others. The entrance into a longitudinal 
valley is almost always smooth and easy; art has often had to force an entrance into a 
transverse valley. On many of the high-roads which link the principal with the second- 
ary valleys, it has been found necessary to blow up long ridges of rock, to build terraces, 
to make stone-bridges and long galleries of rock as a protection against avalanches, as 
well as to erect places of shelter (Aospices) from storms. The construction of these roads 
may be reckoned among the boldest and most skillful worksof man. In crossing theA., 


321 Alps, 


several defiles (usually seven) have to be traversed; for in addition to the pass of the 
main crest, there are other defiles on both sides at the entrance of the different valleys. 
In the e., the numher of these narrow passes or defiles is considerably increased. The 
names applied to the Alpine passes vary according to their natural features or the local 
dialect; as Pass Sattel (saddle), Joch (yoke) Scheideck, Klause, Col, Chiusa. The trav- 
eler, in the course of a day’s journey, experiences a succession of climatic changes, 
which is accompanied with an equal variety in the manners of the people. 

No lofty mountains in the world can boast of being so easily crossed as the European 
A. Hence we can understand how the plains of upper Italy, accessible from the French, 
German, and Hungarian sides, have been the theater of bloody strife for ages. The 
passage of the West A. is made by five principal roads: 1. The military road, La 
Corniche, a coast-road at the foot of the A. from Nice to Genoa, parallel to which a rail- 
way nowruns. 2. The causeway over the Col-di-Tenda, between Nice and Coni, made 
in 1778; highest point, 5890 ft. 3. The high-road over Mt. Genévre, connecting Provence 
and Dauphiné with Turin; highest point, 6550 ft. 4. The carriage-road made by Napo- 
leon in 1805, over Mt. Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont; highest point, 6770 ft. 
Near this the chain is pierced by the railway tunnel (see TUNNEL, and CENIs). 5. The 
pass of the Little St. Bernard, connecting Geneva, Savoy, and Piedmont; highest point, 
7190 ft. By this pass Hannibal crossed into Italy. It is not much used now. Besides 
these great roads, there are many smaller ones branching off from them, which form a 
pretty close net-work of communication. The passage of the M1ipDLE A. is made by 
eight principal roads: 1. That of the Great St. Bernard, connecting the vailey of the 
Rhone with Piedmont; highest point, 8170 ft. It was crossed by,Napoleonin 1800. 2. 
The magnificent road over the Simplon, constructed by Napoleon, 1801-1806, and con- 
necting the Valais with the confines of Piedmont and Lombardy ; highest point, 6570 ft. 
3. Between the Great St. Bernard and monte Rosa is the Col of mont Cervin, the loftiest 
pass in Europe, being nearly 11,200 ft., connecting Piedmont with the Valais. 4. The 
pass of St. Gothard, connecting Lucerne with Lago Maggiore; highest point, 6800 ft. 
It is about to be crossed by arailway. 5. The Bernardin pass, made 1819-28, by the 
Swiss Grisons and Sardinia ; highest point, 6800 ft. 6. The Spliigen pass, repaired in 
1822, connecting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda. This pass was the one used 
by the Romans in their intercourse with the countries bordering on the Danube and the 
Rhine, and also by the German armies on their marches into Italy in the middle ages. 
7. The Wormser Joch, also called the Orteles pass, or road, opened by Austria in 1824. 
It is the loftiest carriage-road in Europe, and connects the Tyrol with Lombardy. 8. 
The Brenner pass, known to the Romans. It also connects the Tyrol with Lombardy ; 
highest point, 4650 ft. It is now crossed by a railway. Besides these great roads, lead- 
ing s. into Italy, there are twc ~which lead n. from the valley of the Rhone, and cross 
the Bernese A., over the Grimsel pass, 6500 ft. high, and the Gemmi pass, 7490 ft. high. 
The roads over the East A. are much lower and also much more numerovs than those 
in the MippLE or West A. The prircipal are: 1. The road from Venice to Salzburg, 
crossing the Noric A. at an elevation of rather more than 5100 ft. 2. The road over the 
Carnic A., which divides into three branches—the first leading to Laybach ; the second, 
to the valley of the Isonzo; and the third, to the valley of the Tagliamento. 3. The 
roads 1:0m the Danube at Linz to Laybach. 

Geology.—The A. offer a rich field for geological investigations, the results of which 
hitherto may be thus summed up: The highest central mass—the primary A., as they 
are called—that rises from the plain to the s.w. of Turin, and stretches in a mighty curve 
to the Neusiedlersee, in Hungary, consists chiefly of the crystalline rocks gneiss and 
mica-slate, with a much smaller proportion of granite. Inclosed among the central A. 
appear representatives of the carboniferous and jurassic formations ; but so altered and 
become so crystalline that their age can only be guessed trom a few remaining petrefac- 
tions, which are accompanied here and there by garnets. In the Graian, Pennine, and 
Rheetian A. occur great masses of serpentine ; in the n. of Piedmont, and in the upper 
valley of the Adige, quartz-porphyry. In the e. there are, on the n. ands. sides of the 
chief range, vast deposits of clay-slate and grauwacke mixed with transition limestone. 

Beginning on the Mediterranean coast, and following in general the direction of the 
central chains, a belt of sedimentary rocks runs along the w. and n. sides to the neighbor- 
hood of Vienna. On the s. sidea similar belt runs from lake Maggiore to Agram. The 
undulating curves and colossal dislocations presented by these regions show that the 
form of their mountains must have been the result of a mighty force acting northwards 
and southwards from the central A. In respect of age, these sedimentary or calcareous 
A. include all the members of the series of formations from magnesian limestone up to 
the lowest strata of the tertiary group. The south-eastern portion of these calcareous 
mountains, forming the Julian A., mostly consist of cavernous rocks of the jurassic and 
chalk groups; and are continued with this character into Dalmatia. 

Minerals.—Precious stones are found in abundance in the trap and primary moun- 
tains, especially in the region of the St. Gothard. The rock-crystal of St. Gothard has a 
world-wide reputation. Mining and smelting become more and more productive as we 
advance eastward. Switzerland itself is poor in useful ores. Gold and silver are found 
in Tyrol, Salzburg, and Carinthia ; there are also silver-mines in Styria and Illyria, and 
one near Grenoble, in France. Copper is found in the French A..in Tyrol, and Styria 

1.—11 


A j a . 
Alseierre* 322 


The lead-mines near Villach, in Carinthia, yield Aaa about 35,000 cwt. The yield of 
iron in Switzerland, Savoy, and Salzburg is trifling; Carinthia, on the other hand, pro- 
duces 260,000 cwt., and Styria 450,000 cwt. Quicksilver is extracted at Idria, in Carni- 
ola, to the amount of 1000 to 1500 cwt. The Alpine region 1s rich in salt, especially at 
Hall in Tyrol, and Hallein in Salzburg. Coal is found in Switzerland, in Savoy, and in 
the French A., but in no great quantity; the Austrian A. are, again, richer in this im- 
portant mineral. The mineral springs, hot! and cold, that occur in the region of the A. 
areinnumerable. See Arx, IscHL, LEuK, BADEN, etc. 

Animals.—The Alpine mountains present many peculiarities worthy of notice in the 
animal as well as in the vegetable kingdom (see ALPINE PLANTS). On the sunny heights 
the number of insects is very great; the butterflies are especially numerous. There are few 
fishes, although trout are sometimes caught in ponds even 6000 ft. above the level of the 
sea, Although the lofty mountains are inhabited by eagles, hawks, and various species 
of owls, yet the birds are few in comparison with the numbers in the plains, and those 
few are mostly confined to the larger valleys. Among the quadrupeds, the wild goat is 
sometimes, though rarely, to be met with ; the chamois is more frequently seen, chiefly 
in the eastern districts. The marmot inhabits the upper Alpine regions. Wolves are 
seen more frequently in the w. than in the e.; in the latter, on the other hand, bears, 
lynxes, and wild-cats are found, although constantly diminishing in number. Of the 

omestic animals, goats and oxen are scattered everywhere in large herds. There are 
fewer sheep and horses, and these are not of good breeds. Mules and asses are used 
more frequently in the s. than in the n., especially as beasts of burden. Swine and 
dogs are not commdh ; the latter are used almost solely by the herdsmen, or are kept 
in the hospices, to assist in searching for the unfortunate wanderers who may be lost in 
the snow. 

The Alpine mountains are rich in singularly beautiful natural scenery, of which the 
inhabitants of flat. countries can scarcely form an idea. Nature in the A. has an infinite 
variety of aspects. Here the hardened masses of the icy glacier cover the naked rock, 
avalanches are hurled into immeasurable abysses, the fall of rocks or mountain-slips 
overwhelm the dwellings, and cover the fields in the valleys; and in the e., the dora, 
with its hurricane strength, hurls before it the upraised masses of snow. There the sun 
glances upon the scattered silver threads of a water-fall, or mirrors himself in the peace- 
ful waters of a glassy lake, while his rising and his setting are announced to the expectant 
traveler by the ruddy glow on the snowy mountain-tops. The inhabitant of the A., sur- 
rounded on every side by mountains, is unconsciously subdued by their presence, and 
receives from them a peculiar stamp of character ; their dangers fascinate him as well as 
their charms. The most ceaseless variety of occupation demands all his time and his 
thoughts; in the mountains he acknowledges his only despots, who seize his soul, and 
lead it unresistingly. In his constant struggle with the elements, the Alpine dweller 
strengthens both his mind and body; he opens his heart to the impressions of nature; he 
gives utterance to his childlike gladness in simple songs, and at the same time defends 
with self-sacrificing devotion his mountain-fortresses against foreign aggression. But 
the manners and spirit of the neighboring plains have penetrated into the larger valleys 
along with the dust of the highway. ‘There the true Alpine life has more and more 
passed away. The simplicity and characteristic industry of the Alpine farms are now 
preserved only in the higher secondary valleys. 

Six states share the A. The western portion is shared by France and Italy. Switz- 
erland claims the middle A. almost exclusively for her own. Bavaria has only a small 
share. Austria has the largest share of the A.—in the provinces of Tyrol, Illyria, Styria, 
and the archduchy. The wide valleys opening to the e. allow the civilization of the 
plains to enter easily among the mountains. The value of the minerals, and the fertility 
of the soil, have permitted mining, manufactures, and agriculture to take firm root, and 
a flourishing trade has caused large towns to usurp the place of mere Alpine villages. 
In the Tyrol, the pastoral life of the mountains has long been mixed up with the work- 
ing of mines of salt or other minerals. The inhabitants of whole valleys are occupied 
in various branches of industry toa greater extent than in any other district of the A., 
and their sons travel far and near as artisans. See H. and A. Schlagintweit, Researches 
into the Physica! Geography of the A. (Untersuchungen dber die die Physikalische Geo- 
graphie der Alpen), Leip. 1850. 


ALPUJAR’RAS (a corruption of an Arabic word which signifies ‘‘ grass’”—an allusion to 
the splendid pasturage on the n. side), a range of mountains parallel to the Sierra Nevada, 
and approaching the coast of the Mediterranean sea. Their southern side is precipitous, 
but the northern slopes away into broad valleys, beyond which rises the Sierra Nevada. 
They commence in the w. at Motril, where they are separated by the Guadalfeo from the 
jower Sierra de Holucar, and the adjacent vine-covered hills of Malaga, and stretch as 
far e. as the river Almeria. The range is divided into two parts by the Adra, each of 
which bears a particular name. The highest peaks reach an elevation of 7000 ft. On 
the n. side, owing to the copious rains, there is the richest pasturage, both in the deep 
valleys and on the uplands. The southern slope, however, is almost destitute of trees or 
shrubs, with the exception of the fertile valleys near the sea, which are abundantl 
watered by numerous little streams. Here flourish, under an almost tropical climate, 


i 
328 | Alndaeree 


the products of the south, even the date-palm and the sugar-cane. The inhabitants are 
chiefly employed in rearing sheep, and in cultivating the vine and other fruits. A little 
mining also goes on. Lead, antimony, and silver are got. The Moorish element is still 
quite discernible in the population of this mountain region. 

ALREDUS, or ALRED. See ALURED. 

ALSACE’, a German district, forming, along with Lorraine, an imperial territory 
(Reichsland), reunited (all but the small district of Belfort) to that country in 1871, after 
two centuries’ possession by France. It lies between the Rhine on the e. and the Vosges 
mountains on the w., extending s. to Switzerland, and n. to Rhenish Bavaria, and 
occupying 3200 square miles. It is exceedingly fertile ; rich also in mines and manu- 
factures ; and contains the important cities of Strasbourg, Colmar, and Miilhausen. In 
Cxesar’s time, A. was occupied by Celtic tribes ; but during the decline of the empire, the 
Alemanni and other tribes from beyond the Rhine occupied and completely Germanized 
it. It afterwards formed part of the German empire, under various sovereign dukes and 
princes, latterly of the house of Hapsburg ; till a part of it was ceded to France at the 
peace of Westphalia, and the rest fell a prey to the aggressions of Louis XIV., who 
seized Strasbourg (1681) by surprise in time of peace. By the peace of Ryswick (1697), 
the cession of the whole was ratified. 'Thus—as the Germans used to complain—was 
this fine land, and one of the noblest branches of the race alienated, from the German 
people, and the command of the German Rhine disgracefully surrendered to the enemy 
in the time of misfortune, and, more disgraceful still, not demanded back when fortune 
favored. German never ceased to be the language of the people, and all newspapers 
were, during the whole period of the French possession, printed in both languages. The 
language question agitated the province again, in 1883, when an attempt was made to 
banish French from the schools, by devoting but two hours weekly to its study, instead 
of four, and by compelling the use of the German language in the deliberations of the 
provincial committee. 

Alsace-Lorraine has an area of 5601 sq. m., with a pop. in 1895 of 1,640,986, which is 
293 per sq.m. It is administratively divided into three districts: Ober-Elsass, Unter- 
Elsass, and Lothringen. The area and population are as follows: 


Ewe Area Pop. Pop. 
District. sq.m. Dee. ’90. Dee. 95. 
Oper=Bilsasserelacpccctes aoletvicvee sists cialis sisiecletis sree 1,354 471,609 477,477 
(UniteraH sass eter tatele ce tie tre ole reibin. dis aletn siatore sie tela 1,846 621,505 638,624 
DOGDTIM ORs wr mins cain b pis ele wind bet + aale'g o 5m o>» 2,401 510,392 524,885 
Dota lenn ttecitns romeo e cet a eciaisls icie aks sieve 5,601 1,603,506 1,640,986 


In Alsace-Lorraine the annual increase in population from 1875 to 1880 was 0.45 per 
cent.; 1880-85 an annual decrease of 0.03 per cent.; 1885-90 an annual increase of 0.5 
per cent. The census of 1890 showed 1,227,225 Roman Catholics, 337,476 Protestants, a 
few members of other Christian sects, and 34,645 Jews. About 1,393,000 were German 
and 210,000 of French origin. The three principal cities are Strasbourg, capital of Ober- 
Elsass, pop. 135,318; Miilhausen, capital of Unter-Elsass, pop. 83,040, and Metz, pop. 
59,728. The constitution of the German empire was introduced Jan. 1, 1874. The 
administration is under a governor-general bearing the title of ‘‘ Statthalter,’? and under 
him are governors for the three districts. The revenues are derived largely from cus- 
toms and indirect taxes. 


ALSA'TIA, the popular name of Whitefriars, London, which served early in the 
‘17th c. as a refuge for criminals; but this immunity was abolished by parliament in 
1697. 


AL'SEN (Dan. Als), an island in the Baltic, in the Prussian province of Slesvig- 
Holstein, and extending from the Apenrade to the Flensborg Fiord, is separated from 
the mainland by the sound of A., in part very narrow but deep. Its greatest Jength is 
nearly 20 m. ; its greatest breadth about 12; lat. 54° 46’ n., long. 9° 52’ e. The island, 
one of the finest in the Baltic, has a picturesque appearance, is very fertile, with rich 
woods, and numerous lakes abounding in fish. Its fruit-trees are celebrated over all 
Slesvig. The Gravenstein apple, in particular, forms an important article of commerce. 
The chief towns are Sonderborg or Siidborg (South Town), and Norborg or Nordburg 
(North Town). The former has an excellent harbor, with a population of abt, 5000. 
Close to the harbor are the ruins of an old and famous castle belonging to the Augusten’ 
borg family. Here Christian II., of Denmark and Norway, was confined from 1582 to 
1549. In the war of 1864, A. was taken by the Prussians from the Danes. 


AL'STED, JoHann HErnricu, 1588-1638 ; a German Protestant divine and volum- 
inous writer, professor of philosophy and divinity at Weissenburg. His Hncyclopedia, 
Thesaurus Chronologie, and De Millie Annis, are well known. The latter was 2 
prophecy that the thousand years, or millennium, during which the saints were to reign 
on the earth, would commence in 1694. 

AL'STER, a river in Holstein, is formed by the confluence of three streams, and, in 
the neighborhood of Hamburg, spreads itself out, and forms a lake, called the Great or 
Ourer A., and, within the t., the Inner A, It flows by several canals into the Elbe. 


Alston, 
Altay: , 5324 


ALSTON, Joun, d. 1846; a Glasgow merchant who introduced books printed in 
raised letters for the blind. He published the Bible in such letters, and more than 20 
volumes of other works, besides maps and charts. 


AL'STREMER, or ALSTROMER, Jonas, 1685-1761 ; a Swedish industrial reformer. 
He was a clerk and a shipbroker in London, and undertook to introduce English indus- 
tries in his native country, where he established a woolen factory, a sugar refinery, and 
improvements in farming, in ship-building, tanning, etc. His best success was in 
bringing sheep from England, Angora, and Spain. High honors were given him ; he 
was made a noble, with permission to change his name to Alstrémer, and there is a 
statue of him in the Stockholm exchange. 


AL'STREMER, or ALSTROMER, Kuas, 1736-96; son of Jonas; a botanist, having 
for his master and friend, Linnzus, who named in his honor the genus Alstroemeria. He 
visited Spain and wrote a work on the breeding of fine-wooled sheep. 

ALSTREMERTA or ALSTR@MER’S Lity, a genus of plants of the natural order 
Amaryllidew (q.v.), and, according to Lindley, of the tribe Alstrameriew, which is 
distinguished by fibrous—not bulbous—roots, and by having the outer segments of the 
perianth different in form from the inner. In this genus, the two lower segments are 
somewhat tubular at the base, the capsules do not gape when ripe, are 8-valved or pulpy 
within, and the seeds globose. The leaves are twisted, so that what should be the upper 
surface, becomes the lower. The species are numerous, natives of the warmer parts of 
America. Many of them have tuberous roots. Some are sufficiently hardy to endure 
the open air in Britain, and are admired ornaments of our flower-gardens. Some have 
climbing or twining stems; amongst these is the salsilla (A. salsilla), a plant of great 
beauty, with lanceolate leaves, a native of Peru, which is cultivated in the West Indies, 
and its tubers eaten like those of the potato. In Britain, it requires the stcve or a hot- 
bed. A. ovata, also a beautiful plant, with a slender twining stem, and ovate leaves, is 
cultivated in Chili for its tubers, which are used as food. It has been introduced into 
Britain, but its cultivation has made little progress. The tubers weigh from 8 to 6 
ounces. A kind of arrow-root is also prepared in Chili from the succulent roots of A. 
pallida and other species. 


_ ALT, or ALTEN (Ger. “‘old”), a prefix to many names in Europe as “alt-dorf,” ‘old 
village,” or ‘‘old town.” 


ALTAI' (A. Yeen Oola) is the term vaguely applied to the high range in the e. 
of Asia, forming the northern border of that vast table-land known by the name of 
Chinese Tartary, and extending from 80° to 142°e. long. The A. mountains constitute 
the boundary between the Russian and Chinese empires, or between the long icy low- 
lands of Siberia, stretching away to the Arctic sea, and the variegated central plateau 
that lies s.of them. Their general direction is from e.to w. They are divided into 
many ranges and groups, each having a distinctive name. From the sea of Okhotsk, in 
the extreme e. of Asia, they extend in a broad and winding mass to the plains of Turke- 
stan, a little to the w. of lake Zaisan, or Zaizang, a distance of more than 3000 m. The 
breadth of the system is, in some places, not less than 800 to 900 m. From Okhotsk to 
the Lena, it is called the Aldan chain ; it 1s next separated into three groups by the val- 
leys of the Amur, Yenisei, and Irtish, the last of which is called the little A., to distin- 
guish it from the spur that strikes off into Chinese Tartary in a south-easterly direction, 
which is called the great A., a range that in some places towers into the region of per- 
petual snow, and whose most easterly cliffs abruptly disappear in the dark clouds which 
overhang the sandy steppes of Gobi. The Russian A., between Semipalatinsk and the 
sources of the Obi, have been colonized by the Russians, and as they rival the Ural 
mountains in their mineral wealth, they have already become one of the most important 
districts of the Russian empire. This chain consists of a broad Alpine range on the 
north-western edge of Chinese Tartary, and is called the Altai-Bjelki, or Snowy moun- 
tains. It reaches in its highest peaks an elevation of nearly 11,000 ft. Little is known 
of the geology of the Altaian system. Jasper is found in considerable abundance near 
the summits, red porphyry lower down, and granite still lower. Around lake Baikal 
there are numerous granitic masses, interspersed with newer igneous formations, but active 
volcanoes do not appear until the range reaches Kamtchatka. The mines are rich in 
gold, silver, copper, and lead. The botany of the mountains is as imperfectly known 
as the geology, but it seems to be worthy of closer attention. N.of the A.-Bjelki lies 
the broad zone of the A. mineral districts, the inhabitants of which are employed as 
miners and agricultural laborers, over whom a strict watch is kept. The s.e. is peopled 
by the Calmucks of the mountains, a Mongolian race. They are heathens, and their 
government is a patriarchalone. They lead a nomadic life, encamping in summer among 
the rich pastures on the mountain-terraces, and in winter within the sheltered recesses of 
the woody glens. 


_ ALTA’ MOUNTAINS. Since the article Aurar was originally written, the explora- 
tions of Russian surveyors have led to a more definite knowledge of the form and limits 
of this important range, now described as a separate system, one of the four parallel 
chains which constitute the skeleton of eastern high Asia, covering the great table-land. 
The A. forms an alpine girdle, intersected by wide valleys traversed by many streams, 


~ Alston. 
325 Altar 


among which are the Tez river, flowing w. to the Ubsa Nor (lake), and the Kobdo, flow- 
ing s, to the Tke Aral lake. The general direction of the range is from w. to e., about 
the parallel of 50° n. It extends between the meridians of 84° and 100°e. On the e, 
the A. is separated from the Daurian mountain-system by lakes Kosgol and Baikal; on 
the w. it terminates in the Katunsk mountains, a small isolated group, in which Mt. 
Beluka rises to 12,790 ft., far above the line of perennial snow, with extensive glaciers 
on its western flanks. The climate of the A. is not sosevere as might be inferred from 
its position. The winters are frequently mild, and comparatively little snow falls. The 
mountain slopes are covered with rich grass, and their flanks are in many parts adorned 
by magnificent cedar forests. Stags, hares, and wolves abound in the lower, and bears 
in the higher portions of the range. The A. is celebrated for its gold, silver, and lead 
mines. Barnaul, on the northern slope of the range, is the chief mining town; and the 
village of Zeminogorski, s. of Barnaul, is in the center of the richest silver mines in the 
Russian empire. N.of the Ubsa Nor (lake), the Tangnu Ula mountains, connected with 
the A. on the n., rise to upwards of 11,000 ft. They furnish abundance of white marble 
of an excellent quality. 


ALTAMU'RA, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Bari, and 28 m.s.w. from Bari, at 
the eastern base of the Apennines. It is a well-built and beautiful t., surrounded with 
walls, and having a magnificent cathedral. The surrounding country is fertile, produces 
much oil and wine, and abounds in rich pastures. A.is supposed to occupy the site of 
the ancient Zupazia. Many fine Grecian antiquities have been dug up. Pop. abt. 18,000. 


ALTAR (Lat. aliare, from altus, high), the place whereon offerings were laid both by 
Jews and heathens. The first on record is that which Noah built on leaving the ark. 
The Israelites, after the giving of the Law, were commanded to make one. We find, 
from the Old Testament (1 Kings iii. 3; 1 Kings xi. 7; and 2 Kings xxiii. 15), that altars 
were often erected on high places—sometimes, also, on the roofs of houses. Both 
in the Jewish tabernacle and temple there were two altars, one for sacrifices, and another 
for incense. For a minute description of these, see Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. 
The Jewish and oriental altars were generally either square, oblong, or approximating to 
such ; those of Greece and Rome, on the other hand, were often round. Sacrifices were 
offered to the infernal gods, not on altars,.but in cavities dug in the ground. 

The word has been transferred into the Christian system. For upwards of five 
centuries, altars in the Christian churches were, for the most part, made of wood ; but 
in 509 A.D., it was decreed by a council held at Epone, in France, that none should be 
consecrated with chrism except those built of stone. In the first ages of Christianity, 
there was only one A. in a church; but, from a very early time, the Latins have used 
more than one. In the 12th c., the adorning of churches with images and numerous 
altars was carried to a great extent, and they were embellished with gold, silver, and 
precious stones. The Greek church use but one A. Altars were frequently placed at 
the w. end of the ancient churches, instead of the e., but in England almost uniformly 
in thee. The only perfect A. of the old times in England is the high A. of Arundel 
church, Sussex. The slab is 12 ft. 6 in. long, by 4 ft. wide, and 24 in. thick. The 
support is of solid stone, quite plain, and plastered over. For 300 years after the time 
of Christ, the word A. was constantly used to describe the table of the Lord; subse- 
quently, ‘‘table” and ‘‘altar” were used indifferently. In the first prayer-book of king 
Edward, 1549, the word A. was used in the rubric, and the Lord’s supper was still called 
the Mass; but in 1550, an order was issued for the setting up of tables instead of altars, 
and in the second prayer-book, of 1552, the word altar was everywhere replaced by tadie. 
The table was further ordered to be of wood, and movable. In Mary’s reign the altars 
were re-erected; but in Queen Elizabeth’s, some were riotously pulled down, and injunc- 
tions were then issued directing that this should not be done, except under the oversight 
of the curate and at least one churchwarden. It was charged against archbishop Laud 
that he had converted commiunion-tables into altars. What he really did was to remove 
the tables out of the body of the church, and place them ‘‘altarwise,” i.e., n. and s., 
at the upper end of the chancels, where the altars formerly stood; and a dog having on 
one occasion run away with a piece of the consecrated bread, he directed that rails 
should be erected to prevent such desecrations in future. The old stone altars used 
frequently to be made in the shape of tombs, and they inclosed relics; this was from 
the early Christians having often celebrated the eucharist at the tombs of the martyrs, 
or, as others say, they were thus made with the design of representing Christ’s humanity 
as having been real, and vouched for by the fact of his body lying in the tomb. The 
Credence Table and Piscina are adjuncts of an A.- By the judgment in the Arches 
court, 1845, in the case of Faulkner », Litchfield, it was decided that altars may not be 
erected in churches. This case arose out of the erection, by the Cambridge Camden 
society, of a stone A. in the church of the Holy Sepulchre in that town. 

The old English divines, and, indeed, all Protestant ecclesiastical writers of any 
importance, are unanimous in the opinion that among Christians the word cannot mean 
what the Jews and heathens expressed by it. The later fathers used various phrases to 
denote the solemnity which should attach to the communion-table, such as ‘the 
mystical and tremendous table,” ‘‘the mystical table,” ‘‘the holy table,” etc. And 
they termed it an A., because, first, the holy eucharist was regarded as a kind of com: 


Alt-dort: 
Altitudes 326 


memorative sacrifice, or, more properly, a consecrated memorial before God of the great 
sacrifice on Calvary; and, second, the prayers of the communicants were held to be in 
themselves sacrifices or oblations—sacrifices of thanksgiving, as it were. This is the 
view of those who hold high church opinions, but does not exclude the other view. 
Again, they termed it a table when the eucharist was considered exclusively in the light 
of a sacrament, to be partaken of by believers as spiritual food. In the former case, the 
sacrifice was commemorated; in the latter, it was applied: in the former, it expressed 
more directly the gratitude; in the latter, more directly the faith of the Christian. 


ALT-DORF. See ALTORF. 


ALT'DORFER, ALBRECHT, painter and engraver, was b. at Altdorf, Bavaria, abt. 1480, 
and d. at Ratisbon, 1538. He is said to have been a pupil of Albert Diirer ; but this is 
not certain. He belongs, however, to that religious school of artists of which Dutrer 
was the head. His pictures are also animated by a glowing and romantic spirit of poetry 
which is delightful to any one who appreciates the conditions of old German life. The 
Jandscape is delineated with the same truth and tenderness as the figures; a rich mani- 
fold life pervades the scenes, and everything is handled with the utmost delicacy. - His 
master-piece, now in Munich, is ‘‘ The Victory of Alexander over Darius,” a painting 
which, it is said, affects the beholder like a heroic poem. Asan engraver, A. is reck- 
oned among the lesser masters. 


ALTE’A, a seaport t. of Valencia, Spain, in the province of Alicante, and 25 m. n.e. 
from Alicante. I1t stands on a rising ground, on the right bank of a small river called 
the Alga, and at the head of a bay. It has wide streets, but many of them are steep. 
The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture; some of them are fishers and sailors. 
Linen fabrics, ropes, and soap are manufactured. Pop. 6000. 


AL’TEN, KARL Aveaust, Count of, one of the chief Hanoverian generals in the 
Napoleonic wars, was b. Oct. 20, 1764; entered the army in 1781, and gained distinc- 
tion at the siege of Valenciennes, and in the decisive engagement at Hondschooten. He 
was first lieut. in 1800, but on account of the unhappy capitulation at Lauenburg, found 
it advisable to leave Hanover, and came to England. Here he was made commander of 
the first light battalion in the German legion 41803). In 1808, he assisted as general of 
brigade in covering the retreat of Gen. Moore to Corunna, and in the following year com- 
manded the troops stationed in Sussex. in 1811, he took part, under Gen. Beresford, in 
the siege of Badajoz and the battle of Albuera, and in the following year was promoted 
by the duke of Wellington. In almost all the engagements of the Spanish war of libera- 
tion—at Salamanca, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthez, Toulouse, etc., A. 
took a prominent part, and had the command of acorps of 30,000 men, stationed near 
Madrid, in 1812. He fought with great distinction at Quatre-Bras and at Waterloo, 
where he was severely wounded; his efforts greatly contributed to the decision of the 
battle. After his return to Hanover he was made minister of war, and in this capacity 
d., April 20, 1840. 


AL'TENA, a t. of Westphalia, Prussia, in the government of Arnsberg, 40 m. n.e. from 
Cologne. It stands on the right bank of the Lenne, in a deep and picturesque valley. 
It has large public works, the machinery of which is moved by water-power, and manu- 
factures great quantities of needles, pins, and other small articles of hardware. There 
are also stocking manufactories and tanneries. Pop. 10,500. 


AL'TENBURG, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, is situated in a fertile 
country about 24 m. from Leipsic, and contains (1890) 81,440 inhabitants. Standing on 
an almost perpendicular rock of porphyry, the old castle of A. forms a striking feature 
in the landscape. Its foundations are probably as old as the 11th century. A. possesses 
several excellent educational institutions, a museum, and a theater. Brushes, gloves, 
and cigars are among the chief manufactures carried on in A., and the book trade is con- 
siderable. A railway connects it with Leipsic and Bavaria. 


ALTENES’SEN, a t. in Prussia, in the Rhine province ; pop. 12,300. 


AL'TENGAARD, or ALTEN, a seaport t. in the province of Finmarken, Norway, sit- 
uated at the mouth of the river Alten, in lat. 69° 55’ n., and long. 23° 4’ e. Beyond this 
point no cultivation is attempted ; and even here potatoes and barley alone are produced. 
A. has a harbor and considerable trade. Itis visited principally by Russian and Norwe- 
gian vessels. Pop. about 2000. 


AL'TEN-OT'TING, or ALTérrine, a place of pilgrimage not far from the Inn, is sit- 
uated in one of the most beautiful and fertile plains of upper Bavaria. It is frequented 
by thousands of Roman Catholics from Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia, on account of a 
famous image of the Virgin Mary (the ‘‘ Black Virgin”) which it possesses, and may be 
called the Loretto of Germany. It has also an extraordinarily rich treasure of gold, sil- 
ver, and precious stones. From 1838 till their expulsion in 1873, A. was the headquar- 
ters for Germany of the redemptorist fathers. Thereis also a capuchin monastery here. 
A. was originally a villa regia. Several German emperors, suchas Henry III. and Henry 
IV., held their court here. The emperor Leopold L., and other princes of the house of 
Hapsburg, made pilgrimages to it. A chapel, called Tilly’s or Peter’s chapel, contains 


Alt-dorf. 
327 Altitude: 


the tomb of count Tilly, who was buried here at his own request. Maximilian I. and 
numerous other princes and princesses of the Bavarian family have had their hearts 
interred in it. Pop. about 5200. 

AL’TENSTEIN, a castle near Eisenach, Saxe Meiningen, on the s. slope of the 
Thuringer wald, the summer residence of the governing dukes. It has a fine park in 
which is a cavern 500 ft. long through which flows a large stream. Boniface lived and 
preached here in 724 ; and near by is the place where, in 1521, Luther was seized to be 
carried off to Wartburg. 


ALT’ENSTEIN, Kart von, Baron, 1770-1840; a Prussian statesman. After the 
treaty of Tilsit he became the head of the finance department; in 1815, he went to Paris 
with Humboldt to claim the restoration of works of art taken from Prussia by the 
French armies; afterwards he was minister of public worship and education, doing 
great service for the universities and schools. Under his direction the university of 
Bonn was founded. He was one of Fichte’s warm supporters. 


ALT ERATIVES, in medicine, a term applied to remedies that have the power of 
changing the state of the living solids of the body, and consequently altering the func- 
tions which they perform. It is generally applied, however, to medicines which are 
irritant in full doses, but which -almost imperceptibly alter disordered actions or secre- 
tions; acting specially on certain glands, or upon absorption in general, when they are 
given in comparatively small doses, the treatment being continued for a considerable 
length of time. For example, mercury is an irritant in some of its preparations ; but 
when small doses of blue pill, Plummer’s pill, or corrosive sublimate are given at inter- 
vals for some length of time, they ‘‘ produce alteration in disordered actions, so as to cause 
an improvement in the nutrient and digestive functions, the disappearance of eruptions, 
and the removal of thickening of the skin or of other tissues” (Royle) ; and they will 
effect these changes without otherwise affecting the constitution or inducing salivation. 
So iodine, also an irritant in concentrated doses, and poisonous in some forms, is most 
useful, when given in small doses, in effecting the removal of enlarged glandular organs, 
and need not cause iodism, if carefully given. 

The preparations of gold are likewise stimulants of the absorbents, and are used in 
cases of scrofula. Some preparations of arsenic are powerful A. in cases of skin-disease. 
So also are the decoctions of the woods and their substitutes, such as decoction of 
Sarsaparilla, and the like, which, when taken in large quantities of water, must operate 
partly by their diluting and solvent properties, and partly by the stimulant effect of the 
active principles of several ingredients in these diet-drinks, conveyed into the capillaries. 


ALTERNATE, in botany. See LEAVEs. 


ALTER'NATE GENERATION (see GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF): a method 
of reproduction, in which the young resemble not the parent but the grandparent or 
some more remote ancestor, the successive generations passing through a regularly recur- 
ring series. The radiated creatures, popularly called jelly-fishes, illustrate A.G. In 
pools left at low tide on the sea-shore, a hydroid is found growing in tufts like shrubs, 
each individual pendent from the general mass by a slender tube, as a flower from its 
stem, each mouth taking food for the common nourishment. The young of this creature 
are jelly-fishes, small, transparent cups, from which depend four long threads and a pro- 
boscis, each specimen an independent unit moving freely in the water. This creature 
produces bunches of spheres from which come other jelly-fishes, and also spheres or 
eggs from which are developed pear-shaped bodies, that take a permanent abode and 
have the form of the first hydroid. The fixed hydroids and swimming jelly-fishes are 
alternate forms assumed by the successive generations of the same animal. 

ALTHE’A. See Marsa Mariows and HoLiyHock. 

ALTHEN, Evan, or JEAN, 1711-74 ; b. in Persia, and a slave to a planter, from whom’ 
he escaped and went to Avignon, where he established the cultivation of madder. Like 
many others who have conferred great benefits on the public, he died in extreme poverty, 

ALTHORP, Lorp. See SPENCER. 


ALTHORN, an instrument standing in E-flat or F, used in military music. Owing 
to its upright bell, it is easily played on horseback, and often replaces the French horn. 
It belongs to the Saxhorn family, and the name is sometimes given to the Saxhorn in 
B-flat. See Horn. 


ALTIMETRY (Lat., altus, bigh, metrwm, measure), the art of ascertaining altitudes 
by means of an altimeter, which is any instrument for taking altitudes, as a quadrant, 
sextant, or theodolite (q.v.). 


ALTIN’, a lake in Siberia, which is one of the sources of the Obi, in the Altai moun- 
tains, 320 m.s. of Temsk; 80 m. long by 50 wide. This lake is remarkable because in 
winter the northern part is frozen so as to bear sledges while the southern part has never 
been known to freeze. 


AL'TITUDE, in astronomy, is the height of a heavenly body above the horizon. It is 
measured, not by linear distance, but by the angle which a line drawn from the eye to 
the heavenly body makes with the horizontal line, or by the arc of a vertical circle inter 
cepted between the body and the horizon. Altitudes are taken in observatories by means 
of a telescope attached to a graduated circle (see CrrcLE), which is fixed vertically. The 
telescope being directed towards the body to be observed, the angle which it makes with 


Altkirch, 
Alto. a 328 


— 


the horizon is read off the graduated circle. The A. thus observed must receive various 
corrections—the chief being for parallax (q.v.) and refraction (q.v.)—in order to get the 
true A. At sea, the A. is taken by means of a sextant (q.v.), and then it has further to 
be corrected for the dip of the visible horizon below the true horizon (see Horizon). The 
correct determination of altitudes is of great importance in most of the problems of 
astronomy and navigation. See LarrruDE.—An ALTITUDE and AZIMUTH INSTRUMENT 
consists essentially of a vertical circle with its telescope so arranged as to be capable of 
being turned round horizontally to any point of the compass. It thus differs from a 
transit instrument (q.v.), Which is fixed in the meridian. See AZIMUTH. 


ALT KIRCH’, a t. in upper Alsace, 70 m. s. of Strasbourg ; pop. about 4000 ; select- 
ed by Germany to be fortified as a counterpoise to Belfort in France. A. was 
founded in the 12th c., and has the ruins of a castle which was often occupied by Aus- 
trian archdukes in their visits to Alsace. 


ALTMARK, an old district in Germany which formed the nucleus of the electorate of 
Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1813 it belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia. After the 
year 1815 it formed a part of the administrative district of Magdeburg, its chief city 
being Stendal. Its pop. is estimated at 195,000. 


ALTMUHL, ariver in Bavaria, an affluent of the Danube which it joins at Kelheim near 
Ratisbon. The Ludwigs Canal connects it with the Main system. Length about 125 miles, 


ALTO (contralto deciso) is the deepest or lowest species of musical voice in boys, in 
eunuchs, and best of all in females, where its beauty of tone gives it the preference. 
This quality of the human voice has been too much neglected by modern composers and 
singing-masters. The powers of expression which it possesses are quite peculiar, and 
cannot be supplied by any other kind of voice. Its tone-character (timbre) is serious, 
spiritual, tender, and romantic. The low A. in particular has a fullness of tone combined 
with power in the lower range. No other voice expresses so decidedly dignity, great- 
ness, and religious resignation: it can also represent youthful manly power as well as 
romantic heroism. The high A. has generally the same range of compass as the mezzo- 
soprano, but differs from it in the position of the cantabile and in its character of tone. 
A. voices generally consist of two registers, tne lowest beginning at F or G below 
middle C, and reaching as high as the A or B above the octave C. The higher 
notes up to the next F or @ partake more of the character of the soprano. See VOICE. 


ALTON, at. of Hampshire, England, of considerable antiquity, near the Wey, 16 m. 
n.e. from Winchester. It is pleasantly situated among picturesque hills and woods, 
The principal street forms part of the main road from London to Winchester. The church 
was erected in the reign of Henry VII., and is in the perpendicular style. 

ALTON, city of Madison co., Ill., ona bluff 200 feet high on the left bank of the Mississippi 
river, which is spanned here by a great railroad bridge; twenty-four miles above St. Louis. 
It is on the Chicago and Alton and other railroads, is the centre of a large commerce, and 
has woolen and glass factories, flouring-mills, machine shops, brick yards, powder works, 
farming implement factories, etc. It has many churches, a Roman Catholic cathedral, 
and contains a monument to Elijah P. Lovejoy (q. v.). Population 1890, 10,294. 

ALTON, Jos. WILHELM EDUARD Db’, professor of archeology and the history of art 
at Bonn, was b. 1772, at Aquileia, and d. in 1840. In early years his attention was 
directed to natural history, especially that of the horse, on which he published a 
splendid illustrated work (Naturgeschichte des Pferdes, Bonn, 1810), which was completed 
in 1817. In concert with his friend Pander, he projected an extensive work on compara- 
tive osteology, of which the first division was published at Bonn, 1821-1828. His etch- 
ings of animals, etc., are esteemed as valuable. Albert, the late prince consort of queen 
Victoria, was a pupil of A. in the history of art. 

AL/TONA, the largest and richest city in the Prussian province of Slesvig-Holstein, 
is situated on the Elbe, so near Hamburg that the two cities are only divided by the 
state boundaries. Pop. ’95, 148,944. A. lies higher than Hamburg, and is much 
healthier; but, on the other hand, it is destitute of the numerous canals so necessary 
for the transport of goods, with which Hamburg is so abundantly provided. In a 
commercial point of view, it forms one city with Hamburg. Its trade extends to 
England, France, the Mediterranean sea, and the West Indies. There are many impor- 
tant industrial establishments in A.; among others, the manufacture of tobacco, cotton, 
woolen, chemicals, soap, leather, ropes, etc. A. is a free port, and enjoys many 
privileges in respect of trade, and also of civil freedom; all sects are allowed the free 
exercise of their religion. The city is connected by a railway with Kiel, Rendsburg, 
and Gliickstadt. The observatory, which gained a great reputation under the direction 
of its founder, Schumacher, who died in 1851, was transferred to Kiel in 1874. The 
rise of A. to its present importance has been recent and rapid for a continental town. 

ALTOONA, city of Blair county, Penn., at the eastern base of the Alleghany moun- 
tains, 1180 feet above the sea level, on the Pennsylvania railroad, 237 miles west of Phil- 
adelphia and 117 east of Pittsburgh. The railroad crosses the mountains at this point, 
and during the ascent two locomotives are required to move the train. The magnifi- 
cent view which gradually opens to the vision of the traveler can scarcely be imagined. 


9 Altkirch. 


Besides large machine shops there are the car-works and locomotive-shops of the 
Pennsylvania railroad, extensive planing-mills, and over 200 other manufacturing 
establishments. The hydraulic works cost $500,000. There are churches, convents, 
hospitals, public schools, a public library, banks, and an electric street railway. The 
large number of daily and weekly newspapers show the literary taste of the people. 
Population in 1890, 30,337. 

ALTOONA or ALLATOONA PASS. A pass in the vicinity of the town of Allatoona, in 
northwestern Georgia. Here occurred, during the late Civil War, on Oct. 5, 1864, the 
battle made memorable by the gallant defense of Allatoona by Gen. John M. Corse, of 
the Federal Army. Gen. Sherman was occupying Atlanta, having garrisoned Allatoona 
as his second base; this point the confederates determined to capture, and Gen. 8. G. 
French, under Gen. Hood, was commissioned to accomplish the work. Sherman, being 
informed of these designs, signaled from Kenesaw Mountain to Gen. Corse, stationed 
at Rome, to move with the utmost speed to Allatoona and hold it against all opposition 
until he himself could arrive with aid. Here Gen. Corse, with scarcely 2000 men, main- 
tained the defense from nine o’clock in the morning until three o’clock in the afternoon 
against a large force of confederate soldiers. At three o’clock, Gen. French sounded a 
retreat, and Allatoona was saved. Gen. Sherman at once took as the subject of a general 
command the principle of war illustrated here, that fortified posts should be defended to 
the last, regardless of the relative numbers of the party attacked or attacking. 


AL’TORF, the chief t. in the Swiss canton Uri, is situated in asheltered spot at the 
base of the Grunberg, about 2 m. from the head of the lake of the Four Cantons, and 
contains abt. 8000 inhabitants. It is a well-built town, having several open places, a 
church, a nunnery, and the oldest capuchin monastery in Switzerland. The little tower 
on which the exploits of William Tell are painted in rude frescoes, is known to be older 
than the legend of Tell. The lime-tree under which the scene of the shooting of the 
apple was laid, was removed in 1567, and a stone fountain erected in its stead. 


AL'TO-RILIE'VO (Ital.), high-relief, the term used in sculpture to designate that mode 
of representing objects by which they are made to project strongly and boldly from the 
background, without being entirely detached. In A. R., some portions of the 
figures usually stand quite free, and in this respect it differs not only from basso-rilievo, 
or low-relief, but from the intermediate kind of relief known as mezzo-rilievo, in which 
the figures are fully rounded, but where there are no detached portions. In order to be 
in high-relief, objects ought actually to project somewhat more than half their thickness, 
no conventional means being employed in this style to give them apparent prominence. 
In bass-relief, on the other hand, the figures are usually flattened; but means are adopted 
to prevent the projection from appearing to the eye to be less than half; because if an 
object projects less than half, or, to state it otherwise, be more than half buried in the 
background, it is obvious that its true outline or profile cannot be represented. This 
rule, that in all reliefs there shall be either a real or an apparent projection of at least 
half the thickness of round objects, was strictly observed in the best period of Greek art, 
but it has been often neglected in the execution of reliefs in later times, and hence 
attempts have been made at foreshortening and perspective, which have necessarily 
resulted in partial failure. 

Relief forms a kind of intermediate stage between plastic art and painting, the mode 
of representation being borrowed from the former, whilst the mode of arrangement to a 
certain extent, is in accordance with the latter. The plastic principle occupies the most 
prominent place in the simple and tranquil reliefs of the earlier art of Greece, whereas 
the pictorial principle preponderates in the crowded and often excited scenes represented 
in the later Roman reliefs. In such reliefs as have been produced in modern times, the 
one element or the other has prevailed, according as the one model or the other has been 
followed. The works which have been recovered from the ruins of Persepolis, Nineveh, 
and Babylon, still attest the extensive employment of relief in Persian and Assyrian art. 
Of the latter, which usually belongs to the class of mezzo-rilievo, some of the finest 
specimens in existence are now to be seen in the British museum. Though never 
exhibiting the life and freedom of classical or modern European art, the elaborately 
executed and majestic reliefs of these semi-oriental nations are greatly in advance not 
only of the whimsical distortions of nature’exhibted by the Hindoos, but of the inanimate 
and motionless representations of the Egyptians. 

The earliest Greek reliefs possessed a hard and severe character, somewhat approach- 
ing to the art of those earlier nations of which we have just spoken, and were very 
slightly raised. Of this we havean example in the two lions over the gate at Mycene— 
probably the oldest Greek relief in existence. It was Phidias who gave to relief its true 
character, and finally brought it to a degree of perfection which it has never since 
attained. The alti-rilievi which adorned the metopes of the parthenon at Athens, and 
the temple of Apollo at Phigalia in Arcadia, now preserved in the British museum, are 
still not only unsurpassed, but unapproached as examples of the style. In none of 
these a a see any attempt at perspective, and even foreshortening for the most part 
is avoided. 

Under the Romans, sculpture was employed to an enormous extent in the decoration 
of tombs and sarcophagi, whole streets of such monuments being constructed, as, for 
example, on the Appian way. The result of the demand thus created was that sculp- 
ture became a manufacture rather than an art, and attempts were made to supply by 


Alemntsas™ oe 


technical execution and mere mass what had been lost in thought and spirit. Relief was 
now applied, often by Greek artists resident in Italy, to purposes for which the Greeks, 
in their own land and in their better times, had rightly conceived it to be unsuited. 
Behind figures standing nearly free a second rank was introduced, and those numerous 
examples of a false style, still to be found in every gallery in Europe, were produced, 
the imitation of which afterwards led to such a lavish expenditure of artistic talent in 
Italy. The attempt which the Romans had made tc invade the province of painting, by 
means of sculpture, was carried still further by the Florentine artists of the 16th and 
17th centuries. Not only were several rows of figures represented in perspective, but 
even landscape was introduced with a success which, in the hands of such artists as 
Ghiberti, was positively marvelous. If the highest perfection in the true plastic style of 
relief was attained by Phidias in the metopes of the parthenon at Athens, a correspond- 
ing merit may be claimed as regards the degenerate pictorial style by Ghiberti in the 
celebrated bronze doors of the baptistery of San Giovanni at Florence. Even Canova’s 
reliefs partook to far too great an extent of the character of paintings in stone; and to 
Flaxman, and above all to Thorwaldsen, must be assigned the merit of restoring this 
style of art to its genuine and original principles. It is to be remembered, in studying 
the reliefs of classical times, that studiously as the Greeks avoided a pictorial conception 
of their subject, they did not eschew the use of color where it could be employed to 
heighten the effect of their reliefs. There is reason to believe that in many excellent 
examples the background was painted blue, and that the hems of the garments of the 
figures, and the like, were often colored or gilded. 


AL'TRINGHAM, a market-t. of Cheshire, England, on Bowden downs, 8 m. s.w. 
from Manchester. It is situated on the Cheshire Midland railway, and near the duke of 
Bridgewater’s canal, which has contributed greatly to its prosperity. It is a very neat 
and clean t., and on account of the salubrity of the air, is much resorted to by invalids 
from Manchester. It has manufactures of artificial manures, and an iron-foundry, but 
a chief employment of its inhabitants is the raising of fruits and vegetables for the mar- 
ket of Manchester. Pop. ’91, 37,988. 

ALTRO VOLTO (Italian), another turn, a word used in the early part of the last cen- 
tury for encore. 


ALTRUISM (Latin, alter, another), a word introduced by the Positivists, followers of 
the French philosopher Comte, as the opposite of egovsm or selfishness. It signifies a 
love for others and a due regard for their feelings and interests, Altruism is regarded by 
Positivists as the crowning virtue of their system, in the exercise of which the perfected 
individual will find not only his duty but his chief pleasure. We die, they say, but our 
actions live after us, and bear fruit to the most distant ages. The consciousness of this 
survival of the results of our actions must be a constant incentive to righteousness; and 
the consolation of knowing that his life has been a useful one to the race is offered to the 
just man as the only substitute for the Christian’s hope of immortality. This doctrine 
has been eloquently phrased by George Eliot, in her later years the greatest of all the 
Positivists, in her lines beginning, ‘‘O may I join the choir invisible ?’ But the average 
mau may find little comfort or incentive to duty in thinking that after he is annihilated 
he wiil have smoothed the pathway of other men in their progress to a similar annihila- 
tion —a view entertainingly presented by Mallock in Js Life worth Living ? 


ALTU’RAS, a former co. in s. Idaho, on Snake River; area, 6700 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 
2629. In 1895 both Alturas and Logan counties were abolished, and the county of 
Blaine was created therefrom. 


ALUM, a whitish, astringent, saline substance ; properly it is a double salt, being 
composed of sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina, which, along with a certain 
proportion of water, crystallize together in octahedrons or in cubes. Its formula is 
K2S0,A1,(SO,4)s + 24H20. _ A. is soluble in 18 times its weight of cold water, and in its 
own weight of hot water. The solution thus obtained has a peculiar astringent taste, and 
is strongly acid to colored test papers. When heated, the crystals melt in their water of 
crystallization; and when the water is completely driven off by heat, there is left a spongy 
white mass, called burnt A. or anhydrous A, <A. is much used as a mordant in dyeing. 
This property it owes to the alumina in it, which has a strong attachment for textile tis- 
sues, and also for coloring matters; the alumina thus becomes the means of fixing the 
color in the cloth, The manufacture of the colors or paints called lakes depends on this 
property of alumina to attach to itself certain coloring matters. Thus, if a solution of 
A. is colored with cochineal or madder, and ammonia or carbonate of soda is added, the 
alumina of the A. is precipitated with the color attached to it, and the liquid is left 
colorless, Alumina, the basis of pure clay—which is a silicate of alumina—derives its 
name from being first extracted from A. A. is also used in the preparation of leather 
from skins, and, in medicine, as a powerful astringent for arresting bleeding and mucous 
discharges, Its use in the making of bread, to give a white appearance and more pleas- 
ing consistence to bread made from indifferent flour, is highly objectionable. A. rarely 
occurs In nature, except in a few springs and in some extinct volcanoes, where it appears 
to be formed from the action of sulphurous acid vapors upon felspaihic rocks. In Gt. 
Britain, it is prepared artificially from A.-shale, obtained from coai-mines at Hurlett 
and Campsie, near Glasgow; and A.-slate, which occurs at Whitby, in Yorkshire, and 


831 qiewise 


there forms precipitous cliffs, extending about 30 m. along the e. coast of England. The 
A.-slate, shale, or schist, consists mainly of clay (silicate of alumina), iron pyrites 
(bisulphuret of iron), and coaly or bituminous matter. When the shale is exposed to the 
air—as it is in the old coal-wastes or mines from which the coal has been extracted—the 
oxygen of the air, assisted by moisture, effects a decided change upon it. The original 
hard stony substance begins to split up into thin leaves, and becomes studded over and 
interspersed with crystals. The latter are the result of the oxidation of the sulphur of 
the pyrites into sulphuric acid, and the iron into oxide of iron, both of which in part 
combine to form sulphate of iron, whilst the excess of the sulphuric acid unites with the 
alumina of the clay, and produces sulphate of alumina. When the A.-shale 
thus weathered is digested in water, there dissolve out the sulphate of alumina, 
Al,(SOx4)s, and sulphate of iron, FeSO,; this solution is treated with chloride of 
potassium, KCl, which decomposes the sulphate of iron, forming sulphate of pot- 
ash, K,SO,, and proto-chloride of iron, FeCl, When this liquid is evaporated to 
concentration, and allowed to cool, crystals of A., leaving the composition above 
described, separate out, and the chloride of iron is left in the solution or 
mother-liquor. The crystals of A. obtained from the first crystallization are not free 
from iron, and hence require to be redissolved in water, reconcentrated, and recrystal- 
lized. This operation is generally repeated a third time before the A. is obtained pure.— 
As the preliminary weathering of the shale takes some years to proceed, a more expedi- 
tious method is now largely resorted to. The shale is broken in fragments, and piled up 
over brushwood in long ridges, shaped like hugh potato-pits, and the brushwood being 
set fire to, the coaly matter of the shale begins to burn, and the whole ridge undergoes 
the process of roasting; the results of which are the same as those of the weathering oper- 
ation—namely, the oxidation of the sulphur and iron, and the formation of sulphate of 
alumina and sulphate of iron. This material is afterwards worked up as previously 
described. ‘The roasting operation is so much more expeditious than the weathering pro- 
cess, that months suffice for years. The A. made at Tolfa, near Civita Vecchia, is 
extracted from A.-stone, a mineral containing sulphate of potash and sulphate of alu- 
mina, but united in such a form as to render them insoluble. When the mineral is cal- 
cined, the sulphates become soluble, and are extracted by lixiviation. The A. thus manu- 
factured crystallizes in opaque cubes, having a reddish tint, due to the presence of iron. 
and goes by the name of Romanalum. The potash in A. can be replaced partly or alto- 
gether by soda or ammonia ; the alumina by oxide of chromium or sesquioxide of man- 
ganese ; or the sulphuric acid by chromic acid, or peroxide of iron, without altering the 
form of the crystals. There are thus soda, ammonia, chrome, etc., alums, forming a 
genus of salts of which common A. is only one of the species. The more important 
members of the class, expressed in symbols, are : 


K.SO,, Al,(SO4)s, 24H.0O, potash A 
NaSOu,, Al,(SOx4)s, 24H,.O, soda A. 
(NH,)sS0O4, Ale(SO4)s, 24H2O, ammonia A. 
K,S0O,4, Cre(SO4)s, 24H20, chromic potash A 
FeS0O,, Al,(SOx4)s, 24H,0, iron A. 


ALUMINA, the most abundant of the earths (q.v.), is the oxide of the metal alumin- 
ium (q.v.), the formula being Al,O;. Itoccurs in nature abundantly in combination 
with silica, associated with other bases. |The most familiar of its native compounds is 
felspar, a silicate of A., and potash, K,O, Al,O;6SiO., This is one of the constit- 
uents of granite, and of several other igneous rocks. Certain varieties of these, by ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, become completely disintegrated, passing from the state of 
hard, solid rock, such as we are accustomed to see in building-granite, into soft, crum- 
bling, earthy masses. It is the felspar which undergoes the change, and it appears to be 
owing to the action of rain-water charged with carbonic acid, which dissolves the potass 
and some of the silica of the felspar, leaving the excess of silica and the A. still united. 
Clay consists of silica and A. in a state of chemical combination. When it is pure, clay 
is quite white. More frequently, clay is red, owing to the presence of oxide of iron; or 
black, from the diffusion through it of vegetable matter. 

From alum, A. is prepared by adding to a solution of the former, water of ammonia, 
as long as it occasions a precipitate. The A. appears as a voluminous, white, gelatinous 
substance, consisting of the oxide of the metal combined with water. When A. is pre- 
cipitated from a solution containing coloring matter, such as logwood, ete., it carries 
down the color chemically united to the flotculent precipitate; in this way are formed 
the colored earths, called lakes (q. v.). A. in the state of precipitate, after being gently 
dried, is readily soluble in acids and in alkalies; but if heated to whiteness, it loses the 
associated water, contracts greatly in bulk, and forms a white, soft powder, not at all 
gritty, and with difficulty soluble in alkalies and acids. A., as generally prepared, 
whether hydrated or anhydrous, is insoluble in water, possesses no taste, and does not 
alter coloring matters; but some time ago Mr. Walter Crum obtained A. in an allotropic 
form, in which it is soluble in water. It is quite different, therefore, in properties from 
the alkaline earths, and is a much weaker base. In the anhydrous state it absorbs water 
with great readiness without combining with it, so that it adheres to the tongue, and is 
felt to parch it. A. is not fusible by a forge or furnace heat, but it melts before the 
oxyhydrogen blow-pipe into a clear globule, possessing great hardness. It occurs in 
nature in a similar state. The more coarsely crystallized specimens form the emery, the 


Aluminium. 332 
Alvarado. 


when of a blue color, owing to a trace of metallic oxide, constitute 
the precious gem the sapphire, and, when red, the ruby. <A., in common with other ses- 
quioxides, is “a feeble base. The salts it forms with the acids have almost all a sour 


taste, and an acid action on colors. a a8 Lee 

‘TUM — sym. Al. eq. (old) 18.7, (new) 27.02 — is one of the metals present in 
ee par and arnee rocky and earthy substances. It was discovered by ‘Wohler in 
18298. and was re-examined by him in 1846, when he obtained the metal in minute glob- 
ules or beads, by heating a mixture of chloride of A, and sodium. In 1855, the French 
chemist Deville showed, as the result of a series of experiments, that A. could be pre- 
pared on a large scale and in acompact form without much difficulty. The mineral cry- 
olite found in Greenland, which is a double fluoride of A. and sodium, was the ore first 
used for its manufacture; but bauxite, a mineral found in France, and consisting chiefly 
of alumina, or oxide of A. and oxide of iron, has more recently been employed as a con- 
venient source of the metal. An aluminate of soda is first obtained by heating the 
bauxite with soda ash in a furnace, and separating it (the aluminate) from the insoluble 
portions by lixiviation, When carbonic acid is added to the solution, pure alumina is 
thrown down. ‘The alumina is then formed into balls with common salt and charcoal, 
which are heated in an earthenware retort through which chlorine gas is passed. In 
this part of the process, the charcoal combines with the oxygen, and the chlorine with the 
A.; the latter sublimes over with the common salt (chloride of sodium), and is collected 
as a double chloride of A. and sodium. When this double chloride is heated in a reverbera- 
tory furnace with fluxes and metallic sodium, the latter seizes the chlorine combined with 
the A., which is then set free, and falls to the bottom ready to be cast into ingots for use. 

The properties of A. are that it is a white metal, somewhat resembling silver, but pos- 
sessing a bluish hue, which reminds one of zine. It is very malleable and ductile, in te- 
nacity it approaches iron, and it takes a high polish When heated ina furnace, it fuses, 
and can then be cast in molds into ingots. Exposed to dry or moist air, it is unalterable, 
and does not oxidize as leadand zincdo, It melts atacomparatively low temperature, and 
neither cold nor hot water acts upon it. Sulphuretted hydrogen, the gas which so readily 
tarnishes the silver in households, forming a black film on the surface, does not act on 
A., which is found to preserve its appearance under all ordinary circumstances as perfectly 
as gold does. When fused and cast into molds, it is a soft metal like pure silver, and has 
a density of 2.56; but when hammered or rolled it becomes as hard as iron, and its den- 
sity increases to 2.67. It is therefore a very light metal, being lighter than glass, and 
only one-fourth as heavy as silver. A. is very sonorous; and when a bar of it is struck, 
it gives out a very sweet, clear, ringing sound. It is a good conductor of heat and elec- 
tricity. It isnot more subject to corrosion by acids and alkalies than iron. It is not fire 
proof, however, and combustion reduces it to valueless alumina. The solder generally 
used consists of A., 6 percent.; copper, 4 per cent.; and zinc, 90 percent. A. forms, with 
copper, several light, very hard, white alloys; also'a yellow alloy, which, though much 
lighter than gold, is very similar to it in color. This alloy contains from 5-10 per cent. 
of A. By itself, A. is used for jewelry, small works of art, and for optical, chemical, 
and surgical instruments. Its bluish color can be whitened by hydro-fluoric and 
phosphoric acids, and also by a heated solution of potash. An alloy of A. and tin is 
used for optical instruments, and from another of A. and silver, called ‘‘ tiers argent,”’ 
spoons and forks are made. An electrolytic method of reducing Al., which has resulted 
in cheapening this metal to a wonderful extent, was patented by Mr. Chas. M. Hall in 
the United States in 1889. The principle involved is the electric decomposition of 
alumina dissolved in a fused bath of the fluorides of Al. and other bases, the current 
reducing the dissolved alumina without affecting the solvent. The process has been 
operated by the Pittsburg Reduction Co. since 1889, at which time they produced about 
75 Ibs. of Al. per day which they sold for $4.50 per lb. In 1890 their capacity was in- 
creased to 400 lbs. per day, and the selling price reduced to $2.00 per lb. In 1892 the 
works were enlarged to nearly one ton per day and the selling price has steadily 
decreased until it was about 50cts. per lb. in the year 1897. In 1895 the company built 
a very large plant at Niagara Falls, using the power generated by the new electric power 
egrtsic These works have a capacity of from 6000 to 8000 Ibs. per day when in full 
operation. 

Another important electrolytic process was patented in 1885 by E. H. & A. H. Cowles, 
the principle of whose process is that a powerful electric current is interrupted, the 
terminals being large carbon rods, and, the space between having been filled with a 
mixture of alumina, carbon and the metal to be alloyed, the intense heat generated in 
contact with this mixture causes the metal to melt and the alumina to be reduced to 
Al., which combines with the metal, while the oxygen escapes as carbonic oxide. This 
process is worked by the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminium Company, who 
operate a 1200 horse-power plant at Lockport, N. Y.; also by the Aluminium Brass and 
ee Company, of Bridgeport, Conn., who have an extensive plant for manufacturing 
Al. alloys. 


ALUMNUS, originally indicating a student supported and educated at the expense of 
the ‘ Alumnat,”’ an institution endowed for educating youths who could not pay for liv- 
ing and tuition. Three such, founded by Maurice of Saxony, are still in active opera- 
tion, But in modern usage every graduate of a college is an A. 

ALUM ROOT. This name is given in the United States to two plants, very different 
from one another, but agreeing in the remarkable astringency of their roots. One 
of these, geranium maculatum (see GERANIUM), very much resembles some of 


transparent crystals, 


Al 
333 Ivarados 


the species of geranium which are common weeds in Britain. The root contains more 
tannin than kino (q.v.) does. The tincture is of use in sore throat and ulcerations of 
the mouth, and is also administered in various diseases.—The property of astringency 
belongs, in an inferior degree, to some other species of geranium, and of the kindred 
genera, erodium and pelargonium.—The other American plant to which the name A. R. 
is given is heuchera Americana, of the natural order saxifragee (see SAXIFRAGE), an order 
in which also astringency is a prevalent property. The genus heuchera has the calyx 
5-cleft, the petals undivided, five stamens, and the styles remarkably long. H. Ameri- 
cana is everywhere covered with a clammy down; the leaves are roundish, lobed, and 
toothed, the peduncles, dichotomous and straggling. The root is a powerful styptic, 
and is used to form a wash for wounds and obstinate ulcers. 


ALUN'NO, Nicco1o, or Niccolo of Fuligno, one of the old Umbrian painters, whose 
works first indicated the qualities discernible in that school. His earliest known piece 
isa ‘‘ Madonna with Angels and Saints,” 1458 a.p. There is also a gonfalon—a banner 
used in religious processions—of the year 1466, in the church of Santa Maria Nuova at 
Perugia, which A. painted for the brotherhood, as the inscription testifies: ‘‘ Societas 
Annunciamenta feet fiert hoe opus.” It isa work of peculiar beauty, displaying deep 
religious feeling and exquisite sweetness. A. painted several of these gonfalons. Some 
of his pictures were carried off: by the French, and sent to Paris; but at the restoration 
of artistic spoil, ‘‘ The Nativity,” ‘‘ The Resurrection,” etc., were returned, although ‘‘ The 
Agony in the Garden” still remains in the Louvre. There is also a ‘‘ Madonna between 
Two Angels,” of the year 1499, to be seen in the parish church of the village of Bastia. 
Fragments, too, are still in existence of an altar-piece for the cathedral of Assisi. The 
picture represented a pieta, with two angels bearing torches, and, according to Vasari, 
weeping so naturally, that ‘‘no one,” he thinks, ‘‘could have painted them better.” <A. 
is not so remarkable for the originality or fertility of his invention, as for his selection 
of details, warmth of feeling, purity, and devout faith. His earnestness, however, leads 
him at times into exaggeration. 


AL'URED, or ALRED, of Beverley, in Yorkshire, an old English historian of the time 
of Henry I. Little is known regarding him; but he is said to have been educated at 
Cambridge, and to have greatly distinguished himself by the variety of his learning. It 
is also stated that he had enriched his mind by travel, both in France and Italy, and 
that at Rome he became domestic chaplain to cardinal Othoboni. His permanent office, 
however, appears to have been that of canon and treasurer of the church of St. John in 
his native town of Beverley, where he wrote his Annals. This work commences with a 
fabulous period of British history, and extends down to the 29th year of Henry I. It 
was published at Oxford in 1716 by Thomas Hearne, and is a remarkable production, for 
various reasons. Its Latin is extremely good, and even elegant, while its accuracy, 
especially in dates, is unusual for the age in which its author lived. He is said, though 
it is very doubtful, to have written, besides the Annals, a work on the liberties or privi- 
leges of the church of St. John, of Beverley. The work, whoever wrote it, is a translation 
of old Saxon documents, charters, etc., relative to that edifice, and is still in manuscript. 
A. d. in 1128 or 1129. 


ALU'TA, or Aut, or Out, a branch of the Danube rising in e. Transylvania, crossing 
st Carpathians, traversing Wallachia, and emptying opposite Nicopolis: about 330 m. 
ong. 


ALVA, a village of Stirlingshire, Scotland, pleasantly situated on nearly level ground 
at the mouth of a romantic glen of the Ochil hills, 7m. n.e. from Stirling. The part of 
Stirlingshire in which A. is situated is detached from the rest of the county, and in- 
closed between the counties of Clackmannan and Perth. A. is a place of great industrial 
activity, having extensive woolen factories. Formerly the prevailing branch of industry 
was the blanket trade. In later years this has been entirely superseded by the manufac- 
ture of shawls. 'T'weeds have also been introduced. 

Immediately behind the town is Alva glen, noted for its picturesque beauty and 
magnificent water-fall. About a mile to the w. of the village is Balquharn Glen, also a 
very romantic spot. Pop. ‘61, 8147; ’81, 4961; ’91, 5225. 


ALVA, DuKE oF. See ALBA. 


ALVARA'DO, a t. of Mexico, in the department of Vera Cruz, on the gulf of Mexico, 
at the mouth of the river Alvarado, 40 m. s.e. from Vera Cruz. The situation, close to 
a lagoon, is unhealthy. A bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance of vessels 
of more than 12 or 13 ft. draught, but within the bar the harbor is sheltered from every 
wind. Great part of the t. consists of cane-built cottages, roofed with palm-leaves. 
The river has a course of not much more than 100 m., but collects the waters of an 
extensive swampy district. Much rice and cacao are produced in the country around 
Alvarado. Pop. 6000. 


ALVARA’DO, PEDRO pk, a famous companion of Cortes, was born at Badajoz in 
Spanish Estremadura, about the year 1485. In 1517 or 1518, he sailed for the new 
world, and in the same year was dispatched from Cuba, by Velasquez, the governor 
of that island, to explore, under the command of Grijalva, the shores of the American 


Alvarez. 3 84 


Amadeus, 


continent. The expedition touched at Acozamil (the isle of Swallows), and at various 
places in Yucatan. Ascending also the rivers Tobasco and Banderos, Grijalva was so 
enchanted with the beauty of the country, its fine cultivation, and the numerous traces 
of advanced civilization, that he named it Mew Spain. Now, for the first time, the 
Spaniards heard of the riches of Montezuma, and of his vast empire. | A. was ordered 
to return to Cuba, and inform Valasquez of the result of the expedition. The sight of 
the gold which A. brought with him, stimulated the covetousness and ambition of Velas- 
quez, who became greatly incensed against Grijalva, because the latter had not pene- 
trated further into the new region, and on his return to Cuba deprived him of his com- 
mand. In Feb. 1519, Cortes sailed from Havana, solely for the purpose of con- 
quest, with eleven ships, containing 508 soldiers and 109 seamen. A. commanded one 
of these ships; but a storm separating the fleet, he arrived at the rendezvous, isle of 
Swallows, three days earlier than the others. Here the conquest of Mexico was planned 
by these intrepid adventurers. A. figured in every conspicuous incident; he was, 
indeed, hardly less distinguished than the sagacious Cortes himself, who knew his worth, 
and whom he served with unfaltering zeal and fidelity. While he held the city of 
Mexico, during the absence of his chief, he massacred, in the midst of a féte, a great 
number of Aztec nobles, which act is said to have excited the indignation of Cortes; but, 
on the other hand, it is asserted that the Mexicans had plotted the destruction of the 
Spaniards, and that A. had become cognizant of the scheme. ,In the famous night- 
retreat of 1st July, 1520, A.commanded the rear-guard. After the conquest of Mexico, he 
was sent, in 1523, at the head of 300 foot, 160 horse, with 4 pieces of cannon, and a troop 
of Mexican auxiliaries, to subdue the tribes on the coast of the Pacific in the direction 
of Guatemala. He was completely successful, receiving everywhere the submission of 
the native chiefs, while the people brought him presents, in token of the sincerity of 
their friendship. He now returned to Spain, where the emperor, Charles V., gave him 
a splendid reception, and appointed him governor of Guatemala. On departing again 
for the new world, he was accompanied by numerous friends and cavaliers desirous of 
making their fortune. His adventurous spirit soon launched him into new enterprises. 
Pizarro and Almagro were prosecuting a brilliant career of conquest in South America. 
A. resolved not to intrude upon their territories. He considered the province of Quito to 
be without the limits of these, and so, embarking with a force of 500 soldiers, 227 of 
whom were cavaliers, he landed at Bahia de los Caraques, near cape San Francisco, 
whence he penetrated into the heart of the country, crossing the Andes by as bold and 
hazardous a march as it is possible to conceive. In the*plain of Rio Bamba, he was met 
by some of the troops of Pizarro, headed by Almagro; but instead of disputing by force 
of arms his right to the possession of the country in which he found himself, he agreed 
to retire, on receiving an indemnity for his arduous undertaking. He therefore retired 
to Honduras, and aided the colonists in establishing new settlements, amongst others 
Gracias-a-Dios and San Juan de Puerto de Caballos. Meanwhile, Pizarro, loaded with 
wealth, went back to Spain in 1534, and misrepresented the conduct of A. to the 
emperor; but the latter following, vindicated himself so successfully, that he received the 
government of Honduras in addition to Guatemala. Again he embarked for the new 
world, and pursued his course of discovery and conquest; but in an affray with the 
Indians upon the coast of Michoacan, in 1541, he was accidentally killed by his horse fall- 
ing upon him and crushing him. In the same year, an inundation, accompanied by a 
frightful tempest, overthrew the walls of the town of San Jago, when his wife and chil- 
dren all perished. 


AL’VAREZ, Francisco, 1460-1540; a priest, and almoner to king of Portugal; sent 
in 1515 as secretary to an embassy to the king of Abyssinia. In 1533, he went to Rome 
on an embassy to Clement VII. <A. published an account of his travels, curious but not 
trustworthy, as, like most travelers of his time, he was extremely credulous. 


AL'VAREZ, Don Joss, a Spanish sculptor, was b. Apr. 28, 1768, at Priego, in the prov- 
ince of Cordova. During youth he labored with his father, a stone-mason; and when 
20 years old, began to study drawing and sculpture in the academy of Granada. His 
early essays in sculpture secured for him the patronage of the bishop of Cordova, and in 
1794, he was received into the academy of San Fernando, where, in 1799, he gained the 
first prize in the first class. Subsequently, he gained the second prize for sculpture in 
the institute of Paris, and in 1804, increased his celebrity by a plaster-model of Gany- 
mede, which proved that he could rival Canova in gracefulness of style. He now 
attempted greater works in the more severe style, and prepared a model for a wounded 
Achilles, which was accidentally broken. Having removed to Rome, he was here 
employed by Napoleon to design bas-reliefs for the Quirinal palace on Monte Cavallo; but, 
on account of political changes, his works were not allowed to occupy the places for 
which they had been destined. In Rome, where he lived on terms of friendship with 
Canova and Thorwaldsen, he executed, among other works, his Grupo Colosal de Zara- 
goza, now in the royal museum of Madrid, representing a scene in the defense of Sara- 
gossa, This work alone is sufficient to establish A.’s fame. Clearness of design, digni- 
fied simplicity in execution, trueness to nature, and deep sentiment, mark the sculptures 


of A., who, next to nature and classical antiquity, studied the works of Michael Angelo. 
He d. in Madrid, Nov. 26, 1827. 


Amadeus. 


3 3 5 Alvarez. 


AL’VAREZ, JUAN, 1780-1867; a Mexican general and statesman. He led the revolt 
which deposed Santa Anna in 1855, and became president in his place, but resigned the 
next year. He was one of the most determined opponents of Maximilian “and the 
French invasion, 

ALVENSLEBEN, CoNSTANTINE von, 1809-92; b. in Prussian Saxony; military officer. 
He was trained in the cadet corps; served through the Danish war, and in the war with 
Austria; commanded the 3d army corps in the Franco-German war. He retired in 1873, 
One of the forts at Metz was named in his honor. In 1895 the grand general staff of 
Germany published a history of the battles at Spicheren and Vionville, or Mars-la-Tour 
in which Gen. Alvensleben was warmly credited with being the hero of two grea; 
strategic actions in the war of 1870-71, and one of the most important of the military 
founders of the German empire. 


AL’VINCZY, or AL’VINZY, JoserH von, Baron, 1735-1810; an Austrian field-marshal. 
distinguished in the seven years’ war at Torgau and Toplitz. He took part in the cam- 
paign against the Turks in 1789, but did not take Belgrade. Though oftener losing 
than winning, he was selected to lead the Austrian army against Bonaparte; but, having 
lost the important battles of Arcola and Rivoli, he was recalled. In 1798 he was made 
superior commander of Hungary, and reorganized the army; was field-marshal, 1808. 


ALVIS (‘‘ all-wise’’); in Norse mythology, the dwarf who answers Thor’s questions 
in the lay (song) of Alvis. 

ALVORD, THoMAS GOLD; b. Onondaga, N. Y., 1810; graduated at Yale college, 182°: 
admitted to the bar, 1832; since 1844 has been repeatedly elected a member of the New 
York state assembly; was speaker of the assembly, 1858-64 and ’79; lieutenant-governor 
of the state, 1865-6, and member of the constitutional convention, 1867-8. 


AL’WAR, a Rajpoot state of India, under the control of the governor-general’s agent 
for the states of Rajpootana, but having a considerable measure of independence. I> 
lies between n. lat. 27° 14’ and 28° 13’, ‘and between e. 00S uM Go elae aU; hoo le eels 
area is about 3000 sq. m.; its pop. about 800,000. In the western part of the state the 
surface is broken by mountains, the outlying peaks of the Aravalli range, which abound 
in minerals, particularly in iron, the ore lying near the surface. <A large part of the 
population are employed in the smelting furnaces. Copper, silver, lead and sulphur 
are also found. In the east the land is more level and supports a numerous agricultura: 
population. The capital is Alwar; pop. ’91, 52,398. 

AL‘ZEY, or ALZEI, an old city in Rhenish Hesse, on the Selz, 18 m. s. w. of Mentz: 
pop. 5,900; tanning and tobacco manufacturing are the chief industries. The t. was 
founded in Roman. days, and had its own lords in the middie ages, the ruins of whose 
castles are still visible. 


AL’Z0G, JOHANN BApTIstT, 1808-78; a Roman Catholic theologian. He was pro- 
fessor of church history in the university of Freiburg, and wrote a Hand Book of Universal 
Church History, which is known in many languages. He was also the author of an 
Outline of Patrology, and in 1869 was a member of the commission on dogma which 
prepared the work for the Vatican council. He was the only member of the commission 
who opposed the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. 


AMADE'US (i.e., Love-God), a common name in the house of Savoy. The first who 
bore it was count A., eldest son of count Humbert, who lived about the commencement 
of the 11th century. His successors gradually enlarged their paternal dominions; but the 
first to make an important figure in history was A.V., who was b. in 1249, succeeded 
his uncle Filippo in 1285, and d. in 1323. He acquired the dignity of a prince of the 
empire. He had a brother who resided for a long period in England, and, while there, 
built the Savoy palace in London.—His son, A. VI., the ‘‘green count,” b. in 1834, 
succeeded his father in 1348. He was a sagacious, moderate, and vigorous ruler, won 
various places from the dauphin of France, became lord-paramount of Piedmont, and, 
through the favor of the emperor Charles IY., obtained the vice-regency over a great 
part of upper Italy. His influence among the Italian states was very great. He d. 
in 1383.—A. VIIL., b. in 1383, was at first under the guardianship of his grandmother, a 
woman of superior talents; but in 1898 he assumed the reins of government himself, and 
displayed a spirit of moderation, and, at the same time, a love of order which augured 
well for his people. The zeal with which he aided the policy of the emperor Sigismund 
secured him the imperial favor, and the elevation of Savoy into a duchy (1416). On the 
extinction of its native dynasty, in 1418, Piedmont chose him for its ruler, as he was 
next of kin. But a religious melancholy taking-possession of his mind, he (Nov. 
7, 1484) laid down his authority, and, along with six of his knights, betook himself to a 
monastic hermitage which he had caused to be built on the shores of the lake of 
Geneva, He was elected pope in 1439, when he assumed the name of Felix V.; but he 
resigned the papal chair in 1448, and d. three years afterwards at Geneva. eA St Xe 
after governing for four years, handed over his authority to his wife Jolanthe, on 
account of ill health; but she used it very imprudently. While he lived, A. was a 
mere tool in the hands of grasping factions. He died in 1472. 

AMADE'US I., AMADEO FERDINANDO Marta, b. May 30, 1845; duke of Aosta, king 
of Spain, second son of Victor Emanuel, king of Italy. He was rear-admiral in 
the Italian navy, and lieut.-gen, in the army. He married, May 30, 1867, Princess 


ee 836 


rie del Pozzio della Cisterna, daughter of the countess de Merode. They 
REVI: children, Emanuel, Victor, and Louis. On the 4th Dec., 1870, A. accepted 
the crown of Spain, with the sanction of his father and the approval of the great 
owers. He reached Madrid Jan. 2, 1871, four days after the assassination of Gen. 
rim. He himself was assailed by assassins in July, 1872, and also troubled with Carlist 
risings. On the 11th Feb., 1878, he abdicated for himself and heirs, and returned to: 
Italy, the Spanish cortes proclaiming the republic and making Figueras provisional 
president. He died in 1890. 


AM'ADIS, a much-used heroic name in chivalric poetry. At the head of those 
heroes of romance, stands A. of Gaul, called the lion knight, from the device on his 
shield, and also Beltenebros, or the darkly beautiful. The other Amadises that figure 
in romance are represented as descendants more or less remote of A. of Gaul. He him- 
self was what the Germans called a love-child of the fabulous king Perion of France 
and of Elisena, a princess of Bretagne. The relationship of several of the other Am- 
adises to the princes and princesses of Colchis, Trebizond, Greece, and Cathay, that. 
figure as their parents, is of the same unsanctioned kind. The romance which narrates: 
the adventures of A. of Gaul is both the most ancient and the best of all the A. 
romances. It even found favor in the sight of Cervantes, who won immortal honor by 
overthrowing the long usurped dominion of this ‘‘evil sect.” This one, however, has 
maintained its reputation even to the present day, not only because it was regarded by 
him as a literary curiosity, but also from its own merits, as the original production of a 
creative fancy. 

The question which was early raised, and cannot yet be demonstratively settled, as: 
to whether this romance was originally a Portuguese, a Spanish, or a French produc- 
tion, proves at least the absence in it of all national peculiarities, and the entire want of 
all national traditions connected with it; and hence the want also of a living historical 
background, which, in the case of all really national legends, is discernible through the 
purely epic structure. It may be asserted with certainty, both from internal and ex- 
ternal evidence, that this romance is the pure subjective creation of the fancy of 
a single individual; and that it was composed at a time when the genuine epic style of 
chivalric writing was near its decline, consequently not earlier than 14th century. Itis also 
apparent that thisromance must have been originally written in prose, and intended to 
be read, and not to be recited. Lastly, it is not to be doubted that the author was well 
acquainted with the earlier legendary poetry, and has imitated it in many things, but 
has, nevertheless, struck out for himself a perfectly new path, in an opposite direction, 
which naturally tended to lead his less gifted imitators into a bottomless abyss, and at 
last brought about the extinction of the whole class. For these chivalric romances— 
doubtless unintentionally—became by degrees more and more of an ironical cast; and 
only a genius like Cervantes was wanting in order to complete their extinction, by 
making the comic element the fundamental tone, and exaggerating the incongruity 
inherent in such compositions. 

The Spanish A. romances consist of fourteen books, of which the first four contain 
the history of A. of Gaul. Yet, according to the researches of the learned Clemencin, 
as stated in his Commentary on Don Quixote (Madrid, 1833), it can scarcely be doubted 
that this most ancient part was originally written in the Portuguese language, by the 
knight Vasco de Lobeira of Oporto, who died in 1403; and that it must have been 
composed between 1342 and 1367. The original manuscript is said to have been first in 
the possession of the infant Alfonso of Portugal, the son of John I., the founder of the 
house of Braganza, who died in 1461; and last, in that of the duke of Aveiro, and to 
have been destroyed during the earthquake in Lisbon in 1755. Atleast, these first four 
books have only been preserved in the Spanish translation which was made by Garcia 
Ordofies de Montalvo, about 1460, and was first printed between 1492 and 1505. The 
same Montalvo added to it the fifth book, Las Sergas [ergas, i.e., actions or deeds] dé 
Esplandian, Hijo de Amadis de Gdula. THe began this book in 1485, but did not com- 
plete it till 1492. The books from the 6th to the 14th contain the exploits and adven- 
tures of Florisando, by Paez de Ribera; of Lizuarte of Greece, and of Perion of Gaul, 
by Juan Diaz; of A. of Greece, of Florisel of Nicea, and of Anaxarte, by Feliciane 
de Silva; of Rogel of Greece, and of Silves de la Selva, by the same; of Lepolemo. 
and of Leandro the fair, by Pedro de Lujan; and lastly, of Penelva, by an anonymous 
Portuguese. The French translators and continuators, beginning with Nicolas de 
Herberay, Sieur des Essarts, who published the first eight books between 1540-48, have 
increased this series of romance to 24 books. Gilbert Saunier, Sieur de Duverdier, has 
written a conclusion, in seven large volumes, to all the adventures begun in the whole 
series of legends, which he has called Le Roman des Romans. 

How popular and widely circulated these romances were in their day, may be proved 
by the many editions of single legends, by the translations of most of them into Italian, 
English, German, and even into Dutch, and also by the numerous chivalric romances 
written in imitation of them. As, nevertheless, a change came over the public taste, 
they almost all fell into oblivion, and indeed justly so, because of their want of intrinsic 
merit. They were transferred from the temple of the muses to the literary lumber- 
room, where now at best they only serve to feast the eyes of bibliomaniacs. <A. of 


337 qeiticen, 


Gaul has been deservedly excepted from this fate, and has not only found readers in 
the present day, but has been in modern times translated, revised, and imitated. — The 
Portuguese Gil-Vicente, and the Spaniard Andrés Rei de Artieda, extracted from it the 
materials for two Spanish comedies. De Lubert and count Tressan revived this romance 
in tasteful extracts; and as Bernardo Tasso formerly did in his Amadigi, so now Creuzé 
de Lesser and William Stewart Rose have extracted from it the materials for epic poems: 
A. de Gaule, Poéeme faisant suite aux Chevahers dela Table ronde (Paris, 1813), and A. of 
Gaul, a poem in three books (London, 1803.) On the other hand, Wieland’s Neuer A. 
has nothing in common with the more ancient Amadises, except the title. See Baret, 
De ? Amadis de Gaule (Par., 1873.) 


AMADOR’, a co. in California, drained by the branches of the San Joaquin ; area, 
568 sq.m.; pop. 90, 10,820. Gold, copper, and marble abound ; grain, wool, and wine 
are the chief products. Co. seat, Jackson. 


AMADOU, a name given to polyporus ignarius and P. fomentarius, fungi of the tribe 
or division hymenomycetes, and formerly included in the genus doletus. They grow upon 
old trees in Britain, and on the continent of Europe. The pileus is completely blended 
with the hymenium, which is pierced with thin-sided, rather angular, tubular, vertical 
passages—the whole fungus thus appearing as a leathery or fleshy mass; the under side 
of which is pierced by deep pores. P. igniarius is called hard A., or touchwood. P. 
JSomentarius is called soft A., or German tinder. They are used as styptics for stanching 
slight wounds; and when steel and flint were in general use for striking fire, were much 
employed as tinder, being prepared for this purpose by boiling in solution of niter. The 
soft A. is used for making small surgical pads, for which its elasticity peculiarly fits it. 
P. fomentarius, or a very similar species, is found in India, and used there as in Europe. 
It is also employed by the Laplanders and others for moxa (q.v.). It is sometimes made 
into razor-strops, and this use is likewise made of P. betulonus.—P. officinalis, the agaricon 
of Dioscorides, which grows upon larch-trees in the s. of Europe, is a drastic purgative, 
now rarely employed. P. suaveolens, which grows upon the stems of willows, and is 
easily recognized by it anise-like smell, was formerly employed in medicine, in cases of 
consumption, under the name of fungus salicis. All these species are very similar in 
appearance. Another species of the same genus, P. destructor, is one of the fungi known 
by the name of Dry Rot (q.v.).—The remarkably light wood of hernandia guianensis, a 
shrub of the natural order thymelwacee (q.v.), is readily kindled by flint and steel, and is 
used in Guiana as amadou. See illus., Mossms, ETc., vol. X. 

AMAIN, a peculiar phrase applied by sailors to signify at once or suddenly. 


AMAL’ARIC, 501-531 ; the last Visigoth king of Spain, He married Clotilda, daughter 
of Clovis, king of the Franks, in 527, and treated her so badly because she would not 
embrace Arianism that her brother Childebert came against him, and defeated him, A. 
being killed while in flight. 


AMAL'EKITES, one of the most fierce and warlike of the Canaanitish nations. They 
dwelt ‘‘in the land of the south” (Numbers, xiii. 29), that is, in the land s. of Palestine, 
or between Idumea and Egypt. From the very first, they manifested an uncompromis- 
ing hostility to the Israelites, whose rear-guard they smote after the passage through the 
Red sea. In consequence of this, they received no mercy at the hands of the Israelites, 
when the latter had established themselves in Palestine. Saul (1 Samuel, xv. 2) nearly 
annihilated them. Twenty years later, David, while dwelling amongst the Philistines, 
penetrated into their land, and made dreadful slaughter of them. After this, they madea 
last desperate reprisal, but were overtaken by David in the midst of their drinking and 
dancing; and ‘‘ from twilight, even unto the evening of the next day,” he smote them, 
‘and there escaped not a man of them, save 400 young men who 1ode upon camels and 
fled.” The descendants of these were finally extirpated in the days of Hezekiah, king of 
Judah, by the Simeonites. 


AMAL 'FI, a seaport on the gulf of Salerno, on the e. coast of southern Italy, contains 
about 7000 inhabitants; has a very ancient cathedral, and is the seat of a bishop. It 
is said to have been founded under Constantine the great, and was long a powerful and 
independent state, having at one time a pop. of 50,000; and about the close of the llth c., 
fell under the power of the Normans. The maritime laws of A. (tabula amalphitana) once 
prevailed throughout Italy. The unique manuscript of the pandects (q.v.) was discovered 
at A.; and Flavio Gioja, the inventor of the compass, and Masaniello, were born there. 


AMAL'GAM is the term applied to that class of alloys (q.v.)in which one of the com- 
bining metals is mercury. On the nature of the union, it has been observed that ‘‘on 
adding successive small quantities of silver to mercury, a great variety of fluid amalgams 
are apparently produced; but in reality, the chief, if not the sole compound, is a solid A., 
which is merely diffused throughout the fluid mass.” The fluidity of an A. would thus 
seem to depend on there being an excess of mercury above what is necessary to form a 
definite compound. Mercury unites readily with gold and silver at the usual tempera- 
ture. It has no disposition to unite with ironeven when hot. A solid A. of tin is used 
to silver Jooking-glasses. 

Amalgamation is employed on a small scale in some processes of gilding, the silver 


Aimalgamation,. 338 
Amarapura. 


or other metal being overlaid with a film of gold A., and the mercury being then driven 
off by heat. But its most extensive use is in separating gold, and especially silver, from 
certain of their ores. The mercury dissolves the particles of the metal, and leaves the 
earthy particles; it is then easily separated from the gold or silver. This process, dis- 
covered in Mexico in 1557 by Bartolomé de Medina, is very extensively used in Mexico 
at the present time, and has lately been introduced with great success into the Californian 
and Australian gold-fields. The mode of application is to crush the quartz rock which 
serves as the matrix in which the small particles of gold are imbedded; place the frag- 
ments in a barrel or revolving drum with mercury, and agitate for some time. The 
mercury attaches all the gold particles to itself; and in the apparatus, when fully agitated, 
there is found a semi-fluid mass, which is the mercury, appearing half congealed, and 
containing all the gold. It is only necessary to place this A. in a retort and apply heat, 
when the mercury sublimes over—and can be re-employed for further amalgdmation— 
and leaves the gold in the body of the retort.. This process is the only known method 
of separating the finer particles of gold from a mass of rock, and is always used by the 
gold-crushing companies. 

Several amalgams may be regarded as definite chemical compounds. Thus, when 
gold-leaf is placed in mercury, and the A. so produced filtered by being squeczed ina 
chamois-leather bag, the uncombined mercury oozes through the skin, but a definite A. 
of 2 of gold and 1 of mercury remains behind in the leather filter. Tin A. is employed 
in silvering looking-glasses, and is formed by laying a sheet of tin-foil on a table, cover- 
ing it with mercury, and then placing, by a sliding movement, the sheet of glass over it. 
This A. contains 8 of mercury and one of tin; glass balls are silvered with an A. of 10 
mercury, 1 tin, 1 lead, and 2 bismuth. A silver A. highly crystalline—and from the 
clusters of crystals somewhat resembling a tree, called arbor Diane, or tree of Diana—is 
prepared from 3 parts of the strongest solution of nitrate of silver, 2 parts of solution of 
proto-nitrate of mercury added to an A. of 7 mercury and 1 silver. Ina day or two, the 
arborescent appearance presents itself, and the crystals contain 65 per cent mercury and 
30 silver. The A. used for frictional electric machines is made from 1 tin, 1 zinc, and 3 
mercury, to which sand is afterwards added. 

AMALGAMATION, See GALVANIC BATTERY. 

AMA‘LIE, Anna, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, an amiable lady, and generous patron of 
literature, was b. in 1739, and, during the latter part af the 18th c., was the center of the 
court of Weimar, Left’a widow in the second year of her marriage (1758), her judicious 
rule, as guardian of her infant son, enabled the country to recover from the effects of the 
seven years’ war; while her efforts were no less effectual in promoting the education of 
the people. She appointed Wieland tutor to her son, afterwards duke, and attracted to 
Weimar such men as Herder, Goethe, Knebel, Bottiger, Muszus, Schiller; forming a gal- 
axy of genius such as no single court, perhaps, was ever graced with. How much the fine 
jualities of head and heart possessed by the duchess herself contributed to this success, 
was shown by the fact that when she resigned the government into the hands of her son 
in 1775, she continued to be surrounded by the same society. She has the high distinc- 
tion of having honored and encouraged the greatest writers that Germany has produced. 
The battle of Jena is said to have broken her heart; she d. (1807) six months after that 
event. 

AMA'LIE, Marts, the wife of Louis Philippe, king of the French, was the daughter 
of King Ferdinand I. (IV.) of the Two Sicilies. and was b. April 26, 1782. When she 
married Louis Philippe (then duke of Orleans), he was a political exile, without a hope 
of ever rising to the throne of France. It was a marriage of personal choice on both 
sides, and was consequently happy. After Louis Philippe’s elevation to the throne, the 
queen avoided inteference in political affairs, and devoted her attention to plans of benef- 
icence. In her domestic relations, her conduct was highly exemplary, and won the 
esteem of all parties; indeed, the only charge ever preferred against her, was her sup- 
posed excess of piety. She shared the fortune of her exiled husband, and was very 
respectfully received in England. Louis Philippe, shortly before his death (at Claremont, 
1850), gave expression to the love and esteem with which he regarded his faithful wife. 
She d. at Claremont in 1866. 


AMA'LIE, MArrE FRIEDERIEED, b. Dec. 21, 1818 ; queen of Greece ; daughter of grand 
duke Paul and ‘half-sister of grand duke Nicholas, of Oldenburg. She married King 
Otho of Greece, Nov. 22, 1836, and was much beloved for firmness, benevolence, and 
many other virtues. During the foreign occupation of Athens, *in 1856, she acied as 
regent. In 1861 a Greek student shot at but failed to kill her. After her husband’s 
deposition in 1862 she accompanied him to Bavaria, residing after his death at Bamberg. 
She died in 1875. 


AMA'LIE, Marre FREDERIKE AvcusTE, 1794-1870 ; a German duchess and drama- 
tist, eldest sister of King John of Saxony. Many of her dramas have been adapted to 
the French and English stage. She also wrote operas and sacred music. 


AMAL'RIC, ALMAURIC, or AMAURI OF Bena, founder of a school of Pantheists 
mee by his name, He lectured in Paris about 1200 or 1204. His doctrines were con- 
emned by the university ; the Pope confirmed the condemnation, and ordered A, to 


a Amal tion, 
a 39 ‘Aimaye penne 


return to Paris and recant, which he did in 1207. He died two years later, and in the 
same year two of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris; his own body was 
also dug up, burned, and the ashes thrown to the winds. His doctrines were formally 
condemned by the fourth Lateran council in 1215. 


AM’ALS, or AMALTI, a royal family of the Goths, furnishing all their sovereigns until 
the separation into Ostro and Visigoths, after which the Ostro kings were A. until the 
end of the male line in Theodoric the Great. The name A. is thought to have meant 
** spotless.” 


AMALTH#’A, the nurse of the infant Jupiter, supposed to have been a goat; with 
her two young, metamorphosed into stars. It is said that Jupiter broke off one of her 
horns whieh he endowed with power to fill with whatever the holder wished, and this 
was the ‘‘ cornucopia,” or horn of plenty. ; 


AMANDE DE TERRE. See Cyperus. 


AMANITA, a genus of fungi, nearly allied to agaricus, but bursting from a volvoa, A. 
muscaria, Which is pretty common in woods, especially of fir and beech, in Britain, is one 
of the most dangerous fungi. It is sometimes called Fty Agaric, being used in Sweden 
and other countries to kil! flies and bugs, for which purpose it is steeped in milk. The 
pileus or cap is of an orange-red color, with white warts, the gills white, and the stem 
bulbous. It grows to a considerable size. Notwithstanding its very poisonous nature, 
it is used by the Kamtchatkadales to produce intoxication, and it imparts an intoxicat- 
ing property to the urine of those who swallow it, of which they or others often avail 
themselves, when abundance of the fungus is not at hand. 


AM'ARANTE (anc. Ante Moranam), a t. of Portugal, in the province of Minho, on the 
Tamega, a branch of the Douro, 82 m. n.e. from Oporto. The Tamega is crossed by a 
handsome stone bridge. The t.is well built, but dull and decayed. A church, erected in 
the 16th c., is an interesting specimen of the flamboyant style. A.was the scene of a 
fierce conflict between the French and the Portuguese in 1809, when the bridge was 
ounbnte by the Portuguese for several days, and the French committed great barbarities, 

op. 2500. 


AM’ARANTH, Amaranthus, a genus of plants of the natural order awmaranthacee, 
This order contains nearly 300 known species, natives of tropical and temperate coun- 
tries, but chiefly abounding within the tropics. They are herbs or shrubs, with simple 
exstipulate leaves, and flowers in heads or spikes; the perianth usually colored, 3 to 5 
partite, hypogynous, scarious, persistent, generally surrounded with small bractez; the 
stamens hypogynous, either 5, and opposite the segments of the perianth, or some mul- 
tiple of 5, distinct or united into a tube, sometimes partly abortive; the anthers either 
2-celled or 1-celled; the ovary single, superior, 1-celled, with 1 or few ovules, which hang 
from a free central cord; style single or absent; stigma simple or compound; fruit, a 
small membranous bag or utricle, or a caryopsis (q.v.), rarely baccate; seeds lense-shaped, 
externally crustaceous, embryo curved round the circumference; albumen farinaceous.— 
The genus amaranthus has mostly moneecious flowers (although the order is generally 
hermaphrodite), with two or three stigmas, and a 1-celled, 1-seeded utricle, bursting all 
round transversely. Some of the species are naturally of singular form, and others 
assume singular but monstrous forms through cultivation. A. caudatus (love-lies-bleed- 
ing), A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus (prince’s feather), and other species, are common 
annuals in our flower-gardens. The spikes of A. cawdatus are sometimes several feet in 
length. The dry red bracts which surround the flower retain their freshness for a long 
time after being gathered: for which reason the plant has been employed by poets as an 
emblem of immortality.—The globe A. (gomphrena globosa) and the cockscomb (q.Vv.), 
well-known tender annuals, belong to the same natural order. The globe A. is much 
cultivated in Portugal and other Roman Catholic countries for adorning churches in 
winter. Its flowers, which are of a shining purple, retain their beauty and freshness for 
several years. No species of the order can be regarded as a true native of Britain, 
although amaranthus blitum is now found in waste places near London and elsewhere, 
A, blitum, A. oleraceous (chusan han-tsi), and other species, are used as pot-herbs; but 
rarely in Britain. Wholesome mucilaginous qualities are very generally found in the 
leaves throughout the order. The seeds of amaranthus frumentaceus (called kiery) and 
of A. anardhana are gathered as corn-crops in India.—Medicinal properties are ascribed 
to some species of the order, particularly to gomphrena officinalis and macrocephala, 
phigh have a high and probably exaggerated reputation in Brazil as cures for many 

iseases. 


AM'ARAPU’RA, or UMMERAPOORA, now a city of the past, was, before 1853, the 
capital of Burmah, and was situated on the left bank of the Irrawaddy, 9 m. n.e. from 
Ava, in lat. 21° 57’, long. 96° 7’. It was founded in 1783, and made the capital of the 
empire. In 1810, it was totally destroyed by fire, and in 1889 almost totally by an earth- 
quake. In 1852-53, by order of the king, A. was finally deserted, and the capital of the 
country fixed at Mandalay. Nothing remains of the old city but some rows of beautiful 
trees and a few ruined pagodas. In a temple between A. and Mandalay is a famous 
colossal bronze image of Gautama (Buddha). Its population, which in 1810 was estimated 
at 170,000, declined to less than 5,000 after Mandalay became the capital. 


Amara, 340 


Amaurosis. 


AM'ARA-SIN'HA, a celebrated Hindoo grammarian of great antiquity, who wrote a 
variety of works, only one of which has come down to us, the Amara-Kosha, or thesau- 
rus of Amara; sometimes called the 77rtkanda—i.e., the tripartite. Regarding the 
author’s life, little is known, nor is the precise period during which he flourished 
definitely ascertained. He is generally supposed to have been one of the ‘‘nine gems” 
who adorned the throne of king Vikramaditya I. (56 B.c.). But Mr. Bentley (Asiatic 
Researches) places him as late as the 11th c. A.D., while Mr. Colebrooke assigns the close 
of the 5th as the most probable. He is known to have been a Buddhist; and it is uni- 
versally believed that his writings perished during the fierce persecution to which that 
sect was subjected by the orthodox Brahmins, in the 8d, 4th, and 5th centuries. This 
tradition harmonizes with the earliest of the three ages in which he is said to have lived. 

The Amara-Kosha is a Sanscrit vocabulary, divided into 3 books and 18 chapters, and 
containing in all about 10,000 words. The words are classed according to the nature of 
the things signified by them. Almost all the grammarians of Hindostan imitate, trans- 
late, or comment upon the work of A. 

An excellent edition of the Amara-Kosha, with notes in English and an index, was 
published by Colebrooke, 1808 (reprinted 1829); the Sanscrit text at Calcutta in 1813; 
and in 1839, a French translation. 


AMA'RI, MIcHELE, an Italian historian and orientalist, was b. at Palermo, July 7, 
1806. At the age of 16, he entered a government office; and shortly after—his father 
being condemned to 30 years’ imprisonment for a political crime—the duty of supporting 
his mother and the other members of the family devolved upon him. His straitened 
circumstances soured him; and he even meditated becoming a bandit, but was roused 
from his morbid wretchedness by falling passionately in love with an English lady. 
Although he did not win her hand, he secured a knowledge of the English language, the 
first result of which was a translation of Sir Walter Scott’s Marmion, published at 
Palermo in 1832. <A. soon became a political ‘‘ suspect ;” and although he had conducted 
himself during the tumult of 1837 with exemplary moderation, he was summarily trans- 
ferred to a situation in Naples, where he remained four years, and where he pursued 
with the utmost diligence his historical investigations. In 1842 appeared his La Guerra 
del Vespro Siciliano (The War of the Sicilian Vespers), which has been often republished, 
and remains the master-piece of its author. Its great merit arises from its having 
successfully combated the common notion that the terrible massacre so named was the 
result of a deep and ramified conspiracy on the part of the nobles. A. proves from a 
letter of Charles of Anjou himself, as well as from numerous other sources, that it was 
a popular or national outbreak, occasioned by the tyranny of the foreign rulers, that 
really brought about the deliverance of Sicily. The book was quickly prohibited, and, 
as a consequence, widely read. It was translated into German by Dr. Schroéder of 
Hildesheim, and into English by lord Ellesmere. A. was now ordered to Naples, but 
fled to France, where he gave himself up to the study of Arabic and modern Greek, and 
to the preparation of his History of the Mussulmans in Sicily. At the revolution cf 1848, 
he returned to Palermo, where he had been appointed professor of public law, but shortly 
after his arrival was elected vice-president of the committee of war. He was next sent 
on a diplomatic mission by the provisional government to France and England. In 1849, 
he published at Paris La Sicile et les Bourbons, to show up the pretensions of the Neapol- 
itan sovereign. After the Sicilian insurrection had been quelled, A. took up his residence 
in Paris, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits till 1860, when he returned to 
Italy. He was made senator next year, and in 1863-4 was minister of instruction. 
Other writings of A. are upon the language and history of the Arabs, in the Revue Arché- 
ologique, the Journal Asiatique, etc. Hed. July 16, 1889, at Florence. 


AMARYLLIDEZ, or AMARYLLIDA'CE, a natural order of monocotyledonous plants, 
including many species distinguished by the beauty of their flowers. They are herba- 
ceous plants, or when, as in the genera agave and fowreroya, they form woody stems, 
they have still the character of gigantic herbaceous plants rather than of shrubs. The 
greater part are bulbous-rooted. The leaves are sword-shaped, with parallel veins; the 
flowers have spathaceous bracts. The perianth is regular, 6-cleft, sometimes with a 
corona, The stamens are 6, arising from the perianth, sometimes cohering by their 
dilated bases, the anthers bursting inwardly. The ovary is inferior, 3-celled, with 1, 2, 
or many anatropal ovules; the style is single; the stigma, 3-lobed. The fruit is a 3-celled, 
3-valved capsule, or a 1 to 8 seeded berry. The seed is albuminous, with the embryo 
nearly straight.—There are about 400 known species of this order, natives of tropical, or 
sub-tropical, and, more sparingly, of temperate regions—particularly abundant at the cape 
of Good Hope. A few species only are European. Many of them are much-prized 
ornaments of our gardens and hot-houses. Amongst these are different species of 
NARCIssus(q.V.), AMARYLLIS(q. v.), CRINUM, (q.v.), ALSTRGEMERIA (q.v.), NERINE, CoBUR- 
GIA, BrRuNsvier1a, PANCRATIUM, Fourcroya, etc. To this order belong the SNowpRoP 
(q.v.) and SNOWFLAKE (q.v.), and it includes also the AMERICAN ALOE (agave, q.V.). 


AMARYL'LIS, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants of the natural order amaryllidee (q.v.), 
having a simple 6-partite perianth, and containing a large number of species, natives of 
the warmer regions of the globe. Many of them have flowers of very great beauty. A 
species of this genus, A. formosissima, was brought to Europe from South America in the 


A 
841 Asana cantn 


end of the 17th c., and has since been in common cultivation asa garden-flower. Its flowers 
are of a beautiful red color, exhibiting a play of golden gleams in the sunshine. They 
are scentless. A. amadilis, A. Josephine, and A. vittata are amongst the most admired 
bulbous-rooted plants. A. Sarnzensis is one of the most hardy species, flowering freely 
in Guernsey, with a little protection during winter, and commonly called Guernsey lily, 
although it is supposed to be a native of Japan. By artificial impregnation, a great 
number of hybrid forms have been produced in this genus. 


AMA'SIA, AMASIEH, or AMASIAYAH (anc. Amasia), a t. of Asia Minor, the principal 
t. of the vilayet of Sivas, on the right bank of the Yeshil-Irmak, about 80 m. from the 
mouth of the river, and 200 m. s.w. from Trebizond. It stands in a deep and narrow 
valley, and the river flows through a narrow channel, between precipitous rocky banks. 
The streets are narrow and crooked; the houses mostly of wood, although some are of 
stone, all covered with tiles. The river is crossed by three stone bridges, and one wooden 
bridge. One of the stone bridges is supposed to be Roman. The ancient town, the birth- 
place of Strabo, occupied both banks of the river, and the remains of the acropolis 
crown a lofty rock on the side of the river opposite to the present town. ‘There are 
numerous other interesting remains of antiquity, particularly the tombs of the kings of 
Pontus, whose capital A. was, excavated in the face of a steep rock, and some Saracenic 
buildings. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to 25,000. 

AMA'SIS, first Pharaoh of the 18th Egyptian dynasty. He reigned 1525-1499 B. c. 
He led the insurrection against the shepnerd kings, captured their stronghold of Avaris, 
and drove them into Palestine. He there began a long series of Egypto-Asiatic wars 
which carried the arms of his successors beyond the Euphrates. 


AMA'SIS, a king of Egypt. Of humble origin; he rose to be general under Apries, the 
last king of the line of Psammetichus. Being sent to put down an insurrection, he 
joined the rebels, and was proclaimed king (569 B.c.). He cultivated the friendship of 
the Greeks, opened up to them the commerce of Egypt, previously confined to Naucratis, 
married a Greek wife, and took a body-guard of Greeks into pay. Pythagoras and Solon 
are said to have visited him. For his alliance with Polycrates, and the singular reason 
for which Herodotus makes him break it off, see Potycratres. During his reign of 44 
years, he greatly promoted the prosperity and adornment of Egypt. Immediately after 
his death, the country was conquered by Cambyses of Persia. 


AMAT’ DI SAN FILIPPO & SORZO, Luter, 1796-1878; cardinal bishop of Ostia 
and Velletri, dean of the sacred college, and vice-chancellor of the Roman Catholic 
church. He was educated in the ecclesiastical academy of noblemen, and at the age of 
23 was appointed prelate. April 29, 1827, he was made archbishop of Nicea in partibus, 
and sent as nuncio to Naples; afterwards as nuncio to Spain. In 1837, he was made 
cardinal, and the next year sent as legate to Ravenna, where he became the intimate 
friend of cardinal Mastai-Feretti (subsequently Pius IX.). Pius intrusted A. with the 
Bologna legation, but he was sent away by the revolution, joining Pius at Gaeta, and in 
1852 received the two most lucrative positions in the papal court, vice-chancellor, and 
archivist of the apostolic letters, retaining both until his death, and from time to time 
acquiring other offices. 


AMATEUR (Lat., amo, I love), a person who devotes himself to any art, study, or 
‘Science, from taste or attachment, without pursuing it professionally. 


AMA'TI, a family of celebrated Italian viclin-makers, who livedin Cremona. Andrea, 
the eldest, born about 1520, was descended from an ancient Cremona family, dating 
as far as the 11th century. He wasthe founder of the Cremona school of violin-makers. 
His early instruments are so Brescian in character that he is supposed to have been a 
pupil of Gaspard di Salo. Few of his violins are extant. His model was small, 
with high back and belly, amber varnish, and clear, though weak, tone. Nécolo, his 
younger brother, made basses in preference to violins, and was his inferior. Andrea’s 
sons, Antonio and Geronimo, worked together much aiter their father’s style. Geronimo 
also made instruments alone of larger pattern, and changed the shape of tie pointed 
sound-hole. Geronimo’s son, JVicolo, born Sept. 3, 1596, died Aug. 12, 1684, was the 
most eminent of the family, his instruments being second only to those of his great 
pupil Antonio Stradiuarius (q.v.). Nicolo Amati’s model is of extreme elegance. The 
corners are sharply pointed, the backs and bellies of beautiful grained wood, the sound- 
holes graceful and bold, the scroll of exquisite cut, and the varnish transparent and of a 
deep, rich hue. As a rule, he worked after a small pattern, but he produced some 
large violins, which are now called ‘‘ grand Amatis,” and are highly valued. He also 
‘made a number of beautiful tenors and violoncellos. His label reads: ‘‘ Nicolaus 
Amati Cremonens Hieronimi filii Antonii nepos fecit anno 16—.” The Jacobs of Am- 
sterdam and Grancino of Milan were among his most successful imitators. With 
Geronimo, his son, the family of Amati ends. He followed their trade, but made indif- 
ferent instruments. See VroLin. 


AMAURO'SIS (Gr. amauwros, obscure) is a blindness or obscurity of vision caused by 
disease of the optic nerve, and this cause may be situated either at the origin of the 
nerve in the brain, in some part of its course, or at its termination in the retina; and 
of course the degree of blindness will be in proportion to the extent these parts 
are involved by the disease, See Eyre, A, may also depend upon causes remote 


Amaury. 342 


Amazon. 


from the organ of vision; the suppression of accustomed discharges from the body may 
lead to congestion of the vessels of the brain, and cause A.; and it may spring from 
many very slight causes, if a predisposition to the disease exists. This 1s occasionally 
hereditary. Beer mentions several cases in one family; for three successive generations, 
all the females who had not borne children became blind in middle age; the males 
showed a tendency to the disease, but did not become blind. A common cause is ex- 
posure to bright light or great heat and light, either natural or artificial, occupation 
upon minute objects, and employment of the eyes during the hours which ought to be 
devoted to sleep. In many instances, a single imprudent exposure of the eyes to the 
operation of some such cause, has been suilicient to extinguish the sensibility of the 
retina; but, in general, it is from long-continued over-excitement of the organs of 
vision that they begin to fail, and at last become totally unable to continue their office. 
The heat of the sun, rage, continued stooping, and fevers or other causes, causing con- 
gestion, inflammation, or serous effusion in the head, cause A. Some poisonous 
substances cause A. suddenly, as belladonna, stramonium, and other narcotics given in 
large doses ; and others, applied to the body every day in small quantities, have the 
same effect, but more slowly. Tobacco may be justly signalized as a poison of this 
sort, as also mercury and lead. 

Exhaustion of the body and depressing mental affections also are causes of A. But 
we can seldom attribute its occurrence to the influence of any single remote cause, 
but to a number of circumstances which have been acting for a length of time upon one 
individual, either consecutively or together. the 

We recognize the presence of A. by the history of the case and the appearance of the 
eyes. The latter have generally a vacant, unmeaning stare, dilated pupils, and do not 
converge towards an object, but appear to be looking steadfastly at something in the 
distance. The sclerotic or white of the eye is generally altered in color, and crossed by 
enlarged blood-vessels. The history of the case varies with the patient. Among the 
first symptoms are difficulty in calculating distances, as in threading a needle or pouring 
fluid into a glass; and sometimes there is occasional loss of sight in one eye (amaurosis 
taga), confusion of vision—sometimes a part of the field of vision will be clear, and 
part obscured. There are also present spectra or musce volitantes, which sometimes are 
permanent, arising from the existence of insensible patches on the retina. Floating 
specks are merely coincident with the disease. 

A. is treated by depletion in the robust, alteratives and tonics in the feeble, and by 
those remedies which act upon the nervous system, and counter-irritation by blisters or 
issues behind the ears, or in the neighborhood. Except in very recent cases, the pros 
pect of recovery is slight. 


AMAURY, the title of two kings of Jerusalem. A. I. was born in 1135 and reigned 
from 1163 to 1173. He was the brother of Baldwin III. In 1168 he invaded Egypt, but 
was driven out by Saladin, who carried the war into A.’s country in 1170. A. II. (of 
Lusignan) was king of Cyprus 1194, and titular king of Jerusalem in 1198, but never made 
good his claim to the latter kingdom. He died at Ptolemais in 1205. 


AMAXI'CHI, the capital of the Ionian island of Santa Maura or Leucadia, is built on 
the edge of the shallow lagoons that separate the n.e. part of the island from the main- 
land. The harbor constructed by the Anglo-Ionian government is protected by a mole, 
at the end of which is a light-house. It is fitted only for small-craft. A. derives its 
name from the Greek amazai, ‘‘ cars,” which the Venetian garrison employed in bring- 
ing down the oil and wine from the inland districts to the point nearest the fort of 
Santa Maura, where, subsequently, houses began to be erected. The town has a very 
mean appearance; the buildings are partly of wood, on account of the frequent earth- 
quakes. Slight shocks occur about once a month. Pop. 7000. 


AMAZI’AH, ninth king of Judah, son and successor of Joash. He reigned 29 years, 
837-808 B.c. In general his reign was good; the principal event was an attempt to 
reimpose upon the Edomites the yoke of Judah which they had thrown off in Jeho- 
ram’s days, and for this purpose A. hired an auxiliary force from Israel of 100,000 men 
for as many talents of silver—the first mention of a hired or mercenary army among the 
Jews; but a prophet told him to send back the hired soldiers, which he did, not only 
losing their services and his money, but exasperating the Israelites, who took the act as 
an insult, and plundered the towns and people of Judah on their homeward march. 
But A. was victorious over the Edomites, taking the city of Petra, and slaying 20,000 
men. It was, however, a fatal victory; for A., finding some idols of Edom among 
his plunder, worshiped them; and, elated with his success, undertook to subdue the 
ten tribes of Israel, but was defeated by their king Joash, and carried a prisoner to his 
own capital, Jerusalem. Joash satisfied himself by breaking down much of the walls 
of Jerusalem and plundering the city and temple, leaving A. on the throne after taking 
hostages for his good conduct. A. died fifteen years later at the hands of conspirators. 


AM’AZON, Maranon, or ORELLANA, a river which, after traversing nearly the 
entire breadth of South America, enters the Atlantic, through Brazilian territory, by a 
mouth of about 150 m. in width—a mouth which, though it admits the tide for nearly 
500 m., is yet so far from meeting our ordinary notion of an estuary that it repels, or at 


343 Amazon! 


least overlays, the ocean to a distance of more than 50 leagues. With its various tribu 

taries—the Napo, the Putumayo, the Yapura, and the Rio Negro from the n., and the 
Ucayale, Tocantins, Tefé, Huallaga, Yavari, Yutay, Yurua, Coary, Purus, Madeira, 
Tapajos, and the Xingo from the s.—the A. drains 2,500,000 sq.m., an area equal to 
two thirds of Europe, and is estimated to afford an inland navigation of 50,000 m., a 
line double the circumference of the globe. In every respect, then, the A. may well 
claim to be the largest of rivers, excepting only that, in volume of contents as distin- 
guished from volume of discharge, the St. Lawrence, with its computed mass of 11,000 
cubic m., has been estimated to be equal to all the other bodies of fresh water on the 
earth’s surface, from the A. downwards. With this exception, which—as the St. 
Lawrence is really a series of lakes—is rather apparent than real, the Amazon stands 
forth as the king of rivers, whether trunk be compared with trunk, or branches with 
branches, alike in essential features and in the area of basin. Viewed as one grand 
system, the A., from its sources, from which the Pacific may be seen within a distance 
of 60 m., to its embouchure, comprises a course of about 3000 m.; while, gathering its 
tribute from both sides of the equator along more than 20° of lat., it presents,. 
perhaps, between s. and n., a longer line of natural communication than even between 
w. ande. Reckoning from the western range of the Andes, the A. is but little better 
than a mountain-torrent, till it has burst through the gorges of the eastern range of the 
chain, where it is overhung by peaks that tower thousands of feet above its bed. But, 
within 300 m. from the Pacific—a journey of about 20 days for loaded mules—the 
branch called the Huallaga is practicable for steamers, while, after a run of 825 m., the 
A. is navigable for vessels drawing 5 ft., growing deeper and deeper and more and 
more available as it rolls its steadily swelling flood towards the ocean. Nor is this the 
remotest point of clear navigation from the sea, for the Maranon itself is estimated by 
Herndon to carry the clear navigation about one fifth higher up, amounting in all to 
8369 miles. What an idea do these single threads afford of this matchless net-work of 
inland navigation! But it is not to its own basin alone, vast as that basin is, that the 
value of the A. is confined. The Rio Tapajos has its navigation separated only by a 
portage of 18 m. from that of an affluent of the Plata; the Rio Branco, the main 
tributary of the Rio Negro, has a water-communication which is only two hours distant 
from that of the Essequibo; while the Rio Negro itself is doubly connected with the 
Orinoco, receiving from it the navigable Cassiquiare (q.v.), and wanting only a canal 
over a portage of six hours to complete a still more useful bond of union, whose 
superior advantages will certainly one day lead to the necessary improvement. In addi- 
tion to all this, the outlet of this mighty river, besides washing Cayenne, is itself, under 
nature’s guidance, a feeder, as it were, of that highway of nations, the gulf stream. 

Thus does the A., to say nothing more of its maritime relations, bring its inland navi- 
gation, mediately or immediately, to bear, Chili alone excepted, on every country in 
South America—Venezuela, Ecuador, New Granada, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, the Guianas, 

and the several Argentine republics. This is not mere prospect; not only has the basin 
proper of the A. been more or less frequently traversed, but also the various joints that 

knit it to other basins have been tested by experience. The grandest and most singular 

of them all, besides being explored by Humboldt, has been placed beyond a doubt by 
the denizens of the country. The barge-builders of San Carlos, at the entrance of the 

Cassiquiare into the Rio Negro, have long sent vessels, not only down the Rio Negro to 
Para, on the lower A., but likewise up the Cassiquiare to Angostura, on the lower 

Orinoco; thus solving, in their own way, the problem which systematic geographers 
were elsewhere deriding as worse than a fable—as a sheer impossibility. It was not till 

1867 that the navigation of the A. was thrown open, but now regular lines of steamers 

ply between its mouth and Yurimaguas on the Huallaga. The most important exports 

sent down the A, are india-rubber, cocoa, cotton, nuts, copaiba, palm-fiber, hides, sarsa- 

parilla, farina, tonka beans, arnotto, and tobacco. Other productions of the countries 

watered by the A., countries well fitted to become the garden of the world, are coffee, 

sugar, maize, rice, indigo, grapes, bananas, cabinet-woods, building-timber, game, fish, 

and precious metals. Steam-boat navigation began on the A. in 1853. In that year, 

the Amazon navigation company, a Brazilian commercial association fostered by the 

government, sent its first steamer from Para, the maritime emporium of the A., to 
Nauta, in Peru. The Atlantic steamers pass from Para to the A. by a number of very 
narrow channels. The name A. is said to be from an Indian word meaning ‘ boat- 

destroyer ’’ (from the dangerous tidal wave at the river’s mouth). The explorer Maranon 

visited the river in 1503, and Orellana sailed on it in 1540. 

The wonderful discoveries made by the late Professor Agassiz (1865-66) in the fauna 
of the waters of the A. have proved what he himself calls “a true revelation for sci- 
ence.’? Their importance will be seen by contrast. The number of species of fish on the 
whole globe known to Linnzeus about a century ago was 300; in 1840, captain Wilkes 
collected only 600 species in a voyage round the world with three ships, in an expedi- 
tion lasting four years; but Agassiz saw in five months on the A. alone 1800 species of 
fish, nearly 1000 of them new, and about 20 new genera. The Vacca marina, the 
jargest fish inhabiting fresh waters, and the Acara, which carries its young in its mouth, 
especially when there is danger, are denizens of the Amazon.—See Brazil and the Bra: 


Amazonas. 844 


Amber, 


zilians, by Fletcher and Kidder (London and Boston, 1866); A Journey in Brazil, by 
Professor and Mrs. Agassiz (London, 1868); A Journey across South America, by Paul 
Marcoy ; Edwards’s T'he River A.; Brown’s Fifteen Thousand Miles on the Sieben: 
Smith’s Brazil, the Amazons, and the Coast (1880) ; Mrs. Marshall’s Between ine A. and the 
Andes (1882). 

AMAZO’NAS, a northern department of Peru; 14,129 sq. m.; pop. 34,245 white 
and about 60,000 wandering Indians. It is bisected by the Andes, and watered by the 
Marafion (Amazon) and branches, The soil is very fertile, producing wheat, corn, rice, 
sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, cinchona, and sarsaparilla in great 
profusion. In the forests are mahogany, cedar, and other valuable woods. Capital, 
Chachapoyas. 


AMAZO’NAS, or AtTo AMAZONAS, the northernmost province of Brazil; 732,460 
sq.m.}; pop. ’90, 147,915. The limits are not well defined, and the surface is little known, 
being mostly covered with original forests. The inhabitants are nearly all Indians, 
Capital, Manos. 


AM'AZONS, Amazo'Nes. According to a very ancient tradition, the A. were a 
nation of women, who suffered no men to remain among them, but marched to battle 
under the command of their queen, and formed for a long time a formidable state, 
They held occasional intercourse with the men of the neighboring states. If boys were 
born to them, they either sent them to their fathers, or killed them. But they brought 
up the girls for war, and burned off their right breasts, that they might not be prevented 
from bending the bow. From this custom they received the name of A.; that is, 
‘‘ breastless.” Such is the ordinary tale; the origin of which is perhaps to be accounted 
for by supposing that vague reports, exaggerated and poetically embellished, had 
reached the Greeks of the peculiar way in which the women of various Caucasian dis- 
tricts lived, performing military duties which elsewhere devolved on husbands, and 
also of the numerous examples of female heroism which, travelers inform us, still dis- 
tinguish the women of that region. In later times, however, the word Amazon has 
been supposed to have some connection with the Circassian word ‘‘ Maza,” signifying 
the moon, as if the myth of the A. had taken its origin in the worship of the moon, 
which prevailed on the borders of Asia. Three nations of A. have been mentioned by 
the ancients. 1. The Asiatic A., from whom the others branched off. These dwelt on 
the shores of the Black sea, and among the mountains of the Caucasus, especially 
in the neighborhood of the modern Trebizond, on the river Thermodon (now Termeh). 
They are said to have at one time subdued the whole of Asia, and to have built Smyrna, 
Ephesus, Cume, and other cities. Their queen, Hippolyte, or, according to others, 
Antiope, was killed by Hercules, as the ninth of the labors imposed on him by 
Eurystheus consisted in taking from her the shoulder-belt bestowed on her by Mars. On 
one of their expeditions the A. came to Attica, in the time of Theseus. They also 
marched under the command of their queen, Penthesilea, to assist Priam against the 
Greeks. They even appear upon the scene in the time of Alexander the great, when 
their queen, Thalestris, paid him a visit, in order to become a mother by the conqueror 
of Asia. 2. The Scythian A., who, in after-times, married among the neighboring 
Scythians, and withdrew further into Sarmatia. 3. The African A., who, under the 
command of their queen, Myrina, subdued the Gorgons and Atlantes, marched through 
Egypt and Arabia, and founded their capital on the lake Tritonis, but were then anni- 
hilated by Hercules. See Stricker, Die Amazonen in Sage und Geschichte (Berl. 1878). 

AMBALA, a city in India, capital of the district of A., 30° 24’ n., 76° 49’ e.; an im- 
portant station on the Scinde, Punjab, and Delhi railway. It is a large walled town in 
a level and well cultivated country. The pop. is 79,300, including the English military 
station near by. 


AMBAS'SADOR is a title by which the highest order of diplomatic ministers is dis- 
tinguished, and the person holding such a high commission may be defined to be an 
officer sent by one sovereign power to another to treat on affairs of state. In a less re- 
stricted sense, writers on public law employ the term to denote every kind of diplomatic 
minister or agent. The credentials, or letters of credence, of an A. are addressed 
directly by his own sovereign to the sovereign to whom he is sent, and with whom he 
has the privilege of personal communication. In the performance of all his diplomatic 
duties, an A. is understood to represent, not only the affairs, but the dignity and the 
power of his master; and by the law of nations he has many important rights and 
privileges, the chief of which is exemption from the control of the municipal laws of 
the nation wherein he is to exercise his functions, an exemption that is not confined to 
the A. himself, but is extended to ail his suite, including not only the persons employed 
by him in diplomatic services, but his wife, chaplain, and household generally. But 
there is a dispute among legal writers whether this exemption extends to all crimes, or 
whether it is limited to such offenses as are mala prohibita, as coining, and not to those 
that are mala in se, as murder. The law of England appears to have formerly aliowed 
the exemption in the restricted sense only; and in the year 1654, during tho protectorate 
of Cromwell, the Portuguese A. was tried, convicted, and cxecutcd, for an atrocious 
murder. But now, according to the general practice of this country, as well as that of 
the rest of Europe, it is considered that the security of an A. in conducting the inter- 


345 ey 


course of nations, is of more importance than the punishment of a particular crime, and 
therefore few examples have happened in modern times where an A. has been punished 
for any offense. In regard to civil suits, it was at one time held and laid down by Sir 
Edward Coke, that an A. to the English court was answerable for any contract which 
was good according to the law of nations. The full exemption of an A. from legal 
process in civil cases was first recognized by 7 Anne, c. 12, a statute whose history is 
thus related by Blackstone: ‘‘In the reign of Queen Anne, an A. from Peter the 
Great, Czar of Muscovy, wasactually arrested, and taken out of his coach in London, 
for a debt of £50, which he had there contracted. Instead of applying to be discharged 
upon his privilege, he gave bail to the action, and the next day complained to the 
queen. The persons who were concerned in the arrest were examined before the privy 
council (of which the lord chief-justice Holt was at the same time sworn a member), 
and seventeen were committed to prison, most of whom were prosecuted by information 
in the court of Queen’s Bench, at the suit of the attorney-general; and at their trial 
before the lord chief-justice, were convicted of the facts by the jury; reserving the 
question of law, how far those facts were criminal, to be afterwards argued before the 
judges, which question was never determined. In the mean time the czar resented this 
affront very highly, and demanded that the sheriff of Middlesex, and all others con- 
cerned in the arrest, should be punished with instant death. But the queen (to the 
amazement of that despotic court) directed her secretary to inform him, that she could 
inflict no punishment upon any of the meanest of her subjects, unless warranted by the law 
of the land; and therefore was persuaded that he would not insist wpon impossibilities. 
To satisfy, however, the clamors of the foreign ministers, who made it a common cause, 
as well as to appease the wrath of Peter, a bill was brought into parliament, and after- 
wards passed into a law (the 7th Anne, c. 12), to prevent and punish such outrageous in- 
solence for the future ; and with acopy of this act elegantly engrossed and illuminated, 
accompanied by a letter from the queen, an A. extraordinary was commissioned to 
appear at Moscow, who declared, that though her majesty could not inflict such a punish- 
ment as was required, because of the defect in that particular of the former established 
constitutions of her kingdom, yet, with the unanimous consent of the parliament, she had 
caused a new act to be passed, to serve as a law for the future.” ‘‘This humiliating step,” 
says Blackstone, ‘‘ was accepted as a full satisfaction by the czar; and the offenders, at 
his request, were discharged from all further prosecution.” 

But although an A. is not amenable to any tribunal of the country he resides in, he 
cannot misconduct himself with impunity. He must respect the laws and customs of 
‘the country in which he is officially resident; and if he violates or offends these laws 
and customs, he may be complained of to the court or government which he represents; 
or if the offense is of a very serious nature, his recall may be demanded, or the sovereign 
to whom he has given such offense may dismiss him peremptorily, and further require 
that he be brought to trial in his own country. It hardly need be added that if an A. is 
guilty of an offense which threatens the safety of the state, he ceases to enjoy the privi- 
leges of the exemption in question. 

There are some other and inferior privileges which are very generally allowed to 
ambassadors: they are, for instance, permitted the free exercise of their religion; they 
are, in general, exempted from direct taxation, they have special letter-bags, and they 
are usually allowed to import their goods without paying any custom-house duties—a 
privilege, however, which, being liable to abuse, has sometimes been limited. 

Ambassadors are of two kinds—first, those who reside regularly at the court to 
which they are accredited; and, secondly, those who are sent on special occasions, when 
they receive the designation of AMBASSADORS EXTRAORDINARY. The employment of 
permanent ambassadors originated in modern times. The English diplomatic corps 
includes only five ambassadors in the more restricted sense of the word, who are accredited 
to the courts of Vienna, Paris, St. Petersburg, Constantinople, and Berlin respectively. 
Inferior diplomatic agents receive the title of chargé d’affaires, minister plenipotentiary, 
or envoy (q.v.). The United States sent only ministers plenipotentiary to foreign coun- 
tries until 1893. See DrPLoMaAcy. ; 


AMBA'TO, or AsIENTO D’AMBATO, a t. of Ecuador, on the north-eastern slope of 
Chimborazo, 78 m. s. from Quito, 8859 ft. above the sea. It was destroyed in 1698 by 
an eruption of Cotopaxi, but was soon rebuilt, and became more flourishing than before. 
It carries on an active trade in grain, sugar, and cochineal, the products of the surround- 
ing country. Pop. 13,000. 


AM’BER, a substance analogous to the vegetable resins, and, in all probability, derived 
from an extinct coniferous tree, although now appearing, like coal, in connection with 
beds of which it is usually found, as a product of the mineral kingdom. It is usually 
of a pale-yellow color, sometimes reddish or brownish, is sometimes transparent, some- 
times almost opaque. It occurs in round irregular lumps, grains, or drops; has a 
perfectly conchoidal fracture, is slightly brittle, emits an agreeable odor when rubbed, 
melts at 550° F., and burns with a bright flame and pleasant smell. It becomes nega- 
tively electric by friction, and possesses this property in a high degree—which, indeed, 
was first observed in it, and the term electricity is derived from elektron, the Greek name 
of A. The specific gravity of A. is 1:0-1°1. It is ultimately composed of carbon 79, 
hydrogen 10°5 and oxygen 10°5. An acid called succinic acid (named from the Lat, 


Amber. 346 


Amboyna. 


ecinuy is obtained from it. A. had formerly a high reputation as a medicine, 
At toe aR ae to it were almost entirely imaginary. An antispasmodic volatile 
oil is obtained from it by distillation. A. 1s employed in the arts for the manufacture 
of many ornamental articles, and for the preparation of a kind of, varnish. Great 
quantities are consumed in Mohammedan worship at Mecca, and it is in great demand 
throughout the east. It was obtained by the ancients from the coasts of the Baltic sea, 
where it is still found, especially between Konigsberg and Memel, in greater abundance 
than anywhere else in the world. It is there partly cast up by the sea, partly obtained 
by means of nets, and partly dug out of a bed of bituminous wood. It is found else- 
where also in coal, and occasionally in diluvial deposits, as in the gravel near London; 
but it is very rare in Britain. It is obtained in small quantities from the coasts of Sicily 
and the Adriatic, and is found in different parts of Europe, in Siberia, Greenland, etc. 
It sometimes incloses insects of species which no longer exist. Leaves have also been 
found inclosed in it. Specimens which contain insects or leaves being much valued, 
fictitious ones are often manufactured and imposed upon collectors. According to an 
ancient fable, A. is the tears of the sisters of Phaéthon, who, after his death, were 
changed into poplars. The ancients set an immense value upon It. Pieces of A. have 
occasionally been found of 12 or 13 lbs. weight, but such pieces are extremely rare. 


AM'BER, a decayed city in the Rajpoot state of Jeypoor, India, 4 m. n. by e. from 
Jeypoor, in 26° 59’ n. lat., and 75° 58’ e. long. It is situated on the margin of a small 
lake, in a deep hollow among hills; and its temples, houses, and streets are scattered 
among numerous ravines opening on the lake. Comparatively few of its houses are now 
inhabited; but everywhere are to be seen ghastly Hindu ascetics, sitting amidst the 
tombs and ruined houses. 

AM'BERG, the old capital of the upper Palatinate in Bavaria, 35 m. e. of Ntrnberg, 
and 32 n. of Ratisbon. It is situated on both sides of the Vilz, and is well built. Pop. 
90, 19,126. The ancient walls are now transformed into shady avenues. A. is the seat 
of the court of appeal for the district, possesses a library of 34,000 volumes, a lyceum, 
an agricultural and industrial school, a house of correction, an arsenal, etc. The prin- 
cipal products are fire-arms, earthenware, woolen cloths, ironmongery, and beer. 


AM'BERGRIS (i.c., gray amber), a fatty substance, of an ash-gray color, with yellow 
or reddish strisz, like those of marble, which is found in lumps of from 4 oz. in 
weight to 100 lbs. and upwards, floating on the sea, or cast upon the sea-shore in different 
parts of the world, and is also taken by whale-fishers from the bowels of the spermaceti 
whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Much A. is obtained from the coasts of the Bahama 
islands; it is also brought from different parts of the E. Indies, and the coasts of Africa 
and Brazil. It is probable that all of it is produced by the spermaceti whale, and that 
it is a morbid secretion in the intestinal canal of that animal, derived from the bile. 
It is highly valued upon account of its agreeable smeli, and is much used in perfumery. 
The price is about 20s. an ounce. It has been strongly recommended for medicinal uses, 
but is scarcely employed in Europe; although, in some parts of Asia and Africa, it is 
much used as a medicine, and also in cookery as a condiment. The specific gravity of 
A.is scarcely more than 08. It almost always contains black spots, which appear to be 
caused by the presence of beaks of the Sepia octopodia, the principal food of the sperma- 
ceti whale. It consists in great part (85 per cent) of a peculiar brilliant white crystalline 
substance called Ambrein, which is obtained from it by treating it with alcohol. 


AMBI ORIX, a Belgo-Gallic chief who fought against Julius Cesar about 54 B.c. By 
cunning and strategy he defeated one important Roman garrison, and massacred every 
man; but while on the march to another camp he encountered Cesar himself, who 
easily defeated him, though A. with a few men escaped into the forests. 


AMBLYCHILA, an American beetle of the Cicindelide family, found in the Pacific 
states and as far e. as Kansas. It has the third joint of the maxillary palpi longer than 
the fourth, and the first joint of the labial palpi very short, while the epipleuree are wide. 
It appears only in the evening and at night, except on cloudy and rather warm days. 
During rain or cold it remains concealed. It feeds on insects and sometimes on excre- 
mentitious matter. The type of the genus is the A. cylindriformis. 


AMBLYOPIA (GK., ‘‘dulness of sight”), a name given to the milder forms of AMAU- 
KOSIS (q.V.). 


AMBLYOP’SIS, a genus of blind fishes of which one species is found in the Mam- 
moth cave, Kentucky. Eyes exist, but they are in a rudimentary state and under the 
epidermis. The A. is small, the largest no more than 5 in. long; body white and partly 
covered with scales; easily taken by a net or by the hand if perfect silence is observed, 
but they have most acute hearing. They feed on crayfish and other fishes, The nearest 
kindred are the minnow and pickerel. 


_ AM'BO (Lat.), a kind of reading-desk or pulpit, which, in early churches, was placed 
in the choir, The gospels and epistles were read from the A., and sermons were some- 
tumes preached from it, although the more usual practice in the primitive church 
was for the preacher to stand on the steps in front of the altar. The A. is still to be 
found in oriental churches, and specimens of it may be seen in Rome, The A. has two 


: Amber. 
B47 Ruiboved 


ascents, one from the e., and the other from the w. Inthe Roman churches, there were 
two ambos, one on each side of the choir, from one of which the gospel was read, and 
from the other, the epistle. Where two such ambos were used, their construction was 
somewhat different. The name A. wasalso given to the analogium or reading-desk used 
in monastic choirs, which was usually in the form of an eagle. 


AMBOISE’, a t. on the left bank of the Loire, in the department of Indre-et-Loire, 
France. Itis15 m. by railway e. of Tours, and lies in a region so rich in vineyards, that 
it has been called ‘‘the garden of France.” Its manufactures are unimportant. <A. 
possesses a castle, in which several of the French kings have resided. Charles VIII. was 
born here. It was also the scene of his death. The town is memorable as the place in 
which the religious wars that devastated the kingdom during the 16th c. broke out, and 
where the word ‘‘ Huguenot” was first applied to the Protestant party. The castle of A. 
was much improved by Louis Philippe, and was the residence of the Arab chief, Abd-el- 
Kader, during his captivity in France. Pop. nearly 5000. 


AMBOISE, GEORGE D’, cardinal and prime minister under Louis XII. of France, was 
b., 1460, at Chaumont-sur-Loire. When only 14 years old he was made bishop of Mon- 
tauban, and almoner to Louis XI., and, in 1498, was made archbishopof Rouen. Initi- 
ated in early years into the intrigues of court, he soon, by his zealous services, secured 
the confidence of Louis of Orleans (Louis XII), by whom he was made premier in 1498. 
From this time A. became the prime mover in all the political affairs of France. By his 
advice the king undertook the capture of Milan, which had such great influence on the 
fortunes of France. After the death of pope Alexander VI., A. endeavored to raise him- 
self to the papal see, and having failed became the dangerous enemy of the succeeding 
popes, Pius I1I.—who occupied the papal chair only 27 days—and Julius II. Tosecure 
his own election, A. encouraged a schism between the French church and the see of 
Rome, and convened a separate council, held first at Pisa, afterwards at Milan and Lyons ; 
but his plans were frustrated by the failures of the French army in Italy. He died at 
Lyons, May 25,1510. The cardinal A. was a dexterous and experienced statesman; but 
was accused of avarice, vanity, and ambition, and it was said that his vast fortune of 
11,000,000 livres had not been accumulated by over-scrupulous means. His biography 
was written by Montagnes (1631) and Legendre (Rouen, 1724). 


AMBOY, a t. in Lee co., Ill., on the Illinois Central, and Chicago, Burlington, 
and Quincy railroads, 94 m. w. of Chicago. It has manufactures, mills, grain elevators, 
repair shops, banking facilities, churches, public schools, and newspapers. Pop. ’90, 
2257. 

AMBOY’NA, Apon, or THAU, the most important of the Spice islands belonging to 
the Dutch, lies s.w. from Ceram, and n.w. from Banda, in 127° 51’ 80’—-128° 22’ 15” e. 
long., and 3° 26’ 40’-8° 49’ s. lat. Area, 264 sq.m. The bay of A. runs into the island 
lengthways, forming two peninsulas, the northern called Hitu, and the southern, which 
is the smallest, Leitimor. A. is mountainous, the highest peaks being in Hitu. The 
climate is healthy; average temperature, 82° F.; lowest, 72°. The e. monsoon brings 
heavy rains and storms. There are many rapid streams, and the t. of A. is supplied 
with excellent water from three small rivers. Clove, sago, mango, and cocoanut trees 
are abundant, also fine timber for cabinet work. The sago palm grows along the shores. 
The hills are covered with the cajeput or leucadendron, from the leaves of which a medic- 
inal oil is extracted. Sweet potatoes, coffee, pepper, indigo, rice, and fruits are grown. 
Fish is plentiful, and on the shores of A. beautiful shells are found. Deer are numerous 
on Hitu. There are hogs and goats, a few sheep, monkeys, civet-cats, anteaters, croco- 
diles, snakes, etc. Buffaloes, horned cattle, and horses are imported. The natives 
are generally civilized, though still very superstitious. They speak a Malay dialect, 
and observe customs which indicate a Hindoo origin. Daughters are a source of 
wealth, a payment of jewels, slaves, or clothing being exacted from the bridegroom. 
The Dutch have employed harsh measures in dealing with the natives, setting apart 
the villagers for the clove cultivation, and holding them in feudal service during half 
the year; while the freemen were allowed to follow handicrafts, grow fruits and 
vegetables, fish, make fragrant oils, and trade. The trade, which is small, is chiefly 
carried on by Chinese and Arabs. Pop. about 288,000, of whom about 2,100 are 
Europeans. The Dutch took A. from the Portuguese in 1605. A British settlement 
was made here about 1615, but the inhabitants were massacred by the Dutch in 1623. 
Cromwell exacted an indemnity for this in 1654. The British held the island 
1796-1802, and seized it again in 1810, but in 1814 the Dutch became permanent 
possessors. 

AMBOYNA, the capital, is situated near the middle of the n.w. shore of Leitimor, on 
the bay of A., in 3° 41’ 40” s. lat., and 128° 15’ e. long. A wooden pier, where ships lie 
in 20 fathoms, leads to the town through Fort Victoria, within which the government 
buildings are situated. The town has a good roadstead and is well built. The streets 
are wide and clean; many houses are shaded by nutmeg trees. Since 1854 A. has been 
a free port. 


Ambracia. 848 


Ambuscade, 


AMBRA CIA, or AMPRACIA, a city of ancient Epirus, on the e. bank of the river 
Arachthus, 7 m. from the Ambracian gulf. About 6385 B.c. it was colonized by Corin- 
thians. and became a Greek city. Its power increased until, in the time of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, it commanded the whole of Amphilochia, including the city of Argos. In 
432 n.c. the expelled Argosians drove out the Ambracians and retook their city. The 
Ambracians made two unsuccessful efforts to recapture Argos, but their power was 
declining, and in 338 the old city submitted to Philip of Macedon. About 295 B.c. 
Ambracia was ceded to Pyrrhus of Epirus, who made it his capital and enriched it with 
works of art. Ata later period it came under the power of the Aitolian league, and in 
the year 189 B.c. it sustained a siege in the war between the Aitolians and the Romans, 
the latter entering the place and carrying many of the treasures of art to Rome. In 31 
B.c. Augustus removed the people of A. to Nicopolis, the town which he founded in 
honor of his victory at Actium. The site of A. is now occupied by the town of Arta, 
near which ruins of the old city can be seen. 


AMBROS, AucustT WILHELM, 1816-76; b. Bohemia; an eminent pianist, composer, 
musical critic, and historian. His History of Music, on which he was engaged from 1860 
until his death, and which was left unfinished with the 4th vol., is a masterly work. His 
compositions include pianoforte pieces, songs, 2 masses, etc. 


AM’BROSE, Sarnt, one of the most celebrated of the ancient fathers of the church, 
was b. about the year 840, probably at Treves, where his father, as prefect of Gaul, was. 
wont to reside. A. received a fortunate omen even in his cradle: a swarm of beeg 
covered the slumbering boy; and the astonished nurse saw that the bees clustered round 
his mouth, without doing him any harm. His father, perhaps remembering a similar 
wonder related of Plato, foreboded from this a high destiny for A. He received an 
excellent education, and went with his brother Satyrus to Milan, in order to follow the 
legal profession. He soon distinguished himself so much, that, 369, he was appointed. 
under Valentinian, prefect of upper Italy and Milan. In this office, his gentleness and wis- 
dom won for him the esteem and love of the people, whose prosperity had been much 
injured by the troubles caused by Arianism. Accordingly, by both Arians and Cath- 
olics, he was unanimously called to be bishop of Milan, in 374. A. long refused to 
accept this dignity, and even left the city; yet he soon returned, was baptized, as hith- 
erto he had been only a catechumen, and was consecrated eight days afterwards. The 
anniversary of this event is still celebrated as a féte by the Catholic church. Asa bishop, 
A. won the universal reverence of all, by his mild and gentle, though, towards wicked- 
ness of every kind, severe and unbending character. Thus, he repulsed the emperor 
Theodosius himself even from the door of the church, on account of his having caused. 
the rebellious Thessalonians to be cruelly massacred by Rufinus, excommunicated him, 
and only restored him to the church after eight months of severe penance. <A. d. in 397. 
The best edition of his works, in which he followed in many things the Greek theologi- 
cal writers, is that published by the Benedictines (2 vois., Paris, 1686-1690). The hymn, 
Te Deum Laudamus, is usually ascribed to A., but it is proved to have been written 100: 
years later. The Ambrosian ritual has also received his name, only because A. had 
made some changes upon it, which are retained at the present day in the Milanese 
church. A commentary on the epistles of Paul, which was formerly ascribed to A., was. 
probably composed by the Roman deacon Hilarius, and is usually quoted as the com- 
mentary of the Ambrosiaster. A. is the patron saint of Milan, and the Ambrosian 
library received its name in honor of him. 


AMBROSIA, in Greek and Roman mythology, is the name of the food of the gods, 
which conferred immortal youth and beauty. It was brought by doves to Jupiter, and 
was occasionally bestowed upon such human beingsas were the peculiar favorites of the 
gods. A. was also used as a fragrant salve, which the goddesses employed to heighten 
their beauty; with which Jupiter himself anointed his locks; and which had the prop- 
erty of preserving bodies from corruption. Hindu mythology has also its amrita (from 
a, signifying ‘‘ without” or ‘‘not,” and the Sanscrit root, allied to the Lat. mort, and 
Greek brot), or liquor of immortality, that resulted from the churning of the ocean by 
the gods; and the gods of the Scandinavian pantheon were preserved in perpetual vigor 
by eating the apples guarded by Idun. 


AMBRO’'SIAN CHANT, the choral music of the early Christian church, introduced 
from the eastern church into the western by St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, in the 4th c.; 
it was founded on the first four authentic modes of the ancient Greeks, and was sung 
antiphonally. It continued in use until the 6th c., when Pope Gregory the Great reformed 
the music of the church by introducing the Gregorian chant. There exists still another 
specimen of music by Ambrosius, which is now known only in the German-Lutheran 
church by Luther’s translation of the words, Nun kommt der Heiden Heiland; it is beyond 
a doubt 1400 years old, and remains to this,day a beautiful specimen of melody, expres- 
sive of filial humility and submission. The A. C. continued to be still sung in the 
cathedral at Milan long after Gregory’s reformation, and till this day, it is said, it may 
be heard there. 


AMBRO'SIAN LIBRARY, a library in Milan, so named in honor of St. Ambrose, the 


patron saint of that city. It was established in 1609 by the cardinal archbishop Federigo 
orromeo, who employed learned men to collect books both in Europe and Asia. This 


9 Ambracia. 
o 4 9 Ambuscade. 


library was afterwards enriched by the acquisition of the MSS. of the Pinelli collection. 
Among the many rarities belonging to it, besides the palimpsests and other as yet 
unedited MSS. discovered by Maio, Castiglione, and Mazzuchuili, it contains a ‘‘ Virgil,’’ 
in which Petrarch had written an account of his first meeting with Laura. 


AMBROSIUS, JoHANNA, author; b. in Lengwethen, Prussia, Aug. 3, 1854; daughter 
of a poor mechanic; received a village school education. She married a peasant in 
her twentieth year, and led a life of poverty and the hardest toil, but found time to 
write poems for the magazines. Her poems were first collected and published in 1894, 
and have since passed through many editions, attracting high praise for the genuine 
literary talent they display. 


AMBROTYPE is a name given to a particular form of daguerreotype, differing from 
the original daguerreotype in that it is taken on glass instead of the metallic plate used 
by Daguerre. See DAGUERREOTYPE ; PHOTOGRAPH. 


AM BRY, AumerY, or ALMERY (supposed by some to be a corruption of Almonry), 
niche in the wall of a church, shut in by a door; or a small cabinet of wood placed by 
the side of the altar, for the purpose of holding the vestments and utensils, such as the 
chalices, basins, cruets, etc., used for the service of the mass. In monastic buildings, 
ambries were used for various purposes, such as keeping plate, hanging towels for the 
monks to dry their hands with before dinner, and the like. In this sense, the term A. 
seems to have been applied to any kind of cupboard which was closed in and locked, 
and it is so used in Scotland at the present day. 

AMBULA'CRA (from the Latin ambu- 
lare, to walk), thename given to peculiar 
organs of locomotion with which star- 
fishes and other echinodermata are fur- 
nished. They are fleshy, more or less. 
elongated, and terminated by suckers. 
They pass through orifices in the shell 
or other external integument of the ani- 
mal, and are generally arranged in rows. 
Those of the echint, or sea-urchins, are 
long enough to extend beyond the point 
of the spines, and by means of them the 
animal is able to climb a perpendicular 
rock. They are tubular, and each has 
at its base a vesicle, filled with a fluid 
which, on the contraction of the vesicle, 
AMBULACRA OF STAR-FISH, is forced into the tube, dilating it to its 


As seen in a longitudinal and vertical section of full extent, whilst, on the contraction 


one of the rays; and three of them in a separate figure * ona 
on a larger scale, in which they are shown in different of the tube, the fluid retins Bear TALS 
conditions: a, a, a, tubular feet; 6, b, b, internal vesi- the vesicle. The fluid is not secreted by 


cles; c, the organ which supplies the fluid with which these vesicles, but provided for them by 
BDey see Bllod: distinct secreting organs. 


AMBULANCE, a two or four-wheeled wagon constructed for conveying sick or 
wounded persons. Ambulaace-wagons are constructed to run very easily, and are 
designed to carry one or two tiers of stretchers. Some forms are fitted with water-tank, 
medicine-chest, operating-table, and other conveniences. City hospital ambulances are 
light, four-wheeled wagons furnished with one or two beds, surgical appliances, restora- 
tives, and so forth. There is asurgeon who rides in the ambulance, and in the crowded 
streets a gong is kept sounding in order that the ambulance can have the road cleared. 
In the army the term is usually confined to small spring-wagons, provided with all the 
necessary appliances for care of the sick or wounded. In each division of the army these 
wagons are organized into a corps, and placed under the command of an ambulance officer. 
Railway cars and steamers are also fitted up with conveniences for transporting patients 
to more remote and permanent hospitals. The system perfected in this country during 
the civil war, has now been adopted by most of the civilized nations. Several of the 
continental countries keep permanently in store railway trains completely equipped for 
hospital service. In France an ambulance is a portable hospital, one of which is attached 
to every division of an army in the field, and provided with all the requisites for the 
medical succor of sick and wounded troops. Such an ambulance is stationed at some 
spot removed from immediate danger, and soldiers are sedulously employed after a battle 
in seeking out those who have been wounded, and conveying them to the ambulance. 
The French also introduced the cacolets, which consist of two easy-chairs slung in panniers 
across the back of amule, which are available along paths where no wheel-carriage could 
pass. The cacolets have since been adopted by other armies, as well as improved hand- 
litters and wheeled-litters or barrows. 


AM'BULATORY. A name occasionally given in architecture to the cloisters of a 
cathedral, college, or the like. 


AM'BUSCADE is one of the mancuvres adopted in war. The original Italian, dmdbo- 
scata (“‘ concealed in a wood”), denotes the general nature of the A.; but the meaning is 
now much more extended, seeing that it implies to any attempt to attack an enemy by 


Ameer. 850 


America, 


lying in wait and coming upon him unexpectedly. In former days, when soldiers 
fought hand to hand more frequently than at present, the A. was much resorted to; but 
the tactics of modern times render it less available. It was by an A. on the part of the 
revolted sepoys that so many British soldiers were killed and wounded in that adventure 
which was known, during the wars of the Indian mutiny, as the ‘‘disaster at Arrah,” in 
July, 1857. An A. is neither an ‘‘attack” nor a ‘‘ surprise,” in military language ; it is 
something more sudden and unexpected than either.—AmpusH is another name for am- 


buscade. 


AMEER, See Emir. . 

AMELAN'CHIER, a genus of plants of the natural order Rosacee (q.Vv.), sub-order 
Pomea, distinguished by having five ovaries, each of which is divided into two cells, with 
one ovule in each cell, the ripe fruit including 3 to 5 carpels. It consists of a few species , 
of small trees with deciduous simple leaves, abundant racemes of white flowers, and 
small fruit of the size of a pea, or a little larger, but soft, juicy, and agreeable. The 
common A. (A. vulgaris) is a native of the Alps, Pyrenees, etc. The other species are 
natives of N. America. A. botryapium is sometimes called June-berry, from its fruit 
ripening in June, before that of any other tree or shrub; and A. ovalis produces a very 
pleasant fruit, which makes excellent puddings. The amelanchiers are planted in 
Britain merely as ornamental trees. They are very hardy. 


AMELIA, a co. in central Virginia, almost surrounded by the Appomattox river; 
380 sq.m. Population, ’90, 9068, including colored. It is intersected by the Southern 
railroad, The principal productions are wheat, corn, oats, and tobacco. Co. seat, 
Amelia, 


AMELIA (anc., Ameria), a t. of central Italy, in the province of Perugia, 21m. s.w. 
of Spoleto. It is picturesquely situated on the mountains between the Nera and the 
Tiber, about 7 m. from the junction of the two rivers. It is theseat of a bishop, and has 
a cathedral. Pop. of commune, nearly 9000. 


AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, ABRAHAM Niconas, 1634-1706; a French historian ; a 
prisoner in the bastile by orderof Louis XIV. He published History of the Government 
of Venice, translations of Macchiavelli’s Prince, and Tacitus’s Annals, and of Sarpi’s 
History of the Oouncil of Trent, the notes of which, written by A., gave great offense tu 
the advocates of the unlimited authority of the pope. Voltaire speaks of his histories 
as very good, and of his memoirs as very faulty. 


AMELOTTE, Dents, 1606-78 ; a French ecclesiastic and writer ; member of the congre- 

oe of the oratory of St. Philip Neri. He is remembered for his quarrels with the 

ort Royalists, and his fierce denunciation of the Jansenists. A. published a translation 
of the New Testament in 1666-68. 


AMEN’, a Hebrew word of asseveration, is equivocal to ‘‘ yea,” ‘‘ truly,” and has been 
commonly adopted in the forms of Christian worship. In Jewish synagogues, the A. is 
pronounced by the congregation at the conclusion of the benediction given at parting. 
Among the early Christians, the prayer offered by the presbyter was concluded by the 
word A., uttered by the congregation. Mention is made of the practice in the 1st epistle 
to the Corinthians (xiv. 16). Justin Martyr is the earliest of the fathers who alludes to 
the use of the response. In speaking of the sacrament, he says that at the close of the 
benediction and prayer, all the assembly respond ‘*‘ A.” According to Tertullian, none 
but the faithful were allowed to join in the response. A somewhat noisy and irreverent 
practice prevailed in the celebration of the Lord’s supper until the 6th c., after which it 
was discontinued. ‘‘ Upon the reception both of the bread and of the wine, each person 
uttered a loud ‘ A.;’ and at the close of the consecration by the priest, all joined in shouting 
a loud ‘A.’” 'The same custom was observed at baptism, where the sponsors and 
witnesses responded vehemently. In the Greek church, the A. was pronounced after 
the name of each person of the Trinity; and at the close of the baptismal formula, the 
people responded. At the conclusion of prayer, it signifies (according to the English 
church catechism) so be it ; after the repetition of the creed, so 78 2. 


AMENDE HONORABLE, formerly an infamous punishment in France, to which 
criminals who offended against public decency or morality were condemned. The 
simple Amende honorable consisted of a confession in open court made by a bare-headed 
and kneeling criminal. The Amende honorable in figuris was made by a culprit, who, 
kneeling in his shirt, with a torch in his hand and a rope around his neck (begged 
pardon of God and of the court). In popular language, the phrase now denotes a 
public recantation and reparation to an injured party for improper language or treat- 
ment, 


AMEND'MENT is a term used both in judicial and parliamentary proceedings. In 
the former, it is a power of correction of any errors in actions, suits, or prosecutions, 
which has been greatty extended of late, and which has largely improved and simplified 
the administration of the law, both in England and in America. In parliament, the word 
A. is used when it is intended to oppose, vary, or qualify a question or resolution; and 
in the case of bills, it is employed as a courteous method of dismissing the bill from any 


-— A e 
351 A piexiene 


further consideration, by moving that instead of ‘‘now,” it be read at the end of three 
months, six months, or any other term beyond the probable duration of the session. It 
is also competent to a member to move as an A. to the question a resolution declaratory of 
some principle adverse to that of the bill, provided it be strictly relevant, as was done 
successfully, in 1859, by Lord John Russell, when he moved and carried, as an A. to 
the motion for the second reading of the reform bill of Lord Derby’s government, a 
resolution declaratory of a principle which the supporters of that measure considered 
to be subversive of it. | 

An amendment to the constitution of the United States is proposed by the affirma- 
tive vote of two-thirds of each house of congress, and then it must be submitted to the 
states, when, if three-fourths of all the states by vote inthe legislature (or in state con- 
vention if required by congress) ratify such amendment, it becomes a part of the con- 
stitution. Or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, 
congress shall call a convention for proposing amendments; but this mode has never 
been resorted to. There is one restriction only on the nature of amendments, which is 
“that no state without its consent shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate.” 


AMENO’PHIS, Am'uNOPH, or AMEN-HOTEP, the name of three Egyptian kings of the 
18th dynasty. A. I. was the second of them. He continued the conquests begun by 
his predecessor in Canaan, and made an expedition toward Ethiopia to extend the 
boundary of his kingdom. He reigned in the latter half of the 17th century B.c. 


AMENO’PHIS II., King of Egypt, son and successor of Thothmes III., and father of 
Thothmes [V.; identified by some writers with Memnon, who fought against the Greeks 
at Troy; reigned in the latter half of the 16th century B.c. 


AMENO’PHIS III., King of Egypt, son of Thothmes IV. He reigned in the beginning 
of the 15th century B.c., and made Egypt prosperous and contented, extending the 
kingdom over more territory than ever before or afterwards, as it reached from the w. 
bank of the Euphrates into Ethiopia. ‘There are many monuments of his period, the 
most famous being the two colossi, one of which is known as ‘‘ the vocal Memnon.”’ 
Some writers supposed this king to be the one whom the Greeks called Memnon. His 
exploits in war are commemorated on the obelisk which, transported from Egypt, now 
stands in the Place de la Concorde in Paris. 


AMENORRHGA, the suspension from any cause other than pregnancy of the cata- 
menial flow. (See MENSTRUATION.) It is generally an indication of functional disturb- 
ance, and is to be regarded as a symptom rather than as a malady, to be treated apart 
from the disorder which causes it. Amenorrhcea is at times merely an economy of 
nature which strives to husband the strength of a woman by diminishing the drain 
upon the system. It is frequently an accompaniment of anemia (q.v.), and due to pov- 
erty of the’ blood. In this case the treatment adopted should be one tending to 
strengthen the general health. Nourishing and generous diet, withiron or arsenic, and 
with a due regard for the regulation of the bowels, will in general banish the cause of 
the irregularity. See EMMENAGOGUES. 


AMENTA'CEZ, according to some botanists, a natural order of dicotyledonous or 
exogenous plants, consisting entirely of trees and shrubs whose flowers are unisexual, 
the male flowers, and very often also the female flowers, disposed in amenta or CATKINS 
(q.v.), and the perianth either wanting or incomplete. This order, which contains many 
well-known and important trees, is divided into a number of sub-orders, which by many 
have been erected into distinct orders, forming the amental alliance of Lindley. Under 
A. are ranked salicinee or salécaceew (see WILLOW), myricee (see CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE), 
casuarinacee (see CASUARINA), betulaceew (see Breen), altingiacee, (called also balsamacee, 
but not to be confounded with balsaminacee, or balsaminee (see LIQUIDAMBAR); by some 
also corylacee or cupulifere (q.v.),)and platanew (see PLANE), both of which Lindley 
excludes from his amental alliance, associating the former with juglandacew (see 
WALNUT), as a distinct alliance, and referring the latter to the urtical alliance. See 
Urticacea. Onthe other hand, he unites with the amental alliance the order eleagnacee. 
See ELZAGNUS. 


AMEN'THES, an Egyptian mythological word equivalent in meaning to the Greek 
word hades, the unseen world. Plutarch explained it as signifying ‘‘the giving and 
taking,” an interpretation generally adopted, but erroneously. A. literally means ‘‘the 
hiding” (-place understood). On Egyptian monuments we find the god Anubis leading 
to A. the souls which, in the form of birds, are escaping from the body through the 
mouth. He conducts them before the throne of Osiris, who sits as judge, with a coun- 
cil or jury of forty-two persons. The female deity, AMENT, represented on monuments 
in upper Egypt, is merely a female form of Ammon, and her name has no connection 
with that of A. 

AM'ERBACH, JoHANN, d. about 1513; a German printer, educated in Paris. He 
established a press at Basel, publishing the works of St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, 
and began to publish those of Jerome. He was one of the first to use Roman in 
place of Gothic letters. His son Boniface was an intimate friend of Erasmus. 


AMERICA, one of the four quarters of the globe; being smaller than Asia, but larger, 
perhaps, than both Europe and Africa taken together. It isthe only one of the four main 
divisions of the land that is washed by all the four great oceans—the Northern, the 
Atlantic, the Southern, and the Pacific. 


OAC 
America. 352 
If Terra del Fuego and Greenland are included—as ought to be done on geological 
ounds—A. occupies about 150° of long., and about 135° of lat. Speaking generally, 
its extreme length may be said to be ona meridian, and its extreme breadth on a parallel 
—facts which, in the light of analogy, look more like a law than anaccident. As themap 
will show, similar coincidences occur In South A.by itself; in Africa, in Europe, in Asia, 
and in Australia. As between Asia and A., moreover, it deserves to be noticed that the 
meridional semicircles, along which run their respective lengths, form, with an interval 
of 180°, one and the same meridional circle. 

Like the old continent, A. has been divided by nature into two peninsulas—Darien 
and Suez being the isthmuses, while South A. corresponds with Africa, and North A. 
with Asia and Europe. Even to this extent, however, the resemblance is by no means 
close. Inthe new world, the whole of the lower peninsula is to the s. of the whole of 
the upper one, while Asia overlaps half the latitude, and more than half the magnitude, 
of Africa. 

Of the northern half of A., the southern section, on account of essential differences in 
character and appearance, is in general contemplated by itself under the name of Cen- 
tral A.—the most convenient limit, perhaps, being a line drawn from the mouth of Rio 
Bravo del Norte to the lower end of peninsular California; and this line, besides its geo- 
graphical propriety on both coasts, has the recommendation of marking, on the nearer 
coast, the international boundary of the United States and Mexico. Central A., it is to 
be observed, has a political signification as well as a physical one, comprising, in 
the former sense, the comparatively small states between Mexico and New Granada— 
Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. 

Physically, however, these three subdivisions of A. may be regarded as one, being 
knit together on the w. side by a backbone, as it were, of mountains, which, under 
various names and various aspects, stretches from the extreme s. at cape Horn to 
nearly the extreme n. at the mouth of the Mackenzie. To this mountain-system we 
shall have occasion to refer under the distinct heads of ANDES, CORDILLERAS OF CEN- 
TRAL A., and Rocky Mounrarns, restricting ourselves at present, in accordance with 
the general aim of this article, to such features of the entire chain as may incidentally 
come under our notice in connection with earthquakes, volcanoes, climate, or hydrog- 
raphy; and with regard to this article generally, the subject being A. as a whole, we 
shall, as seldom and as little as possible, anticipate details, which, even if anticipated 
here, must still be repeated under the respective heads of their proper localities. 

In thus treating of A., we shall consider separately its earthquakes and volcanoes, its 
climate, its hydrography, its history--comprehending its discovery and its colonization, 
but excluding anything like the annals of any individual state—and, lastly, its geology, 
botany, and zoology. 

The earthquakes and volcanoes of A. are to be found chiefly in the backbone of moun- 
tains already mentioned. In South A. they may be said to beexclusively so found, 
being confined to the Andes proper, that skirt the Pacific, and to the Venezuelan spur or 
branch of the main range. The same remark may be applied to Central A. But in 
North A., the energy which produces both classes of phenomena appears to have 
followed rather the coast than the continuous chain which diverges gradually from it— 
earthquakes being often felt in the maritime towns of upper California, and volcanoes 
having left their traces behind them on the islands of Alaska. The agency in question 
seems to have traveled from n. to s. along the coast, having exhausted itself in its more 
ancient seats; and this view derives support from the obvious formation of the Sandwich 
Islands, which are as nearly as possible parallel with the w. coast of A., between 
Behring’s strait and the equator. On this interesting subject we quote from Sir George 
Simpson’s Overland Journey: ‘‘The whole group appears to have been thrown up from 
the deep by volcanic action advancing from the n.w. to the s.e., and increasing in force 
as it advanced; so that, while island rose after island, each grew at once in height and in 
breadth according to the intensity of the power that heaved it upwards from the waters. 
Thus Bird island, a barren rock taking its name from its only inhabitants, must be con- 
sidered as the germ of the archipelago, as the first fruits of a submarine energy that was 
here only kindling its fires; while the other links in the chain, Kauai, Woahoo, Mowee, 
and Hawaii, not only differ, as I have just mentioned, at once in extent and in elevation, 
vut also present, as they proceed, less and less evidence of antiquity in their gradually 
diminishing proportions of land capable of cultivation—a proof the more conclusive, 
inasmuch as the soil of the whole group undeniably consists of the successive gifts of 
years and agesand centuries. Moreover, the visible laboratories of the subterranean fire, 
which are scattered over the archipelago, confirm the same view; the craters are all 
extinct, excepting on Hawaii; and even on Hawaii, Mouna Loa, the most south-easterly 
of its three great safety-valves, alone bears living testimony to the creative impulse that 
has called the whole chain into existence, and bears it, too, only through its lateral 
volcano of Kilauea, which, besides itself looking to the east, appears, by the gradual 
advance of subsidiary outlets down its eastern declivities, to be rolling the hidden 
sources of its strength—peradventure there to forge fresh islands—under the bed of the 
ocean.” 

_ Climate.—In comparing A. with the older continent, we must contrast not e. and w. 
with each other, but w. with w., and e. with e.—neither Newfoundland with England, 


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- LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


353 America, 


nor British Columbia with Kamtchatka, but Kamtchatka with Newfoundland, and Eng. 
land with British Columbia. Such acomparison shows that the difference lies not, as ig 
often assumed, between the two continents, but between the opposite shores of either 
continent within itself. For instance, at Nain, in Labrador, the mean temperature is 7° 
F. below freezing; while at Sitka, in Alaska, it is 12° above freezing. The difference of 
19° between the e. and w. coasts of the new world, is only a very little less than the differ- 
ence between the e. coast of the new, and the w. coast of the old; for the temperature of 
Gottenburg, in Sweden, is only 21° higher than that of Nain. It is to be remarked, 
however, that this difference between the opposite coasts of the two continents diminishes 
as we proceed southwards. New York is only 7° colder than Naples; and Florida has 
the same temperature as Cairo. 

In illustration of the contrast between the e. and w. coasts of A., we are told by the 
traveler already cited, that, at the mouth of the Columbia river, the first half of Dec. 
presented one deluge of rain after another from the s.e., this weather winding up on the 
16th of the month with a storm of thunder and lightning; ‘‘ while, to mark the differ- 
ence of climate between the two sides of the continent, the good folks of Montreal, 
though occupying a lower parallel than ourselves, were sleighing it merrily through the 
clearest and driest of atmospheres.” Nor is the difference, according to the same 
authority, less palpable in the old continent than in the new. ‘‘To place in the most 
striking light the contrast in point of climate between the opposite shores of the old con- 
tinent, Kamtchatka and the British isles may be said, with sufficient accuracy for this 
purpose, to lie in the same latitudes, and to present the same area, and even to occupy 
the same position with respect to the proximity of water; and yet, while the British 
isles maintain a population of over 38,000,000 inhabitants, Kamtchatka, with the 
help of extraneous supplies, can barely prevent its population of 7500 souls from 
starving.”’ 

But whatever influences may be common to the climates of both continents, the 
climate of A. is subject to two peculiar influences—that continent’s prolongation south- 
ward, and its backbone of mountains. Withrespect to the former point, A. advances 
at least 20° further southward than Africa—fully more than half the interval between 
the latter andantarticice; so that the southern breezes which, in summer, bring freshness 
and delight to the cape of Good Hope, waft cold and misery to cape Horn: Two of 
Cook’s people, on his first voyage, were frozen to death in Terra del Fuego towards the 
end of Jan.—in a month corresponding with our July, and in a latitude the same as that 
of Edinburgh. The backbone of mountains, again, that other point which peculiarly 
influences the climate of A., does its work in two ways. Throughout almost its entire 
course, its height arrests the passage of the clouds and rains. Within and about the 
tropics, these are borne from the e. by the trades; in the more temperate regions, they 
are brought from the w. by the prevailing counter-currents of air. But in either case, 
the windward slope of the mountain barrier is a fertile garden, the leeward slope a barren 
desert. In the more central plateaus, again, of Quito and Mexico, the various terraces 
present as many climates, and bring together, under the same parallel, all the tempera- 
tures and energies of nature. 

But there exist, more particularly in North A., peculiarities of climate, which cannot, 
perhaps, be referred to any known cause. On the opposite sides, for instance, of the 
great water-shed between the gulf of Mexico and Hudson’s bay, antagonistic results are 
said to show themselves in winter. On the northern side, the climate is understood to 
improve as one adyances westward, the Saskatchewan, though in a considerably higher 
latitude, opening earlier in spring than the St. Lawrence; whereas, on the southern 
side, ice forms in New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mississippi, strong enough to bear 
half-grown boys, a thing wholly unprecedented on the corresponding parallel of the 
Atlantic shore. Even in summer, at least on the northern side of the water-shed in ques- 
tion, something of a similar change of climate has been observed, for maize, which, 
in Quebec, is a precarious crop, even on the international line of 45°, regularly ripens, in 
Red river settlement, which, besides 5° more of latitude, isat least 1000 feet higher above 
the level of the sea. 

With respect to that portion of A. which is best known, a popular misapprehension 
generally prevails as to the steadiness of its climate in any given season of the year. 
The Canadian summer, for instance, is supposed to be an unbroken period of tropical 
heat; and the Canadian winter to be, initsturn, an unbroken period of hyperborean cold. 
Now, in both directions, this is a great mistake. The summer of Canada is often 
tropical, and its winter often hyperborean, the extreme ranges of the thermometer, accord- 
ing to the experience of credible informants in localities to the s. of London, sometimes 
being in one and the same year, 104° F. above zero, and 52° below it. But this difference 
of 156°, which is measured probably by an interval of six months, is far less remarkable 
than the differences which a few days may bring forth. The highest range occurred 
within four days after parlor-fires had been given up; and the lowest fell on a day which, 
a year or so before, had been marked by a powerful thaw. In the city of Montreal 
itself, 86 hours, or less, have sometimes exhibited a difference, up or down, of 60° F. in 
winter; and even in summer, whether in Quebec or in the north-west one can seldom 
reckon on any other month than July as free from night-frosts. In such changes, the 
Canadian climate may be taken as a sample of the climate of North A. in gencral, 


America, 354 


extreme ranges of temperature, as prevailing respectively in summer and winter, being 
naturally attended by more or less considerable vicissitudes in each individual season. 

In the tropical regions, however, of A., whether central or southern, a singular 
uniformity of temperature does exist on each of the various terraces of the mountain 
chain. The same parallel, as has been already mentioned, presents at once the torrid, the 
temperate, and the frigid zones. Such a view of the matter, however, is, to a certain 
extent, deceptive, for in not one of the three cases are the vicissitudes of the respective 
zones, properly so called, found to show themselves. Each level is said to be so steady 
in its temperature as to enfeeble and enervate the inhabitants through the monotony 
even of that which is in itself good; and in such cases, the salutary prescription is to 
ascend or to descend, for a time, from one terrace to another. 

Hydrography.—With the backbone of mountains as the principal water-shed of A., 
the rivers on opposite sides of the continent are still more different than the climates. 
Excepting in Central A., the difference in question is enormous. Evenin North A., where 
it is less than in South A., the contrast is sufficiently striking. On the w. side of the 
Rocky mountains, the only streams worthy of notice besides the great Yukon are the 
Colorado, which flows into the head of the gulf of California; the Sacramento, which 
enters the harbor of San Francisco; and the Columbia, which empties itself into the open 
ocean—three rivers which, if compared with the waters of the opposite coast, are, in 
practical value, inferior singly to the Hudson, and collectively to the Rio Bravo del 
Norte. On the e. side, however, there exist rivers to which the Rio Bravo del Norte and 
the Hudson are but as brooks. To begin with the extreme n.: the Mackenzie, besides 
draining a large basin on its own side of the Rocky mountains, draws from beyond them 
two of its principal feeders, the Peace and the Liarde, burying itself, however, under 
the perennial ices of the Arctic ocean. Passing, without further notice, the Coppermine 
and the Fish river, of both which the interest is purely historical in connection with 
arctic discovery, we come to the Nelson, which brings down to Hudson’s bay the Win- 
nipeg and the Red river, two streams bordering respectively on the head-waters of the’ St. 
Lawrence and the Mississippi, and also the two branches.of the Saskatchewan, which ail 
but touch the sources of the Columbia and the Missouri. Next in order is that long 
alternation of mighty river and mightier lake—that reservoir of half the life-blood of 
the earth—which, under the name of the St. Lawrence, graduaily becomesa sea. South 
of the St. Lawrence, along the coast, we meet the Atlantic streams of New Brunswick 
and the United States, all of them valuable beyond their magnitude, and most of them 
connected, more or less closely, with the Alleghanies—the St. John, the Penobscot, the 
Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and the Potomac. Round 
into the gulf of Mexico, and we reach, besides many second-rate rivers in either direction, 
perchance the most important stream on the face of the globe—a stream which, after 
uniting the Mississippi and the Missouri under the name of the former, receives on the 
right the Arkansas and the Red river, and on the left the Ohio, enriched, as it is, with 
the tributes of the Wabash and the Tennessee. 

In South A., again, the difference between east and west is still mcre remarkable. 
On the w. the Guayaquil, the only stream worth mentioning, is not to be compared even 
with the rivers that flow from the the subordinate ranges of Brazi] or Guiana; while, on 
the e., the Andes send down, besides the Magdalena flowing into the Caribbean sea, the 
Orinoco, the Amazon, and the Plata, into the open ocean, across the almost entire breadth 
of the continent—three networks of inland navigation, which, under the head of the 
Amazon (q.v.), we have already shown to be virtually one, and, beyond that, to be virtu- 
ally linked with the Essequibo of British Guiana. 

Nor will the disparity between the two coasts of the continent be less striking if the 
harbors are considered as well as rivers, the external outlets as well as internal channels. 
On the Pacific, South A. possesses, to the n. of Chili, only two ports entitled to the name, 
Panama and the Guayaquil already mentioned; while, on the same coast, North A., 
along a line of 3000 m. up to British Columbia, presents only five safe and convenient 
havens—Acapulco, Mazatlan, Magdalena bay, San Diego, and San Francisco. But the 
Atlantic side presents a contrast to which no language can do justice. To take the 
divisions as they come: Newfoundland has its St. John’s, Cape Breton its Louisburg, 
Nova Scotia its Halifax, New Brunswick its St. Andrews, Maine its Portland, New 
Tampshire its Portsmouth, Massachusetts its Boston, Connecticut its New Haven, Rhode 
Island its Newport, and so on. Nor is this all. While fully a third part of the rivers 
of Europe and Asia are lost to the commerce of the world at large in the frozen seas of 
the north, or in such landlocked pools as the Aral and the Caspian, all the considerable 
rivers of A., with the Mackenzie as the only exception, are, more or less, channels of 
communication between the open ocean and the interior. To take the three grandest 
examples—the Amazon, with a basin estimated to contain 1,500,000 sq.m., is navigable 
for steam-vessels up every one of its main branches, nearly to the eastern foot of the 
Andes; thus comprising several available lines of 2500 m. each, and presenting, as a 
whole, a network of such lines to the amount of at least ten times that length. The 
Mississippi, again, navigable as it is at once to the Alleghanies and to the Rocky moun- 
tains, and between them, more to the n., as far as the falls of St. Anthony, has been 
computed to afford to the steam-vessel an uninterrupted career of 36,000 miles. But 
perhaps the St. Lawrence, if less extensive, is more marvellous still. Owing to British 


355 America. 
improvements of its channel, New York and Pennsylvania have virtually a seaboard on 
their inland shores; while Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, accessible to ships from the gulf 
of St. Lawrence by the lakes, and from the gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi, far surpass, 
in the heart of a continent, the peculiar site of ancient Corinth as the mart of two 
seas. 

To append a few subordinate examples: nearly all the considerable rivers along the 
coast between the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi possess far more than an average 
value, in proportion to their lengths, as arteries of internal communication. The At- 
lantic slope of the Alleghanies, in particular, presents, as a whole, perhaps twice as many 
facilities in this way as any other region of equal extent on the face of the earth—facili- 
ties, too, which have been not less zealously and successfully improved than those of the 
St. Lawrence. The Hudson has been, at vast expense, and with indomitable energy, 
connected with the basin of the St. Lawrence at three points—on lake Erie, on lake 
Ontario, and on lake Champlain; and the Susquehanna has been in like manner con- 
nected with the basin of the Mississippi by a canal which terminates at Pittsburg on the 
Ohio. 

But in one part of A., still smaller streams than these last are entitled to particular 
attention. We allude to those streams, five in number, which promise to vie with each 
other in connecting together the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. J 

The five rivers in question form parts of three different routes. The Atrato of the 
Atlantic side c»-operates with the San Juan of the opposite coast a little below the 
isthmus of Darien; the San Juan of the Caribbean sea, with the lake of Nicaragua, and 
with the smaller lake of Leon more to the westward; and, lastly, the Coatzacoalcos of 
the gulf of Mexico, with the Tehuantepec of the bay of its own name. 

To begin with the first route: the Atrato and the San Juan flow, in contrary direc- 
tions, through the slightly undulating country into which the Andes gradually subside 
as they approach the isthmus. Their head-waters are said to be near to each other, the 
Atrato being already navigable for small vessels, and the San Juan, manifestly a con- 
siderable stream, entering the sea by several mouths, after a course of 150 miles. With 
such streams separated by such a country, a ship-channel between the two oceans does 
not by any means appear to be impracticable. Next, as to the second route, which, as well 
as the third, is already in actual use as a place of transit: the San Juan itself, about 100 
m. long, has a gentle current, which, though in some places impeded by short rapids, is 
stated to be always navigable throughout for boats of 10 tons, and for much larger ves- 
sels to a considerable distance from the sea. Lake Nicaragua, again, said to measure 140 
m. by 40, is adapted for ships of any burden, being 15 fathoms deep. At its w. end it 
receives the Tipitapa from lake Leon, which, with 2 length of 35 m. and a breadth of 15, 
is only 28 ft. higher than itself, or 156 above the level of the Pacific. T’woschemes were 
formerly agitated with respect to the more westerly portion of the route—one scheme 
proposing to avail itself of lake Leon, and the other to carry the ship canal at once from 
lake Nicaragua. The latter route was finally chosen. Lastly, as to the third route, where 
the intervening land, actually designated as an isthmus, is only 180 m. wide: the Coat- 
zacoalcos alone is said to traverse nearly the entire breadth ; while the Tehuantepec, 
which gives name to the isthmus, goes far to complete what the other has begun. 

The practical value of the enterprise of connecting by navigation the ‘Pacific and 
Atlantic oceans is already evidenced by the fact, that, in the face of the competition of 
the last two routes, the Panama railroad is perhaps the most profitable undertaking of 
the kind in the new world. See PANAMA, IsTHMUS OF; NICARAGUA, LAKE, and 
INTEROCEANIC SHIP CANAL. 

Of the lakes of A. a brief notice will be sufficient. In North A., besides the vast reser- 
voirs of the St. Lawrence, a line drawn n.w. from the center of lake Superior appears, on 
the face of the map, to intersect a kindred series—lake Winnipeg, lake Athabasca, Great 
Slave lake, and Great Bear lake—the first of the four being connected with the Nelson, 
and the remaining three with the Mackenzie. It may not be out of place to observe, 
that the general direction indicated is pretty nearly parallel with the Pacific coast, just 
as the general direction of the St. Lawrence from the great bend at the head of lake 
Krie is pretty nearly parallel with the Atlantic shores. As to the secondary lakes of n.w. 
A., their name is legion, almost every stream, whether large or small, expanding itself 
here and there vastly beyond its average width, and being, as it were, a St. Lawrence in 
miniature. One lake, or rather pond, is too singular to be overlooked, On the Atha- 
basca pass of the Rocky Mountains, where the road, little better than a succession of 
glaciers, runs through a region of perpetual snow, a small body of water, named by the 
Hudson’s Bay Company’s voyageurs as the ‘‘ Committee’s Punch-bowl,” sends its tribute 
from one end to the Columbia, and from the other to the Mackenzie. To proceed south- 
wards along the continent, Central A. abounds in lakes. The Leon and the Nicaragua 
have been already noticed. But such bodies of water are perhaps most numerous on 
the table-land of Mexico, or as it is often termed, the plateauof Anahuac. The largest of 
these is Chapala, estimated to contain 1800 sq.m.—an area, which, however insignificant 
in comparison with the great lakes of the n., ismore than equivalent to a circle of 40 m. in 
diameter. Many of these reservoirs of the table-land have no outlet. Such is the case 
with the various lakes of the valley of Mexico, inclosed as they are by mountains at a 
height of 7471 ft. above the sea-level. Of the same description, too, is the lake of Titi- 


356 


America. 


caca, decidedly the largest in South A. Raised by the table-land of Peru and Bolivia to 
a height variously estimated at from 12,500 to 12,800 ft., it yet has no outlet to the sea; 
for the Desaguadero, which empties it, loses itself in Lake Aullagas or Poopo to the 
southward. Its estimated area is 5261 sq.m. Steam navigation was introduced in 1893. 
It is irregular in form, and contains several small islands. Shallow in places, particu- . 
larly at the southern end, it reaches a depth of over 700 ft. near its eastern shore. It is 
situated in an extensive enclosed basin, which is thought to have once been the bottom 
of an inland sea. 

The vast advantage in point of fluvial communication possessed by the new world 
over the old, has already been adverted to. There is, however, a hydrographical feature in 
which one of the grand divisions of the eastern continent is decidedly superior to A. The 
eoast-line of Europe, in proportion to extent of surface, is incomparably longer than 
that of even the northern half of the western continent. This is at once apparent on glanc- 
ing at the two maps. It is surely a suggestive fact that the two portions of the earth 
which are best fitted for human intercourse are also hydrographically so connected as to 
be beyond comparison the most accessible to each other. The dividing sea, besides 
being itself physically by far the narrower of the two intercontinental oceans, is virtu- 
ally narrowed still more by its winds and its currents. Along a belt of about 30° on 
either side of the equator, the easterly trade with its attendant current wafts the voyager 
westward from Africa; while above that belt the reaction, strengthened and accelerated 
by the peculiar formation of the Caribbean sea and the gulf of Mexico, is ready to carry 
him round again to Europe, under the double pressure of the Florida stream and its 
generally prevailing breezes from the south-west. Nor yet can the hydrographical rela- 
tions of A. with Asia be denied their proportion of significance and influence, linked as 
the two continents are by Behring’s strait, and twice bridged as is their ocean, first by the 
Aleutian isles—a continuation of the Kuriles and Japan—and then by the Polynesian 
clusters, that series of offshoots, as it were, from the Indian archipelago. 

History.—We propose to glance at this under the three heads of aboriginal ages, 
discovery, and colonization. 

As tothe Aboriginal Ages, there arises a question, too interesting to be overlooked, and 
yet too doubtful to be solved, as to the origin of the native tribes and peoples of A. 
Without prejudicing the question (which will be considered under IypIANs) whether the 
aboriginal inhabitants of A. are to be considered, in an ethnological point of view, as sub- 
stantially of one stock, it appears highly probable that they did not all spring from one 
and the same primeval band of adventurers; in other words, that different colonies, volun- 
tary or involuntary, must have reached the new continent at different times. This view, 
to say nothing of the direct testimony of local traditions, seems to be in itself more than 
probable, when we consider that, through the length and breadth of the universal ocean, 
even the most insignificant specks of land had each received, at least, one influx of human 
wanderers. But, beyond such probabilities, and such traditions, the view in question is 
strengthened by facts, which it is difficult otherwise to explain—by diversities of lan- 
guage, by different degrees, or kinds, of civilization, and, above all, by monuments, 
architectural or otherwise, of defunct races of by-gone days. On this supposition, whence 
came the successive shoals of invaders? To this question no direct answer can be given. 
We can only scan the various routes by which, previously to what we call the discovery 
of A., the old world was most likely to people the American continent. To begin with 
the natural routes on the side of the Pacific—Behring’s strait, the Aleutian isles, and the 
Polynesian archipelagoes—we can hardly conceive anything but barbarism having been 
conducted to A. by any one of them. The country which stretches back from Behring’s 
strait to the Kolyma, may be asserted to be, without exception, the most inhospitable 
portion even of Siberia; and, moreover, the strait itself has more probably been a channel 
of migration grom America than from Asia, the Tchuktchi of the latter regarding them- 
selves rather as a branch than as the stem of the Tchuktchi of the former. With respect, 
again, both to the Aleutian isles and the Polynesian archipelagoes, the successive step- 
ping-stones in either series, instead of being presumed to have been so many halts for 
Asiatic Columbuses and Magellans, must rather be viewed as each a mother-country to a 
new colony, as each a point of departure for a fresh swarm. Thus would the ever aggra- 
vating blight of isolation—exemplified even in the old world among the Laplanders, the 
Kamtchadales, and the Hottentots—prepare at each remove a deeper and deeper barbarism 
to land at last on the western shores of A. Further, if civilization, as certainly appears 
to have been the case, ever did find its way to A., it must have come directly and imme- 
diately from the old world, and that under circumstances and conditions of by no means 
Fy favorable character. In remote times, such accidental, or, to speak more correctly, 
unintentional visits of Europeans and Asiatics may have occurred, as we know to have 
actually taken place in more modern days. Japanese junks have repeatedly been driven, 
by stress of weather, across the Pacific to the new world; and again, on the Atlantic, the 
easterly trades, within eight years after Columbus’s earliest voyage, wafted the uncon- 
scious Portuguese to Brazil, during their second voyage to India—the very first, in fact, 
which they had attempted by steering clear of the headlands of Africa. Such incidents, 
however frequently they might have happened, were much more likely to civilize exist- 
ing communities than to found new ones; and it is at least a curious fact, that the only 


3907 America. 


aboriginal nations which could be regarded as in any sense civilized at the date of the 
Spanish conquest, pointed in their traditions to such events as we have endeavored to 
describe. Mexico and Peru had each had its Cecrops, or semi-divine civilizer—the for- 
mer referring him to the east, across the Atlantic, and the latter to the west, across the 
Pacific. How far such hypotheses may account for the admitted facts, we are not left 
altogether to conjecture. Isolated individuals of our own nation have enabled us to 
bring the light of the present to bear on the past. When we consider what William 
Adams achieved in Japan, 200 years ago, and what John Young and James Brooke have, 
more recently, effected in the Sandwich islands and in Borneo, we can perhaps more 
easily understand certain undeniable traces and traditions of aboriginal civilization. 

Discovery.—W hatever may have been the kind and degree of aboriginal civilization, 
A. was not destined to be the perpetual inheritance of the red man. New actors were to 
appear on the seene, before whom the old possessors were in a great measure to pass 
away. 

Benet to the times of Columbus, Europeans had certainly visited A. The Scan- 
dinavians, after having colonized Iceland in 875 a.p., and Greenland in 983, had, by the 
year 1000, discovered A. as far down as 41° 30’ n. lat., a point near to New Bedford, in 
the state of Massachusetts. ‘These Scandinavians afterwards settled in the neighborhood 
—the mother-country, most probably through the intervention of Iceland and Greenland, 
maintaining an intercourse with the colony down to the 14th century. But these enter- 
prises do not appear to have left any special impress on the character or prospects of the 
new continent, being more akin, perhaps, to similar incidents of yet earlier ages, than to 
the long-meditated and well-matured scheme of the illustrious Genoese. Subsequently 
to the Scandinavian discovery, and previous to that of Columbus, A. is believed by some 
to have been visited bya Welsh prince. In the narrative of Humfrey Lloyd (1559) it is 
stated that Madoc, son of Owen Gwynnedd, prince of Wales, set sail westward in 1170 with 
a small fleet, and, after a voyage of several weeks, landed in a region totally different both 
in its inhabitants and productions from Europe. Madoc is supposed to have reached the 
coast of Florida. Neither this, however, if true, nor the earlier Scandinavian expeditions, 
can be said even to have formed a connecting-link between the A. of the red man and 
the A. of his white brother. Even if the northmen had possessed resources worthy of 
their heroic courage, the old world was not yet ripe for the appropriation of the new. 

At the end of the 15th c., however, science and politics were alike strengthening 
Europe for its task. The mariner’s compass and the astrolabe had facilitated long voy- 
ages out of sight of land; while, in almost every country of Christendom, various causes 
were consolidating government, and promoting the growth of population—a position 
which derives, perhaps, its best illustration from the fact that the capture of Granada— 
a last foothold of the Moslem in Spain—preceded by only a few months the dicovery 
of A. 

Columbus (q.v.) set out on his great enterprise to discover A. under the patronage 
of the crown of Spain, on Friday, the 38d of Aug., 1492; at which date, properly speak: 
ing, begins the deeply interesting history of A. Had the Atlantic been broader, or had 
not the easterly trades wafted Columbus almost on a parallel from the Canaries to the 
Bahamas, he must have failed in his bold attempt; and in fact, those same easterly trades, 
assisted by a still nearer approach of the two continents, speedily proved their own value 
in this respect by carrying the Portuguese, without their own consent, to the shores of 
Brazil. Nay, Columbus’s discovery of A., if not so accidental, was quite as uninten- 
tional as that of the Portuguese. It was towards the e. that his hopes directed his west: 
ern course, hopes whose supposed fulfillment still lives in the misapplication to the new 
world of the terms Indian and Indies. Much of our subsequent knowledge of A. has 
been owing to the same desire of reaching the East Indies that led to its discovery. The 
SNe east was the aim alike of Davis, Baffin, and Hudson at the n., and of Magellan, 

chouten, and Lemaire at the s., to say nothing of the earlier enterprise of Balboa on 
the isthmus of Darien ; while, under a similar impulse, the French of Canada were as- 
cending lake after lake as nature’s ready-made highway to the same goal. Even to more 
recent times may these remarks be applied. While the eastern coasts of Africa, and the 
upper shores of Asia, as not bearing on the grand question of oriental traffic, were com- 
paratively neglected and forgotten, Cook and Vancouver, who were in quest of a passage 
between the two oceans, surveyed every nook and cranny of A. from Columbia river to 
Behring’s strait. Nor yet have the aspirations of Columbus and his noble band of suc- 
eessors and imitators been altogether disappointed. Thatsame continent which, in their 
case, barred a west ward advance along nearly the whole interval between the arctic and 
antartic circles, has to us already become, or is gradually becoming, more than a substi- 
tute for the ocean which it was found so extensively to displace. By means of the railway 
across the isthmus of Panamu, and with the completion of the interoceanic ship canal (q.v.) 
through Nicaragua, the Caribbean sea and the Pacific ocean will be practically united. 
Three interoceanic railways have been chartered in Mexico. In the United States, six 
ereat lines with their connecting roads, virtually bring the e. and w. shores near together ; 
the average time required to make the journey across the continent (seven days) being 
little more than was formerly spent by stage coaches between Boston and New York. 
The Canadian Pacific railroad adds one more to these agents of transportation. The 


America. 358 
Pennsylvania railroad, originally connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburgh, now embraces 
an uninterrupted line from ocean to ocean, with numerous branch lines, and forms the 
longest line of railway in the world, being 8278 m. in length. 

But Columbus found something better than what he himself or his successors and 
imitators looked for. He had discovered a land which, besides eclipsing India in the 
richness and variety of its commerce, was to confer on Europe a still more solid benefit. 
Colonization, which, since the early ages of Greece, had slumbered for 2000 years, re- 
ceived an impetus which, after building up empires in the west, was to build up others 
in an east richer far than that which was so long the loadstar of European navigators— 
an east where, almost without a metaphor, the grass was to be wool, and the stones to be 

old. 

e The first fruits of Columbus’s enterprise were the Bahamas, Watling’s Island probably 
being the spot where he landed on the 11th of Oct., 1492. Without attempting, in so 
summary a sketch as this, to distinguish the results of each of his four voyages from 
each other, it may be sufficient to state that this great man, besides Hispaniola, or St. 
Domingo, Cuba, Jamaica, and others of the Antilles, discovered and explored Central 
A. from Honduras southward along the coast of Veragua, and South A. from the mouths 
of the Orinoco westward, as far as Margarita. It was on this last-mentioned scene of his 
operations that he was followed by Hojeda, whose pilot, Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.), has 
been allowed to wrest from Columbus the glory of giving his name to the new world. 
Within twenty years after Columbus’s first discovery, Ponce de Leon-discovered Florida ; 
and, what was certainly of far more consequence, he ascertained that, through the strait 
which separated that peninsula from the Bahamas, there constantly ran astrong current 
to the n.e. In 1513, again, just one year later, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the isth- 
mus of Darien to the Great South sea, or, as it was afterwards named, the Pacific ocean. 
About thirteen years before this last event, almost immediately after Columbus’s own 
continental explorations, the interval left between his most southerly point from Hon- 
duras, and his most westerly point from the Orinoco, was, in a great measure, filled up 
by the voyage of Bastidas. To the s.,-again, of the Orinoco, Pinzon and Solis sailed 
along the continent down to 40° s. lat., between the years 1500 and 1514. The former, 
after anticipating, by a few months, the Portuguese on the shores of Brazil, had seen the 
Amazon; and the latter, sent out for the express purpose of entering, if possible, Bal- 
boa’s Great South sea, found his way into the La Plata or Plate, being there slain by the 
neighboring natives. Moreover, to return to the northward, by the year 1519, different 
navigators had between them completed the examination of the gulf of Mexico. Within 
twenty-seven years, therefore, after Columbus’s first departure from Spain, the eastern 
shores of South and Central A., had been almost continuously explored by the Spaniards 
down to within 15° of the southern extremity of the continent. 

Nor had other nations been idle in the n. The Cabots, on behalf of England, had dis- 
covered Newfoundland, and portions of the adjacent continent, in 1497. In 1500, the 
Portuguese, under the Cortereals, sailed along the coast of Labrador nearly up to Hud- 
son’s bay, having, it is supposed, entered the gulf of St. Lawrence, long known among 
them as the gulf of the Two Brothers. Thus gradually there grew up the opinion, since 
proved to have been the true and sound one, that any practicable passage between the 
two oceans must be looked for towards the s. of the Plate. Accordingly, in 1519, Magel- 
Jan, a Portuguese in the service of Spain, undertook the vovage in which was discovered 
the strait that bears his name—a voyage which furnished the first instance of the cir- 
cumnavigation of the globe. Thus there remained little to be done, unless in the ex- 
treme n, and the extreme s. In the extreme s., Schouten, a Dutch navigator, discovered, 
in 1610, the passage round cape Horn; while, six years thereafter, Lemaire, a mariner 
of the same nation, passed through the strait of his own name between Staten Island and 
Terra del Fuego. Towards the n., again, the French and English divided the labors 
and honors of the enterprise between them. Scarcely had Magellan’s companions—for 
he had himself been killed—returned to Europe, when Verazzano, under the auspices of 
Francis I. of France, sailed along what are now the Atlantic shores of the United States, 
thereby connecting the discoveries of the Cabots with those of Ponce de Leon; and 
again, about ten years later, Jacques Cartier, in the service also of the same prince, ex- 
plored the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, penetrating as far to the westward as the 
island of Montreal. In the extreme n., however, the English may be said to have been 
without a rival. It is unnecessary, in this summary sketch, to do more than mention 
names which tell their own story on every map—Davis, Baffin, Lancaster, and Hudson. 
(See these heads.) 
_ To pass now to the western coast of A. The conquerors of Mexico and Peru effected, 
in a few years, more perhaps than they left behind them for future ages to effect, rang- 
ing along the coast from the southern extremity of Chili to the peninsula and gulf of 
California. Beyond lower California, the only direction in which there was much to do, 
the English Drake, whose voyage took place in 1578, divided with the Spaniards the 
credit of having discovered upper California. For nearly two centuries, excepting the 
half-fabulous voyages of Fonte and Fuca, the Spaniards and the English alike slumbered 
over their task; and it was not until towards the close of the last century, that Cook and 
Vancouver co-operated with Spanish and American navigators in dispelling the mystery 
that had so long hung over the n.w. coast of A. 

To advert to inland discoveries: As early as 1537, within six years after the landing 


359 America, 


of Pizarro in Peru, and within two after the founding of Buenos Ayres, the Spaniards 
met each other on the eastern borders of Peru, from the opposite shores of the continent ; 
and, in 1540, within three years more, they sent forth that eastward expedition which 
ended in Orellana’s exploration of the Amazon, from its source to its mouth, In the 
northern half of the continent, similar enterprises were of a much later date. It was in 
1682 that the French first descended the Mississippi ; it was in 1771 that Hearne traversed 
the wilderness from Hudson’s bay to the mouth of the Coppermine ; and it was respect- 
ively in 1789 and 1793 that Alexander Mackenzie reached the mouth of the river that 
bears his name, and passed through what is now British Columbia, to the shores of the 
Pacific ocean. 

Colonization.—Among the European powers that colonized A., the most prominent 
were Spain, Portugal, France, and England. 

Spain, of course, took the lead, having, with few exceptions, accomplished its task 
before any rival state had entered on its share of the work. In one respect, its colonies 
differed from all others on the new continent. Spain alone came in contact with 
civilization, such as it was among the aborigines; and accordingly, in the cases of 
Mexico and Peru, colonization required to be preceded by something like regular war 
and formal conquest. But, notwithstanding this peculiar obstacle, the colonies of Spain 
grew at first with a rapidity which, perhaps, has scarcely found its parallel even in the 
somewhat congenial case of Australia. As an illustration of this—for the statement 
needs no proof—it was colonial resources that armed Cortes and Pizarro for their 
respective enterprises. Without the direct and immediate aid, in either instance, of the 
old country, Cuba, within 27 years after the first discovery, equipped the conquerors of 
Mexico; while the town of Panama, only 12 years later, sent forth the adventurers that 
were to subjugate Peru. So unexampled a degree of vigor and vitality continued to 
advance in Spain’s transatlantic possessions, precisely while they were so organized and 
conducted as to afford scope to individual ambition. Never, perhaps, was this scope 
sufficiently free and full, for, even from the beginning, government often embarrassed 
and blighted the fairest schemes by its jealous and suspicious interference. But, for a 
time, it generally found its account in tolerating the unrestricted liberty, or license, of 
its instruments. It was, therefore, only after law and order were established, and the 
original actors had disappeared from the scene, that the authorities of the mother- 
country stereotyped, as it were, their despotism along the length and breadth of every 
colony. From that moment, vigor and vitality were succeeded by stagnation and torpor. 
Still, with such elements of prosperity on every side—above the earth and below it— 
material interests could not fail to flourish. But the soul had fled; the body alone 
remained behind. Under these circumstances, Spain, though continuing to claim the 
entire continent to the n., more especially on the Pacific, did very little to enforce its 
pretensions. To this remark, New Mexico and upper California were the only 
exceptions. It was not before 1594 that New Mexico was at all occupied; and it was 
not till a century later that the province, after 10 years of bush-fighting, was finally 
subdued; while it was only in 1767 that the Franciscans, on behalf of Spain, took 
possession of upper California. But Spain never abandoned the hope of extending its 
dominions towards the n.w. coast. As late as 1790, that power, while restoring Nootka 
sound, and acknowledging England’s right of planting other settlements, took the pre- 
caution, useless as it proved, of expressly reserving a similar right to itself; and it was 
only in 1819, nearly 30 years later, that Spain formally ceded to the United States all its 
claims to the coast above the parallel of 42°. See further under the separate head of 
AMERICA, SPANISH. 

The efforts of Portugal, in the cause of American colonization, were at first less 
energetic than those of Spain. In fact, Portugal, which had doubled the cape of Good 
Hope in the year 1497, was so zealously engaged in the east as to allow an age to elapse 
before sending any celony to Brazil. The discovery of the country took place in 1500; 
but its colonization only in 1531, or rather 1548. Within 82 years thereafter, in 1580, 
Brazil, at the same time as Portugal itself, was annexed to the Spanish monarchy, soon 
afterwards falling, in this its new character, partly into the hands of the revolted 
Hollanders. In 1640, Brazil, as well as Portugal, threw off the Spanish yoke with the 
help of the Dutch settlers. Butthe continued presence of the latter retarded the progress 
of the colony. It was only after their expulsion, that the Portuguese, who had lost 
nearly everything in India, turned their attention more largely to Brazil. It accordingly 
became the most flourishing colony, as such, tothe s. of the English settlements; and, 
as the refuge of the house of Braganza from French domination, it received, about 50 
years ago, an impetus which has rendered it, as an independent state, the most flourish- 
ing power of southern America. 

France, as the claimant to the basins of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, may be 
said rather to have pitched campsthan to have planted colonies in those vast possessions. 
She regarded A. chiefly 4s a supplementary battle-field for England and herself. Every 
French settlement was but an inert part of a political machine, powerful, indeed, but 
unwieldy, expensive, and unproductive. The government was everything, and the 
individual subject was nothing. Hence, neither Louisiana nor Canada at all realized our 
idea of a colony. In corroboration of this may be cited two authentic and official facts. 
As an encouragement to marriage, rewards and exemptions were held out to the parents 


America. 360 


of three children; and the erection of a dwelling on a lot of less than 40 arpents (about 
82 acres) was prohibited by a royal ordinance. In1762, France gave up Canada to Eng- 
land, and, as an indirect concession also to the same power, transferred Louisiana to 
Spain—events which, singularly enough, did much to facilitate France’s grand scheme, 
the separation from England of her old colonies. 

England, the most energetic and successful of all in the work of colonization, was the 
last in the field among the four powers already mentioned. Among her continental 
colonies, to say nothing of Newfoundland, Virginia, the oldest, was established in 1607, 
just 4 years after the union of the crowns; and Georgia, the youngest, as late as 1788. 
‘With these two exceptions, the remaining 11 were, one and all, founded during that 
period of civil and religious troubles which, in the mother-country’s own history, sent 
one Stuart to the scaffold, and drove another into exile. In 1620, Massachusetts was 
occupied by Pilgrim emigrants; in 1623 and 1631 respectively, New Hampshire and 
Connecticut were first settled; in 1634, Maryland was granted to lord Baltimore, a 
Roman Catholic nobleman ; in 1636, Rhode Island became a refuge for Roger Williams, 
banished from Massachusetts ; in 1653, North Carolina became an offshoot from Virginia ; 
in 1664, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were taken from the Dutch; in 1670, 
South Carolina was established; and in 1682, Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn, 
the Quaker, continuing to be a!proprietary government down to the revolution. In 
nearly all these cases, the civil and religious liberties for which chiefly the colonists 
expatriated themselves, were secured by liberal, nay, virtually republican charters. 
Subject only to the appointment of a governor on the part of the crown, every colony 
was practically a state within itself; and it isa suggestive fact that the very earliest 
assertion of legislative superiority on the part of the mother-country was 7 and 8 Will. 
III. c. 22, which, however, only operated negatively by forbidding every colony to make 
laws repugnant to those of England. With such aspirations and such institutions, the 
enterprising inhabitants of a new home could not fail to prosper ; while their prosperity 
was rendered more solid and permanent by the comparative poverty of a region where 
steady industry in agriculture or in the fisheries, was, as it were, a necessity of life. 
Under these circumstances, the germs of political independence were at work long before 
the year 1765; and itis not merely a probability, but a fact, that the expulsion of the 
dreaded power of France from Canada and Louisiana, in 1762, was closely connected 
with the troubles which so soon began. 

The colonization of the West Indies, Guiana included, will be seen at a glance in the 
appended table of American governments. 

It may be added, in conclusion, that the whole of A. is now in the hands of European 
races, including the aboriginal Araucania in thes. of Chili, and excepting the African 
republic of Hayti, otherwise known as Hispaniola or St. Domingo, the oldest among the 
colonies of Spain. 

American Antiquities.—The architectural remains, to which we have already alluded 
in connection with a general estimate of aboriginal civilization, are to be found in each 
of the grand divisions of the new continent. To begin from the north. That portion 
of the United States which lies between the Appalachians and the Rocky mountains 
presents in three groups at once the oldest and the rudest monuments of by-gone times: 
the first group extending from the sources of the Allegheny to the waters of the Missouri; 
the second occupying the Mississippi valley, vaguely so defined; and the third stretching 
from South Carolina to Texas. These several groups, apparently with very little difference 
among themselves, consist of numberless mounds, and circumvallations of earth and 
stone—1500 of the latter, and 10,000 of the former, being said to stud Ohio alone. The 
erections themselves range from 5 to 80 ft. in height; while the areas inclosed—generally 
of some symmetrical figure, such as circle or ellipse, rectangular parallelogram or regular 
polygon—vary from 20 to 40 acres, though among a few of greater extent, one in Arkan- 
sas is stated to embrace a square mile. The circumvallations, moreover, seem generally 
to contain the mounds; and sometimes a smaller circumvallation is surrounded by a 
larger one. Whether these colossal structures were intended for worship or for defense, 
it is impossible to decide; more probably, however, they were of a military character, 
provided, as they ordinarily were, with cisterns for water. But, whatever their origin, 
they derive interest from the analogous fact, that, within the same territorial limits, have 
been dug up vases of earthenware or copper in elegant forms, pipe-bowls decorated with 
human heads of the type of the existing aborigines, or with those of birds, etc., domes- 
tic utensils, personal ornaments, hatchets of stone, and, lastly, weapons of copper or 
mica, or shell or obsidian.—The architectural remains of Central and South A. are at 
once of more modern origin and more elaborate character, and may be roughly com- 
pared with the cyclopean ruins in Italy and Greece. Uniformly in the pyramidal style 
—a style likely enough to be indigenous in a region of earthquakes—they are composed 
of blocks generally huge, and sometimes enormous; those in the walls of Tiahuanaco in 
Bolivia being equivalent to cubes of about 16 ft. each way. Between those of South A. 
and Central A., however, there are diversities as well as resemblances. Those of South 
A., situated, as they are, within the native limits of Peru, and referred, as they must be, 
to its closing era under the incas, cannot reach back beyond the Spanish conquest more 
than 300 or 400 years: the principal ruins are those of Tiahuanaco, already mentioned; 
of a temple on an island in lake Titicaca; of another edifice of the kind at achacamac, 


36 ii America, 


not far from Lima; and of the palaces and mausoleums of the royal race. Those of 
Central A.,again, are reckoned to be considerably more ancient, reaching five or six 
centuries further back, and being partly the work of the Aztecs, whom the Spaniards 
conquered, and partly of the Toltecs, whom the Aztecs had themselves supplanted. Nor 
is the fact altogether without significance, that, in the two more southerly divisions of 
the continent, those mysterious records of the past are generally superior in development 
in proportion as they are anterior in age; those of Central A., as a whole, surpassing 
those of South A.; and, again, within Central A. itself, the earlier specimens of Oaxaca, 
Guatemala, and Yucatan, eclipsing the later ones of Mexico proper. While attempting, 
in the light of these remains, to appreciate aboriginal civilization, we cannot fail to be 
struck rather with their magnitude than with their beauty, rather with the evidence of 
despotism in the ruler than with traces of skill in the subject—Stonehenge affording us 
infinitely more of a parallel than Windsor castle or Westminster hall. Nor does the 
sculpture, so often subsidiary to the architecture, lead toa more favorable inference, being 
generally rude and clumsy, and sometimes grotesque and hideous. The only safe con- 
clusion is this, that, in the new world as in the old, there were different degrees of civili- 
zation; some of them confessedly higher than one could have expected in the utter 
absence of the useful metals, and the almost utter absence of beasts of burden. Nor has 
even this conclusion any necessary bearing on the better organized communities at large. 
Stray visitors of a higher type might have produced all the phenomena—visitors pre- 
cisely such as appear to have figured in the traditions both of Mexico and Peru. 

Geology.—The geology of the new world presents some remarkable contrasts to that 
of the districts in the old world which have supplied the types of geological classifica- 
tion. None of these is more striking than the enormous extent of country which one 
formation occupies, and that without interruption. It has long been noticed that the 
rock-structure of islands is more varied than that of continents; and thus it is that the 
inhabitants of the British isles have been to some extent compelled to become acquainted 
with geology. A journey of a few hours presents to the traveler rocks which, as regards 
both their mineral and fossil contents, are widely different. In A.,on the other hand, 
one may travel for days over beds belonging to a single epoch. American strata often 
stretch from the Atlantic w. beyond the Mississippi. They have, on the whole, been 
subjected to few disturbing agencies; as is evidenced by the absence of any true moun- 
tain-range, except the Appalachians, e. of the Rocky mountains. The rocks of Britain, 
from their disposition and variety, have been, so to speak, the ‘‘ primer” and ‘‘ pocket 
manual” of this science, and will always continue to be the ‘‘ vade mecum” of the geolo- 
gist; but should he desire to peruse the large ‘‘ folios” that contain the stony records of 
our earth’s history, in their order and natural vastness, he must betake himself to the new 
world. 

It is not many years since attention was first directed to American geology, but dur- 
ing the short time that has intervened, its progress has been very remarkable. This has 
resulted from the Federal and state provision for extensive geological surveys in the 
United States, from the vigorous operations of the Canadian survey under Sir W. E. 
Logan, and from the observations of arctic explorers, whose frequent visits to these 
regions in search of the ill-fated Franklin have supplied data for the exposition of their 
natural history. Humboldt, though the first, is yet the most important of S. American 
observers. The numerous facts recorded by him have been confirmed and added to by 
recent travelers. Data have been thus supplied to form an approximate estimate of 
the geological structure of this portion of the American continent. 

The names of N. American observers are almost past reckoning, yet the various sys- 
tems may be said to have been chiefly laid open by four sets of observers— Morton for the 
cretaceous, Conrad for the tertiary, Hall and the New York geologists for the paleeozoic, 
and the professors Rogers for the carboniferous strata and the Appalachians. 

In the following rapid sketch of this subject, we can do nothing more than glance at 
the various formations, and must refer for details to the articles under the different divi- 
sions of America. ; 

The oldest strata are a range of CRYSTALLINE Rocks which, in North A., occupy an 
area that extends from the northern shores of lake Superior and the banks of the St. 
Lawrence, n.w. to the Arctic ocean, and lies between the line of minor lakes (Slave, 
Winnipeg, etc.) and Hudson’s bay. The average width of this area is about 200 m., and 
its length from lake Superior to its termination on the shores of the Arctic sea is more 
than 1500 miles. The rocks are chiefly gneiss, with granite and trap. They form a flat 
plateau, very little elevated above the surrounding country, and only in the Copper 
mountains rising to the altitude of hills, the highest of which is 800 ft. above the sea- 
level. In this immense plain we have an example of the great characteristic of Ameri- 
can geology—the tranquil operation of an upheaving force, exerted over a wide area, 
with limited and regulated intensity, and constancy of direction. This series of rocks 
stretches over nearly the whole of the eastern portion of South A., extending from the 
northern shores to the mouth of the La Plata, being, however, hidden in the valley of 
the Amazon by its alluvial deposits. The same rocks form the western slopes of the 
Andes and Rocky mountains, and the plains of Russian A. In the central district, in 
which we first traced them, they dip e. and w. under the silurian strata. They are them- 


362 


America. 


selves free from superincumbent beds, showing that even in the silurian age they formed 
dry land; and ever since, although subject, like the rest of the world, to great oscillation, 
they have apparently held their place with wonderful stability, for they are pow, as 
probably then, not far above the level of the sea. Me, 

On either side of this tract there exists, as we have said, a SILURIAN district. That 
on the eastern side, reaching to Hudson’s bay, has a low and uniformly swampy aspect; 
the strata are hid by superficial deposits, chiefly bowlder clay or drift, large bowlders 
from which are scattered along the shore. The silurian rocks under which the crystal: 
line strata dip on their western limits, cover a large extent of the North American con 
tinent. They have been traced from Canada and New England, bounding the southern 
limits of the azoic rocks along the line of the great lakes, and extending in a broad 
band of some 200 m. parallel to the more ancient formation, probably till they reach the 
Arctic ocean. These rocks are only slightly developed in South A., on the eastern slopes 
of the Andes. 

The silurians have been divided into lower and upper, and each of these containg 
three periods. Beginning with the lower, we have first the 

Potsdam period, comprising beds of slate and sandstone, and containing fossils repre- 
sentative of the three great divisions -* the animal kingdom—mollusks, articulates, and 
radiates. Next follows the 

Trenton period, a period of limestones indicating a sea of greater depth, and teeming 
with life, for some beds are composed entirely of shells and corals. 

Another change, and rocks of a clayey and shaly structure are deposited, containing 
numberless zoophytes and other fossils, and forming the Hudson period. 

The upper silurian division also comprises three epochs: The Medina and Clinton, 
composed of sandstones and shales; then the Niagara and Onondaga, with limestones: 
and saline rocks; and, lastly, the lower Helderberg period, a richly fossiliferous series of 
limestone rocks. 

The silurian beds on their southern and western borders dip under the Devonian 
rocks, which are developed to a large extent north of lat. 72° n., where they appear to 
rest upon the azoic rocks. They have been divided into five periods: Oriskany, upper 
Helderberg, Hamilton, Chemung, and Catskill. 

Vast beds of conglomerate overlie the devonian rocks, and form the basis of the 
CARBONIFEROUS Strata. This formation covers large districts in New Jersey and Penn- 
sylvania, and in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, with an enormous thickness of lime- 
stone, shale, and other beds, which still continue parallel to the previous. At the close 
of the carboniferous epoch, the whole character of North A. was altered by the forma- 
tion of its mountain systems. No hill higher than Copper mountain seems to have ex- 
isted at this time, although the land occupied much the same area, and hada similar 
outline as at present. The Professors Rogers, having with perfect success unraveled 
the contortions of the Appalachians, have shown that the silurian, devonian, and car- 
boniferous strata, which were originally laid out in horizontal layers, were afterwards. 
pressed on to the north-westward, and folded up till the folds were of mountain height. 
To similar causes do the Rocky mountains and the Andes owe their origin—only the 
directions of the forces are different. 

The Appalachian fires have long been extinguished; they have, however, left traces 
of their former violence in the highly metamorphosed silurian and carboniferous rocks 
of New York and Pennsylvania, which were long supposed to be primary granite, etc. 
The igneous agency, which at first raised the western range, is still active at intervals 
throughout its course. 

There seems to have been a rest in the deposition of sedimentary strata at this time. 
The only activity was that of the earthquake and the volcano. Two whole formations— 
the permian and triassic—have no place in the rock-structure of A. The first renewed 
signs of life are discovered in the sandstones which occupy the valleys on the eastern 
side of the Appalachians. In these beds, which belong to the Ooxrrrc period, occur the 
tracks of birds and reptiles, discovered and described by prof. Hitchcock. 

In the Cretaceous beds which follow, evidence is given that the Mexican gulf ex- 
tended far up the Missouri valley, and sufficiently deep to cover Texas and Nebraska 
with the beds which belong to this formation. 

The Tertiary formation is developed as a band of about 60 m., forming the southern 
extremity of North A., and stretching from North Carolina to the peninsula of Yucatan, 
leaving the coast-line only at the delta of the Mississippi. This formation occupies a large 
amount of the surface of South A. From Patagonia to Venezuela it can be traced occupy- 
ing the space intervening between the base of the Andes and the azoic rocks of Brazil and 
Guiana. The older silurian and carboniferous deposits are not found in the positions they 
occupy in the northern continent; the gneiss, etc., dip directly under the tertiaries.—The 
valleys of the Amazon and the La Plata, and the mouth of the Mississippi, contain exten- 
Sive alluvial deposits. 

There only remain two post-tertiary beds, which, however, are of considerable impor- 
tance—viz., the bowlder clay and the river terraces or loess, containing the remains of the 
mastodon and of the elephant. The bowlder clay occurs in the country n. of lat. 40° 
n.,and in Patagonia in South A. Its characteristics are the same as that in the old 


363 America, 


world—a stiff clay, containing bowlders of all sizes, some being as much as one or two 
thousand tons weight. The origin of this remarkable deposit is ascribed to the former 
prevalence of vast glaciers over the n. and s. parts of A. 

The pampas of South A. are covered with a deposit of clay and sand, containing 
the bones of the megatherium and mylodon, genera allied to the sloths, and of the glyp- 
todon, a huge armadillo. For details, see ANDES, APPALACHIANS, Rocky MouNnrAINS, 

Botany.—On the discovery of A., Europeans regarded with astonishment its vegetable 
and animal productions, so different from all that they had ever seen before. The dif- 
ference between the productions of the old and new worlds is least remarkable in the 
most northern regions. Around the n. pole, a region having a flora and fauna which may 
properly be designated arctic, includes portions of the three continents of Europe, Asia, 
and A.; and many productions are common to these three continents throughout this 
segion, Whilst those which are peculiar to one, are generally represented in the others 
by species nearly allied. In A., this region extends to the northen shores of lake Supe- 
rior. The polar bear haunts the arctic regions of the old and new worlds alike; and 
further s., in both, the beaver builds his dam, and is pursued for his skin. Pine and 
birch are the chief trees of all the most northern forests, and struggle on, dwarfed and 
stunted, towards the regions of perpetual snow; whilst the berries of different species of 
rubus and vaccinium (bilberry, etc.,) are the last fruits which the soil offers to man 
during the brief summer of the north—alike to the Laplander and the Esquimaux. 

More to the s., the flora and fauna of A. become more decidedly different from those 
of the old world; yet the difference consists not so much in the appearance of new fami- 
lies as in new species, replacing, so to speak, those of Europe and of Asia. The forests 
consist chiefly, as in these continents, of pines, oaks, birches, and willows; but the 
pines, and oaks, and birches, and willows are not the same as those which cover the 
plains and mountains eastward of the Atlantic. The same remark applies to poplars, 
elms, planes, maples, hazels, and other kinds of trees, and to plants of humbler growth, 
as roses, brambles, strawberries, bilberries, etc., the pasture grasses, and the common 
flowers and weeds, although umbelliferous and cruciferous plants are comparatively rare. 
Not unfrequently, also, forms occur more completely different from those of the other 
quarters of the ~world, and these become more numerous as we proceed southward; 
although the magnolias, which form so admirable a feature of the flora of the southern 
Alleghanies and other southern parts of North A., have recently been found equally to 
characterize that of the e. of Asia and of the Himalaya mountains, where magnificent 
species of rhododendron have also been discovered, rivaling or excelling those which are 
natives of the United States, and very different from the dwarf shrubs which represent 
the same genus on the mountains of Europe. It is remarkable that no true species of 
heath is found in A., although many shrubs of the same family occur, but none of them 
so strongly exhibiting the soctal character, or covering great tracts, as the heaths do in 
Europe. Where the climate begins to assume a tropical character, however, A. is dis- 
tinguished by the abundance of the cacti (the prickly pear and its allies) which are 
found on its plains, often forming the greater part of their vegetation. The species of 
this order, so far as is yet known, are exclusively American, although some of them have 
been introduced into the warmer parts of the old world, and are now very common in 
the s. of Europe and elsewhere. The mountains of Mexico are, to a large extent, 
clothed with oaks and pines, most of them, however, different not only from those of 
the eastern continents, but even from those of the more northern parts of A. The flora 
of tropical A. resembles that of Asia and Africa in its palms, although these also are 
with few exceptions different in species; and the species are more abundant than in any 
other part of the world. It appears, indeed, that palm-forests like those of South A. 
scarcely exist elsewhere. ‘The forests of the hottest parts of South A. produce also many 
remarkable trees of other kinds, among which may be mentioned the trees of the order 
lecythidacew (q.v.), one of them known as the cannon-ball tree, and all of them producing 
huge fruits, with thick hard shells, which are often used for domestic purposes; whilst 
within the shell of a particular species are packed together the well known Brazil nuts 
{q.v.) of our shops. In the waters of the same region has recently been discovered the 
victoria regia, the most magnificent of water-lilies, and for the growth of which, hot- 
houses containing ponds of water have been erected in our own country, The forests of 
this part of A. are so dense and full of underwood, and the trees so bound together by 
ianas or twining plants, that they are in many places impenetrable, and the animals 
_ which inhabit them either find their way among the branches, or by narrow paths, 

which they keep open by constant use. The treeless plains of South A., like those of 
North A., have, in general, much of a grassy vegetation. Part of the elevated regions 
of the Cordillera, within the torrid zone, is remarkably characterized by the presence of 
cinchone, which form its principal botanical feature, and yield the celebrated Peruvian 
bark. In still more elevated regions, escalloni@ and calceolarie give a novel aspect to a 
vegetation otherwise very similar to that of Europe in its general character, and con- 
taining saxifrages, gentians, and many other plants of genera common in the old world. 
The flora of Chili presents also some interesting points of resemblance to that of New 
Holland and New Zealand. An araucaria, now not unfrequent in our pleasure-grounds, 
appears as a representative of the pines; and its seeds afford a large part of the food of 


364 


the natives of the district in which it abounds. Towards the strait of Magellan, vegeta- 
tion again assumes forms more similar to those of Europe. The forests consist in great 
part of peculiar species of beech. Barberries, different from those of other parts of the 
world, but very nearly resembling them, are particularly abundant; and with them 
occur brambles, saxifrages, gentians, primroses, etc. ‘There are also vegetable produc- 
tions very different and peculiar, as the winter’s bark, which has obtained some reputa- 
tion asa medicine. From this region are derived several species of the fuchsia now so 
familiar an ornament of gardens, greenhouses, and cottage windows in Britain, and 
which are exclusively American. 

Maize is one of the most important of the botanical productions of A. It is the only 
cultivated grain of American origin; it was in cultivation before the discovery of A. by 
Europeans, by whom, however, its value was soon recognized, and it has now become 
an important crop in climates suitable for it in all quarters of the world. The other 
grains have all been introduced into A. by Europeans, with the sugar-cane, the banana 
and plantain, coffee, cotton, flax, and many other plants now generally cultivated both 
in the tropical and temperate regions. The yam is regarded as amongst its native pro- 
ductions, common to its tropical regions with those of other quarters of the world. 
Tobacco is a native production of A., the cultivation and use of which extended from it 
to the old world, and rapidly became prevalent among a great part of mankind. (It is 
indeed supposed by some that there is a species of tobacco indigenous to the’furthest east ; 
but this, and the question of its use there before it was made known from A., are still 
involved in uncertainty.) But of all the vegetable productions of A., the potato is the 
most important and useful. We owe to it also the Jerusalem artichoke; and it produces 
several other plants, valuable for their roots and tubers, as the arracacha, the melloco, 
etc., the use of which has scarcely yet extended beyond their native regions. With them 
may be mentioned the quinoa, which is not a grain (the seed of a grass), but the seed of 
a species of chenopodium, or goosefoot, resembling the seeds of the cereal grasses in its 
qualities, and extensively cultivated on the high table-lands of Chiliand Peru. Tapioca, 
arrow-root, cocoa, vanilla, pimenta or Jamaica pepper, and Cayenne pepper, are among 
the native productions of the tropical parts of A. The agave (q.v.) or American aloe, 
valuable both for its fiber and its juice, has now become common in the warm parts of 
Europe, and in similar climates in other quarters of the globe. The pine-apple isa 
native of tropical A., although now naturalized, or nearly so, in other tropical regions. 
Tropical A. and the West Indies produce also many other fine fruits, among which are 
the guava, different species of anona or custard apple, and of granadilla or passion 
flower.—The forests of North A. yield much valuable timber, chiefly consisting of dif- 
ferent kinds of oak and pine. The black-walnut and hickory of the United States are 
also much esteemed. The West Indies and neighboring parts of the mainland yield 
mahogany; and from the same regions comes logwood, one of the most useful of dye- 
woods. The tropical forests of South A. produce many valuable timber-trees, of which 
perhaps the most deserving of notice are the greenheart (q.v.) or bibiri, and the mora. 
Brazil-wood and Pernambuco wood are among their dye-woods. One of the most 
remarkable productions of this region is the cow-tree (q.v.), the juice of which possesses 
many properties in common with milk, and is used instead of it. The milky juice of 
some other trees of tropical A. thickens into caoutchouc.—Different parts of South A. 
produce maté (q.v.) or Paraguay tea, a species of holly, the leaves of which possess 
properties similar to those of tea and coffee, and afford a beverage which is extensively 
used, although not yet an article of export to other parts of the world; and the coca 
(q.v), ashrub of which the leaf has been, from a remote period, employed by the Indians 
as a narcotic. 

Zoology.—In the animal kingdom, as in the vegetable, all seemed strange and new to 
Europeans when they first set foot in A. Yet here also the difference from the 
productions of Europe is not so great as in south Africa or Australia. In North A., many 
of the animals, as of the plants, of Europe are represented by others of the same genera 
or families. A few are common to the old and the new world; and in some which are 
now regarded as specifically different, the difference is not so great as readily to attract 
the notice of unscientific observers. North A. has its elk and its deers, its oxen (the 
bison, called buffalo in the United States, and the musk-ox), its sheep (the Rocky 
mountain sheep), its beavers, hares, squirrels (some of them much sought after for their 
fur), mice, rats, weasels, bats, porcupines, bears, badgers, foxes, wolves, and several 
species of feline animals, among which are the puma and the lynx. The jaguar, more. 
powerful and dangerous than any other of the feline animals of the new world, and its 
only very formidable beast, except the grizzly bear, inhabits the tropical forests of 
South A. The warm parts of South A. produce the great tapir, peccaries, sloths, ant- 
eaters, armadilloes, etc.; but the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and boar of the old 
world, have no more nearly allied representatives. The llama and its congeners, among 
which is the alpaca, are peculiar to South A., inhabiting the Andes of Chili and Peru. 
Of the animals of the old world, the most nearly allied to them is the camel, which is 
entirely wanting in the new; as was also the horse (with all its congeners), until it was 
introduced by Europeans—a sight of wonder and of terror to the Mexicans and Peruvians 
who first found themselves opposed to Spanish cavalry, but now thoroughly naturalized, 


America. 


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woman and Assiniboine child. 
13. Caribbean village. 
Mandan Indians. 


2. Dakota warrior. 3. Llama 
7. Peruvian balsa. 8. Dakota snow-shoe. 


14. Esquimaux of Prince Regent’s Bay. 
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. 22, Pipe-head from an Indian-grave. 


6. Dakota 
11. Alaskan bark-basket. 12. Inalit shrine. 


17. Aleutian lip-ornament. 18. Air-burial, 
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3865 America, 


and roaming in vast multitudes on the South American plains. The dog existed in A. before 
the days of Columbus; it existed in different varieties as a domesticated animal, and the 
same difficulty arises concerning the origin of the domesticated varieties as when those 
of the old world alone are considered. ‘The chinchilla, so valuable for its fur, is a small 
quadruped, peculiar to the n. of Chili. The opossums of North A. were the first known 
of marsupial quadrupeds—i.e., those which have a pouch for their young—and are 
described as objects of great curiosity by the earlier writers on the new world and its 
productions. Monkeys are numerous in the warm parts of the new world as well as of 
the old, and of many species; but they are not only of different species from those of 
Asia and Africa; they form a different section of the monkey family. There are no apes 
resembling the orang-outang or chimpanzee, and no baboons; but all of the American 
monkeys have long tails, and many of them prehensile tails, the latter peculiarity being 
found in none of those of the old world. ‘The absence of cheek-pouches is another 
character of the American monkeys. 

Among the birds of A. are eagles and others of the same family, vultures (among 
which is the great condor of the Andes), owls, ravens, crows, herons, thrushes of many 
kinds (of which the mocking-bird may be mentioned as a species particularly interesting), 
finches, sparrows, buntings, warblers, wrens, larks, etc. Few, however, are identical 
in species with those of Europe orof Asia. Few things in the natural history of North A. 
are more remarkable than its multitudinous flocks of pigeons. There are numerous species 
of grouse and partridge. Of the large gallinaceous birds, the first place in importance 
must be assigned to the turkey, now so common in a domesticated state in Europe, 
although in a wild state it has almost disappeared from great part of its native regions. 
Alectors and curassoes are large gallinaceous birds of Mexico, Guiana, and other warm 
parts of A. Parrots abound in the tropical forests, and although only one species 
extends northward into the United States, yet in South A., birds of this family range to 
the southern extremity of the continent. Humming-birds are peculiar to A., and are 
found not only in its tropical but in its temperate regions, of numerous species, and 
many of them of dazzling beauty, passing like bees from flower to flower, and often con- 
stituting a characteristic feature of the scenes in which they abound. Toucans and 
aracaris are among the other kinds of birds peculiar to A., and are found in South A. 
alone. Swans, geese, and ducks, with other water-fowl of many kinds, exist in great 
numbers in North A., and in the warmer parts the brilliant colors of the flamingo enliven 
some of the coasts. 

Serpents are numerous. Among them are boas, remarkable for their great size. 
Rattlesnakes, the most venomous and dreaded of the serpent tribe, are peculiar to A. 
Alligators abound in the rivers of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. ‘Turtles are 
caught in great numbers in the W. Indian seas, and fresh-water turtles abound in some 
of the tropical rivers. The bull-frog is a native of the United States, remarkable for the 
Joud noise which it makes, and which those who have been accustomed to it from 
their childhood learn to associate with all that is pleasant in nature. The lakes and 
rivers of A. abound in fish, of which many are of the salmon family, the common salmon 
itself being found as far s. as 41° n. lat., and some are of the sturgeon family. The cod- 
fisheries of the bank of Newfoundland and of the coasts of Nova Scotia are unequaled 
in productiveness; and herrings, and other species of the herring family, are taken in 
great numbers in the same seas. 

Some parts of A. are grievously infested by mosquitoes and other insect tribes, the 
vast numbers of which are extremely annoying, so that some places on the banks of 
tropical rivers are rendered almost uninhabitable. Ants and termites, or white ants, are 
very abundant in some parts of South A. Many species of wild bees are found in the 
forests, and some of them are very productive of honey; but the common hive-bee was 
unknown in A. till it was introduced from Europe. It has now become naturalized, and 
is found in the forests far beyond the settlements of white men. The cochineal insect 
of the opuntia is a native of Mexico and Central A., and the plant on which it feeds has 
long been cultivated there and in the West Indies for its sake. 

Political Divisions.—The following are the chief political divisions of A., each. 
of which will be described in its proper place. In North A., strictly so called, are 
British A. as commonly understood, the United States, and part of Mexico. In Central 
A. are the remainder of Mexico, Central A., in its political sense, comprising Guatemala, 
San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica; and, lastly, a small portion of the 
United States of Oolombia. In South A. are the rest of Colombia; thence along the 
Pacific are Ecuador, Peru and Chili, including Araucania ; whileround on the eastern 
side the Atlantic washes the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, Brazil, Guiana, and Vene- 
zucla—the interior being occupied by Bolivia and Paraguay. Finally, the West Indies. 
consist of the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles. 

The annexed tables are compiled from the Almanach de Gotha, the Statistical Abstract 
for the British colonies and other possessions and the Statesman’s Year-Book (1896), and 
the United States census report for 1890. 


366 


America, 
American. 


1. GOVERNMENTS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
Ce a) DNGCRS Tcc ie he eres 


Area in Square 


GOVERNMENTS. Miles. Population. Capitals. 
al TIED aie ETE IIE BD 
Danish America (Greenland), 1890.....+-+ s+ee cess wees 46,740 10,516 Lichtenfels. 
French asips soi (St. Pierre and Miquelon), 92... 93 6,250 St. Pierre. 
British North America — 
1. The Dominion of Canada, comprising the prov- 
inces of Ottawa. 
Canada East, or Quebec, ’91..-scereceesecceeees 228,900 1,488,535 Quebec. 
Canada W est, or Ontario, 91... cider wanaieucvere awake tenaisters 222,000 2,114,321 Toronto. 
Nova Scotia, OL. <5 00. « vsicieesieletviere S deiislarneraaee 20,600 450,396 Halifax. 
New Brunswick, ’91......2. cccccecccccscscvisvcs 28,200 321,263 Frederickton. 
Manitoba, 290 oii sictce so esleleisinera erste sjateieisiete or efevois 73,956 152,506 Winnipeg. 
British Columbia, 791 ..........-scccese eialetensiuerete 383,300 98,173 Victoria. 
Territories and Arctic Islands, ’91...........++.- 2,497 427 98,967 
Prince Edward Islands, ’91..........+2+e- stay die 2,000 109,078 Charlotte Town. 

2. Newfoundland and Labrador.......--.sseeceeee 42,200 202,040 St. John’s. 

3. Bermudas, 1893......--....0s0 ajescistets ae alstrietele’= 20 15,519 Hamilton. 
United States of America, ’90........cesseeesecseres 3,606,707 62,644,251 Washington. 
Mexico; est: 1895. 5.1! vs .ce'sic os clcia eintnteeinitate le) etstele bets eie'e 767,005 12,570,195 Mexico. 

San Salvador; ests 1994. cia vette sini creielsoteteiede eietater=istere . 7,225 803,534 San Salvador. 
Nicaragua, est. 1895. ....6+secersessssarncevecvcevece 49,200 420,000 Managua. 
Honduras, '89 22 cwicle teers) saietenatdl stalerele etches teletatoiatels atatere 43,000 396,048 P 
Guatemala, est..?9D sr ose ete cteiemeltle Miotetes areas entre oietee 63,400 1,800,000 Guatemala. 
Costa Rica, est. ’92.....-. aelhiels Sb dee eats sehen Cees 23,000 266,161 

Total | «.«:s<s ar, eistesieteeraeretersiatdeloatettaareirter tetas 8,104,973 83,967,753 

2. WEST INDIAN GOVERNMENTS... 

TEx ti, Catt Vote cic crcets Seer ene eee aetoteiiemte okeieleck ate (otcrertt eye 10,204 960,000 Port au Prince. 
Dominican Republic, est. ’88..........- Sy oginGOLOOLE 18,045 610,000 San Domingo. 
Spanish — 

Cuba, 290s jacte's an sreiesen reiterates Mase elelaisieiers Bei 41,655 1,631,687 Havana. 

Porto Rico. .) Ss devs ltas eater sie stee e's oe ee cicsts 3,550 806,708 San Juan. 
British — 

Jamaica, Ost. (940.0. sem secre Ae UGS Boast 4,200 672,762 Kingston. 

Trinidad. GStsyOavcitelectetet terete eterterctadeter ei lels. ei aioict siete 1,754 297-215 Port of Spain. 

Barbad oes, es tagot ameristar ereamenttlers evelete) svelclelele teers 166 186,000 Bridgetown. 

Grenada, GStsrg Ltr. oie eta yaterstelareltorstoneta stave efeca elles craters 133 57 “692 St. George’s. 

St. Vincent, Ol cvs oie ciatin wieicinle gee ceime minis sicieiris 122 41,054 Kingston. 

Tobago, annexed to Trinidad, Jan. 1, 1889, est. ’94.. 114 20,000 Scarboro’. 

St. Lucia ested sncntee icles) (incie ce srs lelsteetmiete «ale eeneatnte 233 45,906 Castries. 

Antigua (with Barbuda and Redonda), 1S Li onele ote tr otete 108 36,819 St. John’s. 
Montserratyecoll teetetter acta itoe «eerie erie ts Griete ic 32 11,762 Plymouth. 

St. Christopher, Basseterre. 

Nevis, Stay dre erre niet atin pines ecco eiteaielet 9s 150 47 ,€62 Charlestown. 

Anguilla 

Virgin Islands, PO Mika Stowe wre oie lore cb Stone oeeloual Cinte ate eins 58 4,639 

Dominica) *OU yee aise ai eros esa Silib el whoa eww sie eaceunie 8 291 26,841 Roseau. 

Bahama’s and Turk’s Island i Ae ATA ie Sis Af a 5,619 53,000 Naseau. 
French — 

Guadalupe and Dependencies, est. "94 .....-...eeeee 583 167,000 Basseterre. 

Martinique, O86: 20.06 005i are ceis tee taee eeies er eceens 381 187,692 St. Pierre. 
Dutch — 

Curacoa, including St. Martin’s (s. side) and several 

other islands, ’93.1..25 0 vcee ees cee cree saee vaenere 403 46,987 Wilhelmstadt. 
Danish — 

St. Croix, (D0 z epee ere aah ole valeite ate ate stevens nie tetera 74 Christiansted. 

St. Thomas, 907 smaweagitvanan = cere nemius teens tae 23 32,786 

St. John’s,’ 90 Mire etme e taal seed ne ae wien eee edad cre 21 

Total. je ¢aheg etal enacted oe die hae eee 87,919 5,874,212 

3. GOVERNMENTS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

Veneznela (1801)... 'c5. fvaaae ennierine mee: ceeee ne eens 583,943 | 2,323,527 Caracas. 
United States of Colombia, est. ’81..........cceeeeee 504,773 3,878,600 Santa Fé de Bogota. 
Hedador iiss awe Ws Bee Se woe ea ee ee eee 120,600 1,270,000 Quito. 
Paru, tg Comme reece en ee eee cece sess reoestccnd eoneesesees 463,747 2,971,844 Lima. 
Bolivia, .O8te (9S scccsit cece as cosine eR ee 567,360 2,019,549 Chuquisaca. 
Argentine Republic, 295 7m2 sk anon ee eee 1,125,086 3,952,990 Buenos Ayres. 
Uruguays eat. 04s 25 seteem caicmk oe acts cee ee ee 72.110 822,892 Monte Video. 
Paraguay: estir OAc wate teat ion an ae eee < 91,970 432,000 Asuncion. 
Chile, est: (94 nie co ee oie cnc ae ae eee 293,970 2,963,687 Santiago. 
Brazil, 790 2. tick woes eee tee eee nee RP ay 3,209,878 14,068,268 Rio de Janeiro. 
Guiana CBritigh), O56. 22. .0es as fouay reece ane: 109,000 283,278 Georgetown. 
Guiana (Dutch) or Surinam, 103 Jagr ariga be: Mae 46,060 62,469 Paramaribo. 

(pop. given exclusive of negroes.) 

Guiana (Prench), est. saci dace cane is Cee eh coe ee 46,850 22,714 Cayenne. 
Falkland Islands, '9b:i ys Veter eease ee ewdetee nena Bae 7,500 1,953 Port Louis. 
Total Sa. cae ee ay Salyer eto Gale he art ee 7,242,247 35,073,771 
Grand ‘Total of Americacsas. sey seo sence ees 15,435,139 124,915,736 


367 American 


AMERICA, BritisH. From the small beginnings specified in the general article 
above, British A., in the proper sense of the words, is now, by 10,000 sq. miles at least, 
larger than the American republic, and more extensive than any other state in the western 
hemisphere—occupying, as it does, a breadth of about 90° of long., and stretching, with 
more or less interruption, over a length of 120°. Besides touching, actually or virtually, 
every considerable power on the continent, England, in the new world as in the old, 
commands nearly every turning-point in navigation and commerce. In co-operation 
with Ireland, Newfoundland has linked together the two continents by submarine tele- 

raph. Again, with the gulf and river of St. Lawrence as its main artery, British A., in 
its ordinary acceptation, comprising Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward 
Island, and the Canadas, confederated in one ‘‘ Dominion,’’ has received from nature 
extraordinary advantages in respect to the western trade; Halifax, the Bermudas, and the 
Bahamas, are so many guardians of the gulf stream, freighted as it is with the exports of 
half a continent. Jamaica forms the first link of a chain which girds the Caribbean sea; 
Trinidad fronts the Orinoco, which is connected by the Cassiquiare with the Amazon; 
western Guiana, also, as already mentioned under another head, finds, up the Essequibo, 
its own communication with the ‘‘ king of waters’’; and, lastly, on the Atlantic side, the 
Falklands, with their Port Egmont, flank alike the river Plate and the strait of Magellan. 
Round, again, in the Pacific, British A. exerts an influence which is perhaps relatively 
greater. At the upper extremity of a coast which is, as a whole, singularly deficient in 
harbors, British Columbia, with its breastwork of islands from Vancouver’s upwards, and 
its succession of indentations, bids fair, more especially with its inexhaustible supplies of 
magnificent timber, to form an admirable base of operations for sustaining the maritime 
greatness of Britain. 


AMERICA, RussIAn, the name long given to what is now a territory of the United 
States, called Alaska, and which was purchased from the Russian government in 1867 for 
$7,200,000. It forms the north-western extremity of the American continent, and 
is bounded n. by the Arctic Ocean, e. by British America, w. and s. by the Pacific. It 
was discovered by a Russian expedition conducted by Behring (q. v.), which sailed from 
Kamtchatka in 1741. It was little better than a vast hunting-ground, and was long 
held by the Imperial Fur Company, which differed but little from the imperial govern- 
ment itself. Its principal town is New Archangel (now called Sitka), on the island of 
Sitka. The most noticeable points in geography are cape Prince of Wales, on Behring’s 
strait; Kotzebue’s sound, Norton’s sound, peninsula of Alaska, Cook’s inlet, and mount 
St. Elias. See ALASKA and UNITED STATES. 


AMERICA, SPANISH. Spanish A. is now shrunk into Porto Rico and Cuba, and 
belongs rather to history than to geography. Yet for many years it embraced nearly 
all South and Central A. and much of North A. The colonists, by becoming hunters 
after the precious metals, instead of agriculturists, and by the exclusion of all but 
natives of the mother country from public employment, caused its decay. 


AMERICAN ALOE. See AGAVE. 
AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY. See BIBLE SocrETy, AMERICAN. 
AMERICAN BLIGHT. See APHIS. 


AMERICAN ECLECTIC, or NEw SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, began to be known 
about 1825 as distinct from the regular school, and in 1826 there was an eclectic college 
founded in New York by Wooster Beach, who was the author of several text books for 
the school. Soon afterwards schools were established in Ohio and other states, and at 
a later period regular colleges in New York, Chicago, and other cities. State societies 
were formed, and in 1870 the National Eclectic Medical Association was incorporated 
by the New York legislature. In 1897 there were 22 eclectic medical colleges, with 
approximately 750 students. The school flourishes also in the British Provinces, 
and there is an eclectic association in England. The prominent feature of the school 
is the rejection of mercury and most other minerals in medicine, and the extension 
of simple hygienic treatment in disease, depending more upon the vital powers than 
upon extraneous aid. In place of minerals rejected they claim to have added a hundred 
or more to the list of vegetable medicines. 


AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR, TuX, is an organization having for its object, 
a free federation of all trade and labor unions in America; the establishment of 
self-governing unions of wage workers in every trade and legitimate occupation, 
without exception, where none now exist; the formation of public opinion by 
the agencies of platform, press, and legislation; andthe furtherance of a civili- 
zation based upon industrial progress, by securing to the toilers a reduction in the 
daily hours of labor. The National Labor Union, the prototype of the present Federa- 
tion, was founded at a convention of delegates from sixty labor unions, held in Balti- 
more, Aug. 20th, 1866. A reorganization took place at Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov. 15th, 
1881, at which the name of the Federation of Organized Trades’ and Labor Unions of 
the United States and Canada was adopted. At the convention held in Columbus, 
Ohio, December 8th, 1886, the old Federation was dissolved, and the organization under 
its present form and name came into existence. In 1897, the total membership of the 
Federation was estimated at 620,000. 


%& 


American. 368 


Americanisms. 


AMERICAN FLAG. On the 14th of June, 1777, the continental congress resolved that 
the flac of the united colonies should show 18 stripes of red and white alternating, to 
represent the number of the colonies, with 15 stars in a blue field. This became the flag 
of the United States, and a star is added for every state added to the union. The blue 
field or union is square, and has the width of seven stripes. The Us: Revenue flag has 
16 vertical stripes, alternately red and white, with a white union bearing the national 


arms in dark blue. 
AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. See HisToRicaL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN. 


AMERICANISMS, words and phrases peculiar to the United States, are classified by 
one writer on this subject (Bartlett) as follows: 1. Archaisms, obsolete, or nearly so, in 
Great Britain. 2. English words used in a different sense. 3. Words used in the orig- 
inal sense in the United States although not In Great Britain. 4. English provincialisms 
adopted into general use in America. 5. Newly-coined words owing their origin to 
productions or circumstances of the country. 6. Words derived from European lan- 
guages, especially the French, Spanish, and Dutch. 7. Indian words. 8. Negroisms. 
9. Peculiarities of pronunciation. Accepting for the present this arrangement, sub- 
stantially that of most American and English writers, we may cite as examples of archa- 
isms, fall, for autumn, freshet, to lam, in the sense of to beat, to squelch, and to tarry. 
These are only a few, for an American philologist has stated that of the words, phrases, 
and constructions found in the Bible and Book of Common Prayer, ‘‘ about one-sixth, 
which are no longer used in England in ordinary prose-writing, would apparently be 
used without thought or hesitation by an American author.” Among the many English 
words used in a different or perverted sense are darn for stable ; boards, for deals ; buggy, 
a four-wheeled vehicle,—in England, two-wheeled ; ealico, printed cotton, in England 
means unprinted ; clever, for. good-natured, —in England, generally, good-looking or skill- 
ful ; corn, for maize, whereas in England it means wheat, in Scotland, oats, and in Ire- 
land, barley ; cracker, for biscuit; depot, for station ; dress, for gown; forehanded= 
well-to-do, in England, means timely, early ; to guess, for to suppose or conclude ; hack, 
a hackney coach,—in England a hired horse ; homely=plain-featured, —in England, home, 
like or unadorned ; to jeo=to haggle,—in England, to cheat ; lékely, for promising ; lwm- 
ber, for timber ; to mazt, forto post ; notiéfy=to give notice,—in England, to make known ; 
pond, a natural pool of water,—in England, artificial ; redéable, for trustworthy ; saloon, 
for bar-room ; smart, for talented ; smudge, a smouldering fire used to drive away in. 
sects,—in England simply an overpowering smoke ; store, for shop ; tavern, for inn (a 
tavern in Great Britain provides no lodgings); temper, with us meaning passion, is in 
England control of passion ; wgly, for ill-natured ; venison, deer’s flesh,—in England, meat 
of any wild animal; vest, for waistcoat. We use also, in large number, different words 
for the same thing, as conductor, for guard ; editortal, for leader ; elevator, for lift ; horse- 
car, for tram, and sleeper, for tie. 

Examples of words retaining here their old meaning are: fleshy in the sense of stout 
offal, the parts of a butchered animal not worth salting, sick, in the sense of ill, and wilt, 
in the sense of wither. On the other hand, éo heft, meaning with us, to weigh by lifting, 
keeps, in England, its original meaning, to lift. Many words called archaic or pro- 
vincial by English writers, are widely current among Americans both in speech and lit- 
erature—among them, adze, affectation, angry (wound), andiron, bay-window, bearer (at a 
funeral), to blaze (a tree), burly, cesspool, clodhopper, counterfeit money, cross-purposes, deft, 
din, hasp, loophole, ornate, ragamuffin, shingle, stand (speakers), stock (cattle), thell, 
toudy, tramp, truck, and underpinning. Among newly-coined words and expressions 
are these, showing plainly their origin on the frontier or in the forest: backwoods, 
cache, clearing, to draw a bead, to fight fire, a gone coon, hogwallow, logging camp, prat- 
rie schooner, raft (of dead trees), squatter, squaw-man, the timber, and trapper. Ranch 
life has given us such words as corral, cowboy, roundup, and stampede ; the mining re- 
gions, bed-rock, diggings, to pan out, to prospect, and to stake a claim. From the farm and 
plantation we have obtained among others, bagasse, broom-corn, Hessian fly, Indian meal, 
and truck patch , while trade has supplied us with bogus, drummer, posted up, and to set- 
tle(a bill), Our political terms and phrases include the following, most of which are the 
subject of special articles in the Cyclopedia: Agricultural-wheel, barnburner, bloody shirt, 
boodle, buncombe, carpet-bagger, caucus, copperhead, to eat crow, dark horse, doughface, 
fence-riding, F. F. V.’s, filibuster, fire-eater, gerrymander, hunker, jayhawker, ku-klua- 
klan, loco-foco, log-rolling, Lynch law, mugwump, omnibus-bill, pipe-laying, plank, pri- 
mary, reconstruction, salt river, shin-plaster, squatter sovereignty, Tammany, wire-puller, 
Yazoo fraud. : 

Words derived from foreign languages are numerous, and one philologist (W. W. 
Crane) asserts that, though few are intelligible to English people, they are more exten- 
sively used by us than is generally supposed, and ‘‘ form the really distinctive features of 
what may be termed the American language.” Thus from the Spanish we have in cor- 
rupted or contracted form, ereole (criollo), garrote (garrota), jerked beef (charqut), key, % 
small island (cayo), lasso (lazo), mustang (mestefio), pickaninny (pequeno nino), Sambo 
(Zambo, a person of negro and Indian blood) ; stampede (estampedo); and such literally 
appropriated words as adobe, bonanza, cation, and mesa. From the French have been ob- 
tained among many, bayou (boyau, a trench), cache or cash (cacher), chowder (chaudieére), 
chivaree (charivari), metif, an Indian half-breed (métif or métis), octoroon (octavon), quad: 


American, 
369 Mimiericccaiainen 


voon (quarteron, a person one-fourth negro), and the identical butte, levee, portage, prairie, 
and voyageur. From the Dutch have come boss, an overseer or superior (baas) ; cold slaw, 
cabbage salad (Kool slaa) ; cruller (kruller), to twist ; hook, a point of land (hoek, a corner); 
noodles, an imitation of macaroni (noodlejees) ; overslough, to supersede or defeat (over- 
slaan ; to skip or pretermit) ; stoop or stoup, the step or steps of a house (stoep). Kill, a 
small stream, retains both its old sound and spelling, and Santa Claus (Klaas) receives 
as much respect as before the slight change in his name. The Germans have contrib- 
uted bummer (bummer, a braggart, a wanderer) ; loafer (léufer, an unsettled or irregular 
person) ; and probably fillipeen, philopena (vielliebchen), and dude. 

From the Indian we have chinquapin, a kind of oak (Va. Algonquin, che-chinenamin) ; 
esquimaue (Kenisteno, ashkimac) ; hominy (Va. Algonquin, ustathominy) ; moccason (Mass. 
Algonquin, mockisin) ; oppossum (apassam) ; pow-wow ( powan, a prophet or conjuror) ; 7ac- 
coon (Algonquin, aroughewn) ; sachem (sakemo); skunk (Abenakis, secancu); succotash 
(Nanaheganset, mestcmotash) ; toboggan (odabogan) ; tomahawk (Algonquin, tamahagan, a 
war-club) ; wigwam(Natic, weecwahm). Among words introduced or invented by the south- 
erm negroes are: brottus, a small gift (Ga.), bucera, a white man ; con (harvest) songs 
(Md.) ; cracklings or goody-bread, bread containing roasted pork-rinds ; enty? is that so? 
(Sea Islands); fandango, said to have been brought to the Spanish West Indies from 
Guinea; goober, a peanut (W. African guja, or Guinea gobbe-gobbe, Va. and N. C.); 
lagniappe, atradesman’s gratuity (Sp., flapa, La.) ; moonack, a mythical animal; picka- 
ninny, and pinder, a peanut (Fla.); while the Chinese word koutow or kotow, salutation 
by prostration, has (or had) a limited use in the sense of obsequious politeness. 

In the matter of pronunciation, slight differences exist. The word trazt, for instance, 
is pronounced tray by the English, the i in sliver is lengthened by them, and schedule is 
commonly pronounced shedule. We may mention here that cheerful retains in some 
parts of the South its old pronunciation, cherful. What bave been termed by Grant 
Allen ‘‘Americanisms in spelling,” examples of which are labor, offenses, and theater, are 
undoubtedly the result of the extensive use of Webster’s spelling-books and dictionary. 

Another writer (Reeves) makes the following division: 1. Eastern dialects. 2. 
Southern. 3. Western. 4. Pacific or mining, and adds as a possible 5, English-Dutch 
of Pennsylvania. This convenient arrangement enables us to separate such words and 
phrases as are limited to particular sections or localities (provincialisms) from those that 
may be called national. Beginning with New England, we have: to admire, for tolike, 
e.g., ‘‘I should admire to go ;’ to allot, or lot, for to purpose; barm, for yeast; be, 
for are or were ; bettermost ; blob, a blossom ; blowth, blossoming time ; bungtown copper, 
a counterfeit ; to calculate, for to conclude or suppose ; to coast, for to slide down hill ; 
emptin’s, lees of yeast ; to fail up; to fay, for to fit; fore-chamber, a front bedroom 
(Me.); gawnicus, a dolt; grayslick, a glassy stretch of water (Me.) ; Hessian, asa term of 
reproach ; “like, without a specified object, as, ‘‘ How did you like ?” (a place, person) ; 
long-favored, tall; man, for husband ; mush-muddle, a potpie (Cape Cod) ; pew-cart, a 
box-like carriage (Nantucket) ; pleasant, for pleasing ; pokeloken, a marsh (Me.); préest, 
for a minister of any denomination ; pung, a kind of sleigh; rifle, a whetstone for 
scythes ; sconce, for discretion ; to seep, to pour through a sieve or hole ; slip, for pew ; 
spero, & commonplace entertainment, ‘‘small doings” (Vt.); staddle, a sapling ; swant 
or suent, level, uniform ; to sugar off, to boil maple syrup down until it grains ; tack- 
ling, for harness; timbers, for skeleton of a whale; torsh, the youngest child (Cape 
Cor, to train, to move briskly (like the militia on ‘‘ training day”), to frolic ; vestry, 
the chapel or ‘‘ lecture-room” of a non-liturgical church ; vige, for voyage ; wopper (or 
whopper) jawed ; wicket, a hut or shelter of boughs (Me.); winegar, for vinegar (Essex 
co., Mass.); York shilling, ninepence. In New York state, among localisms derived 
from the Dutch, are bockey, a gourd-dipper ; fyke, a bow-net ; hoople, a child’s hoop ; 
pile, an arrow, and scwp, a swing, a name still used by children of foreign parentage on 
the ‘‘east side” of New York City. Sp, an opening between wharves, is apparently 
an indigenous English word ; the provincial English duff, dough or paste, signifies, in 
the Adirondacks, fallen and matted hemlock needles, and dimpy (probably from the 
English dimpsy, a kind of preserve) is the name given in some places to a tea-party, or 
a small social gathering at which refreshments are served. New Jersey, settled, like 
New York, both by English and Dutch, preserves in remote localities some old-world ° 
words, or perversions of the same ; for example, d/ickie, atin pail ; to hetr to, to inherit ; 
jag, a small load ; mua, disorder, and piece, a cold meal hastily prepared, or one for 
farm hands. Examples of the provincialisms of Pennsylvania, which were introduced 
by the English, Scotch-Irish, and Germans, and ia many instances have been carried 
beyond her borders by emigration, are: after-night, for after candle-light ; Aprile, for 
April (Cumberland Valley) ; darvick, a hill; bealing, for suppurating ; brickle, for brittle ; 
dipsy, the sinker of a fish-line ; dozy, timber brittle from decay ; fouty, for trifling ; to 
get shut, for to get rid ; gums, for overshoes (eastern Pa.) ; horsebeast ; to lift, a collection 
wn church, for to take up; once, for immediately ; outcry, for public auction ; to redd up, 
to tidy or arrange ; rifles, for ripples ; scrapple, an article of food ; slave,a fierce dog, 
i.e., needing to be chained (western Pa.) ; to smouch, for to kiss ; sots, common yeast ; te 
top (a candle), for to snuff ; to threap, for to argue ; yammer, a whine or whimper. 

The South has retained fully as many old English words and pronunciations as New 
England, and has originated some of the most expressive terms used in ordinary con 


370 


Americanisms. 


versation, a number of which, by emigration, have been domesticated in the West and 
on the Pacific coast. Among them are afeared, for afraid; ambia, expectoration pro 
duced by chewing tobacco (Va., Carolina); beast, for horse ; branch, for a stream of 
any size; bucket, for pail; brogan, a kind of boat (Chesapeake Bay); castaway, for 
overturned ; centrical, for central (Va.) ;_to chunk, to throw a missile ; coppen, for cow- 
pens ; complected, having a certain kind of complexion ; condeript, thrown into fits 
(Ky.); corn-dodger ; cracker, a poor white (Ga., Fla.) ; dinghy, a kind of row-boat (Fla.) ; 
dismal, a swampy tract of land (N. C.); doctous, fordocile ; donock, or donnock, a stone 
(Southwest) ; escalan, a kind of coin (La.) ; feaze or feeze, an excited state ; fice or phyce, 
a worthless cur; French, anything distasteful (Va., Md.); grunpy, for groundpea 
(Tenn.); gum or bee-gum, a hive made from a hollow tree; gumbo, okra, or a dish 
made of it; gumbo, a patois; hammock or hummock, a peculiar kind of land, often 
hilly (Fla., Tex). ; holpen, for helped ; honey-fogling, for cheating or coaxing ; hot, for hit ; 
human, for person ; Jeames, for James (Va.); kiver, for cover; lane, for any enclosed 
road ; lightwood, pine chips or knots; marooning, picnicking or traveling by carriage ; 
mammozed, seriously injured ; marvel, for marble ; maverick, an unbranded yearling 
(Texas and Southwest) ; million, for melon ; needcessity, for necessity ; or’nary, for 
contemptible; paint, a spotted horse; peart, for lively, brisk; pine-tag, for pine 
needle ; a polt, for a blow; pone, bread of Indian meal ; powerful, for very ; quarters, 
farm buildings or out-houses inhabited by negroes ; rance snifie, a malignant act (Ga.) ; 
rantankerous, for quarrelsome (Ga.); to reckon, for to suppose or conclude; rock, 
for stone; roustabout; savigrous or survigrous, fierce, alert ; slash, low ground or an 
opening in the woods ; smart, for great or considerable ; to scringe, for to flinch (Tex.) ; 
skygodlin, obliquely (Tex.) ; swash, a narrow channel of water ; lackey, for neglected or 
forlorn ; to tarrify, for to coerce ; to tote, for to carry ; trash, worthless or low-born 
persons ; to wp, used asa verb ; wsed, for used to; wain, for wagon (Md.); you-wns, for 
you. The West, using the term in its old sense, which included the interior states as 
well as the northwest and southwest, in addition to words derived from the French and 
Spanish, some of which have already been cited, has brought into its vocabulary many 
peculiar words and expressions. Such are after-clap, a demand made after a bargain is 
closed ; Arkansas toothpick, a kind of bowie-knife ; bad man, for a murderer ; bell mare, 
the horse leading a drove of mules (Southwest); to dear off, to separate a stray 
‘‘brand” by riding between it and the herd (Southwest) ; bodewash (bois de vache), dried 
cow-dung used as fuel (Southwest); to dudid, for to make shoes (Ohio); to buss, for 
to strike; catawampous or catawamptious, for terribly or completely ; country, for state 
or section ; cowbrute (Mo.); doggery, a grogshop; drink, for river ; galoot; to take a 
gird, for to make an effort ; to hustle; keener, a sharp man; lave! (léve), get up! or 
rise up! (Mississippi Valley ); docoed, for frenzied (Kansas and Southwest) ; long sweet- 
ening, for molasses(Iowa, from New England) ; main traveled road, for highway ; naked 
possessor, one without title to his farm (Southwest) ; oldermost, for oldest ; plumb sure ; 
to pull foot=to hasten ; to raise, for to obtain ; robbdloe, pemmican boiled with flour and 
water (Northwest) ; to slosh ’round, to brag, also to frequent saloons (South and West); 
sugar or sugar-tree, for maple; swn-wp, for sunrise ; swinger, the middle horses ina team 
of six ; tenderfoot, a new-comer; to trash (to cover) a trail, every whipstick, for con- 
tinually, often; worm (or snake) fence ; to zt, tosound like a bullet striking the water. 
The Pacific slope is responsible for adobe, soil from which adobe bricks are made ; to 
bach, to camp out without ladies (Cal.) ; Bostons, white men in general (Or. Indian) 

coulee, a rocky valley (Or.); claim, land to which one has a legal right; claémjwmper, 
one who forcibly takes another’s claim; to coyote, to sink a small shaft (Cal.); diggings, 
a particular locality ; hardpan; heeled, for armed; pay-streak, a profitable lode or 
vein ; rusher, a person going to the mines ; tanglefoot, bad liquor. 

Early writers on Americanisms were wont to stamp every odd or vulgar word and 
expression as American, with the lamentable result, as Richard Grant White com- 
plained, of creating a belief that there isa distinctive American language, ‘‘a barbarous, 
hybrid dialect, grafted onto English stock ;” the truth being that most of the so-called 
Americanisms were brought to this country by its early settlers, English, Scotch-Irish, 
Dutch, Germans, etc., and that many of them are now used only by the unlettered. 
The language of the ‘‘Stage Yankee,” and that of the characters in dialect-stories, 
northern and southern, is with few exceptions English ; provincial, or obsolete in the 
mother country, and not ‘‘ American” in the true sense of the word. In the county of 
Suffolk, according to Lounsbury, the following ‘‘ Americanisms” were current as re- 
cently as 1823: Apple-fritters, by gwn, chaw, cute, darnation, gal, gawky, hoss, ninny- 
hammer, ride like blazes, saace (sauce), sappy, and tantrum. White prepared a long list 
of words and phrases supposed to be indigenous, and proved their British origin by 
citing early dates at which they appear in literature, or the names of authors in whose 
works they occur. Selecting from this and indicating by the letter ‘‘a.” words known 
to be ancient, by ‘‘m.” such as are still used in provincial speech, and by ‘‘ Bible,” 
King James’ version, we submit the following: to admire, in the sense of to wish 
eagerly (Chapman’s Homer, 1655) ; to advocate (Milton) ; apart, for aside (Bulwer) ; bag- 
gage, for luggage (Fielding, T. Hughes) ; dl/zeard (m.) ; blow, for boastful talk (a. m.) ; to 
bolt, for to rush or escape (Dryden) ; bosom, applied to a man (Shakespeare) ; bull-doze 
(W. Scott); bureau, for chest of drawers (Fielding, Hare); by the skin of one’s teeth 


ada | Americanisms. 


(Bible) , catamount (a,); chaw (1530, m.); chore, light work (Ben Jonson) ; clean gone 
(Bible) ; clever, for good-natured (Elizabethan writers) ; conclude, for resolved (Tyndale, 
Froude) ; crevasse (Chaucer) ; deck of cards (Shakespeare) ; divine, for clergyman (W. Scott, 
G. Eliot) ; elect, for conclude or determine (Lord Thurlow, Ruskin) ; to enjoy poor health 
(m.) ; fadi, for autumn (Cairne, 1552; Froude); feel to, as in the expression, ‘‘I feel to 
rejoice ” (1a.) ; to fellowship (Chaucer) ; fiz, to put in place or order (Farquhar, Sterne) ; 
fleshy, for stout (Chaucer, Prof. Owen) ; folks, for people (Byron, Bulwer Lytton) ; gent 
(Pope) ; @ good time (Swift) ; grain, for all cereals (Wycliffe) ; guess, for think or sup- 
pose (Wycliffe, Milton, A. Trollope); guwmption (a. m.); heft (Sackville, T. Hughes) ; 
help, for servant (T. Hughes) ; human, for person (Chapman’s Homer) ; hung, for hanged 
(Shakespeare, C. Reade); to hustle (a.); illy (a. m.); ¢nfluential (W. Thompson, abt. 
1760) ; emprovement, of an occasion, etc. (Defoe, Gibbon) ; institution in the sense of an 
establishment or foundation (Beatty, 1784; Trollope) ; ¢xterview, to meet for conversa- 
tion (Dekker) ; to det on, for to divulge (m.); to let slide (Gower); lWémb, for leg (Field- 
ing); love, for like (Cowper); lucrative (Bacon) ; mad, for angry (Bible, Middleton) ; 
magnetic as an adjective (Donne) ; to make a visit (m.); metropolis, the chief city of the 
state (Milton, De Quincey, Macaulay) ; mdliéon, for melon (Pepys) ; musicianer (Byron) ; 
nice, pleasing or agreeable (a. m.) ; notify, to give notice (m.); notions, for small wares 
(Young); overly, for excessively (m.); parlor, for drawing-room (G. Eliot, Helps) ; 
peruse, for scan or read (W. Scott) ; professor of religion (Milton) ; pumpion (pumpkin) 
pie (1655) ; qudt, for leave off (Ben Jonson); railroad, for railway (J. H. Newman, 
Mrs. Trollope) ; rave, for underdone (Dryden) ; vélzable (Richard Montagu, 1624; Glad- 
stone) ; reckon, for suppose or conclude (Bible, W. Scott); rock, for stone (a.); run, a 
small stream (a.); séck, for ill (Bible, Evelyn); skedaddle (m.); slick (a.); span new 
(Chaucer) ; spell, a period of time (a.) ; spruce, for neat (Evelyn) ; spunky (Burns) ; swop 
(B. Jonson, Dryden); to take on, for to wail or grieve (a.); tend, for attend (Shake- 
speare) ; town as a geographical division (Wycliffe); well, prefacing a sentence (Dis- 
raeli) ; whittling (Walpole) ; and the writer would add the following, which are some- 
times ridiculed as outlandish products of the new world: a howling wilderness (Bible) ; 
Mr. —— and lady (Thackeray) ; and to set store dy, in the sense of to prize or appreciate 
(Mrs. Oliphant). Gilbert M. Tucker says that the 460 words in Elwyn’s Glossary of 
Supposed Americanisms are all of British origin ; that in Pickering’s work (1816) not 
more than 70 words out of the 500 are really American ; and that out of the 5000 or more 
entries in Bartlett’s Dictionary only about 500 are genuine and distinct Americanisms 
now in decent use. Most New Englanders, said James Russell Lowell, speaking of 
colloquialisms stil] heard in Massachusetts, stand less in need of a glossary to Shake- 
speare than many a native of the old country. It may be added that many words for- 
merly termed Americanisms are as commonly used in England as here, though not in 
polite speech or literature, such as bamboozle, chockful, duds, and sight for number, while, 
on the other hand, such old forms as ave for ask, and housen for houses, are frequently 
heard in England, and rarely here. 

Richard Grant White and Prof. Thomas R. Lounsbury limit the term Americanisms 
narrowly. According to the former, they must not have been transplanted, but must 
be perversions or modifications of English words or phrases, and must be used in the 
current speech or literature of the United States at the present day. ‘‘ Words which 
are the names of things peculiar to this country are not Americanisms except under 
certain conditions (maize, sgquaw, wigwam). They are merely names which are neces- 
sarily used by writers and speakers of all languages. If, however, any such word is 
adopted here as the name of a thing which already had an English name (wigwam, for 
hut ; sguaw, for wife), it then becomes properly an Americanism. Jndian, and names 
compounded of Indian, were given by Europeans. Indian pudding is an American 
thing, but its name is not an Americanism.” As he rejects Indian Summer, paleface, 
succotash, tomahawk and the rest, White asks, ‘‘ What have we to do with the Indian ?” 
and proceeding, crosses from the list of cherished ‘‘ Americanisms,” broncho, lacrosse, 
stampede, and their kin; abolitionist, border-ruffian, gerrymander, reservation, etc., as 
well as groundhog, long-moss, pine barrens, and saltlick, to go no further, besides refusing 
to discuss such words as ¢ntervale and water-gap, because they are ‘‘legitimate 
English.” Lounsbury, like White, objects to the expression, ‘‘ The American language,” 
and remarks of the so-called ‘‘ Yankee dialect” that it is never ‘‘the characteristic 
tongue of any one man, or of any one class, or of any one district.”” He doubts if the 
term ‘‘ Americanisms’’ can be regularly applied to cent, congress, mileage, nullification, 
and so on, and prefers to call them ‘‘ American contributions to the common language.” 

American newspapers are largely to blame forthe mongrel and high-sounding words 
heard in the United States, especially those derived from the Latin and Greek. The 
oratory of political campaigns gives rise to not a few astonishing Americanisms, and our 
humorists have coined many more that are beloved of the public. Persons of fair 
education, who, as we learn from their talk, engage in avocations, reside in a mansion, 
wear pants, donate to charities, ride to the metropolis in a smoker, retire to bed, and 
have proclivities, must be expected to use also enthuse, funeralize, landscapist, saleslady, 
and shootist, when they find them in their favorite journals, but criticism under this 
head comes with little grace from the English, whose Jeaderette is as absurd as our 
editorial paragraph, and agricultural laborer, a clumsy name for him whom we term 


372 


American. 


a farm-hand, Our colleges, Yale in particular, are prolific in slang, some of which, as 
to rattle, in the sense of to confuse, soon become common property. Most of our 
colloquial expressions are short lived, but the following may be instanced as having 
been in use for a long period: to absquatulate; to acknowledge the corn, baggage- 
smasher ; to bark up the wrong tree ; bottom dollar ; caboodle ; to boost ; to cavort ; con- 
niption fit ; not to care a continental ; a continental darn ; to chip tn ; coon, for man; a 
coon’s agé, an indefinitely long time; to dust, for to leave quickly ; to euchre out ; to 
flash in the pan; flatfooted ; gum game; highfalutin ; last o’ pea time; level best ; to 
liquor ; to mosey, to leave quickly ; obligated ; to paddle one’s own canoe ; to pan out ; 
picayune, small, mean ; to raise Cain; right away ; to run, in tne sense of to manage or 
conduct ; to saléa mine; sample room, for liquor-saloon ; shoddy, applied to a person ; 
to smile, to drink liquor; sockdologer, a finishing blow or argument; to sour on; a 
square meal ; to strike otl, to get rich suddealy ; to stwmp, for to puzzle, or challenge ; 
to talk turkey, to brag ; to trampoose, to wander aimlessly ; tuckered out ; to vamose, 
to leave quickly ; to weaken, to yield or give out. 

T. W. Higginson (see Bibliography infra), in examining a glossary of the slang used 
about 1798 by prisoners in the Castle in Boston harbor, now Fort Independence, dis- 
covered a number of words that had been classed as of recent origin, the most familiar 
of which are grud, victuals ; douse the glim, to put out the light ; and spotted, for found 
cut. Also some that are not given in any English glossaries, as driar, a saw ; nipping- 
jig, the gallows ; and wibdle, a dollar. 

In addition to words and phrases already given are the following, which appear to be 
peculiar or indigenous to the United States, and are recorded here rather according to 
Bartlett’s classification than that of White : Accountability ; alienism ; air line (railroad) ; 
backwoodsman ; barbecue ; basket-meeting ; bedrock (price); bee (sewing, spelling, etc.) ; 
to belittle; bender, a frolic ; black-jack, ram and molasses ; block (of houses) ; bluff, a 
hill or headland ; to board a train, boom » bountyjumper ; buze-saw » camp-meeting ; 
canaille, shorts, or low grades of flour; clambake; a clearing ; darkey, for a colored 
person ; deadfall, fallen and tangled trees; deadhead ; disfellowship ; dodger, a small 
handbill ; donation-party ; down Hast ; dug-out, a kind of canoe ; egg-nogg ; everglade ; 
fair, an exhibition ; gale, a pleasant excitement ; greenback ; grip-sack ; gubernatorial ; 
Indian giver, one who expects a gift returned ; ¢nstitute (teachers, etc.) ; jumper, a kind 
of sleigh ; lengthy ; levee, a reception at any time of day ; to lobby; logging; lining a 
bee; mudsill; a new departure; oval, a ball-field ; patent-outside, of a newspaper ; 
popcorn ; to pre-empt ; quite, for very ; rapids, in a stream ; sawyer, a snag in a river; 
section, a division of land ; schooner ; sinkhole ; sleigh ; snake fence ; solid colored ; a 
square (of houses) ; a suit of hair ; teeter, for tilter ; telegram ; transom, a window over 
a door,—in its original meaning, the lintel over a door; to transpire, for to happen ; 
vigilance committee ; wiguam, a building used for political speaking. Yankee, usually 
held to have been an attempt on the part of the Indians to pronounce the word English, 
is derived by a recent writer from the Dutch Jantje (pronounced Yantyea, and an equiv- 
alent of Johnnie), the nickname for the Dutch people. Sritisher, according to White, 
is a Briticism, but this is doubtful, and his statement that it is never heard in the mouth 
of an American must be taken with caution. When we remember that the dialects of 
the counties in England have marked differences, so marked indeed that it may be 
doubted whether a Lancashire miner and a Lincolnshire farmer could understand each 
other, we may well be proud that our vast country has, strictly speaking, only one 
language. It is remarkable that the influx of European immigrants has not resulted in 
some states in reducing English to a patois, if not in extinguishing it, or in giving it 
scant room in a mongrel vocabulary. Again, it might reasonably be expected that in 
the course of three centuries, the political and social changes we have undergone, and 
the peculiar circumstances attending the settlement of new regions, would have sep- 
arated us so widely from the mother country, that in spite of kinship and commercial 
and literary intercourse, some radical differences in language would have been evolved. 

_See John Witherspoon, D.D., essay in The Druid, 4th vol. (Phila., 1801) ; John Pick- 
ering, Vocabulary of Words and Phrases supposed to be peculiar to America (1816) ; 
James Russell Lowell, introduction to the Biglow Papers (1848); Alfred L. Elwyn, 
Glossary of Supposed Americanisms (1859) ; John Russell Bartlett, Dictionary of Amert- 
canisms (1850 ; 4th ed., 1877); Haldemann, Pennsylvania Dutch (1872) ; Schele de Vere, 
Amertcanisms (1872) ; Norton, Political Americanisms (1870) ; A Dictionary of Slang, Jar- 
gon, and Cant, with prefatory chapter by Charles G. Leland (Lond., 1887) ; George Gibbs, 
Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon; Leland, Hans Breitmann’s Ballads (1870); Harris, 
Uncle Remus, His Songs and His Sayings (1880), and Nights with Uncle Remus (1883) ; 
Richard G. White, ‘‘ Americanisms,” Atlantic Monthly, vols. 41-45 ; Thomas R. Louns- 
bury, ‘‘ The English Language in America,” International Review, vol. 8; G. M. 
Tucker, ‘‘ American English,” North American Review, vol. 186; W. W. Crane, ‘“‘ The 
American Language,” Putnam’s Magazine, vol. 16; Rev. Henry Reeves, ‘“‘Our Provin- 
Cialisms,” Lippincott’s Magazine, vol. 3; Thomas W. Higginson, ‘‘ American Flash 
Language in 1798,”’ Science, May, 1885; Southwestern Slang, Overland Monthly, Aug., 
ee Brander Mathews, ‘‘ Briticisms and Americanisms,” Harper’s Magazine, July 


_ AMERICAN JOURNALISM is too important to be passed over without especial 


969 
oy eS) American, 
notice. If in England the press can claim to be ‘*‘the fourth estate,’ it is at least 
second in point of power and influence in the United States, where the only superior 
power is the people themselves. According to the census of 1890 there were published 
in the United States and territories 17,616 newspapers and magazines, an increase of 
55.7% over the number reported in 1880. Of these as many as 1,731 were published 
daily; 12,721 weekly;, 214 semi-weekly; 40 tri-weekly; 2,247 once a month; 271 once in 
three months. There were also 392 other periodicals published. The circulation for 
all classes of periodicals more than doubled in the decade 1880-90, being 2,067,848,209 in 
1880 and 4,681,113,550 in 1890. The circulation of the individual newspapers varies 
widely, ranging from the few hundreds or thousands of the small local papers to the 
hundreds of thousands in the case of the great dailies in the large cities. The aggregate 
circulation of serial printed matter in the United States is immensely greater it 
variety, in extent, and in ratio to population, than in any other country. Of native 
born whites the proportion of such as cannot read is insignificant; and the uni- 
versal reading of newspapers is one of the peculiarities that first strikes the attention 
of a stranger. Free and unabashed as the air, the newspaper penetrates every nook and 
corner, circulates in every office and warehouse, in every parlor and hovel, in the hotel 
and the railway car, in the prison and the church. In 1870, according to the best 
authority, there were 5871 newspapers and periodicals in the United States, and 7642 in 
all the world besides. We had, therefore, one newspaper to every 6525 inhabitants; 
leaving to the world outside an average of one periodical for every 200,000 inhabitants. 
In Hudson’s History of Journalism it is estimated that the number of copies of news- 
papers printed in Great Britain in 1870 was 350,000,000, and the same in France. The 
census returns show that over 1,500,000,000 copies were issued in the United States in 
the same year. That is to say, for every printed sheet in Great Britain, or France, 
there were more than four printed sheets in the United States. This ratio is doubtless 
greater to-day. 

And yet journalism in the United States is comparatively of modern growth. The 
oldest living newspaper in English is the London Gazette, begun in Noy., 1665; but the 
first English newspaper appeared over forty years before that (1622) when Nathaniel 
Butler issued his Weekly Newes. The oldest living newspaper, the Frankfort Journal, 
started in 1615. The very first newspaper in the United States was Publick Occurrences, 
issued in Boston, Sept. 25, 1690, by Richard Pearce for Benjamin Harris, and imme- 
diately suppressed by the government. Then came, April 24, 1702, the Boston News- 
Letter, In 1719 appeared in Boston the Gazette, and in Philadelphia the same year the 
American Mercury. In 1721 James Franklin started the Boston Cowrant, which lived under 
the care of Benjamin Franklin about six years. The New York Gazette started in 1725; 
the Annapolis (Md.) Gazette in 1727; the Charleston (S. C.) Gazette in 1781; the Williams- 
burg (Va.) Gazette in 1736. In his History of Journalism Hudson considers the subject 
by ‘‘eras.’’ Within the first era, 1690-1704, the only noteworthy event, after the prompt 
suppression of the Publick Occurrences, happened in New York, where Benjamin Fletcher, 
then lieutenant-governor of the colony, having induced William Bradford, a printer of 
Philadelphia, to quit that city and set up in New York, caused the reprinting, in 1696, 
of a copy of the London Gazette, which contained an account of an engagement with the 
French not long before the peace of Ryswick. That was the only victory of types over 
official red tape in the 14 years following the suppression of the Publick Occurrences. 
However, news was circulated, much as it was in ancient Rome, in written and printed 
letters, circulars and handbills. 

In the second ‘‘era,” from 1704 to 1748, the American press made a decided start 
On the 24th of April, 1704, John Campbell, of Boston, issued the first number of the 
Boston News-Letter, This is usually referred to as the first American newspaper, and 
indeed so it was, for it lived through many vicissitudes 72 years, up to the dawning of the 
revolution. In 1719 Campbell was superseded as postmaster by William Brooker, who 
followed Campbell’s example by starting a paper, the Boston Gazette, the second Ameri- 
can newspaper; and then began newspaper quarrels, a feature of journalism still far too 
prominent. Campbell resented his removal from office, and the fight was hot and per- 
sonal. Theday after the starting of the Gazette in Boston, Andrew Bradford issued in 
Philadelphia the American Weekly Mercury, Dec. 2,1719. He also was a postmaster; so 
the post-office and the press appear to have been early united in this country, and the 
union has never been broken. In later years three notable editors, Benjamin Franklin, 
Amos Kendall, and John M. Niles became postmasters-general ; and an ex-editor, James, 
postmaster of New York. Bradford died in 1742, and the paper was edited by his 
widow. On the 7th of Aug., 1721, the two Franklins—James and Benjamin—issued 
the first number of the New England Courant. Wars and contentions between jour- 
nalists now increased, but the Franklins were too strong for their jealous opponents, 
one of whom, ex-postmaster Campbell, sold his News-Letter to Bartholomew Green, and 
became a justice of the peace. 

American journalism was now fairly established. The New York Gazette was begun 
by William Bradford in Oct., 1725; the New England Weekly Journal, the fourth Boston 
newspaper, in 1727; the Maryland Gazette at Annapolis in 1727; Benjamin Franklin’s 
Universal Instructor in all the Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylwania Gazette in Phils- 
delphia in 1728; the Weekly Rehearsal in Boston in 1781, became the Boston Hvening 
Post in 1735, and died of loyalty to the king in 1775; the New York Weekly Journal, 
Nov. 5, 1733, by John Peter Zenger, whose imprisonment for libel on the government, 


O74 


American, 


prosecution, trial, and acquittal through the efforts of Andrew Hamilton, the leader of 
the Pennsylvania bar, marked the first great triumph of the freedom of speech and of 
the press that is now one of the great foundation stones of our temple of liberty. The 
Weekly Post Boy, another New York paper, was speedily absorbed by Bradford’s 
Gasette, Sept. 27, 1782; the Rhode Island Gazette was begun at Newport by James 
Franklin, but it lived only three months, and Franklin himself died in 1785. About the 
game time the printing press, the invention that long afterwards gave the south so much 
annoyance, began to invade that section. The South Carolina Gazette was begun in 
Charleston, Jan. 8, 1731; the Virginia Gazette at Williamsburg in 1736. Both these 
papers died young on the death of their proprietors, and both were resuscitated soon 
afterwards. Returning north we find the Boston Weekly Post Boy begun in 1784, by the 
old postmaster, Ellis Huske, who recommended the passage of the stamp act. In 1742, 
William Bradford, grandson of the New York printer, started the Pennsyluania Journal 
and Weekly Advertiser, one of the earliest and most vigorous supporters of colonial free- 
dom. On the day before the odious stamp act was to go into effect the Jowrnal inclosed 
its pages in black lines, and placed over its title the picture of a skull and cross-bones, 
with the legend ‘‘ Expiring; in hope of a resurrection to life again;’ with elsewhere, 
‘‘ Adieu, adieu, to the liberty of the press! Farewell liberty !” and as an epitaph, 
‘“‘The last remains of the Pennsylvania Journal, which departed this life the 31st of 
Oct., 1765, of a stamp in her vitals; aged 23 years.” ‘The paper, however, was not 
actually suspended. The Maryland Gazette, which had been suspended in 1786, was 
revived in 1745. A newspaper in the German language was issued at Germantown, 
Penn., in 17389, and another in Philadelphia in 1748. The last paper started in the 
colonial period was the New York Hvening Post, begun in 1746, but it lived only about 
a year. 

: About the middle of the century the political heavens began to show signs of the 
coming revolution. Naturally, the cities where newspapers were issued became centers 
of political agitation. Though few in number, they were important in influence. In 
1748 journals were issued in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Annapolis, Williamsburg, 
and Charleston; only six places in all America that could boast of newspapers. In the 
same year Samuel Adams established in Boston the /ndependent Advertiser, an organ of 
the more ardent of those who were anxious to become ‘‘rebels.” Then came the New 
York Mercury, begun by Hugh Gaine, Aug. 3, 1752. In 1753 the Boston Gazette, or 
Weekly Advertiser, appeared and lived until killed by the stamp act. The voices of free- 
dom were growing in number and boldness; the Adamses, Otises, Warrens, Mayhews, 
Quincys, and others, filled newspapers and pamphlets with demands and arguments for 
freedom from England. The real organ of the New England patriots appeared April 7, 
1755—the Boston Gazette and Country Gentleman. On the first day of the same year the 
Connecticut Gazette was begun at New Haven. The JSoston Gazette, however, was the 
mouthpiece of the men who created the revolution; but it was not much of a ‘‘ news- 
paper” in comparison with those of our day. It had two pages only, on half a sheet of 
crown paper—about the size of a single leaf from an ordinary ledger. While the British 
troops occupied Boston the Gazette was issued in Watertown, but returned to Boston 
after the troops left. The next new issue was the North Carolina Gazette, begun at 
Newbern, Dec., 1755. Then came the New Hampshire Gazette, Oct. 7, 1756—the oldest 
American living journal, having been published without intermission and without a 
radical change of name to the present time. Other papers appeared as follows: Boston 
Weekly Advertiser, Aug. 22, 1757; South Carolina and American General Gazette, 1758; 
Newport (R. 1.) Mercury, June 12, 1758, still living; the New London Summary, Aug. 8, 
1758; another New York Gazette, Feb. 16, 1759; the Wilmington (Del.) Courant, 1761; 
the Providence (R.1.) Gazette and County Journal, 1762; the Georgia Gazette, Savannah, 
April 17, 1768; and the New London Gazette, afterwards the Connecticut Gazette, Nov. 1, 
1763. The Connecticut Courant was begun at Hartford Nov. 19, 1764, and still lives; 
the Cape Fear Gazette and Wilmington Advertiser was begun in 1763; the Portsmouth 
(N. H.) Mercury and Weekly Advertiser, 1765; the Maryland Gazette, 1765; the Gazette 
and Country Journal at Charleston, 1765; the Constitutional Courant, Burlington, 
N. J., 1765 (one issue only); the Virginia Gazette, 1766, the first newspaper to publish, 
ten years later, the full copy of the declaration of independence. At the commence- 
ment of the revolution there were seven newspapers published in New England, four in 
New York, and two in Virginia. One of the most important of the revolutionary news- 
papers was the New York Journal, or General Advertiser, started May 29, 1767, by John 
Holt, under the auspices of George Clinton and Philip Schuyler, two prominent patriot 
leaders. When the British took possession of New York, the Journal was removed to 
Kingston, and thence to Poughkeepsie. The British were not without a voice amid all 
this array of revolutionary prints. Their organ in New York was the Royal Gazetteer, 
better known as Rivington’s Gazette, from the proprietor, James Rivington, who enjoyed 
the distinction of several mobbings by the ‘‘ Sons of Liberty” and other mysterious organi- 
zations. In Boston the royalist paper was the Chronicle, the proprietors of which—Mein 
& Fleming—received similar treatment. This paper died in 1770 for want of patronage, 
but Rivington’s paper lived until the war was over, then pretended to be converted, but 
was not trusted, and soon died. One of Rivington’s best contributors was Major André. 
In 1767 appeared the Pennsylvania Chronicle; in 1768, at Salem, Mass., the Hssea 


3 re 9) American, 


Gazette, now the Salem Gazette; also the New York Chronicle, short lived; and Oct. 13, 
1769, the Cape Fear Mercury, at Wilmington, N. C. 

It is unnecessary to mention every newspaper of those times. A few were especially 
conspicuous, such as the Massachusetts Spy, established by Isaac Thomas. The 49 news- 
papers established in the colonies from 1748 to the peace of 1783 were weekly or semi- 
weekly issues. Between 1690 and 1783, 67 newspapers had been started, but 48 only 
were living when peace was concluded. 

With peace and independence came an entire revolution in the spirit of the press. 
Journals which lately had fought side by side, soon ranged in opposing and hostile fleets, 
as the leaders and organs of contending parties, of which the chief were the federalist 
and the republican, the latter soon changing into the democratic party. We have only 
to say of this period—1783 to 1812—that in the early portion the virulence of partisan- 
ship, the shocking language used by the press in political warfare, would be scarcely 
believed if we had space to quote it. Even Washington, who came from Yorktown like 
a demigod, received more wicked and vile abuse than would now be given to an aban- 
doned felon. This bitterness was conspicuous during and after his second term, extended 
through Adams’s administration and Jefferson’s two terms, and was mollified only for a 
time by the war with England. After that war the democratic press preached a crusade 
against ‘‘blue-light federalists,” and bad language flowed anew until the re-election of 
Monroe without opposition brought in the ‘‘era of good feeling” and a general suspen- 
sion of hostilities. Among the leading journalsand journalists of this period were many 
of the papers aboved named that lived through the revolution; the Journal and Argus, 
in New York, by Thomas Greenleaf; the American Citizen, by James Cheetham; the 
Evening Post, now the New York Evening Post, by William Coleman; the New York 
Packet, by Samuel Loudon; the Massachusetts Spy, by Isaiah Thomas; the Massachusetts 
Centinel, afterwards the Columbian Centinel, by Benjamin Russell; the Philadelphia 
Aurora, by Benjamin Franklin Bache, etc. One of the severest word-battles was over 
the alien and sedition laws, in which the liberty of the press was, or seemed to be, seri- 
ously threatened. 

The first daily newspaper in the United States was the American Daily Advertiser, 
issued in Philadelphia in 1784—now the North American. Next year came the New 
York Daily Advertiser, for some time edited by the poet Freneau. The Independent Jour. 
nal, published in New York, was the paper through which Hamilton, Madison, and Jay 
gave the world the remarkable articles now collectively known as The Federalist. Ax 
our western country became settled, the press followed closely the pioneer, as in later 
days—during the building of the Pacific railroad—the peripatetic office of the Hrontier 
Index kept just ahead of the rails and the locomotive. In 1786 the Pittsburgh (Pa.) Gazette 
was begun, and still lives; and so we might follow the press directly onward to the 
shores of the Pacific. The combinations of papers with each other have been infinite; 
but a single instance will illustrate—that of the Philadelphia Worth American, in which are 
united ten different journals, viz.: the Pennsylvania Packet, established in 1771; the Amer- 
tcan Daily Advertiser, 1784; the Gazette of the United States, 1789; the Hvening Advertiser, 
1793; the United States Gazette, 1804; the True American, 1820; the Commercial Chront- 
cle, 1820; the Union, 1820; the North American, 1889; and the Commercial Herald, 1840. 
What mixtures of political principles must have been taken down in those nine swallows ! 
Returning to daily newspapers, we remark that of many hundred daily and other news- 
papers started in New York city alone from the commencement of Bradford’s Gazette in 
1725 to the year 1827, only two are living—the Commercial Advertiser and the Hvening 
Post. Death, it is said, loves a shining mark, and journalism appears to have given his 
arrows abundant opportunity. No other field of intellectual or pecuniary enterprise is 
at once so attractive and so dangerous. It would occupy nearly the whole of one of the 
eight-page journals of to-day to print merely the names of newspapers that have started 
since 1690 only to fade like rootless plants under a fervid sun. 

Enough has been given to convey an idea of the early history of journalism in the 
colonies and the United States. But the history of ‘‘ newspapers” as such does not com- 
mence until about 1820. Before and during the revolution the ambition of journalism 
was to crystallize public opinion. The news printed was chiefly from foreign countries. 
It is true, the first sheet was entitled Publick Occurrences, but its small installment of 
domestic news so filled with surprise the powers that were, that they immediately sup- 
pressed the daring innovation. 'Thenceforth the greater portion of journals was occu- 
pied with discussion, and news was hardly so much as a-secondary consideration. Their 
columns were filled with dissertations on every possible subject save the things at the 
time most deserving of notice. The price of newspapers was high and their circulation 
limited. Indeed, it was not until the introduction of rotary presses that any considera- 
ble circulation could be ‘‘ worked off.” Ben. Franklin was content with the old Ramage 
press, a clumsy wooden construction that required a separate ‘‘pull” for every page, 
whose utmost capacity would scarcely produce a hundred perfected sheetsin an hour. If 
his soul could look out through the dull eyes of his statue in Printing-house square, how 
it would glow with astonishment to see under the street beneath his feet 20,000 news- 
papers, each one as large as ten of his, printed, cut, and folded in that same space of an 
hour. Soon after 1880 there was started in New York a paper which was sold for one 
cent—a daring innovation indeed, when the common price was sixpence. It was spe- 


be 

American. 3 ( 6 

cially devoted to local as well as general news, and speedily attained a circulation that, 
for the period, was phenomenal. This was 7’ke Sun, the pioneer of the penny press. In 
1835 jt was followed by Ze Herald, also a one-cent paper, which went on from prosper: 
ity to prosperity until it stands to-day among the few great newspapers in the world. 
The Tribune, also a one-cent paper at the time, was started in 1841 by Horace Greeley, 
and is now in many respects without a rival. The cognate ideas of home news and low 
prices revolutionized journalism. The mammoth sheets of the past were distanced and 
defeated, and by degrees the greater portion of them paid more attention to news and 
less to discussion, and in many instances greatly reduced their prices. We then had real 
newspapers, and the getting of the news became the publisher’s first aim. Expresses 
were established on steamboats and railways, and where these were lacking, news came 
by ‘‘pony express,” or any other available means. Carrier-pigeons were tried, but they 
did not succeed. Boats ventured far out to sea to intercept incoming ships; special cor- 
respondents were sent to various points, and in one instance a fast-sailing pilot-boat was 
sent across the Atlantic. Competition became so intense and the expense so great that 
neighboring journals combined to share the costs and the benefits. So arose the harbor- 
news association, and a little later the associated press. The latter association, which 
now spreads its news-gathering net over all the habitable earth, was a necessary result of 
the introduction of the magnetic telegraph. That invention annihilated space, and made 
competition by horses or steam impossible. At first we had fifty words or so “by tele- 
graph” from Washington, at a round price. To-day we have column upon column 
every morning by the same wonderful conveyance from every state and territory of our 
country, from all the nations of Europe and Asia; literally ‘‘ from Greenland’s icy moun- 
tains to India’s coral strand.” 

Having the news, the next question was how to circulate it. Here the inventive 
genius of America came to the publisher’s relief, first in Hoe’s steam rotary press, of 
from two to ten cylinders, which might throw off 10,000 papers inan hour. Then came 
the perfecting press, printing both sides at once from a continuous roll of white paper 
and cutting off each paper at the proper point. Still later came the most important of 
all: the stereotyping of the original type-pages and the production of one or a hundred 
casts, as might be desired, and that, too, in a space of time not exceeding 15 minutes 
for a page of stereotype. The problem of circulation was thus settled. It isnowmerely 
a question of how many presses are run; for with enough of them a daily newspaper 
could as well print on a morning before sunrise half a million as half a hundred thou- 
sand. ‘The result of these and other inventions is, that where Franklin could produce 
in an hour 100 sheets of four small pages, to be afterwards slowly folded by hand, 
the modern press will produce 15,000 to 20,000 sheets of eight, twelve, or sixteen pages— 
each page as large as the whole of Iranklin’s paper, beautifully printed, the pages cut, 
sometimes the backs pasted together, and all folded and ready for mailing or delivery, in 
the equivalent 60 minutes. The capacity of newspaper production is practically 
unlimited. See PRINTING. 

We lack space to follow the course of journalism closely through its hundred battles 
since the war of 1812. How the partisans raved over the first defeat of Gen. Jackson in 
1824; the incipient rebellion in South Carolina; Jackson’s war with the United States 
bank; the furious anti-masonic crusade; the tremendous financial disasters of 1837, 
which overthrew the democratic party; the gallant but fuiile struggles of Henry Clay; 
the war of tariff and free-trade, ‘‘ still beginning, never ending;” the native American 
campaign; the annexation of Texas; the Mexican war; the contest of the north and 
south, that found an ending which was not an end in the compromise measures; the 
California annexation and the gold craze; the Kansas struggle; the death of the whig, 
the birth of the republican, and the division of the democratic party; the election of Lin. 
coln; the dreadful struggle of the civil war; the triumph of the union; the dark days 
of commercial distress—all these are in the history of journalism, but so vividly remem- 
bered that further reference is quite unnecessary. 

Of the men who have been conspicuous in connection with American journalism, we 
cannot pretend to give a catalogue. Before and during the revolution, and down to the 
second war with England, nearly all public men of importance spoke through the press. 
In the newspapers were heard James Otis, Samuel Adams, Joseph Warren, John Han- 
cock, Jonathan Mayhew, and scores of their brethren. Jefferson, Madison, Burr, Ham- 
ilton, Clinton, Jay, and scores of other politicians were heard in thesame manner. Ben- 
jamin Franklin, and Noah Webster, and Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, were early in the 
long line of ‘‘ able editors.” William Cobbett created a sensation in Philadelphia with 
his Porcupine; and James Cheetham, and William Duane, and William Coleman were 
eminent in this field. In the later time we find such names as Seba Smith, Jr., the origi- 
nal ‘‘ Major Jack Downing;” Francis Hall, William L. Stone, John Inman and Robert 
C. Sands of the New York Commercial Advertiser; Mordecai M. Noah, Nathaniel Willis, 
grandfather of the poet; William D. Gallagher, William Schouler, Richard Haugh- 
ton, Samuel Medary, Charles C. Hazewell, Samuel 8. Cox, John B. McCullough, Joseph 
Medill, Horace White, Wilbur F. Storey, William Cullen Bryant, James Watson Webb, 
Horace Greeley, James Gordon Bennett, Henry J. Raymond, Manton Marble, James and 
Erastus Brooks, Charles King, William Leggett, John Bigelow, Thurlow Weed, Edwin 
Croswell, Redwood Fisher, J oseph Gales, Hezekiah Niles, Francis P. Blair, Duff Green, 


3 7 7 American, 


William W. Seaton, John Rives, Amos Kendall, Thomas Ritchie, George D. Prentice, 
George W. Kendall, Don Piatt, Frederick Douglass, Solomon Southwick, John H. 
Pleasants, Isaac Hill, William Cassidy, Henry Wheaton, Moses Y. Beach, Sidney E. 
Morse, Henry W. Bellows, Henry M. Field, Henry Ward Beecher, Gulian C. Verplanck, 
George P. Morris, Nathaniel P. Willis, Park Benjamin, Henry B. Anthony, Whitelaw 
Reid, William Sprague, George Wm. Curtis, Josiah G. Holland, William D. Howells, 
George H. Andrews, David Hale, Gerard Hallock, William C. Prime, David M. Stone, 
William W. Clapp, Joseph T. Buckingham, Theophilus Parsons, George Lunt, William 
Lloyd Garrison, John Neal, Samuel Bowles, John 8. Sleeper, E. C. Bailey, R. Barnwell 
Rhett, Rufus Dawes, John Forsyth, George W. Childs, John W. Forney, William M. 
Swain, Russel Jarvis, Willis Hall, Charles A. Dana, Sidney Howard Gay, Oliver John. 
son, John Russell Young, William G. Brownlow, Murat Halsted, Henry Watterson, 
Richard Smith, George Dawson, Thomas Kinsella, Jonas M. Bundy, Hugh Hastings, 
Charles E. Smith, George Jones, Joseph Pulitzer, Joseph R. Hawley, R. M. Pulsifer, 
and E. L. Godkin. 

Of theinfluence of this aggregation of intellect upon the country we set forth no 
opinion. It is certain that the once almost despised journalist who took cord-wood 
and garden-truck in pay for his 7 by 9 sheet, has risen to the highest social and politi- 
cal position. While about the last class of citizens who are willing to do as they ask 
others to do—assume office and discharge its duties—not a few of them have been 
‘chosen to such duties by the people. No professional journalist has yet been president 
of the United States, but one has been vice-president; a few have been governors of states; 
a large number have been United States senators and members of congress; some of them 
have been ministers to foreign countries, and several have declined that honor, One has 
been a cabinet officer. In the 41st congress there were 8 editors in the senate and 26 in 
the house, the speaker being one of them. In the succeeding congresses the numbers 
have been about the same. 

Prominent among the features of modern journalism, besides the dominant idea of 
the news and all the news, is the fullness of reports of matters of public importance. 
When the news of the great battle of Waterloo reached London, the Z7?mes told the story 
in less than half a column. Such an event to-day would occupy twenty or thirty col- 
umns. Theresources of journalism were well exemplified in our rebellion, when ‘‘extras” 
were issued almost hourly on important occasions, and the press was constantly in 
motion. Modern reporting is nearly perfect; but that does not satisfy the newspapers, 
and it has been supplemented by a system of endless and minute inquiry known as 
‘interviewing, ” whereby all men who are suspected of knowing anything of any particu- 
lar matter are visited by reporters and questioned and cross-questioned until the last item 
of information has been extracted; and this not only in matters of fact but in matters of 
opinion. Journalism compels the world to stand and testify on every conceivable topic 
that may, in the journalist’s opinion, interest the reader. Add to this searching inquiry 
the inévitable editorial comment, and it must appear that the research and the combina- 
tions of facts, opinions, and speculations thereon by modern journalism are as complete 
and as exhaustive, though not as guarded, as the most formal and satisfactory trial in a 
court of justice. This ‘‘interview” isa kind of moral rack on which any man may be 
stretched without a moment's warning. Whether its results are good or bad, we leave 
others to judge. 

According to the census of 1890 there were of journalistic publications in the United 
States in foreign languages about 790 German; 130 Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish; 
43 French; 33 Spanish; 25 Bohemian; 22 Polish; 18 Dutch; 14 Italian; 6 Hebrew; 
4 Welsh; 4 Finnish; 3 Chinese; 2 Portuguese; 2 Hungarian; 2 Slavonic (unspecified) ; 
2 Volaptik; 1 Armenian; 1 Gaelic; 1 Indian; 1 Lithuanian, together with several pub- 
lished in more than one language, making in all 22 languages represented in the peri- 
odical publications of the United States. The total number of periodicals in foreign 
languages was 1159. 

The burden of the press in such a land is naturally political; and a great majority of 
the newspapers are committed to one or another party; a few claim to be independent, 
but absolute independence of parties is a difficult position to maintain, and the only 
really independent journals, politically speaking, are those and those only which never 
meddle with politics, parties, or candidates at all. Next to political journals, in number 
and importance, are those devoted to religious or sectarian interests. Of these there 
were in the United States, in 1890, 1182 as compared with 553 in 1880, and many of them 
had a very extensive circulation. Every sect amounting to a ‘‘ denomination ’’ has its 
voice in journalism. The city of New York may serve as an example for the whole 
country. In 1896 there were issued in that city over 70 religious or sectarian journals 
and magazines, representing the following denominations: Union Evangelical, Roman 
Catholic, Methodist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Congregational, Baptist, Jewish, Lutheran, 
Dutch Reformed, Swedenborgian, Christian Science, etc. There were also several ‘‘ non- 
‘sectarian ’’ religious periodicals, and one ‘‘ free thought’ publication. Religious jour- 
nalism, now of great extent and importance, is of recent origin, dating back only to the 
beginning of 1816, when the Loston Recorder was started, with Sidney E. Morse as editor, 
‘The Recorder was long ago merged in The Congregationalist, The Christian Watchman, 
now The Watchman, also published in Boston, was started in 1819 by Baptists; the New 


378 


American. 


York Observer (Presbyterian) in 1820 by Morse, who had left the Recorder, and one of his 
brothers; Zion’s Herald (Methodist) in Boston about the same time; the Christian Register 
(Unitarian), 1821; the Christian Intelligencer (Dutch Reformed), 1830; the Hvangelist (Pres- 
byterian) in 1833; the Christian Advocate and Journal (Methodist Episcopal), by the M. E. 
Book Concern in New York, about 1835. 

Illustrated journals have in late years greatly improved, and in some notable irstances, 
such as Harper’s Weekly, have taken the front rank in editorial ability, perfection of 
artistic workmanship, and in extent of circulation. Others are the J/lustrated American, 
Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, and among magazines the monthlies, such as the 
Century, St. Nicholas, Harper's, and Scribner's. Distinctive comic journalism has been 
slow to attain permanent success. A hundred Punches have been born, but very few 
lived to celebrate an anniversary of their natal day. At present, however, there are 
many instances of success in this line of journalism. Business and trade have a strong 
showing among journals, there being scarcely a calling of any importance that has not 
from one to a dozen typographic mouthpieces. There are hundreds of journals devoted 
exclusively to finance and commerce in general. Special branches have their organs; 
as banking, life, fire, marine, and accident insurance, real estate, mining, railways, 
milling, engineering, building, upholstery, lumbering, prices current, mechanics in gen- 
eral, glass, crockery, iron, leather, boots and shoes, tobacco, cotton, gas, wines and 
liquors, telegraphing, brewing, chemistry, microscopy, phonography, photography, 
bricks and pottery, carpet trade, drugs, harness, carriages, watches and clocks, car- 
building, plumbing, sewing-machines, publishing, printing, etc. Journals are devoted 
to legal affairs, ‘9 sports and games, to art and music, to the fashions, to the army and 
navy, militia, etc. In 1890 agriculture and horticulture engaged the attention of three 
hundred and twelve journals and magazines; medicine and surgery of one hundred and 
eighty-seven; affairs concerning colleges, schools, and education generally, of 396, a 
large proportion being intended for children and. youth; masonic and other secret socie- 
ties have their organs: indeed, it would be difficult to find any business, association, or 
prominent enterprise that has not its journalistic means of communication with the 
world. In all this maze of purposes one business is never overlooked, — that of criti- 
cism. Every interest, business, profession, party, sect, searchingly criticises every other 
purpose, act, person, and thing. Not only the regular literary and critical publications, 
but every news, political, and trade journal considers criticism among the first and most 
important of its functions. Unrestrained by any other will than his own, every writer 
is free to arraign, try, convict, and condemn everybody else, — and it must be admitted 
that the privilege is most literally and liberally used. See JouRNALISM, CoMICc, and 
JOURNALISM, ILLUSTRATED; and for later statistics the article NEWSPAPERS. 


AMERICAN LITERATURE, The first books produced in the American colonies were 
written by Englishmen, some of whom made but a temporary sojourn in the country, 
and, while valuable and interesting contributions to history, are for the most part of 
little importance regarded as literature. ‘lhe redoubtable Capt. John Smith, the hero of 
the Pocahontas legend, was one of the founders of Jamestown, Va., the earliest English 
settlement in America, His graphic account of the new colony, entitled A Zrue Rela- 
tion of Virginia, was published in London in 1608. The same year he forwarded a 
Map of Virginia, with an attractive description of the country, which was published at 
Oxford in 1612. These works and a vigorous letter in reply tothe complaints of the 
London stockholders are all that were written by Capt. Smith on American soil. 
William Strachey’s account of Sir Thomas Gates’s expedition in 1609-10 is interesting 
on account of its literary merit, but especially so because the author’s thrilling description 
of a storm which wrecked the Admiral’s ship on one of the Bermuda Islands is supposed 
to have been the inspiration of Shakespeare’s Tempest. The first purely literary work 
produced in the colonies was a translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, by George Sandys, 
Son of the distinguished Edwin Sandys, Abp. of York. His version of the first five 
books had been published in 1621, before he sailed for the New World, and he com- 
pleted the other ten books in Virginia, under the most adverse circumstances, the 
colony, which had just begun to thrive, having been nearly depopulated by an Indian 
massacre in March, 1622, not long after his arrival. The entire work was published in 
London in 1626, and received with warm commendation. William Bradford, for many 
years governor of the Plymouth Colony, has been styled ‘‘ the father of American_his- 
tory. His manuscript Hist. of the Plymouth Plantation was largely quoted by 
Nathaniel Morton and other early historians of Mass., but the original was supposed 
to have been destroyed during the occupation of Boston by the British in 1775-76. 
This earliest and most valuable record of the first N. E. Colony was discovered in 1855, 
in the Bp. of London’s library at Fulham, and was copied and published by the Mass. 
Hist. Soc, nearly 200 years after the author’s death. Gov. John Winthrop was the histo- 
rian of the Mass. Bay Colony. His Hist. of New England is in the form of a diary from 
1630-49, and ishighly esteemed as an authentic record of the later but more important 
colony. Several of ‘the incidents which he narrates have been made the themes of 
poems or romances by Longfellow, Hawthorne, Whittier, and Motley. The manuscript 
of Winthrop’s History met with a fate similar to that of Bradford’s. It was in three 


3879 American, 


parts, and two of them, then supposed to be the whole, were published by Noah Web- 
ster. <A third part was discovered by Abiel Holmes in the tower of the Old South 
Church in Boston, and the entire work was first published in 1826. Edward Johnson’s 
Wonder-working Providence of Zion’s Saviour in New England is valuable as a thorough- 
ly characteristic expression of Puritan life and thought. William Wood’s New Hng- 
land’s Prospect is a vivid and well-written description of the country and its aboriginal 
inhabitants. Portions of the work are metrical, as the enumeration of the forest trees, 
and here it has been noticed that the choice of adjectives is singularly appropriate. 
John Josselyn’s accounts of the fauna and flora of the New World in his New Hngland 
Rarities and Two Voyages to New England are a curious mixture of fact and fable. 

On the 28th of Oct., 1636, not quite sixteen years after the landing of the first 
pilgrims at Plymouth, the general court at Boston voted £400 toward a school or college, 
thus laying the foundation of the literature of the new world. Two years later John 
Harvard, an English clergyman of superior education, who had been scarcely a year in 
the colony, gave twice as much money and a library of 320 volumes—a large collection 
for those times—in aid of the ‘‘ school or college.” Thus began Harvard College, at 
Cambridge, Mass. Around this venerable institution and its co-laborers, William and 
Mary (1693), Yale (1700), the College of New Jersey (1746), and Kings (now Columbia) 
College (1754), cluster the names of the creators of American literature. 

Many pious and able Puritan divines, driven to America through the intolerance of 
Abp. Laud, became leaders in religious and educational movements, and their sermons 
and other writings constitute the chief part of the early colonial literature. The most 
eminent of these divines were Thomas Hooker, John Cotton, Thomas Shepard, Francis 
Higginson, Urian Oakes, Roger Williams, the ardent champion of toleration, founder of 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, John Eliot, the ‘“‘ Apostle to the Indians,” 
who translated the Bible and other works into the Algonkin language, and Richard 
Mather. The last two, together with Thomas Welde, were the authors of the famous 
Bay Psalm Book, published at Cambridge, Mass., in 1640, the first English book printed 
in America. To their zeal for a literal rendering of the Hebrew text every other con- 
sideration was sacrificed, and this version is distinguished as being ‘‘the worst of many 
bad.” In fact, most of the colonial verse which has come down to us is mere doggerel. 
Mrs. Anne Bradstreet, daughter of one Massachusetts governor and wife of another, 
and ancestress of the Channings, the Danas, Wendell Phillips, and Oliver Wendell 
Holmes, was a much-admired poetess, but her productions are for the most part stilted, 
and full of such quaint and artificial conceits as were affected by her favorite Sylvester, 
and other contemporary English poets. Capt. John Mason’s brief Hist. of the Pequot 
War is a clear and vigorous narrative of the expedition which resulted in the extermina- 
tion of that hostile tribe. Daniel Gookin’s two historical accounts of the Indians of 
New England are the records of a philanthropist who was an associate of the apostolic 
Eliot. Nathaniel Ward, ascholarly non-conformist clergyman, first settled at Agawam 
(now Ipswich), Mass., was the author of 7’he Simple Cobbler of Agawam, a caustic and 
witty satire on social, political, and ecclesiastical affairs in England, with occasional 
hits at the colonies. Peter Folger, maternal grandfather of Benjamin Franklin, wrote 
in clumsy rhyme A Looking-Glass for the Times, and Michael Wigglesworth, an early 
graduate of Harvard, wrote The Day of Doom, a rude but powerful poem descriptive 
of the last judgment. But the first native author of any considerable fame was the 
vigorous and prolific Increase Mather, who was also the first native president of 
Harvard College. He was the son of the sturdy non-conformist divine Richard 
Mather, already mentioned. His published works number 92, most of them sermons. 
His best-known production is An Hssay for the Recording of Illustrious Providences. 
Both father and son were, however, eclipsed by the more prolific and more famous son 
of Increase, Cotton Mather, grandson also of the celebrated John Cotton, for whom he 
was named. Cotton Mather was a theologian of the strictest Puritan type; an un- 
compromising defender of the faith ; a steadfast believer in the reality of witchcraft, 
and an opposer of it asa work of Satan. He used his pen not only for religion and 
against Satan and the witches, but in advocacy of temperance and in behalf of seamen. 
He wrote extensively also on historical subjects. In fecundity he rivaled the most 

amous authors of England. An incomplete catalogue of his works numbers 383 
separate publications, and there yet remain six great folio volumes of closely written 
manuscript, His most celebrated work, the Magnalia Christi Americana, is not merely 
an ecclesiastical history of New England from 1620 to 1698, but it is also a vast treasury 
of varied information concerning the secular affairs of the N. E. colonies, and, like Gov. 
Winthrop’s Diary, it has furnished themes for modern poets and romancers. Chief 
Justice Samuel Sewall, of honored memory, has been called the ‘‘ Puritan Pepys,” be- 
cause of the frank garrulousness of his Diary (from 1678-1729). His Phenomena 
Quedam Apocalyptica is referred to in Whittier’s poem, The Prophecy of Samuel 
Sewall. The Selling of Joseph is his brief but powerful argument against slavery, 
which then existed in New England. About 1691 (the precise date of the first edition is 
not certain) appeared the celebrated New Hngland Primer. John Winthrop, Gov. of 
Ct., son of Gov. Winthrop of Mass., during a visit to the mother country became one 
of the founders of the celebrated Royal Soc. of England (incorp. 1663), and was its chief 
correspondent from America. The establishment of this society greatly stimulated the 
ere of the sciences and of natural history in all the colonies. 

e Entering the 18th c., we meet a name that towers high above all preceding, and in 


American. 380 
metaphysics and theology above nearly all following American names, Jonathan Ed- 
wards (1703-1758), the last and greatest of the Puritan apostles, the Boanerges of Cal- 
vinism, whose influence still permeates New England, where the greater part of his 
life was spent, and whose memory is treasured in the College of New Jersey, over which 
he presided for the last few months of his life. His influence was not confined to this 
country, however, but was long potent in English theology. Robert Hall says of Ed- 
wards, ‘‘ He ranks with the highest luminaries of the Christian Church, not excluding 
any country nor any age since the Apostolic.’’ His style, though not always lucid, is 
vigorous. His intense conviction of the truth of the doctrines that he preached, and 
the purity and spiritual elevation of his character, gave to his eloquence remarkable 
fervor and impressiveness. His writings fill ten large volumes, the most famous of them 
being the Inquiry into the Freedom of the Human Will, and the Treatise on the Religious 
Affections. With Edwards the domination of theology, which had continued from the 
landing of the Pilgrims, passed away, and philosophy and belles-lettres began to have 
audience. 

Another great American, Benjamin Franklin, gained an enduring fame abroad as 
well as at home for his achievements in science and diplomacy, and for his wise and 
prudent counsels in the affairs of every-day life. very child knows or should know 
the story of the poor apprentice, who “tore the lightning from heaven and the sceptre 
from tyrants,’’ and left to American literature the wisdom of an honest and a great 
mind. The most valuable and interesting of his works are his Autobiography, written 
in an easy and natural style, his letters and papers on electricity, and the pithy sayings 
of Poor Richard's Almanac, The revolution almost suspended literary activity, except 
in the political sphere, and the names following Franklin’s belong to the forum as well 
as to the printed page. Samuel Adams, James Otis, and Josiah Quincy, Jr., all of 
Mass., and Patrick Henry, of Virginia, by burning words of patriotism, both spoken 
and written, did most effective service in encouraging the hearts of their countrymen in 
the struggle for freedom. Thos. Jefferson’s vigorous pen drew up the Declaration of 
Independence ; the brilliant Alex. Hamilton, Washington’s mentor and chief reliance, 
the Ajax of federalism, wrote with great ability on finance and on political economy, 
but his most important essays are on the Constitution of the United States, and especial- 
ly the fifty-one papers which he contributed to the Federalist. Jas. Madison wrote 
twenty-nine valuable papers for the same publication, and John Jay contributed the re- 
maining five. The latter also wrote in 1774 an eloquent Address to the People of Great 
Britain. George Washington’s diaries, letters, and state papers are dignified and perspic- 
uous. His celebrated Farewell Address bears the impress of his own style, although 
Hamilton and Jay assisted in its preparation. John Adams, the second President of the 
United States, was an influential political writer, and his diaries and letters contain 
many interesting accounts of memorable events of his time. Others who contributed by 
voice and pen to the establishment of the republic are Fisher Ames, Thomas Paine, and 
Albert Gallatin ; the latter is deservedly famous in diplomacy and as a writer on finance. 
The efforts of the revolutionary orators were effectively aided by the humorists, Francis 
Hopkinson, H. H. Brackenridge, and Philip Freneau, whose satires and patriotic ballads 
exerted a potent force. Joseph Hopkinson, a son of the former, is the author of Haz 
Columbia / (1798.) Freneau had a genuine poetic gift, and is the first American poet of 
real fame. Scott and Campbell have each borrowed a line from him. Zhe Wild Honey- 
suckle and afew other of his lyrics have a natural grace, and Richardson praises his 
House of Night as ‘‘ the best poem written in America before 1800 ;” but the mass of his 
writings is of small value. An interesting phenomenon in authorship was Phillis 
Wheatley [Peters], a full-blooded African, brought to Boston when a child and bought 
in the slave market there by a Mrs. Wheatley, whose name she took. She possessed un- 
usual mental gifts, and was a poet of no mean order. Her poems, published in 1778, 
remain ‘‘the principal achievement [in literature] of the colored race in America.” 
Wm. Livingston, governor of New Jersey in 1776, was the author of Philosophie Soli- 
tude, a heavy didactic poem. Timothy Dwight, Pres. of Yale Coll., wrote the Conquest 
of Canaan, the first epic produced in America, Greenfield Hill, and other poems. The 
familiar hymn, I love thy kingdom, Lord, is his paraphrase of a part of the 137th Psalm. 
His most important work was Theology Hxplained and Defended, in 5vols. John Trum- 
bull satirized the Tories in McFingal, the best imitation of Hudibras ever produced. 
His Progress of Dulness is a satire on the prevailing modes of education. Joel Barlow’s 
ambitious epic, The Columbiad, proved a decided failure, but his mock-heroic poem, 
The Hasty Pudding, attained great popularity. Thomas Godfrey’s Prince of Parthia 
(1758) was the earliest attempt at dramatic writing, but The Contrast (1786), by Royall 
Tyler, afterward Chief Justice of Vermont, in which the original ‘‘ stage Yankee’”’ ap- 
pears, was the first American play produced in public by professional actors. William 
Dunlap, by numerous plays, original and adapted, did much to further the development 
of the American drama. Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren, sister of James Otis, wrote The 
Adulator, a political satire, The Sack of Rome, and 7 he Ladies of Castile, works highly 
commended by John Adams. Charles Brockden Brown, a Philadelphian, whose Quaker 
ancestors came over with William Penn, is the first American novelist, and the first 
author who made literature a profession. His Wieland ; or, The Transformation (1798), 
Ormond ; or, the Secret Witness (1799), and Arthur Mervyn (1800) are works of acknowl- 
edged merit, and the description in the latter of the yellow fever in Philadelphia is said 

‘ * 


381 


American, 


to compare in vividness with Defoe’s description of the great plaguein London. Brown 
is highly eulogized by Prescott, and was a favorite author with Shelley. Susannah 
Haswell Rowson wrote various stories, an opera, farces, poems, and school-books. Her 
most noted work, Charlotte Temple, a sentimental tale, published in 1790, was very popu- 
lar in the early part of the 19th century. To counteract its tendency, perhaps, Tabitha 
Gilman Tenney wrote in 1808 Female Quixotism, a satire on the extravagant sentimental- 
ism of the time. In the department of history we have Robert Beverley’s Hist. of the 
Present State of Virginia, published in 1705, in order to correct certain misrepresentations 
concerning the colony. He gives an interesting account of plantation life and its 
generous hospitality, of the fauna and flora of the region, and of the Indians. Another 
interesting picture of this locality is found in Col. Wm. Byrd’s Hist. of the Dividing 
Tine, one of the Westover ss., a fresh and pleasing narrative of travel and adventure 
in Virginia and North Carolina, in connection with a survey made in 1728 of the boun- 
dary between the two states. It was not published till 1841. Other mss. of this collec- 
tion still unpublished are in the possession of Congress. In 1716 Thomas Church edited 
the Hist. of King Philip's War, written by his father, Capt. B. Church, who took a 
leading part in the struggle. In 1727, Cadwallader Colden, a Scotch resident of the 
New York Colony, published an excellent Hist. of the Five Indian Nations. Thomas 
Prince’s Chronological Hist. of New Eng. (published 1736 and 1755), though a fragment 
extending only to the year 1633, is highly prized because of its accuracy. His large 
and unique collection of early American books and Mss. is now a valued possession of the 
Boston Public Library. The Hist. of Virginia from its first discovery and settlement to 
the year 1624, by Wm. Stith, third president of William and Mary College, is an im- 
partial and valuable work. This history (pub. 1747) and the annals of Thomas Prince, 
above mentioned, are noteworthy as the first attempts of American authors to write 
history after the modern method—that is, with careful research and verification of 
facts. The tory Gov. Hutchinson is the author of a well-written Hist. of the Colony of 
Mass. Bay from 1628-1774, and Rev. Samuel Peters (‘‘ Parson Peters’’), also a royalist, 
wrote a caustic Hist. of Conn., full of wit and malice, and by no means restricted to 
facts. Jeremy Belknap published a Hist. of New Hampshire, and Ezra Stiles, Pres. of 
Yale Coll., a Hist. of Three of the Regicide Judges—Whalley, Goffe, and Dixwell. David 
Ramsay, who had the advantage of a personal acquaintance with the American leaders 
in the war, wrote a Hist. of the Revolution in South Carolina, a Hist. of the Amer. 
Rev., and a Life of Washington, all works of value. Hannah Adams was the first 
American woman to devote herself wholly to literature. She wrote a Hist. of New 
Hing. and a Hist. of the Jews, but her chief work was a View of Religious Opinions, a 
description of the various beliefs of the world. During the latter half of the century, 
John Woolman, the Quaker, was writing the Diary, which Whittier afterwards edited. 
Lindley Murray, whose grammar was the 0déte netr of our grandfathers and grand- 
mothers, and Noah Webster, the lexicographer, were eminently useful in promoting 
American literature indirectly, if not directly. Jedediah Morse gave the country its 
first geographical works soon after the establishment of the government. In addition 
to Franklin, who has been mentioned, the scientific writers of this century are Nathaniel 
Ames, whose Astronomical Diary and Almanac, begun in 1725, was issued yearly 
till 1775; Prof. John Winthrop, of Harvard Coll., who discoursed on earthquakes, 
storms, comets, and on various other astronomical topics; John Bartram, ‘‘ the father 
of Amer. botany,” founder of the once famous Bartram’s Garden on the Schuylkill 
- River, and his son, William, author of an interesting volume of studies in natural 
history, made during a tour of the southern colonies ; Dr. Benj. Rush, writer on‘ medi- 
cine and hygiene, and on miscellaneous themes; Wm. C. Redfield, meteorologist, who 
first remarked the rotary and progressive character of ocean storms; Benj. Thompson, 
of Mass., better known as Count Rumford, who wrote of experiments in physics and of 
political economy ; Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, Prof. of Chem., Nat. Hist., and Philos., in 
Columbia Coll., a savant of rare intellectual ability ; and David Rittenhouse, astronomer 
and mathematician, of whom a high authority said, ‘‘ We should place him in point of 
scientific merit second to Franklin alone.” 

Thus far, in our rapid survey, we have found comparatively few attempts to culti- 
vate literature for its own sake, most of the works having been written for ulterior pur- 
poses, and with little attention to artistic style and finish. But the dawn was gradually 
growing brighter, and the true day of American literature was at hand, and with the 
opening of the 19th century, it was ushered in by Washington Irving, the first American 
man of letters to gain no less distinction abroad than at home. Born in 1783, Irving’s 
style was to some extent influenced by the English literature of the 18th century.. 
His gentle satires on society and discourses upon topics of the time, contributed to the 
New York Morning Chronicle and to Salmagundi, have the Addisonian flavor. But he 
soon developed an independent style. In Diedrich Knickerbocker’s Hist. of New York, 
Irving was tf first to employ that kind of humorous exaggeration which has been so 
much abused by later American writers. In his delightful Sketch Book he portrays 
characteristic scenes, whether American or English, with equal appreciation and with 
the same felicitous charm. Here appear some of the most famous creations of his 
genius—Rip Van Winkle, Ichabod Crane, and Katrina Van Tassel. A three years’ so- 
journ in Spain afforded materials for an interesting Life of Columbus and for other 
charming books. Among his later publications are a brief but admirable Life of 


382 


American. 


Goldsmith, and the Life of Washington, in 5 vols. For this great work Irving had made 
a long and careful study of original authorities, and his picture of the illustrious leader 
is sympathetic, but without undue partiality. ; , 

‘Another brilliant name in our literary annals is that of James Fenimore Cooper, the 
most popular and one of the most prolific of American writers of fiction, His familiar- 
ity with frontier life in his youth and his six years in the U. 8S. Navy supplied him with 
an abundance of fresh and original material for his tales of the forest and of the sea. 
His fertility of invention is remarkable, and his narratives of adventure are vigorous 
and thrilling, but he is inferior in artistic skill to the best of our later novelists. 
The works on which his reputation chiefly rests are Zhe Spy, the five Leather-Stock- 
ing Tales, The Pilot, and the Red Rover. ‘‘ He wrote,” says Bryant, ‘‘ for mankind at 
large. . . . Henceit is that he has earned a fame wider . . . than any author 
of modern times. . . . Thecreations of his genius . . . shall live through cen- 
turies to come, and only perish with our language.’’ Other writers of romance and fic- 
tion belonging to the first half of the 19th c. are William Wirt, of Maryland, Attorney- 
general of the U. S., author of Letters of a British Spy, and also of an admirable Life of 
Patrick Henry; Jas. K. Paulding, Irving’s co-laborer on the Salmagundi Papers, whose 
best novel is the Dutchman’s Fireside ; William Ware, author of several fine historical 
romances, of which Zenodia is the chief; John P. Kennedy, author of Swallow Barn, a 
pleasing tale of the Old Dominion, and of two historical novels, Horse-Shoe Robinson 
and Rob of the Bowl; R. M. Bird, whose romances of Mexico, Calavar and The Infidel, 
were highly praised by Prescott for the accuracy of their local coloring ; W. G. Simms, 
whose versatile pen discussed a great variety of topics, but who is remembered chiefly 
for his many novels, 7’he Partisan, The Yemassee, etc., strongly sectional in feeling, but, 
as pictures of Southern life, lacking in vividness and careful detail; Washington 
Allston, the celebrated painter, who, besides lectures on art and graceful poems, wrote 
also the romance of Monaldi; and Sylvester Judd, author of that singular New Eng- 
land romance, Margaret, ‘‘the first Yankee book with the soul of Down East in’t.” 
John Sanderson’s American in Paris was thought worthy of translation by no less a 
writer than Jules Janin. Gulian C. Verplanck appeared anonymously as a political 
satirist in 1819, and was afterwards the author of many discourses on art and literature. 
R. H. Dana, Jr., published in 1840 his Zwo Years before the Mast, a record of personal 
experience which is still read with interest. N. P. Willis, editor of the Hvening Mirror, 
and later of the Home Journal, was one of the most popular literary men of the time. 
Other favorite authors were George P. Morris, Theo. 8. Fay, Robert C. Sands, Joseph 
C. Neal, Charles Fenno Hoffman, Willis Gaylord Clark, Frederick 8. Cozzens, and G. 
D. Prentice. 

Among the women who wrote fiction during the first half of the century, the name of 
Catharine M. Sedgwick stands deservedly high. Her Redwood was translated into 
French and Italian. Hope Leslie, published three years later, was the most popular 
of Miss Sedgwick’s tales. Mrs. Lydia Maria Child’s Hobomok, a tale of Puritan times 
(1824), and Phzlothea, a romance of the days of Pericles (1836), merit honorable mention. 
Mrs. Child wrote much on domestic and social topics also, and was an ardent champion 
of the anti-slavery cause. Other authors of fiction are Miss Eliza Leslie, the first Amer- 
ican woman to write stories for the young, Mrs. Hannah F. Lee, Miss Maria J. McIn- 
tosh, Mrs. C. M. Kirkland, and Mrs. Ann 8. Stephens. 

Edgar Allan Poe, a most original genius, is equally distinguished in prose and 
in verse. The mysterious and the terrible predominate in his writings. Death 
has a strange fascination for him, and he is ever striving to penetrate its secret. His 
prose is clear and forcible, and his verse is exceedingly musical, the melody being due in 
part to the skillful use of repeated phrases. All his works are finished with careful 
elaboration. The most powerful of the tales are Ligeta and The Fall of the House of 
Usher. Two of the poems, Z'he Raven and The Bells (the latter a remarkable example 
of onomatopeeia), are familiar to all, being among the most effective pieces in the reper- 
toire of the elocutionist. Annabel Lee, and the verses addressed Zo Helen and To One 
in Paradise, are natural and beautiful effusions, which awaken a sympathetic response ; 
but most of the poems are of a weird and unearthly character. As a critic Poe was 
independent and fearless, but his judgment was not always correct, and he was some- 
times unconsciously biased by personal likes or dislikes. 

Other poets who flourished during the first half of the century and who require brief 
mention are Thomas Green Fessenden (Christopher Caustic), author of 7’he Country 
Lovers, a humorous story in verse; of Terrible Tractoration, an amusing satire on the 
newly vaunted remedy, metallic tractors, and of various political satires; Richard H, 
Dana, whose principal poem, 7’he Buccaneer, was highly praised by Prof. Wilson in 
Blackwood, and whose tales and essays in Zhe Idle Man were greatly admired by Bryant ; 
John Pierpont; James A. Hillhouse; Charles Sprague; Carlos iene: “3 James G, 
Percival; John G. C. Brainard; Joseph Rodman Drake, author of the charming 
Culprit Fay, and of the fine patriotic lyric, Te American Flag, a poet of great prom- 
ise, who died at the early age of 25 yrs.; Fitz-Greene Halleck, whose beautiful tribute 
to his friend Drake, beginning ‘‘ Green be the turf above thee,” and whose stirring 
poem, Marco Bozzaris, are familiar to all; and the young Southerner, Edward Coate 
Pinkney, who died in his 27th year, leaving a small volume of spirited and graceful 
lyrics, John Neal, poet and critic, was the first writer on American literature for for- 


3 8 re American, 


eign readers (in a series of articles in Blackwood), Francis Scott Key’s Star Spangled 
Banner (1812), Samuel Woodworth’s Old Oaken Bucket, John Howard Payne’s Home, 
Sweet Home, Richard Henry Wilde’s My Life is Like the Summer Rose, Albert Gorton 
Greene’s Old Grimes, and Clement C. Moore’s A Visit from St. Nicholas, are examples of 
single poems or songs to which the reputations of their authors are wholly or mainly 
due. The best known of John Quincy Adams’s poems is a capital humorous effusion, 
The Wants of Man, based upon two familiar lines from Goldsmith’s Hermit. Among 
the dramatists are Robert T. Conrad, John A. Stone (author of Metamora), and John 
Howard Payne, Mrs. Lydia Huntiey Sigourney, b. 1791, was for many years the fore- 
most author of her sex in the country, and the first American woman to become well 
known abroad by her works. A brief poem on the Death of an Infant is almost the 
only one of her productions that is now familiar. Mrs, Maria Gowen Brooks (Maria 
del’ Occidente, as Southey named her), b. 1795, is the author of Zophiél ; or, the Bride of 
Seven, a narrative poem in seven cantos, founded on a story from the Apocrypha; of 
ldomen, or the Vale of Yumuri, in which she tells the story of her singularly romantic 
life, and of other poems of merit. Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, editor of Godey’s Lady’s Book, 
wrote Sketches of American Character, Sketches of Distinguished Women, many tales and 
poems, and compiled a Dictionary of Poetical Quotations, Other poets and sketch- 
writers prominent during the first half of the century are Mrs. Caroline H. Gilman, Mrs. 
Emma C. Embury, Mrs. Frances Sargent Osgood, Mrs. Sarah Helen Whitman, Mrs. 
Caroline Lee Hentz, and Mrs. Elizabeth Oakes Smith. The sisters, Lucretia Maria and 
Margaret Miller Davidson, were remarkable instances of precocity in verse and prose. 
Margaret Fuller (Marchioness Ossoli), whose melancholy fate by shipwreck is not 
forgotten, was one of the most terse and vigorous of American writers, a thorough 
scholar, and a critic of rare ability in art, literature, and social science. Woman in the 
Nineteenth Century, her principal work, is made up from papers contributed to the Dial, 
the organ of the Transcendentalists. 

In the department of history and biography we have Chief-Justice Marshall’s Life of 
Washington, surpassed by later biographies of our first President, but valuable as a 
history of his time ; Abiel Holmes’s American Annals (1492-1805), an accurate and use- 
ful chronological record ; Henry Lee’s Memoirs of the War in the Southern Dept. of the 
U. 8., and a History of the War of 1812, by Henry M. Brackenridge. But to Jared 
Sparks belongs of right the title of ‘‘ Father of American History,” because of his 
exhaustive search of national and state, as well as of English and French archives, for 
documents bearing upon the subject. His principal works are Life and Writings of 
George Washington, 12 vols.; Diplomatic Correspondence of the Revolution, 12 vols., and 
Life and Writings of Franklin, 10 vols. He also edited a Library of American Btog- 
raphy, 25 vols., himself writing eight of the memoirs. Chancellor Kent’s Commentaries 
upon Amer. Law surpass Blackstone’s Commentaries both in accuracy and in literary 
style. This great work and Judge Story’s valuable Commentaries on the Constitution of 
the U. 8. have caused American jurists to be honored throughout the civilized world. 
The political literature of the period is resplendent with many illustrious names. Fore- 
most among these is Daniel Webster, whose eloquence has never been excelled by any 
speaker of the English tongue. His oratory was massive and imposing in effect. Its 
thrilling power is largely retained by the printed page. The chief element of Clay’s 
eloquence was persuasiveness, and, unlike that of Webster, it depended in a considerable 
measure upon the magnetic personal influence of the man. John C. Calhoun’s oratory 
was clear and vigorous, but without much rhetorical adornment. The preponderating 
influence of his powerful intellect was felt throughout the South for many years. 
Thomas Hart Benton was from 1820 to 1850 a distinguished member of the U. §. 
Senate. His Vhirty Years’ View, a history of the government during that time, is 
admirable, both for literary merit and for the just and courteous spirit it exhibits. 
The published works of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the U. 8., and 
afterwards ‘‘the old man eloquent” of the House of Representatives, are on various 
themes, among them being a series of Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, written while he 
was a Professor of Rhetoric at Harvard College (1806-1809). Rufus Choate was for one 
term a member of the U. 8. Senate, but his chief triumphs were in his chosen profession 
of the law. He was Webster’s peer at the Massachusetts bar. His published works 
consist of Lectures, Addresses, and Speeches. Charles Sumner’s great powers of oratory 
were largely employed in the anti-slavery cause, as were those of Wendell Phillips, 
Edward Everett was a graceful and polished speaker, whose eloquence was much 
sought on commemorative occasions. His published works include, besides his orations, 
a Life of Washington, a Life of Stark, and various historical papers. Henry Whea- 
ton’s Hlements of International Law, published after the author’s death under the able 
supervision of Wm. Beach Lawrence, is a standard work. The earliest scientific pub- 
lication of note in the 19th c. is Alex. Wilson’s American Ornithology (1808-1814), in 9 
vols., 4to, with plates engraved and colored from original drawings. The author, a 
Scotch weaver and poet, was an enthusiast in natural history, and his descriptions are 
very beautiful and poetic. Wilson died in 1813, and the text of the last vol. was written 
by his friend, Geo. Ord. John James Audubon’s great work, The Birds of America 
(1830-1838), is not inferior to Wilson’s in the charm of the descriptions, and the illustra- 
tions are finer. The text fills five octavo vols., and the beautifully colored engravings 
five folio vols. Audubon, with his sons, published also 7 he Quadrupeds of America, 


3883a 


American, 


with 150 plates. Benj. Silliman, Denison Olmsted, Edw. Hitchcock, Joseph Henry, 
Alex. Dallas Bache, and Gen. O. M. Mitchel are prominent names in science. Drs. 
Robley Dunglison and Jas. Rush are eminent writers on medicine and physiology. 
Timothy Flint, John C. Fremont, John L. Stephens, Lieut., Wm. F. Lynch, Rear 
Adm. Wilkes, Elisha Kent Kane, and others, have written valuable and interesting 
accounts of travel and scientific exploration. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft and Geo. Catlin 
studied the manners and customs of the N. A. Indians. The great work of Schoolcraft, 
published by Congress, is a vast treasury of information, but is, unfortunately, very 
ill arranged. Jos. E. Worcester and Chauncey A. Goodrich are prominent lexicog- 
raphers. Goold Brown’s Grammar of Grammars is a standard work. Lowell Mason’s 
Juvenile Lyre (1830) is said to have been ‘‘the first book of school songs published in 
this country.” Horace Mann wrote wisely and eloquently on popular education. 
Among the prominent clergymen and theologians were Nathaniel Emmons, Samuel 
Hopkins, Arch. Alexander and his sons, James W. and Joseph Addison Alexander, 
Robt. J. Breckenridge, Lyman Beecher, Samuel H. Cox, Leonard Woods, Moses Stuart, 
the father of American Biblical criticism ; Nath. W. Taylor and Bennett Tyler, whose 
systems of theology were widely discussed under the names of Taylorism and Tylerism; 
Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, whose joint researches in the Holy Land led to the 
identification of many ancient sites; Sam. H. Turner, whose various commentaries are 
among the best contributions of the Epis. Ch. to the exposition of the Scriptures ; 
Francis Wayland, author of valuable text-books on Moral Science, Intellectual P hitlos., 
and Political Heonomy, and of an important treatiseon Human Responsibility; Geo. Bush, 
the learned Orientalist ; Geo. B. Cheever, a well-known advocate of temperance and 
other reforms ; Wm. Ellery Channing, of whom it was said in Fraser’s Mag., ‘‘ Channing 
is unquestionably the first writer of the age ;’ Wm. H. Furness, Thec. Parker, Hosea 
Ballou, Alex. Campbell, and Wm. B. Sprague, compiler of the Annals of the American 
Pulpit. Nor ought we to forget Jacob Abbott and 8. G. Goodrich (Peter Parley), who 
were among the first to write books for the young, and the former of whom, especially, 
produced an astonishing number of entertaining and instructive works. 

And now at the middle of the 19th c. we have reached the most illustrious period of 
American literature. W.C. Bryant, the Nestor of our most brilliant group of poets, 
the ‘‘father of American song,” is distinguished for a noble and lofty imagination, 
clearness of thought, and purity of diction. He delights in picturing the sublimer 
aspects of nature. Among his masterpieces are 7’ hanatopsis, the marvellous poem of 
his youth; A Forest Hymn, The Antiquity of Freedom, To a Waterfowl, A Day Dream, 
Life, and The Hvening Wind. The charming little Robert of Lincoln is one of his few 
poems in lighter vein. The translations of the Iviad and Odyssey of Homer, made in 
Bryant’s old age, are worthy of his prime. He was also a writer of pure and vigorous 
prose, and his career in journalism was long and honored. Whittier, the well-beloved 
Quaker poet of New England, with great self-abnegation, devoted his pen in youth to 
the anti-slavery cause, and thus the chief aim of his early poetry was moral rather than 
artistic. During the war his stirring patriotic lyrics exercised a powerful influence on 
public opinion. In later life, after emancipation was proclaimed, he was free to pay 
more exclusive attention to poetry as an art. His verse is marked by spontaneity, sim- 
plicity, fidelity to nature, religious earnestness, and a passionate hatred of tyranny and 
oppression. The beautiful idyl Snow-Bound is a charming picture of rura] New Eng- 
land life in winter. Questions of Life is powerful and impressive. Maud Muller, Bar- 
bara Frietchie, The Barefoot Boy, and Skipper ‘reson’s Ride are well-known favorites. 
The Tent on the Beach is a series of tales in verse strung together after the manner of 
Chaucer. The chief prose works are Margaret Smith’s Journal, an attractive picture of 
colonial life, and The Supernaturalism of New England, a collection of ghost and 
witch stories. By natural poetic endowment, and by thorough acquaintance with the 
languages and literatures of modern Europe, Henry W. Longfellow was admirably 
equipped for his life-work as a disseminator of culture among the people. His career 
of authorship lasted more than fifty years, during which time he produced many of the 
choicest gems of our literature. The characteristics of his poetry are refinement, ten- 
derness, simplicity, and exquisite taste. Its chief defect is the absence of strong emo- 
tion. His fine poem, The Building of the Ship, however, closes with a grand apostrophe 
to the Union, which is full of patriotic ardor. Many of Longfellow’s poems, and some 
of the most successful, as the lovely Hvangeline and the Courtship of Miles Standish, are 
founded on incidents in early American history. The Song of Hiawatha has for its 
theme an Indian myth. Its peculiar rhythm is borrowed from the Finnish Kalevala. 
The charming romance, Z’he Golden Legend, presents a vivid picture of monastic and 
secular life in medieval times. Z'he Spanish Student is the best of Longfellow’s dramas. 
A few of the gems among his shorter poems are the two powerful ballads, The Skeleton 
tn Armor and The Wreck of the Hesperus, The Fire of Driftwood, The Occultation of 
Orion, The Day is Done, and The Ohildren’s Hour. As a translator Longfellow repro- 
duced with wonderful skill many poems from the Spanish, French, German, Danish, 
and Swedish, but his masterpiece is the admirable translation of Dante’s Divina Com- 
media, which work is accompanied with some exquisite sonnets of his own. Longfel- 
low’s prose works are Outre-Mer and Hyperion, poetical sketches of travel abroad, and 
Kavanagh, a tale of New England life. The German idealistic philosophy of Kant and 
Fichte found congenial soil in New England, and there produced the new and modified 


3836 American. 


outgrowth of Transcendentalism. ‘‘ The literature of Transcendentalism,’’ says Beers, 
““was ... a genuine New England literature and true to the spirit of its section. The 
tough Puritan stock had at last put forth a blossom which compared with the warm, 
robust growths of English soil even as the delicate wind flower of the northern spring 
compares with the cowslips and daisies of old England.” 'To the Transcendental School 
of writers, of which Emerson was the leading spirit, belong Amos Bronson Alcott, H. 
D. Thoreau, Theodore Parker, Margaret Fuller Ossoli, who has already been mentioned, 
Jones Very, C. P. Cranch, Wm. Ellery Channing, Jr., D. A. Wasson, and many others. 
In fact, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, G. W. Curtis, T. W. Higginson, and all the younger 
writers of the time were more or less influenced by it. We have not space to discuss 
the various phases of Transcendentalism, but would refer the reader to O, B. Frothing- 
ham’s Transcendentalism in New England, to Lowell’s sketch of Thoreau in My Study 
Windows, and to the chapter on the Concord Writers in H. A. Beers’s Outline Sketch of 
American Literature. Whether in poetry or in philosophy, although he formulated no 
exact philosophical system, few names rank as high as that of Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
He was an optimist, an idealist, and withal a shrewd and practical New Englander, 
modestly self-reliant, and inculcating that trait in others. His beliefs, apparently 
founded on intuitions, were uttered with an air of gentle authority, and his influence 
over many minds was most stimulating. Others, unable to discern the esoteric meaning 
hidden under some metaphor, or under some apparently simple phrase, found him un- 
satisfactory and obscure. His chief prose works are Representative Men and Hssays on 
various themes, as Love, Experience, Character, Nature, The Conduct of Life. <A visit 
to England was productive of Hnglish Traits. His thoughts are tersely and often 
beautifully expressed, but there is little cohesion in his style. The sentences are so 
detached that it has been said, doubtless with considerable exaggeration, that if they 
were read in the reverse order the essays would lose nothing. Asa poet Emerson is a 
close observer and a loving interpreter of nature. His epithets are most felicitous. 
“Among the choicest of his poems are: Woodnotes, The Problem, Threnody, and the 
Hymn sung at the Completion of the Concord Monument. 'The singular recluse, H. D. 
Thoreau, was one of the most prominent of Emerson’s followers. He persistently 
shunned mankind, and sought more and more to identify himself with nature. ‘‘ As we 
read him,’’ says Lowell, ‘‘ it seems as if all-out-of-doors had kept a diary and become its 
own Montaigne ; we look at the landscape ina Claude Lorraine glass ; compared with 
his all other books of similar aim, even White’s Selborne, seem dry as a country clergy- 
man’s meteorological journal in an old almanac.’’ Among his works are : A Week on the 
Concord and Merrimac Rivers, Walden, or Life in the Woods, Excursions, and The Maine 
Woods. Oliver Wendell Holmes is distinguished as a writer on topics pertaining to 
medicine, his chosen profession, but his fame as the author of humorous and witty prose 
and verse is even greater. The genial Autocrat of the Breakfast Table has found a wel- 
come to the homes of all English-speaking people. Nor has the Professor and the Poet, 
who in later years discoursed Over the Tea-Cups, been aless honored guest. Dr. Holmes’s 
two novels, Histe Venner and T’he Guardian Angel, in each of which he proposes a pro- 
fessional problem, are somewhat less successful than his other works. As a poet on anni- 
versary and special occasions Holmes has no peer. He has written no less than forty poems 
for reunions of his own College Class of 1829. The Last Leaf, Dorothy Q., My Aunt, The 
One Horse Shay, Parson Turell’s Legacy, and many other humorous and witty poems 
are familiar to all. Z’he Chambered Nautilus and The Living Temple are beautiful mas- 
terpieces of his genius, by which he especially desired to be remembered. James Rus- 
sell Lowell is eminent as poet, satirist, essayist, and critic. His poetry has not the un- 
affected and transparent simplicity of Longfellow’s; its thought is more subtle and 
occasionally somewhat mystical and obscure. His love of nature is manifest in the 
charming poem To the Dandelion, in The Vision of Sir Launfal, with its beautiful 
description of June, and in the delightful essay on My Garden Acquaintance. His pow- 
er of satire is displayed in A Fable for Critics, and in the essay On a Certain Conde- 
scension in Foreigners. His ardent patriotism finds perhaps its noblest expression in the 
grand Commemoration Ode. His keenly discriminative mental powers, together with his 
varied and thorough erudition, are admirably shown in Conversations on Some of the Old 
Poets, and especially in his later essays, Among My Books and My Study Windows. His 
familiarity with the New England character and dialect is evinced in the Biglow Papers, 
and here and everywhere his wit and humor gleam like golden threads throughout the 
fabric of hiscompositions. Bayard Taylor’s literary record is noteworthy for versatility, 
industry, and excellence. His many narratives of journey and adventure are written 
in an easy and interesting style, and show rare powers of observation. It isas a poet and 
a translator of poetry, however, that he has won his highest renown. Among many 
charming lyrics, Daughter of Egypt, vetl thine eyes, The Bedouin Song, and the Song of 
the Camp are well-known favorites, and also the lovely idyl, The Quaker Widow. Of 
his longer poems, Lars, an idyl in blank verse, and Prince Deuwkalion, rich in varied 
rhythms, are both masterpieces. His translation of Goethe’s Faust is a wonderful 
achievement, preserving all the meters, and faithfully reproducing both the spirit and 
the sense of the original. He wrote several novels also, in which certain aspects of 
American life are well depicted. The Story of Kennett is usually considered the best. 
Walt Whitman has been called ‘‘a successful poetical iconoclast.” His success was 
only partial, however. His genius was such as to command admiration in spite of his 


L165 


383¢ 


American, 


bizarre and lawless style, but the most beautiful of his poems, such as My Captain, 
When Lilacs Last in the Door-Yard Bloomed, and the Man-of-War Bird, are those that 
depart least from accepted models, Although an ultra-democrat in opinion and practice, 
he has never been much read by the people at large, and his ideas have had little, if any, 
practical influence upon American literature. Alfred B. Street’s Gray Horest-Hagle is a 
fine lyric. John G. Saxe has a facile vein of humor, which reminds one of Hood. The 
Proud Miss McBride and Dan Phaéthon, an amusing travesty of the classic fable, are 
familiar examples of his style. Thos. W. Parson’s exquisite Ode to Dante is one of the 
gems of our poetry, and his version of the Inferno is most admirable. He has recently 
translated parts of the Purgatorio and of the Paradiso also. Dr. J. G. Holland (Timo- 
thy Titcomb) was a popular and useful writer in prose and verse. His narrative poems 
of New England life, Bitter Sweet, Kathrina, and the Mistress of the Manse, though not 
without some blemishes that critics were swift to note, were widely read and enjoyed. 
Thos. Buchanan Read’s most successful productions are lyrics and idyls. The stirring 
Sheridan’s Ride is his best-known poem. George H. Boker excelled as a dramatist, and 
his lyrical poetry is also of great merit. Calaynos, Anne Boleyn, Leonor de Gueman, and 
Francesca da Rimini are powerful tragedies. On Board the Cumberland and A Ballad of 
Sir John Frankiin are fine lyrics. “Wm. Allen Butler made a decided hit in the satirical 
poem Nothing to Wear. Richard Henry Stoddard’s poems are characterized by spontane- 
ity, refinement, and powerful imagination. His Ode on the Deathof Abraham Lincoln 
is amasterpiece. The Fisher and Charon, the Hymn to the Sea, and The King’s Bell 
are also among his best productions. His literary criticisms in the Mail and Hazpress 
have for many years been an interesting feature of that paper. E. C. Stedman has 
written many charming lyrics, as Pan in Wall Street, The Singer, The Freshet, Country 
Sleighing, The Doorstep, Surf, and The Discoverer. Alice of Monmouth is an interesting 
‘‘Idyl of the Great War.’ In it occurs the favorite Cavalry Song. Other fine war 
poems are How Old Brown took Harper’s Ferry, Sumter, Gettysburg, and Kearny at Seven 
Pines. Mr. Stedman is an admirable critic, judiciously discriminative, but, at the same 
time, more ready to applaud the merits than to discover the defects of his brother- 
authors. His Victorian Poets has reached its 21st edition, and the Poets of America, 
published ten years later, its 11th edition. 7 he Nature and the Hiements of Poetry is the 
ripe fruit of the critical studies of many years. The Library of American Literature 
(11 vols.), which he compiled with the assistance of Miss Ellen Mackay Hutchinson, is a 
collection of great value. Thos. Bailey Aldrich is equally distinguished as a poet and 
as a prose romancer. All of his work is most exquisitely finished. The dainty poem of 
Babie Bell, published in 1856, at once brought the young author into prominence. 
Palabras Cariitiosas, On the Intaglio Head of Minerva, and the Lament of Hi Moulok are 
gems. Spring in New England is a beautiful Decoration Day Ode. Gates Unguarded is 
a strong plea against unrestricted emigration. Mercedes, a tragedy, was successfully pro- 
duced in New York in 1898. His proseis humorous, witty, and altogether enjoyable. 
The Story of a Bad Boy, largely autobiographical, delights old and young by its truth to 
nature. Margery Daw, a charming short story, created a sensation by its unexpected 
ending. Of the longer tales, T’he Stillwater Tragedy is the most powerful. Bret Harte 
became suddenly famous through his ballads and tales of California mining life, and his 
Condensed Novels, brief and clever travesties of the plots of several popular stories. 
The most celebrated of his poems are Plain Language from Truthful James (‘‘ The 
Heathen Chinee”) and The Society upon the Stanislaus ; and, of the tales, The Luck of 
Roaring Camp, Miggles, and Tennessee’s Partner. His best work is highly artistic, but 
he sometimes degenerates into sentimentality. Cincinnatus Hiner Miller (‘‘ Joaquin” 
Miller) has sung of the Spanish-American life of the South-West, and his poems are full 
of fire and vivid color. He has great and acknowledged merits and grave defects. Sid- 
ney Lanier’s passionate love of nature, and especially of trees and of all plant-life, is 
mirrored in his verse. He delighted in broad, free expanses, in ‘‘a message of range 
and of sweep” from ‘‘the marsh and the sea and the sky.” His poems are strong, 
musical, and original. One of the most powerful is 7’he Revenge of Hamish. 'The re- 
sults of his study of rhythms, measures, and acoustic effects he embodied in a prose 
volume, The Science of English Verse. The lectures of his second course at Johns Hop- 
kins Univ. were published as 7’he Development of the English Novel. Richard Watson 
Gilder’s poems evince refined taste and careful finish. He has used the sonnet form 
with much success, as, for instance, in Keats, and in Father and Child. The White 
Tsar’s People is vigorous and dramatic, and Sheridan is a fine tribute to the dead hero. 
Among others who have successfully invoked the Muse are W. W. Story, Ralph Hoyt, 
John James Piatt, W. D. Howells, Wm. Winter, John Boyle O'Reilly, Jas. Jeffrey 
Roche, J. Maurice Thompson, Edward: Rowland Sill, Rossiter Johnson, Edgar Faw- 
cett, John Vance Cheney, J. T. Trowbridge, J. H. Boner, H. H. Boyesen, G. P. 
Lathrop, Chas. De Kay, and H. C. Bunner. Stephen C. Foster, Chas. Godfrey Le- 
land (‘Hans Breitmann”), Chas. Follen Adams (‘‘ Yawcob Strauss”), John Hay, Jas. 
Whitcomb Riley, Will Carleton, Joel Chandler Harris, the brothers Lanier, and Irwin 
Russell have written dialect verse of various kinds, and the first mentioned, plantation 
songs, for which he also composed the music. Bronson Howard is the author of several 
successful plays. Alice and Phebe Cary sang chiefly of home life and its affections, 
and their tender poems were warmly welcomed. During the third quarter of the century 
the sisters dispensed a gracious hospitality to their literary friends in New York City. 


a.” 


38 3d American. 


Mrs. Anne C. Lynch Botta is the author of a volume of choice poems, and of a Hand- 
book of Universal Literature, and is also remembered as for many years the center of an 
interesting literary circle in the metropolis. Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, whose several vol- 
umes of poetry, the later ones especially, are of a high order of merit, owes her chief 
reputation to her fine Battle Hymn of the Republic. Other gifted women, most of whom 
have written both in verse and in prose, are Mrs. Emily Chubbuck Judson (‘‘ Fanny 
Forester”), Mrs. C. M. Sawyer, Mrs. Estelle Anne Lewis, one of whose dramas was ac- 
cepted by Ristori, Mrs. Alice B. Neal (afterwards Mrs. Haven), Mrs. Elizabeth C. Kin- 
ney (mother of Edmund C. Stedman), Mrs. Julia C. R. Dorr, Miss Caroline Chesebro, 
Mrs. Elizabeth Akers Allen (‘‘ Florence Percy”), Mrs. 8. J. Lippincott (‘‘ Grace Green- 
wood”), and Mrs. Margaret Junkin Preston, one of the sweetest singers of the South. 
Among those who have contributed to the treasures of our hymnology are Dr. Muhlen- 
berg, Bishops Doane, Onderdonk, and Coxe, J. H. Hopkins, Ray Palmer, 8S. F. Smith, 
G. W. Bethune, Thos. Hastings, Geo. Duffield, 8. W. Duffield, E. H. Sears, 8S. Long- 
fellow, John 8. Dwight, W. Croswell, A. D. F. Randolph, Mrs. Pheebe H. Brown, 
Alice and Pheebe Cary, and Mrs. Stowe. In addition to the felicitous translations of 
Bryant, Longfellow, Bayard Taylor, and Parsons, already noted, we ought to mention 
Charles Eliot Norton’s admirable version of Dante’s Vita Nuova ; translations from 
various German classics by C. T. Brooks, C. G. Leland, and Emma Lazarus ; of Virgil’s 
Aineid by C. P. Cranch ; of his Georgics by Miss H. W. Preston ; and also the exquisite 
translations of the latter from the Provencal. Miss Mary L. Booth is the author of 
many valuable translations from the French. During the late war she rendered im- 
portant service to the Government by translating Count de Gasparin’s Uprising of a 
Great People, and other works favorable to the Union cause. 

Some of the fine poems inspired by the war have already been mentioned. One of 
the most remarkable was All Quiet Along the Potomac, by Mrs. Ethelinda Beers (‘‘ Ethel 
Lynn”). H. H. Brownell in his Bay Fight and in other noble poems celebrated the naval 
victories, and C. G. Halpine (‘‘ Miles O’Reilly’’) wrote various stirring war ballads. 
Other favorites are B. Forceythe Willson’s Old Sergeant, J.J. Piatt’s Riding to Vote, 
and Kate Putnam Osgood’s Driving Home the Cows. On the Southern side were H. 
Timrod’s Unknown Dead and Charleston ; Father Ryan’s Conquered Banner ; and The Sub- 
stitute, Stonewall Jackson, and various other impassioned lyrics, by Paul H. Hayne. 
Theo. O’Hara’s impressive poem, The Bivouac of the Dead, although inspired by the 
war in Mexico, is recalled in this connection. F. M. Finch’s beautiful Decoration Day 
Ode, The Blue and the Gray, commemorates the dead heroes of both armies. 

The most prominent women writing verse during the last quarter of the century are 
Mrs. -Helen Fiske Hunt (‘‘H. H.’’), afterward Mrs, Jackson, author also of Ramona 
and A Century of Dishonor ; Mrs. Celia Thaxter, Miss Lucy Larcom, Mrs. S. M. B, 
Piatt, Mrs. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward, Mrs. Harriet Prescott Spofford, Mrs. Rose 
Terry Cooke, Miss Edna Dean Proctor, Mrs. Louise Chandler Moulton, Miss Emma 
Lazarus, Miss Charlotte Fiske Bates, Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge, Mrs. M. E. Sangster, Mrs. 
Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, Miss Kate Putnam Osgood, Miss Edith Matilda Thomas, Miss 
Nora Perry, Miss Helen Gray Cone, Mrs. Danske Dandridge, and Miss Louise Imogen 
Guiney. 

recent among American romancers, especially in the treatment of psychological 
problems, stands the rare genius, Nathaniel Hawthorne. He traces with a masterly 
hand the workings of human passion and the retributive power of conscience. His style 
is admirable for grace and lucidity. The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables 
are generally regarded as his best novels. Zhe Marble Faun is also of great interest, 
not only as a romance, but incidentally asa guide to the understanding and apprecia- 
tion of many of the art treasuresof Rome. Our Old Home is a delightful picture of Eng- 
land and the English. Twice-Told Tales and Mosses from an Old Manse are collections of 
charming sketches. Hawthorne has also written several fascinating books for children, 
Grandfather's Chair, The Wonder Book, and Tanglewood Tales. In 1852 was published a 
book, which, owing largely to the popular interest felt in its theme, produced an unpre- 
cedented sensation, Mrs. H. B. Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a powerful and pathetic story 
of negro slavery. It has been translated into all the languages of the civilized world, 
has been frequently dramatized, and is still a favorite book in circulating libraries. Old 
Town Folks is the best of Mrs. Stowe’s other fictions. Mrs. A. C. Mowatt (afterward Mrs. 
Ritchie) is remembered as an actress of ability, and as author of Mimic Life, of the 
comedy of Fashion, and of an interesting Autobiography. Susan Warner’s Wide, Wide 
World, Queechy, and The Old Helmet were warmly welcomed. John Esten Cooke’s 
Virginia Comedians and Robert T.8. Lowell’s New Priest of Conception Bay are two fine 
novels that appeared shortly before the war. Geo. Wm. Curtis’s charming Nile Notes 
and Lotus-Hating, his society satire, The Potiphar Papers, and Fitz Hugh Ludlow’s 
Hasheesh- Hater were also published about this time, as well as Donald G. Mitchell’s de- 
lightful Dream Life and Reveries of a Bachelor. Jas. Parton was a frequent and favorite 
contributor to the magazines and the writer of many biographies. His wife, Sarah 
Payson Willis (‘‘ Fanny Fern’’), sister of N. P. Willis, was unsurpassed as a sketch 
writer. Her sensible and often caustic short articles in the New York Ledger were de- 
servedly famous. Mary Abigail Dodge (‘‘ Gail Hamilton’) has employed a pungent pen 
on political and social subjects, Among the professed humorists are C, F, Browne 


3886é 


American. 


(‘‘ Artemus Ward”), a most droll and eccentric genius ; D. R. Locke (‘‘ Petroleum V. 
Nasby”) and R. H. Newell (‘‘ Orpheus C. Kerr’’), both of whom by their witty sar- 
casms did good service to the Union cause ; and Henry W. Shaw GS Josh Billings”), 
whose shrewd sayings might well spare the peculiar spelling adopted in order to «all at- 
tention to them. Edward Everett Hale is a prolific and versatile writer. Several of his 
short stories are celebrated, and especially The Man without a Country. He usually writes 
with a philanthropic purpose. Numberless clubs for beneficent work have been organized 
on the plans described in his Ten Times One ts Ten. Mr. Hale has also made various con- 
tributions to history. Thomas Wentworth Higginson has written much in advocacy of 
Woman Suffrage. He is the author also of a graceful romance, Malbone, of Oldport Days, 
a pleasing volume of reminiscences, and of various other works. William Dean Howells 
is one of the most eminent representatives of the realistic school of fiction. The types he 
selects are drawn with uncommon skill, but he has not unjustly been criticised for de- 
picting so many commonplace characters, and especially for presenting so persistently 
the same type of woman. His silly, illogical heroines are quite in place in his delightful 
farces, but in real life, surely, a sensible woman is not such a rarity as in Mr. Howells’s 
novels. Venetian Life and Italian Journeys are charming records of observations made 
during his consular career in Italy. Mr. Howells is also the author of critical essays on 
the Modern Stalian Poets, and of Criticism and Fiction, a reprint of articles contributed 
to the editor’s study of Harper’s Mag. <A recent volume of poetry, Stops of Various 
Quills, shows that he has not forsaken his early muse. Henry James has lived and 
studied so long abroad that he is a thorough cosmopolitan. With every advantage of 
liberal culture, his style is most polished, graceful, and clear. He is a leader in the real- 
istic school of fiction and the inventor of the so-called ‘‘ international novels.’’ He has 
successfully dramatized several of his novels, and his short stories are remarkably bright 
and clever. Asa critic he is genial, generous, and free from all offensive assumption of 
superiority. His Hrench Poets and Novelists and Partial Portraits are two most enjoya- 
ble books. Francis Marion Crawford is another veritable cosmopolitan. Since 1882 he 
has produced nearly two novels a year, many of them of marked ability. The trio of 
novels of Italian life, Saracinesca, Sant’ Ilario, and Don Orsino, are among his best. He 
composed two novels, Zoroaster and Marzio’s Crucifiz, in French as well as in English, 
and was signally honored by the award of 1000 francs from the French Academy in ac- 
knowledgment of the excellence of these and of his other works. Chas. Dudley Warner 
is the author of many delightful essays and interesting sketches of travel, all sparkling 
with spontaneous wit. More recently he has written several novels. The last, A Golden 
House, is a graphic representation of life in New York City. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps 
Ward is an earnest, able, and prolific writer in prose and verse. Her Gates Ajar, dis- 
cussing the conditions of the future life, appeared soon after the war. It was widely 
read, and with deep interest. The Story of Avis is esteemed her best novel. Louisa 
May Alcott, after publishing Hospital Sketches, Moods, a novel, and two other works, 
scored an immense success in Little Women, a story for girls, published in 1868, and from 
that time to the day of her death, twenty years later, her pen was in constant demand. 
Her style is bright and piquant, and her thoroughly wholesome stories faithfully repre- 
sent New England life. Mrs. A. D. T. Whitney, too, has won her chief successes in 
stories for girls, as Maith Gartney’s Girthood and A Summer in Leslie Goldihwatte’s Life. 
Her Mother Goose for Grown Folks, in humorous style, invests the familiar rhymes with 
much esoteric meaning. Mrs. Frances Hodgson Burnett’s most popular novel is That 
Lass 0 Lowrie’s, the scene of which is laidin Lancashire. Her Little Lord Fauntleroy was 
read with delight by old and young, and this and some of her other works have been 
successfully dramatized. Zhe One I Knew Best of Allis an attractive autobiography of her 
childhood. Constance Fenimore Woolson has written several interesting novels, the 
scenes of most of them being in Florida. Hast Angels is, perhaps, the best. Edward 
Eggleston’s principal tales are of Western life, Zhe Hoosier Schoolmaster, The Circuit 
fiider, Roxy, and the Graysons. Of late years he has been busied with writing history. 
George W. Cable, with his graphic and delightful pictures of Creole life, introduced 
quite a new element into American literature. His most powerful work is The Grand- 
issimes, John March, Southerner, presents many charming pictures of Southern life, but 
is lacking in unity. Miss Mary Noailles Murfree (‘‘ Charles Egbert Craddock’’) in her 
admirable novels and tales of the Tennessee Mountains has also made a distinct addition 
to our literature. §8. L. Clemens (‘‘ Mark Twain’’) is one of our most popular humorists. 
The Innocents Abroad and Roughing It are well-known examples of his unique and orig- 
. inal style. The inimitable Francis R. Stockton is another thoroughly original genius. 
The Rudder Grange stories, The Casting Away of Mrs. Lecks and Mrs. Aleshine, with its 
sequel, The Dusantes, and the celebrated short story, The Lady or.the Tiger, are some of 
his best works. Other well-known writers of fiction are Mrs. Terhune (“ Marion Har- 
land”), J. R. Gilmore (‘Edmund Kirke”), H. Melville, A. W. Tourgee, Mrs. Eliz. 
Stoddard, Anna Katharine Green (Mrs. Rohlfs), Julian Hawthorne, W. M. Baker, E. P. 
Roe, Gen. Lew Wallace, whose Ben Hur met with a phenomenal success, Blanche Willis 
Howard, Mrs. Amelia E. Barr, Sallie Pratt McLean, H. H. Boyesen, A. 8. Hardy, Ed- 
ward Bellamy, T. A. Janvier, Edw. Lasseter Bynner, Mrs. Mary Hartwell Catherwood, 
S. Weir Mitchell, Mrs. Amélie Rives Chanler, Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins, 
Mrs. Margaret W. Deland, Mrs. C. Burton Harrison, Richard Harding Davis, and Henry 


3837 American. 


B. Fuller. Thos. Nelson Page, James Lane Allen, Francis Hopkinson Smith, Richard 
Malcolm Johnston, Harry Stillwell Edwards, and Joel Chandler Harris have success- 
fully cultivated the short story, Harris, as ‘‘ Uncle Remus,” having also a special field 
of his own. Agnes Repplier is the author of Points of View, Essays in IJdleness, and 
other bright and suggestive sketches. William Winter has published various interesting 
books. Gray Days and_Gold is a collection of essays and poems commemorative of 
rambles in the British Isles. John Burroughs has long written delightfully of the 
phenomena of out-door life, and has recently turned his attention also to In Door 
Studies. John Muir, who described the Mountains of California, Emerson considered 
as even ‘‘more wonderful than Thoreau.’’ Wilson Flagg and Mrs. Olive Thorne 
Miller have written charmingly of birds. Dr. Wm. C. Prime’s Along New Hngland 
Roads and Among the Northern Hills, and William Hamilton Gibson’s Sharp Hyes and 
other studies in natural history and in botany, are most enjoyable reading, and the 
drawings of the latter in illustration of his text are exquisite. 

In the department of history a vast amount of work has been done, and with most 
valuable and brilliant results. Geo. Bancroft’s great Hist. of the United States was 
begun in 1834 and the revised edition was completed in 1884, just half a century later. 
It ends with the year 1789, when Washington became first president of the Republic. 
The style is succinct, but lucid and impressive. John G. Palfrey’s Hist. of New Hng. 
under the Stuart Dynasty (5 vols.) is a most scholarly and excellent work. Richard 
Hildreth’s six-volume Hist. of the U. 8. extends to the close of Monroe’s first administra 
tion (in 1820). It is clear and accurate as to facts, but somewhat tinged with partisan 
prejudice. It covers a period which until recently had not been so fully treated else- 
where, but the greater part of this period is included in Henry Adams’s able History of 
the U. S. during the Administrations of Jefferson and Madison (9 vols., 1889-90). Justin 
Winsor has edited a Narrative and Critical Hist. of America, consisting of monographs 
by various authors. T. W. Higginson has written several historical works, among 
them a very delightful Young Folks’ Hist. of the U. S., and also a Larger Hist. of the 
U. 8. to the close of Jackson’s Presidency. John Fiske has made various valuable con- 
tributions to our history, one of most absorbing interest being 7’he Critical Period of the 
U. S. (from 1783 to 1789). Jas. Schouler’s Hist. of the U. 8. under the Constitution and 
John Bach McMaster’s Hist. of the People of the U. 8. from the Revolution to the Civil 
War both treat of the social and economic life of the American people. Neither work 
is yet completed. Jas. Ford Rhodes’s Hist. of the U. 8. from the Compromise of 1850 has 
in the third vol. reached the year 1862. The literature connected with the civil war is 
naturally voluminous. Besides innumerable biographies and autobiographies of distin- 
guished leaders in the conflict, we have Vice-Pres. Wilson’s Rise and Fall of the Slave 
Power in America, J. W. Draper’s Amer. Civil War, Greeley’s American Conflict, the 
War Papers of the Century Co., Lossing’s Field- Book of the Civil War, Swinton’s Army 
of the Potomac, Moore’s Rebellion Record, Seward’s Diplomatic Hist. of the Civil War, 
Adm. Porter’s Navai Hist. of the Civil War, A. H. Stephens’s Const. View of the War 
between the States, Jefferson Davis’s Rise and Fall of the Confed. States, and Pollard’s Lost 
Cause. The Story of the Civil War, by the eminent military critic John Codman Ropes, 
of which vol. I. only has been issued, will doubtless be a valuable work. H. H. Ban- 
croft’s Hist. of the Pacific Coast, in 39 vols., is a vast treasury of materials gathered by 
many assistants and revised by the author. Several of our most brilliant historians have 
selected for their themes interesting epochs of history more or less related to our own 
country. Francis Parkman’s series of histories, beginning with the Conspiracy of Pontiac, 
published in 1851, and ending with A Half Century of Conflict, published in 1892, recount 
the rivalry between France and England in colonizing North America. In William 
H. Prescott’s Ferdinand and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru are 
narrated the discovery of America, and the history of some of the most important Span- 
ish settlements in the New World. His Philip the Second is incomplete. Motley has 
written of the Rise of the Dutch Republic, Hist. of the United Netherlands, and Life and 
Death of John of Barneveld. These three great writers all unite brilliant descriptive 
powers with accuracy and soundness of judgment, and their works are of fascinating 
interest. Motley is usually regarded as our ablest historian, and his productions are 
well-nigh flawless. It has, however, we fear, been justly charged that his admiration 
for his illustrious hero, William the Silent, makes him at times unduly severe in his judg- 
ment of Spain, and that his Unitarian bias causes him, though doubtless without inten- 
tion, to be decidedly unfair to the Calvinists in his account of the contest between the 
followers of Prince Maurice and those of Oldenbarneveld. Captain A. T. Mahan has 
gained enviable distinction at home and abroad by his works entitled Zhe Influence of 
Sea Power upon History (1666-1783) and The Influence of Sea Power upon the French 
Rev. and Empire (17938-1812). The Times (London) calls him ‘‘ the greatest living writer 
on naval history.” We can but mention John Foster Kirk’s Hist. of Chas. the Bold of 
Burgundy, Theodore Roosevelt’s Naval War of 1812, Josiah Royce’s California, Mrs. 
Martha J. Lamb’s Hist. of New York, Eugene Schuyler’s Hist. of Peter the Great, and 
Douglas Campbell’s The Puritan in England, Holland, and America. Geo. Ticknor’s 
Hist. of Spanish Literature is a standard work. Prominent writers on Church Hist. are 
G. P. Fisher, H. C. Lea, and Philip Schaff ; on psychology, Jas. McCosh, John Fiske, 


_ Mark Hopkins, Noah Porter, and J. H. Seelye; on political economy, H. C. Carey. 


384 


American. 


F. Lieber, F. Bowen, F. A. Walker, and Edw. Atkinson; on science and_ natural his- 
tory, J. D. Dana, O. C. Marsh, Asa Gray, L. Agassiz, A. H. Guyot, M. F. Maury, 8. 
F. Baird, Elliott Coues, J. W. Draper, Simon Newcomb and C. A. Young ; on inter- 
national law, Theodore D. Woolsey ; on philology and the English language, W. D. 
Whitney, G. P. Marsh, F. A. March, Jas, Hadley, Rich. Grant White and T. R. Louns- 
bury ; on ethnology, D. G. Brinton. Distinguished theologians and writers on religious 
subjects are Chas. Hodge, A. A. Hodge, R. D. Hitchcock, Tayler Lewis, H. B. Smith, H. 
Bushnell, H. W. Beecher, Jos. P. Thompson, Austin Phelps, Elisha Mulford, Phillips 
Brooks, Lyman Abbott, G. D. Boardman, E. H. Sears, H. W. Bellows, Thos. Starr 
King, Jas. Freeman Clarke, and O. B. Frothingham. 

A glance over the field shows that there was little of pronounced American litera- 
ture until near the time of the war for independence. What we had was mostly relig- 
ious disputation. The stamp act aroused the people and filled the land with political 
literature, some of it of excellent quality ; but there was little else until long after the 
revolution. It should be remembered that the conditions of a new country are never 
favorable to literary culture. The man who has to clear away the forests, build his 
cabin, and plant and gather crops knows little of the ‘‘ groves of Academe.’’ It is not 
a little to the credit of Americans that within the first century of the hard, practical 
work of subduing a wild country, they have found or made leisure to do anything in the 
way of high literature. Now a literary class is taking its place as one of the institu- 
tions of our social life. Science, art, the profoundest philosophy, the most careful lin- 
guistic criticism and study, already challenge for America an equal place with the fore- 
most nations of Europe. 

Authorities recommended: E, A. and G. L. Duyckinck, Cyc. of Amer. Lit. ; Moses 
Coit Tyler, Hist. of Amer. Itt. ; C. F. Richardson, Amer. Lit. ; Davidson, Living 
Writers of the South; Mrs. M. T. Tardy, Southland Writers; J. Nichol, Amer. Lit. ; 
H. A. Beers, Outline Sketch of Amer. Lit.; E. C. Stedman, Poets of America; D. 
Sladen, Younger American Poets; H. C. Vedder, American Writers of To-day ; 5. L. 
Whitcomb, Chron. Outlines of Amer. Lit. 


AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, incorporated by the legislature of 
New York in 1869, open free, situated near the Central Park, New York. This insti- 
tution was begun by private citizens, but is public in its nature, and is constantly 
receiving donations from private sources and from officers of the government. In 1874, 
a building was begun which when completed will surround a plot of 18+ acres. The 
portion finished is four stories high, with exhibition halls 170 by 60 ft. Among its 
attractions are collections of shells, skeletons of rare animals, building stone from Japan, 
woods from Bermuda, skeletons of man and other animals, a great variety of living 
mammals, birds alive and dead, archeological relics from the Pacific islands, war instru- 
ments from savage nations, models of cliff dwellings of Colorado, pottery of the mound- 
builders, implements from the lake dwellings of Switzerland, stone implements from the 
valley of the Somme, skeletons of extinct gigantic birds. Geology is largely represented. 


AMERICAN PARTY. See Know-Noruras. 


AMERICAN RIVER, in n. central California; its n. and s. fork arein the w. part 
of Eldorado county. It flows s.w. and joins the Sacramento a little above Sacramento 
city. 

AMERICAN SYSTEM. See Tarirr. 

AMERICAN UNIVERSITY, an institution of higher learning, chartered in 1893 and 
located in Washington, D. C. It is under the direction of the Methodist Episcopal 
church and is designed to further post-graduate study. It has a fine site of 90 acres, and 
the plans inelude a series of colleges for history, language and literature, philosophy, 
the several sciences, technology, sociology and economies law, civics, medicine, scienti- 
fic temperance, art, religion, and other departments. ‘To all the courses the Bachelor’s 
degree is required as the standard of admission. The endowment amounted, in 1896, 
to $1,040,000 and in May, 1897, work on the building for the College of History was far 
advaneed. Chancellor, 1897, John F. Hurst. 


AMERICAN WINES. The earliest production of wines in America appears to have 
been about the middle of the 16th century in Florida from the wild grapes still so abun- 
dant there. Grape-growing was tried by the early English settlers in Virginia, but did 
not continue as a business. Thirty years later, however, wine was made there, and 
special rewards were offered to sustain the business. The first English governor of New 
York in 1664 granted to one Richards, a wealthy citizen, the privilege of selling native 
wines without tax, and he undertook grape culture upon an extended scale. About the 
same period wine was made in Delaware, and its production was tried but failed under 
the auspices of William Penn, though it succeeded in New Jersey. The early French 
settlers in Illinois made wine in considerable quantity before the close of the 18th c.; 
and the Harmonists, who settled in Pennsylvania in 1803, being Germans, naturally 
went into the business, taking it with them to Indiana. There is hardly a state of the 
union out of New England in which grape-growing has not been tried with success. 
The wine was brought to southern California by the early Jesuit missionaries, who 
planted cuttings at first, but as these did not fulfil their expectations, they tried the seeds 
found in raisins, and from these came the abundant and prolific Los Angeles grape - 


srw 


. 


3 8 5 American. 


For more than 100 years efforts have been made to grow European varieties of grapes 
in the open air in all parts of this country but this has always resulted in failure, 
except in certain districts of California, where choice varieties of French and German 
grapes come nearer reproducing themselves than in any other parts of the country. In 
recent years more attention has been given to improving the native vines, which has 
resulted in a number of valuable varieties. The area of the grape-growing industry in 
the U. S. may be divided into five sections, as follows: the Eastern division comprising 
51,000 acres in cultivation in New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania; the Middle divi- 
sion of 42,633 acres in [llinois, Indiana and Ohio; the Western division of 17,306 acres 
in Kansas and Missouri; the Southern division of 17,092 acres in Georgia, North Caro- 
lina, Tennessee and Virginia; and the Pacific division of 213,230 acres in California, 
Arizona and New Mexico. Outside of these divisions there are about 45,000 acres under 
cultivation in various parts of the U.S. which are chiefly in small experimental vine- 
yards. The census of 1890 gives the following figures as to the production of grapes 
and amount of wine manufactured in the census year. About four-fifths of the grapes 
grown in all but the Pacific district are sold for table use or for making raisins, and the 
following figures are merely for the amount of grapes used in producing wines. 


vey Grapes, Wine, 
Division. Tons. Gallons. 
RASLOREE. sto ca cie's 0.0, 4< -lnace'e saree Ha vlee's/siace oie 15,172 2,258,250 
WETTIG te ot certs elalala civic Sacer caleiiemiaeinelcamelce 14,456 2,409,333 
MACE UG ioe Ged adinacccod hogtiaadce Seqenior 8,290 1,380,990 
DOULNCEN ort dodte caathedectiae ditecidces Ap 6,995 1,165,832 
IP acitiCadea ch cia celsice saa tsicelies eaelmoes 196 173,037 14,947,500 


Including the amount of wine produced from small vineyards outside these districts the 
total production for the census year was 24,306,905 gallons of wine. For the same year 
the production of California was 14,626,000 gallons or a little less than two-thirds of the 
product of the U. S. The coast district of California produces the finest grade of white 
and red dry wines and the finest varieties of French champagne grapes, which have 
proved a very profitable crop. Champagne has been made in this district for over 30 
years and is of a very good quality. Owing to the conditions of the trade, much of this 
champagne is shipped abroad, where it appears under a foreign label, and for this reason 
California champagne does not bear the reputation which it really deserves. One cellar 
in this district has a capacity of 800,000 bottles and the champagne is produced by nat- 
ural fermentation in the bottle. ‘The Sierra Nevada foothills and Sacramento valley 
produce good wholesome dry wines but not of the same quality as the French and Ger- 
man types, and the southern district of the state excels in Port, Muscatel, Angelica and 
other sweet heavy wines. In 1895 and 1896 there was considerable shortage in the vin- 
tage, which resulted in a marked advance in the prices of California wines. A number 
of diseases, chiefly the phylloxera, which have attacked the vines have caused the short- 
age, in the crops, and during the same time but few new vineyards have come into bear- 
ing. Over 200 kinds of grapes have been tried in California, but the principal new 
graftings are the Cabernet, Mondeuse, Syrah, Bouchet, Mataro and Carignan for red 
wines, and for white wines the Folle Blanche, Riesling, Sauternes and Chasselas. The 
process of wine making in one of the largest of the California vineyards is as follows: 
About Sept. 1, the pickers, each with a basket, begin work, followed by a wagon to 
receive their gatherings. When loaded with aton and a half of fruit the wagon is drawn 
to the press. The grapes are first cast into a sieve with meshes about three quarters of 
an inch square. ‘This sieve is the ‘‘stemmer,’’? and as workmen with wooden hoes 
draw the bunches to and fro, the berries drop through the meshes, and the stems are 
left in the sieve. From the stemmer the berries drop into the hopper just below, at the 
bottom of which are two rollers, separated from each other about three sixteenths of an 
inch. These break the skins of the grapes and, to a certain extent, mash the pulp. 
Immediately below the rollers is a receiver, a long wooden box with a false bottom, and 
into this the broken berries fall. A large part of the juice drains from them and is 
pumped into vats to ferment for the purpose of making white wine. Remaining in the 
receiver is amass of pomace. If red wine, such as claret or burgundy, is desired, this 
pomace is placed in vats. If white wine only be wanted, then it is taken at once to the 
press and all the juice in it extracted. The first thing to be dong with the juice is to 
bring it to fermentation. For red wine the pomace is not pressed as it comes from the 
receiver, but is placed in a large vat, filling the vat about four-fifths full. On top is 
placed a cover, held in place by four screws, and pierced with a great many little holes. 
On the second day the fermentation begins, and the wine commences to rise through 
the holes and swell up in the vat. The pomace being kept down by the cover, and being 
covered with wine, cannot come in contact with the air; if it did it would sour and spoil 
the wine. At the end of six or seven days the fermentation subsides, and the wine is 
drawn, or ‘‘racked,’’ off into casks, which are kept full all the time. A second fermen- 
tation then takes place, which continues for three or four weeks, during which time the 
bung-holes of the casks are. kept partly open, to allow the gases to escape; then the wine 
is ready for storage. The lees that remain after the wine is racked off are gathered and 
allowed to settle once more, and the second drawing is used to give body to light wines, 
or distilled into brandy. The process of making white wine differs from the former 
in only the preliminaries. The juice which runs from the grapes at first, and that which 


Americus. 3 8 6 


Amethyst. 


is expressed from the new pomace, is pumped into casks to ferment. The fermentation 
begins in about two days’ time, and continues about six or seven days; during that 
period it discharges through the bung-hole of the cask a thick, greenish-yellow matter 
of the consistency of molasses. This is the vegetable matter remaining in the wine, and 
it has to be cleaned off twice a day. ‘The casks, too, are kept filled with new wine all 
the time, in order to prevent any of the vegetable matter souring. Fermentation having 
ceased, the after operations are the same for both red and white. After the wine has 
lain in casks four or five months, it is once more racked off into fresh casks, and the 
sediment, amounting to about ten per ct., left behind. This is all thrown together and 
allowed to settle again. During the first year this racking takes place three times. A 
curious thing is that during the first year, about the time when the vines begin to 
throw out their branches, the wine undergoes what is called the after fermentation, 
and changes itself for the last time. During the second year the wine is racked twice, 
and during the third once. It is then fit for market. 

For making sherry the grapes are allowed to hang upon the vine until about the mid- 
dle of Nov. They are picked about two hours after sunrise, when thoroughly dry, and 
are taken to the press. The juice which flows from the machine is very sweet, and runs 
into vats placed in the warmest part of the cellar. Here fermentation takes place as 
with other wines; but in order to prolong this process as much as possible the juice is 
stirred three or four times a day. After five or six months it is racked off into fresh 
casks, and these are taken to a hot-house, and exposed to the heat of the sun. The 
house is kept at a heat from 130° to 140° F., and in this temperature the wine remains 
for six or eight months. During the time the casks are rolled over three or four times 
every week. ‘This continued exposure to the influence of heat develops in the wine that 
dry flavor so much admired by connoisseurs of sherry; it also loses no small part of its 
strength. From the hot-house the wine is taken back to the cellar, where it is kept for 
six or seven months more at a temperature of about 65°, during which time it often 
happens that a second and milder fermentation takes place. If the wine is intended to 
be cheap sherry, it is then ready for market. If it is intended to be a finer and more 
expensive grade of wine, during the following summer it is again placed in the hot- 
house, and subjected to the heat of the sun. 

Another process of manufacturing sherry is much more rapid than that described, 
although the result may not be so satisfactory to a lover of wine. It is called the Searle 
process, and is patented. In it the vats containing the wine are connected with pipes 
and have coils of pipe in them. Through these, steam is forced, and produces the neces- 
sary heating of the wine and expulsion of the aicohol. By this process the sherry is 
ripened much sooner than in any other way. 


AMERICUS, city and co. seat of Sumter co., Ga.; 70 m. s. s. w. of Macon, on the Cen- 
tral of Georgia and the Georgia and Alabama railroads. It has several churches, a 
business college, high schools, a public library, etc. It is in a cotton and sugar cane 
district. Pop. ’90, 6335. 


AMERIGO VESPUC'‘CI, a naval astronomer, from whom America accidentally received 
its name, was b. at Florence, Mar. 9, 1451. His father was anotary. The education of 
A. was intrusted to his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a monk and apparently a man of 
superior enlightenment. The youth made but indifferent progress in his Latin grammer, 
though he showed great aptitude and liking for natural philosophy, astronomy, and geog- 
raphy—at that period, favorite objects of study, on account of their commercial import- 
ance. It is not precisely ascertained when he first went to Spain. We find him there, how- 
ever, in 1486, engaged in mercantile pursuits. He was at the head of a large Florentine 
firm in Seville in 1496, when Columbus was making preparations for a second voyage to 
the new world. Thesuccess of the great discoverer inflamed A. with a passion for dis- 
covery, and having abandoned ‘‘ business,” he sailed from Cadiz on the 20th May, 1499, 
in the expedition commanded by Admiral Hojeda, and, after a voyage of 87 days, 
arrived at that portion of the continent of America now called Cumana, explored the 
bay of Paria, lying between the isle of Trinidad and the mainland, and some hundreds 
of miles along the coast. He returned in the autumn of the same year, but commenced 
a second voyage under Admiral Pinzon in Dec., which resulted in the discovery of a 
crowd of small islands on thes. of the gulf of Mexico. He was now allured by promises 
into the service of Emanuel, king of Portugal, and undertook two other voyages with 
Portuguese ships; the first on the 10th of May, 1501, and the second on the 10th of May, 
1503. His purpose was to sail westward, in hopes of discovering a passage to Malacca, 
the extreme point of discovery in the e. He lost one of his ships; and it was only after 
encountering great perils that the other five found refuge in All Saints’ bay, on the coast 
of Brazil. The monarch gave orders that some remains of the ship Victoria, in which A. 
made his last voyage, should be suspended in the cathedral of Lisbon, but fulfilled none 
of the promises which he had made. A. consequently returned to Spain, and in the year 
ioe Bop in obtaining the office of piloto-major. He died at Seville on the 22d of 

The character of A. V. has been covered with a great deal of unmerited obloquy. 
He has been accused of endeavoring to claim the honor of discoveries which he 
never made, and has been commonly regarded as an unprincipled adventurer. Hum- 
boldt, however, has successfully vindicated him from such aspersions. He had a very 
considerable knowledge of various branches of science, and it was on account of his 
Superior attainments in these that he was selected to accompany the expeditions as naval 


Ameri 
387 Amethyst 


astronomer. He was a prompt and skillful inspector of the commissariat while under 
his control; vigorous, practical, and severe in his demands for increased knowledge on 
the part of the naval functionaries under him; an earnest navigator and close friend of 
Columbus in the last years of the great admiral’s life. How America came to receive its 
name from him is not quite clear; but it is certain, from Humboldt’s investigation, that 
A. himself had nothing to do with it. The name of the new world probably came from 
Germany. A selection from A.’s narrative of his American voyages found its way into 
that country. Martin Waldseemiiller of Freiburg in Baden translated it for a bookseller 
of St. Diez in Lorraine. As the first account of the wonderful discovery, it was greedily 
devoured. Edition after edition was printed off, and, according to Humboldt, it was 
Waldseemiiller who proposed that the new world should be called America in honor of 
the author. Afterwards, this name was generally employed by geographical writers, 
and even the Spaniards and Portuguese adopted it. 


AM'ERSFOORT, an ancient t. in the Netherlands, province of Utrecht, on the Eem, 
which flows into the Zuiderzee, has a large trade in grain. ‘Tobacco is grown in the 
district, and cotton and woolen goods, leather, soap, beer, etc., are manufactured. The 
church of St. Joris was completed in 1248. A. has a Jansenist college and court of 
justice. Here the statesman Oldenbarneveld, and the architect of the palace in Amster- 
dam, Jacob van Campen, were born. Pop. (1890) 15,694. 


AMES, ADELBERT, b. Me., 18385; graduated at West Point, 1861; distinguished 
himself in several engagements during the war, rising to be brevet major-general, U.S. A.; 
was appointed provisional governor of Mississippi, 1868; elected U. 8S. senator from that 
state, 1870; governor, 1874; was impeached and resigned, 1876, removing to Minnesota. 
He received the degree of LL.D. from Brown University in 1892. 


AMES, Epwarp R., p.p.; 1806-1879 ; bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church. In 
1826 he entered Ohio university. In 1828 he opened a high school at Lebanon, IIl., the 
germ of McKendree college ; in 1830 he became an itinerant preacher of the Indiana con- 
ference ; he was delegate to the general conference in 1840, and afterwards correspond- 
ing secretary of the missionary society for the south and west. From 1844 to 1852 he 
was presiding elder of the Indiana conference, and was elected bishop in 1852. He 
was the first Methodist bishop to visit the Pacific coast. 


AMES, Fisuer; 1758-1808 ; b, Mass.; sonof Nathaniel Ames; graduated at Harvard 
in 1774. He practiced law, and went into politics. In 1788 he bore a distinguished 
part in the Massachusetts convention to ratify the federal constitution, pleading with 
rare eloquence for the adoption of the new organic law. His first political yentures were 
in essays in the newspapers signed ‘‘ Camillus” and ‘‘ Brutus,” and, when the author- 
ship became known, it gave him a place among the most prominent federalists. When 
the new government went into operation he was the first representative in congress for 
the district including Boston, and he served through Washington’s administration, taking 
high rank among the orators of the time. After leaving congress he took no prominent 
part in politics, though his pen was frequently employed. He pronounced the eulogy 
on Washington before the Massachusetts legislature. He spent his last years of failing 
health in retirement. He always had gloomy forebodings of the destiny of his country, 
as, in common with many federalists of his time, he doubted the permanent vitality of a 
republican form of government. His orations, essays, letters, etc., have been published 
by his son. He was attractive in appearance and gentle in manners, 

AMES, Josepn, 1816-72; b. N. H.; an American portrait painter, working many 
years in Boston, where he made portraits of Daniel Webster, Pius [X., Rachel, Rufus 
Choate, and others. His Death of Webster is well known. 


AMES, Oaxes (1804-73), was born in Easton, Massachusetts. He learned the trade of 
blacksmith in his youth, and in later life acquired great wealth in the manufacture of 
agricultural implements. He was member of congress from 1864 to’73, and was eminent 
for sound judgment in financial matters. He was largely concerned in the construction 
of the Union Pacific railroad, and in the Credit Mobilier (q.v.). 


AMES, OLIVER, financier; 1831-95, b. North Easton, Mass.; son of Oakes and grand- 
son of Oliver. He was brought up in his father’s manufactory; brought his father’s 
estate from chaos; paid off $8,000,000 of obligations and $1,000,000 of legacies; and was 
lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts four times and governor three times. 

AMESBURY, t. in Essex co., Mass., on the Boston and Maine railroad, 42 miles n. e. of 
Boston. It is connected by electric railroads with Haverhill, Merrimac and Newbury- 
port, the last of which is five miles distant. It has extensive manufactories of carriages, of 
cloth, hats, shoes, and bicycles. There are banking facilities, public schools, and news- 
papers. It is the home of the poet John Greenleaf Whittier. Pop. ’90, 9798. 


AMETHYST, a variety of quartz (q.v.) differing from common quartz and rock- 
crystal chiefly in its beautiful violet-blue or purplish violet color—well known as ame- 
thystine—which is owing to the presence of a little peroxide of ironor of manganese. It 
is one of the most esteemed varieties of quartz, and is much employed for seals, rings, 
etc., although, being comparatively abundant, it is much inferior in price to the true 
gems. An amethystine tinge is frequently to be observed in specimens of quartz, which 
yet are not perfect A. The tinge is often very faint, and is frequently confined to the 
summits or edges of the crystals. The finest specimens of A. are brought from India, 


Amga 388 


Amiens. 


Ceylon, and Brazil. It is, however, a common mineral in Europe, and occurs in many 
parts of Scotland. It frequently occurs lining the interior of balls or geodes of agate, 
and in veins and cavities in greenstone and other rocks. The ancients imagined it to 
possess the property of preventing intoxication, and persons much addicted to drinking 
therefore wore it on their necks. The name is derived from a Greek word which signi- 
fies unintoricated.—Not to be confounded with this mineral is that sometimes called the 
oriental A., which is a variety of spinel (q.v.) having an amethystine color, and isa very 
valuable gem. False A. made of glass or paste are very common, and in general very 
coarse ; but a very perfect imitation can be and sometimes is made. 


AMGA’, a river of Siberia, rising in the Yablonnoy mountains, running n.n.e. about 
460 m. and joining the Aldan, one of the tributaries of the Lena. At Amginsk its 
breadth is 3000 ft. 


AMHA’RIC LANGUAGE, named from the important province of Amhara; the prin- 
cipal tongue of Abyssinia; with some variations of dialect, used throughout the king- 
dom. It is of ancient Semitic stock, and related to the old Ethiopian or Geezwhich 
had prevailed until the 14th century. Its alphabet is the Ethiopic with some added 
letters ; and like that language, it strongly resembles the Arabic, though with the mixture 
of many African words. It is not an important literary language, but the Bible and 
many other works have been written init. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 


AMHERST, a co. in w. central Virginia, between the James river and the Blue ridge; 
418 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 17,551, inclu. colored. It has charming scenery and fertile soil; the 
chief products are wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, and butter. The Virginia and Midland and 
Richmond and Alleghany r. rs., intersect it. Co. seat, Amherst, 


AMHERST, a town in Hampshire co., Mass., 24 m. n. of Springfield on a branch of 
the Connecticut river, on the Boston and Maine and New London and Northern rail- 
roads. It contains many churches, straw hat and other factories, and has a high school 
and good banking facilities. The scenery is picturesque, with beautiful views of Mount 
Holyoke and other mountains. It is the seat of the Massachusetts Agricultural college, 
with its large greenhouses and the Durfee plant-house, one of the most successful 
agricultural schools in the country. Amherst College was founded here in 1821. (See 
AMHERST COLLEGE and MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE). Pop. ’90, 4512. 


AMHERST, JEFFERY, Baron, 1717-97; a British general; present at Fontenoy on the 
staff of Gen. Ligonier, and sent to America in 1758 with the rank of major-general. 
With Wolfe and Prideaux he conquered all the strongholds of the French in Canada, for 
which he was thanked by the House of Commons, and granted the order of K. B. Soon 
afterwards he was made commander-in-chief of the English forces in America; in 1763 
he was appointed governor of Virginia, and in 1770 governor of the island of Guernsey. 
In 1776-82 and 1793-95 he was commander-in-chief of the British armies, but, being 
superseded by the duke of York, he was made a field-marshal. In 1776 he was made 
onde =" Baron Amherst of Holmesdale, and in 1787 was patented Baron Amherst of 

ontreal. 


AMHERST, a township of Erie co., N. Y., includes Williamsville and other villages. 
It is in a wheat and corn growing district and produces natural gas. Pop. ’90, 4014. 


AMHERST, WILLIAM Pitt, Earl of, 1773-1857. In 1816, he was sent ambassador to 
China where he refused to perform what he thought a degrading act of kneeling, called 
ko-tow, Which was required of all who would see the emperor. For this he was not. 
allowed to enter Pekin, and the object of his mission was frustrated. On the way home 
he was wrecked. Another ship in which he returned to England touched at St. Helena, 
where he had several interviews with Napoleon. He was governor-general of India, 
1823-28, and was created earl in 1826, 


AMHERSTBURG, at. in Essex co., Ontario, Canada, on the Detroit river six miles 
above its junction with Lake Erie. It is one of the oldest settlements in upper Canada, 
being named from Lord Amherst. It occupies the s. w. extremity of the province. It 
is a port of entry, was formerly a garrison town, is connected with Detroit, Mich., by a 
steamer line, and has a court house, lunatie asylum, public library, electric lights, water 


Soe iron manufactures, several hotels, and flour, saw and planing mills. Pop. ’91, 
279. 


AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst, Hampshire co., Mass., was founded in 1821 by 
Congregationalists, in the interest of Christian education. About 4,000 men have been 
graduated from its four-year courses of liberal study; of whom about 1200 have 
been clergymen, and about 125 foreign missionaries. Its faculty numbers 35 professors 
and instructors; its undergraduates (1896), 435. Its 17 college buildings have cost about 
$650,000. Its laboratories, museums of science, archeology and art, and its library, 
contain collections valued at about $200,000. The entire property under its control is 
about $2,500,000. Of its funds, the income of $200,000 is devoted to scholarship aid for 
needy and deserving students. The annual income of the college is about $105,000. 
Among the most generous donors to the college have been, Dr. William J. Walker, 
$250,000; Samuel Williston, $200,000; Samuel A. Hitchcock, $175,000, and D. Willis 
James, over $250,000. The beautiful Gothic church was given by William F. Stearns, 
the son of President William A. Stearns. The library has 65,000 volumes. The Hitch- 


8 8 9 Amga. 


Amiens. 


cock collection (Ichnology); the Woods collection of Geology; collections of meteorites 
and minerals; the Audubon collection of birds; the Adams collection in zoology; the 
Mather collection of casts of sculpture; the exceptionally full lecture room and _ labora- 
tory apparatus in physics; the Pratt gymnasium, the fine Pratt athletic field, and the 
Pratt health cottage are among the notable features of the College. The American 
system of college gymnastic work had its origin at Amherst. With steadily increasing 
equipment, Amherst encourages self-government on the part of the students. Limited 
humbers, absolutely healthful surroundings and training for citizenship mark the 
course. The presidents have been: Zephaniah Swift Moore, p.p., 1821-23; Heman 
Humphrey, D.pD., 1823-45; Edward Hitchcock, p.D., LL:D., 1845-54; William A. Stearns, 
D.D., LLD., 1854-76; Julius H. Seelye, D.D., LL.D., 1876-90; Merrill Edwards Gates, PH.D., 
LL.D., L.H.D., 1890. 

AM'ICE, or Amict, a vestment in the Roman Catholic service worn during mass. 
It is a square linen cloth laid over the neck and shoulders, originally a protection for 
the throat, but adopted as an emblem of the cloth wherewith the Saviour was blind- 
folded before his crucifixion. In ancient Rome, the A. was an upper garment worn 
over the tunic. 


AMICIS, EpMonpo DB, Italian writer, born at Oneglia, Oct. 21st, 1846. He studied 
at Corni and Turin, and in 1868 entered the military college of Modena. He took part 
in the expedition against the brigands in Sicily, and in the war against Austria in 1866. 
In 1867 he accepted the management of the periodical L’ Italia Militare, and wrote a 
series of short stories under the title Za Vita Militare: Bozzetitt, which was well re- 
ceived. His principal books, several of which have been translated into other languages, 
are: Novelle (1872); La Spagna (1878); Ricordi di Londra and Olanda (1874); Marocco 
(1876) ; Ricord dt Parigt (1878), and Poeste and Ritrattc Letterart (1881). 


AM’IDAS, Paruip, 1550-1618 ; an English explorer. He commanded one of the two 
ships sent by Queen Elizabeth under Arthur Barlow to N. America, coasting up from 
Florida, and July 18, 1584, entering Ocracoke inlet, North Carolina, of which country 
he gave a most favorable description. The queen called the new land ‘‘ Virginia.” 


AMIDES are a group of organic compounds, derived, under certain conditions, from 
ammonia, NH;, or NHHH, by the exchange of one or more atoms of hydrogen for a 
corresponding number of atoms of a metal, or a compound radical. The first of these 
compounds that was discovered was that in which one atom of hydrogen was replaced 
by one of potassium (NHHK, or NH.K), the resulting product being regarded as a 
compound of NH. (amidogen) with potassium, and being termed amide of potassium. At 
present, the term amide is restricted to the case in which one or more atoms of hydrogen 
are replaced by an ac?d radical, and the amidesare called primary, secondary, or tertiary, 
according as one, two, or all three of the atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the 
acid radical. The primary amides may be obtained in various ways, of which we 
shall mention two: (1.) If we heat an ammoniacal salt, one atom of water is given 
off, and the amide corresponding to the acid is left; thus, acetate of ammonia 
ony oe H,) — water (H.O) = acetamide, CHs‘CONHe, which, expressed typically, is 
— C:H;0 
H N, where C2H;0 is the radical of aceticacid. (2.) If an anhydride is submitted 
H 


to the action of ammonia, there are simultaneously formed an amide and an ammoniacal 
salt. ‘Thus, valerianic or valeric anhydride (C;H,O)20 + ammonia (NH3)z2 = valerate of 
ammonia (NH,0.C;H,0) ++ valeramide, {C;H»(NH2)O}, which, expressed typically, is 
C;H,O 

H+} N, where C;H,O is the acid radical of valeric acid. The amides are, for the 


most part, capable of being obtained in a crystalline form, and are fusible volatile bodies, 
For a description of the more complicated forms of amides, and for a history of their 
general properties, the reader is referred to the article ‘‘ Amides” in Watts’s Dictionary 
of Chemistry, and to the chapter on Amides in the 2d edition (1867) of Naquet’s Principes 
de Chimie, vol. ii. pp. 844-868. If, in place of an acid radical, a base radical replaces one 
or more atoms of hydrogenin ammonia, a class of compounds, termed amines, is formed, 
whose composition is noticed in the article ORGANIC BasEs. 

AMI’DOGEN, or DiAmMIDE, NH,—NHg, is a gas, possessing (when concentrated) a 
peculiar odor somewhat similar to that of ammonia, and when inhaled it strongly affects 
the nose and fauces. It possesses an alkaline reaction, and unites with acids to form 
salts. Research shows that its formula must be NH,—NH,, and not NH». See 
ALKALOIDS. 


AMIEL, HENRI FREDERIC, 1821-81; Swiss author, and, after 1849, professor in the 
university of Geneva, first of zsthetics and French literature, later of moral philosophy. 
He published a few essays and some volumes of poems, but his reputation rests chiefly 
on his Journal Intime, aposthumous work, full of passion, originality, powerful thought, and 
masterly description. It was translated into English by Mrs. Humphry Ward in 1889, 


AMIENS, an ancient c. in the plain of Picardy, and capital of the department of 
Somme; it is the seat of a bishop and of a court of justice, and has a citadel and fortifi- 
cations. It possesses a college, an academy, a theological seminary, an industrial school, 
a school of medicine, a public library, a picture-gallery, a botanical garden, and several 


Amiot. 3 90 


Ammonia. 


literary and scientific institutions. Among its public building ., the cathedral is a noble 
adifice, built in 1220, and esteemed a masterpiece of Gothic architecture. Peter the 
Hermit was born here. <A. has considerable manufactures of velvet, silk, woolen, and 
cotton goods, ribbons, and carpets. But the place owes its celebrity chiefly to the ‘ Peace 
of A.,” a treaty signed in this city, Mar. 27, 1802, by Joseph Bonaparte, the marquis of 
Cornwallis, Azara, and Schimmelpennink, and intended to settle the disputed points 
between England, France, Spain, and Holland. By this treaty, England retained 
possession of Ceylon and Trinidad, and an open port at the cape of Good Hope; France 
received back her colonies; the republic of the Seven islands was recognized; Malta was 
restored to the order of the knights of St. John; Spain and Holland regained their 
colonies, with the exception of Trinidad and Ceylon ; the French were to quit Rome, 
Naples, and Elba ; and Turkey was restored to its integrity. These terms were not 
received with satisfaction by the English, and war was declared against Bonaparte in 
1803. In the Franco-Prussian war of ’70,A. was taken by the German general Manteuffel, 
an event which contributed to the fall of Paris. Pop. ’86, 80,288 ; 91, 83,654. 


AMIOT, or AMYOT, JosEpnu, 1718-94; a Jesuit missionary in China who resided in 
Pekin 43 years, spending the time in the study of the Chinese and Tartar literature, and 
doing more than all men before had done to acquaint Europe with the knowledge and 
thought of the Mongolians. Many of his statements were erroneous, but his Tatar- 
Mantchou-French Dictionary was a valuable work. He also wrote a full, and, in the 
main, an accurate Life of Confucius, and many essays on Chinese history and science. 


AMIT'E, a co. ins.w. Mississippi, named from Amite river, flowing through it ; pop. 
790, 18,198, inclu. colored. It formerly had 700 sq.m., but has been reduced to form the 
co. of Lincoln. Its surface is uneven; soil fertile; corn, sweet potatoes, rice, and cotton 
are produced. Co. seat, Liberty. 


AM'LETH, or HAMLETH, Prince of Jiitland, is said to have lived in the 2d c. B.c. 
According to Saxo-Grammaticus, he was the son of Horvendill and Gerutha; and after 
the murder of his father by his uncle Fengo, who married Gerutha, he feigned himself a 
fool to save his own life. Saxo relates a number of little things regarding A., which are 
a curious medley of sharp and lively observation, and apparent madness. Weare told 
that, on one occasion, when he visited his mother, suspecting that he was watched, he 
commenced to crow like a cock and dance idiotically about the apartment, until he dis- 
covered, hidden in a heap of straw, a spy, in the person of one of Fengo’s courtiers, 
whom he immediately stabbed; he then so terrified his mother by his reproaches, that 
she promised to aid him in his intended revenge on his father’s murderer, and, accord- 
ing to the old chronicler, really did so. Scandinavian traditions confirm the existence 
of a prince of this name. A field is still pointed out in Jiitland with a tomb bearing the 
name of A. In the vicinity of Elsinore is shown the spot where the father of A. was 
assassinated. Saxo himself does not mention the manner or circumstances of his death; 
but his French translator says that he was murdered at a banquet. Most of the recent 
historians of Denmark consider the history of A. fabulous, but Miller thinks there is a 
substratum of fact in the old myth. It isthe source of Shakespeare’s tragedy of Hamlet, 
and thus possesses a perennial interest for all the civilized world. 


AM'LWCH, a t. of Anglesey, N. Wales, on the n. coast of the island, 14 m.n.w. 
from Beaumaris. It stands on a rising ground close to the sea, and consists of one prin- 
cipal street, with diverging streets and lanes. It is a busy but rather dirty t., deriving its 
importance and wealth almost entirely from the rich copper mines in its vicinity—the 
mines of the Parys mountain. Copper-smelting is carried on in A., and contributes not a 
little to make the t. unpleasant. A harbor has been formed by excavation out of the 
solid slate rock, at the expense of the mining companies, and is capable of receiving vessels 
of 600 tons burden. It is protected by a breakwater. A branch of the Chester and Holy- 
head railway terminates at Amlwch. Till 1885 A. was associated with Beaumaris, Holy- 
head, and Llangefni, in returning one member to Parliament. Pop. about 4500. 


AM’MAN, or Ammon, ancient Rabbah, the chief t. of the Ammonites; a ruined city 
of Syria, in the pashalic of Damascus, 55 m. n.e. of Jerusalem, on a branch of the Jordan. 
It was captured by king David; afterwards ruined, but rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus 
and named Philadelphia. As late as 300 A.D., it was prosperous, and had temples and a 
fine theater. See Revelations, iii. 7. 


AM’MAN, Jonann Conran, 1669-1725; a Swiss physician, and one of the earliest 
writers on the instruction of the deaf and dumb. He graduated at Basel, but fled to 
Amsterdam on account of his religious views. In his work Surdus Loquens, which 
Haller calls vere awrewm, he describes the process employed by him in teaching, which 
was principally by fixing the attention of the pupils on the motions of his lips and 
larynx while he spoke, and inducing them to imitate until they could utter distinct 
letters and words. 


AM’MAN, Jost, 1539-91 ; a Swiss artist of singular productiveness, many of whose 
works are in the Berlin collection of engravings. He began a series of copperplate 
portraits of the kings of France, and made many wood-cuts for the Bible. His drawing 
4s correct and spirited, and his costumes are minutely accurate. 


Amiot. 
891 Rinwrantas 


AMMANA'TE, BARTOLOMEO, architect and sculptor, b. at Florence in 1511, d. in 1592. 
He was at first a pupil of Baccio Bandinelli, and afterwards of Sansovino at Venice. In 
1550 he married Laura Battiferri of Urbino, a lady celebrated for her poetical gifts. 
Pope Julius III. employed him in the decoration of the capitol, and Cosmo de Medici 
appointed him his architect. His principal works are, the statues which adorn the tomb 
of Sannazer at Naples, the tomb of Cardinal de Monti at Rome, the bridge of the Trinity 
and several fountains at Florence. He also completed the Pitti Palace, commenced by 
Brunelleschi, and ornamented the court with three orders of columns, which were sub- 
requently imitated by J. de Brosse in the Palace of the Luxembourg at Paris. In the 
collection of architectural designs in the Florence ga!lery, there is one by A., exhibiting 
the plans of different buildings, by which a city may be rendered at once magnificent 
and convenient. His works have all a certain grandeur of character, derived, probably, 
from his early admiration of Michael Angelo, but are somewhat marred by a quaint 
mannerism. His bronzes are executed with great delicacy. 


AMMEN, DANIEL, naval officer, b. Ohio, 1820; entered the U.S. navy in 1836, and 
rose to the rank of commodore in 1872. He commanded the gunboat Seneca, bore a con- 
spicuous part in the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, and was engaged in all the opera- 
tions of Admiral Dupont on the s. Atlantic coast; he was in the attack of the ironclads 
on Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863; was in both attacks on Fort Fisher, and was recommended 
for promotion by Rear-Admiral Porter; became rear-admiral in 1877, and retired in’ 1878. 
He designed a ram vessel for the navy, and published, in 1891, The Old Navy and the New. 


AMMERGAU MYSTERY. See OBER-AMMERGAU. 


AMMIA'NUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman historian of the 4th c., was present in several 
campaigns in Gaul, Germany, and the e., and afterwards lived at Rome, devoted to 
literature. Though a Greek by birth, he wrote in Latin a history of the Roman empire 
from 91 to 378 a.p., in 31 books, of which 13, containing the years from 91 to 3852, are 
lost. This work, which commenced with the accession of Nerva, may be regarded as a 
continuation of Tacitus, and though the portions remaining have many faults of style, 
they are valuable on account of the author’s love of truth, his careful descriptions of 
countries and events from personal observation, and especially his remarks on Germany. 
After his time, Latin ceased to be employed by any Roman writer in the composition of 
secular history. The best edition of Ammianus Marcellinus is that by Gardthausen, 
1875. 


AMMIRA'TO, Scipio, 1531-1600; an Italian historian, He entered the church, and 
was in the service of Pius IV., at the suggestion of duke Cosmo I. He wrote a History 
of Florence, histories of great families in Naples and Florence, and discourses upor 
Tacitus. 


AM’MON, an Egyptian deity, styled Amun on hieroglyphic monuments, was compared 
by the Greeks with their supreme deity Zeus. The sacred name of Thebes, A.’s city 
(‘‘No-Ammon’) in the Old Testament, was therefore translated into Greek by Diospolis. 
In the temples of this town, his peculiar residence, A. is represented as sitting on a throne, 
holding the symbols of life and power, and wearing a crown with a peculiar ornament of 
two feathers, and a band falling behind and hanging down to his feet. He was especially 
the god of Thebes; though his temples are found in other places, as at Meroé, and over 
the whole of Nubia and Libya. The name Amun signifies the hidden, unrevealed deity, 
and, in Egyptian mythology, he held the highest place. His undefined character may 
serve to explain how other deities were identified with A. After the 18th dynasty, 
we find in hieroglyphics the name Amun-Ra frequently inscribed, indicating a blending 
of A. with the sun-god Ra. Similarly, the representation of A. with a ram’s head shows 
the blending of him with Kneph. The worship of A. spread at an early period to Greece, 
and afterwards to Rome, where he was identified with Zeus and Jupiter. Temples for 
his worship were erected in Thebes (Beeotia), Sparta, Megalopolis, and other places. 


AM'MON, Curis. FRED., a German theologian, b. Jan. 16, 1766, d. May 21, 1850, is 
chiefly known by his work on the Development of Christianity as a Universal Religion (4 
vols., Leip. 1833-40), in which he argues in favor of such liberal development of doctrine 
as may keep theology in harmony with the progress of science. A. was a leader of the 
rationalist school. He was a man of extensive learning, united with great industry and 
earnestness, and was generally respected in Saxony, where he resided.—His second son, 
FREDERICK Avuaustus A. (b. 1799, d. 1861), is well known in Germany as the writer of 
several works on practical medicine and surgery. 


AMMO’'NIA, HartsHory, or the volatile alkali, was one of the few substances known 
to the chemistry of the ancients; being referred to by Pliny under the name of vehement 
odor, which he evolved by mixing lime with nitrum (probably sal ammoniac). It derives 
its name A. from its being obtained from sal ammoniac, which was first procured by 
heating camels’ dung in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter Ammon. The atmosphere 
contains a minute quantity of A., amounting to 210-247 parts in 10,000,000,000 parts of 
air, which is equal to 1 volume of A. in 28,000,000 of air. It is likewise present in rain- 
water in variable proportion. Thesupply of A. to the atmosphere is its evolution during 
the nutrefaction of animal and vegetable substances, during the vinous fermentation, and 
the combustion of coal. It is likewise present in respired air, and is therefore a product 


Ammoniacum. p 
Ammophila. 39 - 


of the daily wear and tear of the animal system. The principal source of A. at the present 
time is the destructive distillation of coal, as in gas-making. The materials which pass 
over from the retort are partly uncondensable and truly gaseous, and these are carried to 
our gas-jets and burned; but in other parts they are condensable, and are received during 
the purification of the gas, as a mixed tarry and watery liquid. On allowing this liquid 
to settle, the water portion, containing A., can be separated, and, hydrochloric acid 
being added to it, there is formed a compound of A. and hydrochloric acid, called 
chloride of ammonium, which can be obtained dry, by evaporating the solution down 
in shallow vessels. Pure A. is manufactured from this impure chloride of ammonium 
by mixing it with its own weight of slaked lime in a retort, and applying a gentle heat, 
when the A. as a gas passes over, and is received in a vessel containing water. The 
solubility of A. in water is very great, 1 volume of water at 32° F. (0° C.) dissolving 1050 
volumes of ammoniaca! gas, increasing in bulk, and forming a liquid (liquor ammone of 
the chemist, or Aartshorn), which is lighter than water, its density being 0-891. The so- 
lution of A. is transparent, colorless, and strongly alkaline. In taste it is acrid caustic, 
and in odor very pungent. Applied to the skin in a concentrated form, it blisters. Eix- 
posed to the air, the A. escapes, the solution gets weaker, and, reduced to — 40° F. (—40 
C.), it freezes. As generally obtained, even in the gaseous condition, it is in combination 
with water, and contains one of nitrogen, 3 hydrogen, and lof water, NH;sH.O. Dry A. 
can be procured by passing the vapor of A., as ordinarily obtained, over fused chloride 
of calcium, when the water is abstracted, and true gaseous A. is left, having the compo- 
sition 1 nitrogen, and 38 hydrogen, NHs. Gaseous A. can be liquefied under pressure and 
cold, and then yields a colorless, clear, mobile liquid, with the characteristic odor and 
other properties of A. much intensified. A. combines with acids to form a class of salts 
which are of considerable importance. Thus, the crystallized sulphate of A., (NH4).8O,, 
is very extensively used as a top-dressing by farmers, and -is also mixed with manures 
where an increase of ammoniacal matter is desirable. The chloride of ammonium is 
also employed in agriculture ; likewise largely by the Russian peasantry, as a condiment 
for flavoring food in place of common salt. 

in medicine, the gaseous A. has been rarely used. The solution of A. is employed 
as a means of rousing the respiratory and vascular systems; and of the speedy alleviation 
of spasm. It is also used as a local irritant and antacid. It is serviceable in dyspeptic 
complaints with preternatural acidity of stomach and flatulence; to produce local irritation 
or destruction of certain parts, and to render comparatively harmless the bites of serpents. 

AMMONT ACUM, or AmMMoO'NIAC, a gum resin, used in medicine on account of its 
stimulant and discutient qualities, is obtained from dorema A., a plant of the natural 
order wmbellifere, a native of Persia—a perennial, about 7 ft. high, with large doubly 
pinnate leaves. The leaves are about 2 ft. long. The whole plant is abundantly per- 
vaded by a milky juice, which oozes out upon the slightest puncture, and which hard- 
ens, and becomes A. The A. exudes from punctures made by an insect, which appears 
in great numbers at the time when the plant has attained perfection. Much of it is sent 
to India, and it is generally imported into Britain from Bombay, although sometimes 
from the Levant. It occurs in commerce either in tears, or in masses formed of them, 
but mixed with impurities. It is whitish, becoming yellow by exposure to the atmos- 
phere, is softened by the heat of the hand, and has a peculiar heavy unpleasant smell, 
and a nauseous taste, at first mucilaginous and bitter, afterwards acrid. It is not fusi- 
ble, but burns with white crepitating flame, little smoke, and strong smell.—It was for 
some time erroneously supposed to be the produce of a species of heraclewm, the seeds 
of which were found inclosed in it.—A similar substance is obtained from ferula tingt- 
tana, an umbelliferous plant, growing on light sandy soils in the n. of Africa; and is said 
also to be obtained from F! orientalis, a native of Asia Minor and of Greece. Both these 
plants have branched stems, and very compound leaves, somewhat resembling fennel. 
It wouid seem that the A. of the ancients was the gum resin of the ferula, which has 4 
more faint odor and less powerful medicinal properties than that of the dorema, 


AMMONIAPHONE is the name of an instrument invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, about 
the year 1880, for the purpose of improving the quality of the singing and speaking 
voice. Dr. Moffat holds that the air of Italy contains peroxide of hydrogen and free 
ammonia, and that the excellence of Italian vocal organs is largely due thereto. The 
ammoniaphone is an apparatus for inhaling air saturated with those gases. It is said 
that in the year 1884 the ammoniaphone was used by 80,000 persons, including many 
eminent public singers. 


AM'MONITES, a Semitic race of people, living on the edge of the Syrian desert; the 
descendants of Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. xix. 38). They inhabited the country 
lying to the n. of Moab, between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok, i.e. the desert country 
e. of Gad. Their chief city was Rabbath-Ammon, to which the Greeks afterwards gave 
the name of Philadelphia. The Israelites were often at war with them and their other 
Bedouin confederates. Jephthah defeated them with great slaughter. They were also 
overcome by Saul, David, Uzziah, and Jotham; but after the fall of the kingdom of 
Israel (720 B.c.), spread themselves in the districts of Judzea on the e. of the Jordan. In 
582 they were subdued by the Babylonians. After the captivity, they recommenced 


Ammoni 
393 Amimophiten 


their feuds with the Jews, but were conquered by Judas Maccabeeus. The intermar- 
riages of Jews with the A., which had been frequent, were prohibited by Nehemiah. The 
chief deity worshiped by the A. was named Milcom, who in his character seems to have 
resembled Moloch. Justin Martyr affirms that in his time the A. were still numerous. 


AM'MONITES, a genus of fossil shells, nearly allied to the recent genus nautilus, 
being, like it, chambered and spiral. The molluscous inhabitant appears to have lodged 
in the last and largest chamber of the shell, the spaces left behind as it increased in size 
being successively converted into air-chambers, and all connected by a tube (siphuncle), 
so that the animal could at pleasure ascend or descend in the sea; whilst the transverse 
plates dividing the chambers gave strength to the whole structure without great increase 
of weight. A. have long been popularly called cornwa ammonis, from a fancied resem- 
blance to the horns on sculptured heads of Jupiter Ammon. They are found through- 
out the entire series of fossiliferous rocks from the transition strata to the chalk. They 
abound in the cretaceous and oolitic groups. Particular kinds distinguish particular 
formations, a circumstance which renders them of particular interest and importance to 
the geologist. ‘The number of species is very great, considerably above 200; and several 
genera have been constituted, as daculites, hamites, scaphites, turrilites, forming with 
ammonites, the family of ammonitide. <A. are of very different sizes, from a very small 
size, to 2, or even 3 or 4 ft. in diameter. The larger ones were in former times igno- 
rantly mistaken for petrified snakes; and impositions have been practised upon collectors 
by adding to specimens nicely carved snakes’ heads; whilst the general absence of the 
heads was popularly accounted for by a legend of a saint decapitating the snakes, and 
turning them into stone. See illus., OoLirE Group, vol. X. 

AMMONIUM, a hypothetical metal, which is said to consist of 1 volume of nitrogen 
with 4 of hydrogen. It has never been produced in an isolated state; but a singular 
amalgam of A. and mercury may be formed, by subjecting a globule of mercury, 
surrounded by a little water of ammonia, to thegaction of the galvanic current; when 
the galvanic agency ceases, this amalgam is decomposed into mercury, ammonia, and 
water. A. may likewise be prepared by acting on an amalgam of sodium and mercury 
with a solution of chloride of A. A portion of mercury is slightly heated in a porcelain 
vessel, and pieces of sodium introduced, when the sodium and mercury combine, and 
form an amalgam of sodium and mercury, which is a semi-solid substance, and scarcely 
occupies more space than the bulk of the mercury employed. If this be introduced into 
a vessel containing a strong or saturated solution of chloride of A., NH,Cl, the chlorine 
combines with the sodium, Na, of the amalgam, forming chloride of sodium, NaCl, and 
the A. unites with the mercury, forming the amalgam of A. and mercury. As the change 
referred to proceeds, the amalgam increases in size many times, and forms a spongy mass 
of the consistence of butter, which rises through the saline solution and floats on the 
surface. ‘The amalgam of A. and mercury very readily decomposes into mercury, am- 
monia, and hydrogen, hence the difficulty of determining its exact composition. 

AMMO'NIUM, now known as the oasis of Siwah, in the Libyan desert, was in ancient 
times celebrated on account of the oracle of Ammon, the unfortunate expedition of Cam- 
byses, and the subsequent journeys of Alexander the Great and Cato. 


AMMO’NIUS SACCAS, a Greek philosopher, founder of the Neoplatonic school, is said 
to have been in his early days a porter in Alexandria. His parents were Christian, but he 
himself is said to have abandoned his early religion, in which he had been instructed by 
Clemens Alexandrinus, and to have devoted himself to the study of heathen philosophy 
under Athenagoras; although both Eusebius and St. Jerome deny that he ever formally 
apostatized from the Christian faith. His great endeavor was to harmonize, through a 
comprehensive eclecticism, the various philosophical theories which prevailed in the 
Roman world, especially those of Aristotle and Plato. He also labored to amalgamate 
with these the doctrines of the Magi and Brahmans; but instead of boldly announcing 
the result as his own, he claimed for his system the highest antiquity. His most distin- 
guished pupils were Longinus, Herennius, Origen, and Plotinus, the last of whom, by 
far the most subtle and profound of the Neoplatonists, always expressed the highest 
respect for his master. <A. died at Alexandria, 243 a.p. He left no writings behind him. 

A. is the name of several learned men in the later periods of Greek history; such as 
A., the master of Plutarch, who lived during the reign of the emperor Adrian, and, like 
A. Saccas, taught a species of eclecticism in philosophy; A., the Christian philosopher 
of the 3d c., who wrote a Harmony of the Gospels; A., son of Hermeas, a peripatetic phi- 
losopher of the 5th c., and disciple of Proclus; A., the famous surgeon of Alexandria, 
who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus; and A., the grammarian, who was at 
first high-priest in an Egyptian temple, sacred to the god Apis, and afterwards (889 A.D.) 
became teacher at Constantinople, where he had the church historian Socrates for his 
pupil. 

AMMONOO’SUC, Urrer and LowER; small tributaries of the Connecticut river in 
New Hampshire; the fotmer entirely in Coos co., the latter rising in that co. and running 
through Grafton, emptying opposite Wells river, Vt. Length, 100 miles. A branch is 
called the Wild A. 


AMMOPH'ILA, a genus of grasses, closely allied to arundo (see RexEp), and distin- 
guished by a spike-like panicle, and by the glumes being nearly equal, keeled, longer than 


Ammunition. 
Amontons. 3 J . 


the palee of the single floret, and surrounded at the base by a tuft of hairs.—A. arundé 
macea, formerly called arundo arenaria—a grass about 2 to 8 ft. high, with rigid bluish 
leaves, the edges of which are rolled in, and very creeping roots—is frequent on the sandy 
sea-shores of Britain and the continent of Europe. It is sometimes called SEA REED or 
Sanp REED, and sometimes Mav Grass, the culms being wrought into foot-mats, cover- 
ings for stairs, etc., in the manufacture of which many families residing along the coast 
of Ireland are employed most of the year. It is also called marum, marrum, or marram, 
by which name it is designated in laws both English and Scottish, by which the destruc- 
tion of it was prohibited under severe penalties, because of its great utility in fixing the 
shifting sand. In Holland and in Norfolk, it is extensively employed—along with the sea 
lyme grass (q.V.)—in preserving the banks of sand which prevent the inroads of the sea. 
It is of little value as food for cattle, although they eat the very young leaves. The fiber 
has been used instead of flax, but is too short. 


AMMUNITION is the name given to projectiles, powder, cartridges, fuses, and so 
forth, and a supply for immediate use is kept in magazines in the iorts, or on ship- 
board, as the case may be. The army has several depots for the storage of powder, the 
chief of which is about four miles from Dover, N. J. The powder for both branches of 
the service is supplied by private firms; but must conform to certain requirements which 
are rigidly applied. For the military service the granulated powder is tested for 
the uniformity and roundness of the grains, and for its density, strength, and free- 
dom from dust. The powder for naval use is stored in the magazines that have been 
especially built in the various harbors for the purpose. Where naval magazines are 
not available the ammunition is stored in the nearest fort. Shot and shell for the 
older rifled guns and the smooth bores are piled about the various forts and naval 
stations, except in the case of loaded shell, which are kept in the magazines. Gun- 
cotton, which has thus far been made chiefly for naval use, is manufactured at the 
naval torpedo station at Newport, R. I., and all over and above the amount required 
for immediate use is kept stored in#sa magazine that has been especially fitted up 
on one of the other islands in that harbor. The small-arm ammunition is made 
at the Frankford arsenal, near Philadelphia, in large quantities, chiefly for army 
use; that for the navy is generally purchased from private makers. At Watertown 
arsenal a large number of projectiles have been made for army use, and at the Water- 
vliet arsenal at West Troy there is a very extensive plant for the manufacture of 
projectiles. 

The projectiles for the naval guns are made at the naval arsenal at Washington, D.C. 
The armor-piercing shell are carefully machined and tempered, and are much more 
expensive to make than projectiles for ordinary use. The ammunition for the rapid-fire 
and machine-guns is made by contract with private parties. The question of keeping 
up the supply of ammunition for troops actively engaged is one of the important ques- 
tions of the day, and is becoming more and more serious, as the introduction of im- 
proved weapons makes it possible to expend a greater quantity of ammunition in a given 
space of time. It has been calculated that an army of 60,000 men, comprising a fair 
average of infantry, cavalry, engineers, and artillery, ought to be provided with no less 
than 18,000,000 ball-cartridges alone for six months’ operations. To move this supply 
all at once it would require 1000 wagons and 38600 horses. It is therefore deemed better 
that, under any such circumstances, there should be established entrepots for supplying 
the troops from time totime. The quantity required to be carried with an army of the 
size above given is 2,680,000 cartridges, besides those in reserve; and for moving this 
amount 150 wagons, 850 men, and 704 horses would be necessary. In the field an in- 
fantry soldier carries from 60 to 100 rounds, the number possible to carry having been 
considerably increased since smaller calibres have been introduced. Fixed ammunition 
is the term applied to cases where the powder and projectile are enclosed together, and 
can be fed to the gun in one motion. 

The chief kinds of A. will be found briefly described under their proper headings. 


AM-NE’-SIA (Gk., a, neg., mnés’s, memory), loss of memory. 


AM'NESTY signifies an act of pardon or oblivion, and the effect of it is that the 
crimes and offenses against the state, specified in the act, are so obliterated that they can 
never again be charged against the guilty parties. The A. may be either absolute or 
qualified with exceptions, Instances of the latter are to be found in ancient and modern 
history : Thus, Thrasybulus, when he overthrew the oligarchy in Athens, caused an A. 
to be proclaimed, from the operation of which the thirty tyrants, who had formed the 
oligarchy, and some few persons who had acted under them, were excluded. Again, 
Bonaparte, on his return from Elba in 1815, issued a decree, which was published at 
yous, Spain an A., from the benefits of which he excepted thirteen persons whom 

e named. 

In the absence of specific statutes on the subject, the exercise of A. in the 
United States was assumed to lie with the president. Washington, without partici- 
pation by congress, granted A., or pardon, to persons who took part in the ‘‘ whisky 
rebellion.” John Adams proclaimed full pardon of those engaged in the house-tax 
Insurrection, and Madison did the same in the case of the Barataria pirates. During 
the civil war, Lincoln and Johnson issued four or five proclamations of A., one of 


895 Ammunition, 
Amontons. 


the latest being so broad in its conditions that it raised in congress the question whether 
the president had the right to such action, and the judiciary committee of the senate, in 
Feb., 1869, decided that he had not. ‘‘ A.’’ is so closely connected with “‘ pardon’’ 
and ‘‘ reprieve’’ that it is difficult to distinguish them. In one message Pres. Lincoln 
asserted his exclusive authority under the constitution, and his independence of congress 
in respect to the pardoning power, even more emphatically than in the proclamation. 
In 1862 congress had passed an act giving full power to the president, but he considered 
the act unnecessary, claiming that the constitution gave him the necessary authority. 
Then, in 1867, the act of 1862 was repealed ; and all A. proceedings were remanded to 
their original basis in the second article of the constitution, until further defined in later 
amendments. The supreme court had decided in the case of Garland that for pardon 
the president’s power was perfect; yet that is not held to include general amnesty. 
But in 1868 the fourteenth amendment to the constitution, prohibiting ‘‘ rebeis’”’ from hold- 
ing certain offices unless their disabilities should first ‘‘ be removed by a vote of two 
thirds of each house,’’ seemed to diminish the range of executive authority. Still, the 
supreme court has held in several cases to the absolute power of the president to grant 
amnesty and pardon, and that neither congress nor any authority less than an express 
change of the federal constitution can reverse, abridge, or direct that power. The court, 
through Chief-justice Chase, says: ‘‘It is the intention of the constitution that each 
of the great co-ordinate departments of the government, the legislative, the executive, 
and the judicial, shall be in its sphere independent of the others. To the executive 
alone is intrusted the power of pardon, and it is granted without limit. Pardor 
includes amnesty. It blots out the offense pardoned, and removes all its penal con 
sequences.”’ 


AM’NION is the membrane which immediately invests the embryo, appearing very 
early in the development of the latter, and adhering closely to it. As gestation proceeds, 
this membrane secretes from its inner surface a fluid which separates it from the foetus. 
This fluid, the liquor amnii, consists of water, with albumen, salt of soda, and extractive 
matters in solution ; it has a specific gravity of 1008. It supplies nutriment to the 
foetus, preserves around it an agreeable temperature, and when gestation is completed, 
by projecting the membrane through the os uteri, is the primary agent in opening the 
way for the foetus. At this time the A. is thin and transparent, slightly flocculent on 
the side next its enveloping membrane, the chorion, but smooth on the surface next the 
foetus. Within it, the latter is suspended in the fluid, which not only serves the purposes 
just mentioned, but protects it from injury. For further particulars, see EMBryo, and 
for many curious superstitions connected with the subject, see CAUL. 


AMCGBA (Gr. ‘‘change”’), a name given to a number of the simplest animals 
or protozoa (q.v.), which consist of unit masses of living matter (see CELLS), They 
are found in fresh water or in mud, and occasionally in damp earth (A. terricola) 
One of the commonest was first described in 1755 by an early microscopist, Résel von 
Rosenhof, and the name he gave it—proteus animalcule—still survives in popular lan- 
guage. They are all minute, but some are distinctly visible with the unaided eye. The 
naked mass of living matter or protoplasm flows out in all directions in blunt processes : 
—pseudopodia -— “‘ false feet.’’ Many unit masses or cells of higher animals—e.g., the 
white corpuscles of the blood—exhibit the same ceaseless change of form, which is gen- 
erally described as amceboid. The outer layer of the protaplasm is usually firmer than 
the interior. The central portion contains the more refractive body or nucleus, more 
than one of which is often present. As the result of internal changes, granulesand glob. 
ules appear in the protoplasm, and 2 pulsating bubbles or contractile vacuoles are 
usually to be seen, which doubtless secure to some extent the aeration and purification 
of the protoplasm. A passage from an active to an encysted state is common, and on 
attaining its maximum size, the A. breaks into 2 amcebe, each of which coutains half 
of the mother nucleus. In a closely allied giant form, pelomyxa, a number of spore- 
like young are formed within the parent. Two amebe sometimes flow together and 
fuse in a manner which may be fairly regarded as an incipient form of sexual union. 
See Leidy, Hresh- Water Rhizopods of North America ; Brown’s Protozoa, For type, see 
illustration INVERTEBRATES, vol. VIIL., fig. 2. 


eed VERSES, such as answer one another alternately, as in some of Virgil’s 
eclogues. 


AMOL, a town of Persia, 76m. n.e. of Teheran, on the Heraz, an afiluent of the 


ae It has good bazaars, is prosperous and wealthy, and has a winter pop. of 


AMOMUM, a genus of Zingiberacex, to which belong the plants yielding cardamoms 
(q.v.), and grains of Paradise (q.v.). 


AMONTONS, GuILLAUME, 1663-1705, a French philosopher, who became an in- 
ventor of various mechanical appliances. He was made a member of the Paris acad. of 
sclences, and in France is considered the inventor of the telegraph. Almost at the 


same time with Halley, in England, he found that the boiling point of water varies with 
the elevation. 


Ameoor, 896 


Amoye 


AMOOR’, or Amur, a river formed by the junction (about lat. 58° n., and long. 120° ¢.} 
of the Shilka and the Argoun, which both come from the s.w.—the former rising in 
Russian Siberia, near the head-waters of the Yenisei; and the latter in Chinese Tartary, 
not far from the sandy plateau of Kobi. From this starting post, the A. presents, on its 
right, a tolerably symmetrical curve, which, after receiving, at its most southerly point, the 
Songari from beyond the wall of China, besides other considerable feeders on both sides 
of either segment, enters, on nearly its original parallel, the guif of Saghalien, about a 
degree below the sea of Okhotsk, properly so called. Above the river Usuri its course 
marks the boundary between Siberia and Manchuria. It has been ascertained that its 
basin comprehends about 787,000 sq. m., and that its course has a length of about 2700 
miles, starting from the Onon. Steamboats of light draught ascend it as high as Ust 
Strelka, at the junction of the Shilka; and that river is navigable for boats to the foot of the 
Yablonoi range in eastern Siberia, part of which lies in the basin of the A. The Russians, 
after conquering Siberia in the 16th c., turned their attention immediately to the advan- 
tages which the possession of this river offered. The territory and the people had always 
been in the possession of China, the people sometimes tributaries, at other times conquerors. 
‘rom as early as 1636, Russian adventurers made excursions into the Chinese territories 
of the lower A. In 1666, they built a fort at Albazin, and succeeded in navigating from 
that fort to the mouth of the river. In 1685, the fort was taken and destroyed by the 
Chinese, but was retaken promptly by the Russians, who, however, abandoned it and the 
whole of the A. to the Chinese. But Russian writers did not cease to keep alive in the 
minds of their fellow-subjects that the lower A. belonged to them; and the fur-hunters 
of Siberia, encouraged by government, continued to pursue their vocation on Chinese 
ground. In 1854-56, two military expeditions were conducted by Count Muravieff, 
who twice descended the A. from the mouth of the Shilka, unopposed by the Chinese. 
This was during the Crimean war. On the arrival of news of peace, the Russians were 
left to strengthen their positions at the mouth and other parts of the A. In 1857 Count 
Putiatin endeavored in vain to obtain from China concessions on the river in favor of 
Russia. In 1858, the war between the former country and Great Britain and France 
induced China to agree to the treaty of Tientsin, by which the boundaries of Russia and 
China were defined. Several towns were, as the result, established by the former of these 
two powers on the left bank of the A., of which the largest are Khabarooka and Sofzensk; 
and an A. trading company was established. In 1860, after the occupation of Pekin by 
the British and French, in less than a month after lord Elgin and Baron Gros had affixed 
their signatures to the peace conventions at Pekin, Gen. Ignatieff secured the signature 
of Prince Kung to a treaty, by which Russia acquired the broad and wide territory com- 
prised between the river A. and the mouth of the Tumén, extending 10° of lat. nearer the 
temperate regions, and running from the shore of the north Pacific eastward to the banks 
of the river Usuri, a principal affluent of the A. An enormous advantage to Russia of 
this acquisition of territory was the fact that it conferred on that country the advantage 
of harbors on the Pacific in a comparatively temperate latitude, where navigation is 
impeded by ice for at most 3 or 4 months a year. The bay of Passiett, to the s. of this 
region, lying at a point where the Russian, Chinese, and Corean frontiers adjoin each 
other, possesses a large trading town and a military station; 60 or 70 m. n. is situated 
the important harbor of Vladivostok (‘‘rule of the east’), or port May, which, in 1872, 
was placed in telegraphic communication with Europe. by the China submarine cable, 
and is now the capital of the A. provinces. The island of Saghalien (q.v.), lying 
immediately n. of the Japan group, along a portion of the coast of Asiatic Russia, and 
formerly possessed partly by that government and partly by Japan, was recently taken 
entire possession of by the unscrupulous aggressive power which has so stealthily and 
silently acquired the adjacent A. provinces. 

AMORET’TI, Cario, 1741-1816; an Italian author. - He joined the order of St. 
Augustine, and was professor of common law in the university of Parma. In 1772, he 
entered the ranks of the secular clergy. He was curator of the Ambrosian library in 
Milan, 1797, and the first to give the world knowledge of its treasures, from which he 
published a collection of voyages. He wrote a life of Leonardo da Vinci, and treatises 
on natural science, familiarizing Italians with the scientific status of other nations. 


AMORET'TI, Marta PELLEGRINA, 1756-87; niece of Carlo A. At the age of 16 she 
argued in public on scientific topics, and afterwards studied law, graduating from the 
university of Pavia. She wrote a treatise on Roman law. 


_ AM'ORITES, a powerful nation of Canaan, extending on both sides of the Jordan. 
They were Vanquished by the Hebrews under Moses, and their lands beyond Jordan were 
distributed among the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh. Their two most famous 
kings were Sihon, king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. Og was the last of the 
giants, or at least of that gigantic race, the Rephaim. In Deut. iii. 11, his iron bedstead 
is mentioned as measuring 13} ft. in length; but the whole of this verse, with the excep- 
tion of the first clause, is considered by some an interpolation. The Rabbins hold this 
bedstead to have been Og’s cradle, and affirm that his full-grown stature was 120 ft.! 
Joshua subdued, but did not wholly exterminate, the Amorites in Canaan. The residue 
of this people became tributary under Solomon. (Gen. x. 15-20; xv. 19-21; Numb. xiii 
29; xxi 13; Deut. xx.17; Joshua, ix.) 


3 9 4 Ariat 


AMORO'SO, in music, affectionately, tenderly, 
AMOR PHA, See INDIGO, 
AMORPHOPHAL'LUS. See Arum. 


AMORPHOUS (Gr., a, priv., morphé, form), shapeless. In chemistry, the term A. is 
used to describe the uncrystallized, in opposition to the crystallized, condition of bodies. 
There are substances which, in certain conditions, are capable of crystallization, but in 
other conditions remain A. Thus, pure sugar contains carbon, which appears as an A. 
substance after the sugar has been burned in a platina crucible. The same substance, 
earbon, appears in its crystallized form in the diamond. 


A'MOS, the Hebrew prophet, was a herdsman of Tekoa, in the neighborhood of Beth- 
lehem, and also a dresser of sycamore trees. During the reigus of Uzziah in Judah, and 
Jeroboam in Israel (about 784 B.c.), he came forward to denounce the idolatry then prev- 
alent. His prophetical writings contain, in the first six chapters, denunciations of the 
divine displeasure against several states, particularly that of Israel, on account of the 
worship of idols. ‘The three remaining chapters contain his symbolical visions of the 
approaching overthrow of the kingdom of Israel, and lastly a promise of restoration. 
The style of A., remarkable for its clearness and picturesque vigor, abounds with images 
taken from rural and pastoral life. The canonicity of the book of Amos is well attested 
both by Jewish and Christian authorities. 

A’MOS, BOOK OF, has a place among the writings of the prophets, undisputed by the 
Jews, and twice affirmed in the New Testament. It is not made up of detached pre- 
dictions, but is logically and artistically connected in its several parts, and is evidently 
the mature production of the single author whose name it bears. Nothing is certainly 
known concerning him besides what he relates of himself—that he was of Tekoa, in 
Judea, a herdman and cultivator of sycamore fruit, until the Lord called him away 
from these employments to prophesy unto Israel. Jerome, applying to him words 
which Paul used concerning himself, calls him ‘‘rude in speech, yet not in knowledge.” 
Some modern critics have adopted this view, but Bishop Lowth, with good reason, re- 
jects it; thinking ‘‘ that the shepherd seer is not at all inferior among the prophets. As 
in sublimity and magnificence he is almost equal to the greatest, so in splendor and 
elegance of diction he is scarcely below any.” A. prophesied during the reigns of 
Jeroboam II., king of Israel, and Uzziah, king of Judah, two years before the earth- 
quake which Zechariah, 800 years afterwards, mentions as having caused great alarm 
among the people. The prophecy of A. preceded Isaiah’s, to which, and to those of 
the prophets generally, it serves, in some degree, as an introduction, uttering briefly 
many predictions which they give more at length. Before his time Israel and Judah 
had been greatly oppressed by the surrounding nations; but having been relieved, they 
were then, like their neighbors, living in idolatry, luxury, avarice, and cruelty to the 
poor. Therefore A. was commanded to denounce judgments against them all. His 
prophecy has been compared to a thunder-storm, rolling over the surrounding kingdoms, 
touching Judah in its progress, pouring the fullness of its power on Israel, and passing 
away with a bright rainbow on its cloud. The book is accordingly divided into three 
parts. I. Judgments against the neighboring nations. (Chapters i. 3-15; ii. 1-3.) 1. 
Syria ; the’ fulfillment of which, more than half a century after the prediction, is 
recorded (II. Kings, xvi. 9). 2. Philistia,; fulfilled ({1. Kings, xviii. 8) a century after. 3. 
Tyre; the fulfillment of which was commenced by Nebuchadnezzar, and continued at 
intervals, until comparatively modern times. 4. dom, the fulfillment of which, in a 
great measure delayed until the Mohammedan invasion, was soon after that complete. 
5. Ammon; the destruction of whose great city, Rabbah, is especially foretold. This 
city, after it had experienced varied fortunes, the Moslems found in ruins, still remarka- 
ble, even in the east, for their extent and desolation. 6. Moab; of which the palaces of 
Kirioth are specified as doomed to be destroyed. Of this city, as one of many, modern 
travelers say, ‘‘ The ruins are of great extent, with traces of many public buildings, 
broken columns, private dwellings having low roofs, colossal walls, and massive stone 
doors. Over these and all the surrounding plains desolation reignssupreme.” I. Judg- 
ments against Judah and Israel. (Chapters ii.4;ix.10); 1. Judah (ii. 4, 5); fulfilled, 
first, by Nebuchadnezzar, about 200 years after the prediction; and, finally, by the 
Romans, nearly 700 years later still. 2. Israel (ii. 6; ix. 10); (1) General reproof for 
their aggravated sins against God, ii. 6-16. (2) Judgments denounced and the causes of 
them declared, iii. (8) Remonstrance, five times repeated, against their disregard of 
former visitations, iv. (4) Lamentation over their approaching ruin, with an earnest 
exhortation, five times repeated, to seek the Lord that they might even yet be saved, v. 
1-24. (5) In view of their continued transgression, notwithstanding the divine forbear- 
ance and care, their captivity and inevitable destruction are declared, with the excep- 
tion, explicitly pledged, that the judgments shall be ended, v. 27; ix. 8-10. III. The 
coming of the Messiah is promised, with the admission of the Gentiles to his kingdom, and the 
jinal restoration of Israel, ix. 11-15. 

AMOSKEAG’.. See Mancuzster, N. H. 


AMOY'’, a seaport t. of China, in a small island of the same name, in the province of 
Fu-kien, on the sea-coast, lat. 24° 10’ n. long. 118’ e. It is an important commercial 


Ampelopsis. 898 
Amphipolis. 


emporium of the east, and contains a population estimated at 100,000. It is divided 
into an outer and inner t., and has an. outer and inner harbor, the entrance to the 
former of which, as well as the inner t. itself, is fortified. A. has been celebrated as a 
trading t. for more than a thousand years, and was one of the earliest seats of European 
commerce in China. The Portuguese had establishments here in the 16th and the 
Dutch in the 17th centuries. In 1841 it was taken by the British; by the treaty of Nan- 
kin, a British consul and British subjects were permitted to reside there. The trade is 
now open to all nations. The chief imports are rice, cotton-twist, British long cloths, 
beans, peas, etc.; .the exports are tea, sugar, paper, grass-cloths, gold-leaf, ete. The 
value of its foreign trade is very great. Smuggling is carried on extensively. A. was 
pillaged by the Tae-ping rebels. 

AMPELOP’SIS, a genus of vine-like woody plants, including Virginia creeper, or 
American woodbine, which is better adapted than ivy to our climate, and more rapid in 
growth. In autumn the dying leaves are of most brilliant red and yellow. Order, 
vitaceew. ‘The vine incorrectly called ‘‘ Japanese ivy ” belongs to this genus. 


AM'PERE, AnpDRE MARIE, a distinguished mathematician and naturalist, was b. at 
Lyons, Jan. 20, 1775. The death of his father, who fell under the guillotine in 1793, 
made a deep-and melancholy impression on the mind of young A., who sought for solace 
in the study of nature and antiquity. In 1805, after he had been engaged for some time 
as private mathematical tutor at Lyons, he was called to Paris, where he distinguished 
himself as an able teacher in the Polytechnic School, and began his career as an author 
by his essay on the mathematical theory of chances (Sur la Théorie Mathématique du 
Jeu). In1814 he was elected as a member of the Academy of Sciences ; and in 1824 was 
appointed as professor of experimental physics in the collége de France. Hed. June 
10, 1836. Scientific progress is largely indebted to A., especially for his electro-dynamic 
theory and his original views of the identity of electricity and magnetism, as given in his 
Recueil @ Observations Electro-dynamiques (Paris, 1822), and his Théorie des Phénoménes 
Hlectro-dynamiques (Paris, 1880). These researches prepared the way for the experiments 
of Dr. Faraday. Several of A.’s writings may be found in the Annales de Physique et de 
Chimie. The ampere or unit of the strength of the electrical current is named after him. 


AMPERE, Jean JAcquEs ANTOINE, son of the above-named, professor of modern 
literature in the Collége de France, at Paris, and member of the French Academy, was 
b. at Lyons, Aug. 12, 1800. He acquired a brilliant reputation on account of the keen 
and searching character of his manifold literary efforts. After laying the groundwork 
of his comprehensive studies in Paris, he proceeded to Italy, Germany, and Scandi- 
navia. In 1829, when he returned from his travels, he saw no prospect of becoming a 
professor in Paris, and so consented to give a course of lectures on the history of litera- 
ture at Marseilles. Afterthe July revolution, he succeeded Andrieux as professor in the 
collége de France, and also took the place of Villemainin the normal school. In both 
chairs he taught with great success. He was especially versed in the knowledge of 
German literaéire; while his valuable writings upon China, Persia, India, Egypt, and 
Nubia, as well as his Levantine voyages, proved that the far east itself was embraced 
within the circle of his studies. A. allowed many of his linguistic and historico-literary 
investigations to see the light first in reviews, especially the Revue des Deux Mondes. In 
1838, he published an essay on the relations of French literature to that of other coun- 
tries in the middle ages; in 1841, an Hssay on the Formation of the French Language—a 
most valuable contribution to philology in general; and in 1850, a work entitled Greece, 
fiome, and Dante, which shows his acquaintance with classical and south-European litera- 
ture. Many of his papers for periodicals have been collected under the title Lrtiérature 
et Voyages (2 vols., Paris, 1834). Deep research and judicious criticism, expressed in a 
clear and classical style, distinguish his various compositions. He d. March 27, 1864. 


AMPERE. See ELECTRICITY. 


AMPHIARA'US, a legendary son of Oicles and Hypermnestra, known as a prophet, 
and famed for valor in the Argonautic expedition and the Calydonian hunt, especially 
renowned in the war of the Seven against Thebes, into which he was forced by the 
treachery of his wife, a sister of Adrastus, the king of Sicyon who planned the war to 
restore Polynicesto the Theban throne. A. lost his life; but he was deified, and believed 
to give oracles. Festivals were made in his honor. The ruins of a temple to A. still 
exist in the ancient Oropia. 


AMPHIB'IA, in the Linnsean system of zoology, a class containing reptiles and carti- 
jaginous fishes. The term amphibious (Gr., having a double life) had been previously 
employed, as it still popularly is, to denote animals capable of sustaining existence for 
a considerable time either on dry land or in water. Of the animals of the Linnean class, 
however, some only are capable of this, whilst some are strictly limited to the one 
element, and some to the other, and only a very few are truly amphibious, or adapted by 
the possession of lungs and gills at the same time for breathing either in air or in water. 
The Linnean classification was soon altered by the removal of the cartilaginous fishes 
from the class amphibia, and the name was retained for a class consisting of reptiles 
alone — the reptilia of Cuvier. See Reprites. In more recent times, however, it is used 
i a sense equivalent to Batrachia, including the toads, frogs, newts, etc. These are more 


Ren petonatne 
399 im anhipoliie 


properly amphibious in the original sense of the term, because they hatch from eggs 
laid in the water, and while in the larval state have gills like fish and breathe water. 
Yet many of the Butrachia proper are confined to the water during their whole lives, 
never undergoing the metamorphosis which enables the others to breathe air. In this 
work the characteristics of the A. in the narrower sense are discussed under the head 
BATRACHIA. 


AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL. This central politico-religious court of several Grecian 
tribes was held twice a year. In spring, the members assembled in the temple of 
Apollo, at Delphi; in autumn, in the temple of Ceres, at the village of Anthela, near 
Thermopyle. ‘Their purpose was twofold: 1. To determine questions of international 
law; 2. To preserve the religious institutions of the Greeks. As there were many 
amphictyonies in the early days of Greek history—of which, however, by far the most 
important was that which forms the subject of our article—it has generally been sup- 
posed that they originated out of a desire for social union, and were, consequently, a 
result of the national instinct for civilization. Like the Olympic games of a later period, 
their tendency was to develop a spirit of brotherhood where it was greatly required. 
The restless Greek intellect, in its application to political life, had naturally an exces- 
sive and perilous love of individualism, out of which rose the numerous strifes and 
animosities of the various states. These councils, on the other hand, were calculated to 
exert a wholesome centralizing influence. They knit together, for a time, the dis- 
tractec tribes in abond of common interest and piety. Like the Olympic games, too, 
they became the occasion of vast gatherings of the Greek peoples, who crowded thither 
for every variety of purpose, sacred and secular; and thus a feeling of unity and pure 
national patriotism was, temporarily at least, excited in the popular mind. ‘The special 
origin of the A. C. or league is unknown, though we know that it was composed of 
twelve tribes. The ancient writers differin the names of these; but the list given by 
the orator Adschines, though containing only eleven, is perhaps the safest to adhere to: 
the 'Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians, Ionians, Perrhebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Citezans, 
Phthiots, Malians, and Phocians. Probably the remaining tribe was the Dolopians, 
who are mentioned in other accounts. It has been justly concluded that the great pre- 
ponderance of the northern tribes, who were of the old Pelasgic race, proves the antiquity 
of the council. It must have been older than the descent of the Dorians upon the Pelo: 
ponnesus, or the emigration of the Ionians to the coasts of Asia Minor. Each of the 
twelve tribes sent to the A. C. twomembers. These 24 representatives possessed equal 
authority, although some of the tribes were very small, and hardly independent. They 
bound themselves by an oath that ‘‘they would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor 
cut off their streams in war or peace; and if any should do so, they would march 
against him and destroy his cities; and should any pillage the property of the god, or be 
privy to, or plan anything against what was in his temple at Delphi, they would take 
vengeance on him with hand, and foot, and voice, and all their might” (Aéschines). It 
is only right to state, what indeed most people would naturally conclude for themselves, 
that so excellent an oath was very indifferently kept. In the primitive period of Greek 
history, it, in all likelihood, exerted the beneficial and civilizing influence of which we 
have spoken; but it opposed only a feeble check to the passions and ambition of a more 
powerful age. The members at times connived and even took part in many political 
crimes; and thus violated their oath. By the time of Demosthenes, the A. C. had 
ceased to command respect; in the 2d c. after Christ it still existed, but was then just 
wavering on the verge of extinction. 


AMPHIL'OCHUS, in legend, a son of Amphiaraus and brother of Alcmzon; one of 
the Epigoni in the Seven against Thebes. He was in the Trojan war, and was one of 
Helen’s suitors. With Mopsus he founded Mallus, and when Mopsus refused him a share 
in the government, the two fought, killing each other. A. was believed to have pro- 
phetic power, and had an oracle at Mallus and an altar at Athens, where, with his 
father, he was worshiped. ‘There are two other mythological persons of the name, one 
A.’s grandson, the other a son of Dryas. 


AMPHI’ON, in mythology, son of Zeus and Antiope, twin brother of Zethus. Both 
when infants were abandoned on a mountain, but were found and brought up by shep- 
herds. Apollo gave A. a lyre, and he became a singer and musician, his brother being 
a shepherd and hunter. ‘To avenge their mother’s wrongs they captured Thebes, and 
fortified it by the power of the lyre, to whose music stones moved and fitted into place. 
A. married Niobe, who bore him many sons and daughters, but all were killed by Apollo. 
A. killed himself from grief, or was slain by Apollo, for assaulting his temple, and buried 
with his brother at Thebes. The punishment inflicted by A. upon Dirce for her treat- 
ment of his mother (tying her to the tail of a bull and dragging her until she died) is rep- 
resented in one of the finest works of ancient art—The Farnese Bull by Apollonius and 
Taunicus, found in 1546, and now in the Farnese palace at Rome. There are four other 
mythical personages named A. 


AMPHIOX’US, See LANCELET. 


AMPHIP'OLIS, a city of Macedonia, built on an island at the mouth of the river 
Strymon, which flowed almost round the t., whence it derived its name(Gr., amphi. 


Amphisbeena. 400 
Amputation. 


around, and polis, a city). In ancient times its position must have been invaluable, as it 
commanded the only safe entrance from the Strymonic gulf into the broad Macedonian 
plains. It belonged originally to the Edonians, a Thracian people, and was called, on 
account of the roads which met here, Ennea Hodoi (Nine Ways). The first who 
attempted to colonize it, Aristagorus of Miletus, was cut off with his followers by the 
Edonians. The Athenians next tried to gain possession of it. Their first army, amount- 
ing to 10,000 men, was utterly cut to pieces at Drabescus, 465 B.c., but their second, 437 
B.¢c., under Agnon, son of Nicias, was successful. The Thracians were expelled, and a 
new city built, to which Agnon gave the name of A. On account of its situation as an 
emporium for upper Thrace, and of its neighboring forests of timber for ship-building, 
A. was an important place. In 424 3.c., it was taken from the Athenians by the Spartan 
Brasidas, was restored to Athens by the Antalcidean treaty of peace, and afterwards was 
taken by Philip of Macedon. Under the Romans, it was made the capital of east Mace- 
donia. In the middle ages, it was called Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a Turk- 
ish t., but a few of its ruins are still visible. 


AMPHISBZ'NA, a genus of laceritlia, or lizards, of the general appearance of 
snakes, or worms, found only in the West Indiesand South America. The best known 
is the sooty or dusky species. The body is 18 to 24 in. long, and neariy the same thick- 
ness throughout; head small, tail very short. It lives under-ground, feeding on ants 
and other small insects. As it moves either way with equal ease, rumor gave it 
two heads, and asserted that when cut in twain the parts would find_each other and 
reunite. Its dried and pulverized flesh was supposed to possess miraculous curative prop- 
erties. See illus., RePrriEs, ETC., vol. XII. 


AMPHITHE’ATER, a spacious building, generally elliptical in form, used by the 
Romans for exhibiting gladiatorial combats, fights of wild beasts, and other spectacles. 
The A. differed from a theater for dramatic performances (theatrum) in this, that whereas 
the theater had only a semicircle of seats fronting the stage, the A. was entirely sur- 
rounded by them; and hence the name of A. (Gr. amphi, ‘‘ on both sides”’ or “all round”). 
Till a late period at Rome, these erections were of wood, and merely temporary, like a 
modern race-stand. They seem, however, to have been of enormous size, as Tacitus 
mentions one, during the reign of Tiberius, which gave way, and caused the death or 
injury of 50,000 spectators. Amphitheaters of stone had begun, however, to be erected 
at an earlier period than this, the first having been built at the desire of Augustus. The 
Flavian A. at Rome, known as the Colosseum, which was begun by Vespasian, and 
finished by Titus 80 a.p., ten years after the destruction of Jerusalem, was probably the 
largest structure of the kind, and is fortunately also the best preserved. It covers 
about five acres of ground, and was capable of containing 87,000 persons, Its greatest 
length is 620 ft., and its greatest breadth 518. On the occasion of its dedication by Titus, 
5000 wild beasts were slain in the arena, the games having lasted for nearly 100 days. The 
exterior is about 160 ft. in height, and consists of three rows of columns, Doric, fonic, | 
and Coriathian, and, above all, arow of Corinthian pilasters. Between the columns 
there are arches, which form open galleries throughout the whole building; and between 
each alternate pilaster of the upper tier there isa window. ‘There were four tiers or 
stories of seats, corresponding to the four external stories. The first of these is supposed 
to have contained 24 rows of seats; and the second, 16. These were separated by a lofty 
wall from the third story, which is supposed to have contained the populace. The 
podium was a kind of covered gallery surrounding the arena, in which the emperor, the 
senators, and vestal virgins had their seats. The building was covered by a temporary 
awning or wooden roof, called velariwm, the mode of adjusting and fastening which has 
given rise to many antiquarian conjectures. The open space in the center of the A. 
was called arena, the Latin word for sand, because it was covered with sand or sawdust 
during the performances. The taste for the excitement of the A. which existed in Rome 
naturally spread to the provinces, and large amphitheaters were erected not only in the 
provincial towns of Italy, asat Capua, Verona, Pompeii, etc., but at Arles and Nismes, 
in France ; and even in Gt. Britain, at Cirencester, Silchester, and Dorchester., 


AMPHITRI'TE, the daughter of the sea-god Nereus and of Doris—or, according to 
Apollodorus, of a daughter of Oceanus—was the wife of Neptune. When the latter 
demanded her in marriage, she fled to Mt. Atlas, but was discovered by a dolphin, 
which Neptune had sent after her, and borne back to him. _ As goddess and queen of 
the sea, she is represented with her husband’s trident in her hand, sitting in a car of 
shells drawn by Tritons, or on a dolphin, before which a Cupid swims. 


AMPHIT’RYON, legendary son of Alcawus and Hipponome. He accidentally killed 
hisuncle Electryon, for which he was expelled from Mycene and took refuge in Thebes. 
There he won the hand of Alemena, and by her was father of Iphicles. He was killed 
in a war of Hercules against Erginus. His tomb was extant in Thebes in the days of 
Pausanias. 

_AMPHIU'MA, a curious genus of Batrachia, having an eel-like form, a large head, 
thick and extensile lips, depressed and rounded snout; the neck contracted, with a 
transverse fold at the throat; numerous small teeth on the maxillary and palate bones, 
® single spiracle on each side of the neck; four legs, all very small and two-toed. A. 


Amphisbena. 
401 Amputation. 


means is found in the southern and south-western parts of the United States. It attains 
a length of more than 2 ft. and is of a bluish-black color. It lives in muddy water or 
in mud, burrowing like a worm in the ditches of rice-fields, and feeds on small fish, 
mollusca, and insects. Itis regarded by the negroes as highly venomous, but there is no 
reason for the notion. See illus., Bars, mrc., vol. IL. 


AM'PHORA, among the Greeks and Romans, was a large vessel, usually made of clay, 
shaped like our pitchers, with a narrow neck and two handles (hence the name, from 
Gr. amphi, on both sides, and phero, to carry), and often ending in a sharp point below, 
for being inserted ina stand‘or in the ground. Several of this sort, and in an upright 
position, were found in the cellars at Pompeii. The A. was chiefly used for the preser- 
vation of various liquids, especially wine, the age of which was marked on tickets 
affixed to the vessel. There is also evidence that amphore were employed as cinerary 
urns and as coffins. The A. among the ancients was likewise a measure for liquids. In 
Greece, it contained about 9 English gallons. The Roman A. was only two thirds 
of the Greek A. In modern times, Anjfora is the name of a wine-measure in Venice. 


AMPLIFICA'TION, i.e., enlargement, a term in Rhetoric, meaning that an idea, an 
opinion, or an inference is presented to the mind, accompanied by accessory circum- 
stances. Its aim is to produce a powerful and vivid impression through the instrumen- 
tality of epithets, particulars, or other methods of elaboration. Rhetorical A. is generally 
produced—tist, by similitude; 2d, by contrast; 3d, by illustrating the universal in the 
particular; 4th, by piling up logical arguments. Hzaggeration is an illegitimate kind-of 
A., being the result of an undue enlargement of particular facts and circumstances. 


AM’PLITUDE, in astronomy, is the distance of a heavenly body, at the time of its ris- 
ing or setting, from the e. or the w. point of the horizon. When the sun is in the equator 
(i. e., at the time of either equinox), he rises exactly e. and sets exactly w., and therefore 
hasno A. His A. is at its maximum at midsummer, and again at midwinter; and that 
maximum depends upon the latitude of the place; being 283° at the equator, and increas- 
ing to the arctic circle, where it becomes 90°. The A. of a fixed star remains constant 
all the year round. 


AMPUL'LA, was a kind of bottle, used by the Romans for the preservation of liquids. 
It was made either of earthenware or glass, and sometimes, though very rarely, of more 
costly materials. Great numbers of such vessels have found their way into collections 
of antiquities. They are generally ‘‘ bellied,” i.e., approaching to globular, narrowing 
towards the mouth, and provided with two handles. They are frequently mentioned in 
connection with the baths of ancient times. The A. olearia was a ‘‘bottle of oil” which 
the Roman took with him when he went to the bath, and with which hé anointed himself 
after his ablutions. Sometimes the oils were perfumed. 

The A. remensis (the holy vessel, Fr. la sainte ampoule) was the name of that famous 
vessel in which was contained the unguent (believed to have been brought sy a dove 
from heaven) that anointed Clovis, king of the Franks, at Rheims in 496 a.p., and with 
which every succeeding monarch of France, down to Louis XVI., was anointed at his 
coronation. The A. remensis was shattered, along with a great many more valuable 
things, at the revolution of 1789; but a fragment of it was preserved by some devout 
royalist, and handed over at the restoration to the archbishop of Rheims. Curious to 
say, a little of the miraculous substance still remained, which was mixed up with oil, 
and used to anoint Charles X. in 1825. 


AMPUTATION (Lat. amputo, I lop or prune) is the cutting off of a part which, by its 
diseased condition, endangers, or may endanger, the safety of the whole body. The 
A. of a limb was in ancient times attended with great danger of the patient’s dying dur- 
ing its performance, as surgeons had no efficient means of restraining the bleeding. 
They rarely ventured to remove a large portion of a limb, and when they did so, they 
cut in the gangrened parts, where they knew the vessels would not bleed; the smaller 
limbs they chopped off with a mallet and chisel; and in both cases had hot irons at hand 
with which to sear the raw-surfaces, boiling oil in which to dip the stump, and various 
resins, mosses, and fungi, supposed to possess the power of arresting hemorrhage. 
Some tightly bandaged the limbs they wished to remove, so that they mortified and 
dropped off; and others amputated with red-hot knives, or knives made of wood or 
horn dipped in vitriol. The desired power of controlling the hemorrhage was obtained 
by the invention of the tourniquet (q.v.) in 1674 by a French surgeon, Morell. The 
ancient surgeons endeavored to save a covering of skin for the stump, by having the 
skin drawn upwards by an assistant, previously to using the knife. In 1679, Lowdham 
of Exeter suggested cutting semicircular flaps on one or both sides of a limb, so as to 
preserve a fleshy cushion to cover the end of the bone. Both these methods are now in 
use, and are known as the ‘‘circular” and the ‘‘ flap” operations: the latter is most 
frequently used. 

A “flap” amputation is performed thus: The patient being placed in the most con. 
venient position, an assistant compresses the main artery of the limb with his thumb, or 
a tourniquet is adjusted over it. Another assistant supports the limb. The surgeon 
with one hand lifts the tissues from the bone, and transfixing them with a long narrow 
knife, cuts rapidly downwards and towards the surface of the skin, forming a flap; he 


Amraoti. 402 


Amsterdam. 


then repeats this on the other side of the limb. An assistant now draws up these flaps, 

and the knife is carried round the bone, dividing any flesh still adhering to it. The sur 
geon now saws the bone. He then, with a small forceps, scizes the end of the main 
artery, and drawing it slightly from the tissues, an assistant ties it with a thread. All 
the vessels being secured, the flaps are stitched together with a needle and thread, and a 
piece of wet lint is laid over the wound. An expert surgeon can remove a limb thus in 
from 30 to 60 seconds. 

AMRAOTI, a district and city in India. The district has an area of 2566 sq.m., 
pop. abt. 500,000. Itisa plain, about 800 ft. above tide, broken only by a line of hills 
400 or 500 ft. higher. There are four considerable towns: the city of A., pop. 23,410; 
Karinja, 11,750; Badnera, on the great Indian peninsular railway which crosses the dis- 
trict, 6676; and Kolapur, 6169. 


AMRITSAR’ (Umritsar), a city of the Punjab, in n. lat. 31° 40’, and e. long. 74° 45’, 
containing (1891) 136,766 inhabitants. It is the religious metropolis, a distinction which, 
along with its name, it owes to its ‘* pool of immortality,’ on an islet of which stands 
the chief temple of the Sikh faith. A. is a favorite haunt of pilgrims; and it was the 
place where, perhaps to bind the slippery Sikhs more firmly, was signed the treaty of 
1846, for ceding to the British the territory between the Beas and the Sutlej. <A. is, next 
to Delhi, the richest and most prosperous city in northern India, being connected with 
the capital, distant 36 m. to the w., by a canal, possessing considerable manufactures of 
cotton, silks, shawls, ete., and carrying on considerable trade. <A. is on the Scinde, 
Punjab, and Delhi railway; and is the capital of a district of 1574 sq. m., with a pop. of 
about 900,000, and of a division with an area of 5354 sq. m., anda pop. of about 2,750,000, 
both of the same name. 


AMRU'-BEN-EL-ASS, or AMER, d. 663 A.p., one of Mohammed’s disciples, but be- 
fore conversion a furious opponent. Like Saul, his change made his zeal greater on the 
other side, and chiefly to him were the prophet’s successors indebted for the conquest of 
Syria. In 639 he led 4000 men into Egypt, besieged ancient Memphis, took it by storm, 
and on the spot built Fostat, the ruins of which are now known as old Cairo. In 640, 
after a siege of 14 months, he took Alexandria, losing 23,000 men. He is credited with 
projecting a canal to unite the Mediterranean and Red seas. He is charged with causing 
the destruction of the famous library at Alexandria, but the charge may well be dis- 
missed, as it was not advanced until six centuries after his death. There is reason to 
believe that no large proportion of the 700,000 volumes left by the Ptolemies remained 


at the date of A.’s conquest. 

AMRU’-EL-KAIS, or AMRoULCAYS, an Arabian poet, contemporary with and opposed 
to Mohammed. Before the prophet announced his mission, A. wrote one of the seven 
poems called ‘‘ Moallakat”’ (suspended) because they were suspended in the Kaaba at 
Mecca. They were put in English by Sir William Jones. 

AMSDORF, NiIKoLAus von, 1483-1565 ; a German Protestant reformer, an early and 
determined supporter of Luther; educated at Leipsic and first graduate of the new 
university at Wittenberg; professor of theology in 1511. He was with Luther at the 
Leipsic conference and the diet of Worms, and in the secret of his Wartburg seclusion. 
He assisted the first efforts at reformation in Magdeburg, Goslar, and Einbeck. He was 
active in the Schmalkald debates, and spoke strongly against the bigamy of the elector 
of Hesse. A. was made a bishop of Naumburg in 1542; resigned in 1547, and took part in 
founding the university of Jena. He superintended the publication of Luther’s works, 
and opposed Melancthon on the separation of the High-Lutheran party. 


AMS'LER, SAMUEL, professor of the art of engraving on copper, in the academy of 
arts, Munich, was b. Dec. 17, 1791, at Schinznach, in Switzerland, received his first 
lessons from Lips of Zurich, and afterwards studied under Hess, in Munich. His first 
great work was an engraving from a Magdalen by Carlo Dolce. In 1816, he went to 
Rome, where, in several engravings of statues by Thorwaldsen, he succeeded well in 
uniting the characteristics of the originals with the simple style of Marcus Antonio. 
Aided by Barth and Hildburghausen, he engraved a title-page for the Lay of the Nibvel- 
ungen, from a design by Cornelius. During his second sojourn in Rome (1820-1824), he 
began his great work, an engraving of ‘‘ Alexander’s Triumphal Procession,” by Thor- 
waldsen. At Munich, in 1831, he finished his large plate of the ‘‘ Burial of Christ,” by 
Raphael, which, with his engraving of a statue of Christ, by Dannecker, displayed the 
highest qualities of imitative art. These works were followed by a ‘‘Holy Family,” 
from Raphael, and the ‘‘ Madonna di Casa Tempi.” His last great work was an engray- 
ing from Overbeck’s ‘‘ Triumph of Religion in the Arts.” A. d. May 18, 1849. His 
style is marked by a clear and noble treatment of form, rather than by strong contrast of 
tones. Few engravers have equaled A. in his deep knowledge and faithful representa- 
tion of the works of Raphael. 


AMSTERDAM, or AMSTELDAM (the dam or dike of the Amstel), the chief city of the 
Netherlands, is situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Ij (pronounced Eye), an 
arm of the Zuider Zee, and is divided by the former, and numerous canals, into small 
islands, connected by about 300 bridges. Almost the whole city, which extends in the 


403 Amraoti. 
: Amsterdam. 


shape of a crescent, is founded on piles. At the beginning of the 13th ec. it was 
merely a fishing-village, with a small castle, the residence of the lords of Amstel. In 
1296, on account of the murder of count Floris of Holland, the rising town was demol- 
ished, and its inhabitants were compelled to leave it. Afterwards, with Amstelland (the 
district on the banks of the Amstel), it was taken under the protection of the counts of 
Holland, and under them enjoyed several privileges which contributed to its subsequent 
prosperity. In 1482, it was walled and fortified. It soon rose to be the first commercial 
place in the united states of the Netherlands; in 1585 was considerably enlarged by the 
building of the new town on the w. ; and in 1622 had 100,000 inhabitants. This prosperity 
excited the envy of its neighbors. In the 17th c., the war with England so far reduced 
the commerce of A., that, in the year 1653, about 4000 houses were uninhabited. 
Prosperity was restored during the next century, and, though commerce was again 
injured by the disputes with England in 1781 and 1782, it once more revived. The 
union of Holland with France in 1810 entirely destroyed the foreign trade of A., while 
the excise and other new regulations impoverished its inland resources; but the old firms 
lived through the time of difficulty, and in 1815 commerce again began to expand. 

The city has a fine appearance, when seen from the harbor, or from the high bridge 
over the Amstel. Numerous church towers and spires relieve the flatness of the pros- 
pect. The old ramparts have been levelled, planted with trees, and formed into prome- 
nades. Between 1866 and 1876, many spacious streets and an extensive public park 
were added to the city. Tramways have been successfully introduced, and the harbor 
greatly improved. ‘There is railway communication with all parts of tle country and of 
Europe. Rich grassy meadows surround the city. On the w. side are a great number 
of windmills for grinding corn and sawing wood. The three principal canals in A., on 
each side of which, with a carriage-way and row of trees intervening, the gentlemen’s 
residences are built, run in semicircles within each other, and are from 2 to 8 m. long, 
called the Heerengracht, Keizer’s-gracht, and Prinsengracht. The houses are built oi 
brick, and have their gables toward the streets, which gives them a picturesque appear- 
ance. In old times, A. was strongly fortified ; but now its only defense consists in the 
sluices, several miles distant from the city, which can flood, in a few hours, the surround- 
ing land. A hard frost, however, like that of 1794-95, when Pichegru invaded the 
country, would render this means of defense useless. 

The pop., Dec. 81, 1894, amounted to 450,189, the majority belonging to the Dutch 
reformed church. Of the remainder the most numerous are the Roman Catholics, the 
Lutherans, Jews, and Baptists. The chief industrial establishments are sugar refineries, 
engineering works, mills for polishing diamonds and other precious stones, dockyards, 
manufactories of sails, ropes, tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate and jewelry, colors and 
chemical preparations, breweries, distilleries, with export houses for corn and colonial 
produce; cotton-spinning, book-printing, and type-founding are also carried on. The 
present bank of the Netherlands dates from 1824, Amsterdam’s famous bank of 1609 
having been dissolved in 1796. There are private banks. The former Stadhuis, con- 
verted into a palace for king Louis Bonaparte, and still retained by the reigning family, 
is a noble structure raised upon 13,659 piles, and extending 290 ft. in length, by 239 ft. 
in breadth, surmounted by a round tower, rising 190 ft. from the base. It has a hall, 
120 ft. long, 57 ft. wide, and 90ft. high, lined with white Italian marble—an apartment 
of great splendor. 

The Niewwe Kerk New Church), founded in 1408, is the finest ecclesiastical structure 
in the city. Its chancel is especially admired. It contains the tombs of Admiral de 
Ruyter, of the famous Dutch poet Vondel, and of various other notable persons. The 
Old Church (Oude Kerk), built in the 14th c., contains several monuments of naval 
heroes. Literature, science, and recreation are not forgotten in the pressure of business, 
for A. has its academy of arts and sciences, an excellent museum of paintings by the old 
masters and other collections, a library, harmonic societies, a botanical and a zoological 
garden, and several theaters. The hospital for aged people, the poor-house, house of 
correction, the orphan asylums, a navigation school, and many benevolent societies, 
are well supported, and managed on good principles. Large ships reach the city by 
the North Holland canal (52m. in length) from Nieuwe Diep, but, if drawing more 
than 154 ft. of water, must first discharge a large part of the cargo. To avoid this delay 
and expense, the Ij has been separated from the Zuider Zee by a sea-dike, with sluices 
for admitting the small inland ships, and pumping-machinery capable of discharging 
2500 cubic meters of water per minute. Two piers have been built into the North sea, 
near Wijk aan Zee, to forma harbor. The peninsula has been cut by a canal which is 
continued through the Ij, and capable of admitting vessels drawing 22 ft. direct to A., 
reducing also the distance from 52 to 15 m., the length of the new canal. In carrying 
out these works, about 12,000 acres of excellent land have been reclaimed from the Ij, 
and since 1876 a large tract has been bearing fine crops. 


AMSTERDAM, a barren islet in lat. 37° 52's., and long. 77° 37’ e., the home of sea- 
birds, shell-fish, and seals. It is worthy, however, of notice at once for its structure and 
its situation. Manifestly of volcanic origin, it still possesses a burning soil and hot 
springs; and along with its single neighbor, St. Paul, 60 m. to the n.e., it is about mid- 
way in the direct line between the cape of Good Hope and Van Diemen’s Land, being 
also at nearly the same distance from cape Comorin. 


Amsterdam. 
Amygdaloid. 404 


AMSTERDAM, a city in Montgomery co., N. Y., 33 miles n. w. of Albany, on the 
Mohawk river, and on the New York Central and Hudson River and West Shore rail- 
roads and Erie canal, has factories producing knit goods, wagon springs, silk, paper 
boxes, etc., and has foundries and machine shops, churches, banks, electric lights, mod- 
ern water and sewer systems, newspapers, an academy, a hospital, and a board of trade. 
Pop. 1880, 11,710; 1890, 17,336. 

AMUCK’, or AMooK, RUNNING (Javanese, amook, ‘‘to kill”), a custom in Java 
among those in whom a ferocious madness is produced by long use of opium. The 
sufferer rushes abroad armed with some weapon, usually a creese, or large dirk, strik- 
ing indiscriminately at all whom he encounters. When one is seen to start on his mad- 
ness, the people cry ‘‘amook,” and immediately hunt the maniac to death. Probably 
in many cases this is deliberate on the victim’s part, as a means of suicide. This 
madness is known only by the Javanese. 


AMULET, any object wornas acharm. It is often a stone or piece of metal, with 
an inscription or some figures engraved on it, and is generally suspended from the 
neck, and worn as a preservative against sickness, witchcraft, etc. Its origin, like its 
name, seems to be oriental. The ancient Egyptians had their amulets, sometimes 
forming necklaces. Among the Greeks, such a protective charm was styled phylac- 
terion; among the Romans, amuletum. This word is probably derived from the 
Arabic hamalet (‘what is suspended”). The phylacteries of the Jews (see Mait. 
xxiii. 5), slips of parchment on which passages of the law were written, were evi- 
dently worn as badges of piety by the Pharisees; but were also regarded as whole- 
some preservatives from evil spirits, and from all manner of harm. From the heathen, 
the use of amulets passed into the Christian church, the inscription on them being tch- 
thus (the Greek word for a fish), because it contained the initials of the Greek words for 
Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. See ABBREVIATIONS. Among the Gnostic sects, 
Abraxas stones (q.v.) were much used. Amulets soon became so common among Chris- 
tians that, in the 4th c., the clergy were interdicted from making and selling them on 
pain of deprivation of holy orders; and in 721 the wearing of amulets was solemnly 
condemned by the church. Among the Turks and many other nations of central Asia, 
every person considers it necessary to wear a preservative charm. With the spread of 
Arabian astronomy, the astrological A. or talisman (q.v.) of the Arabs found its way to 
Europe. Kopp, a German author, has written a work, Paleographica Critica, on amu- 
lets and their inscriptions. Among amulets in repute in the middle ages were the coins 
attributed to St. Helena, the mother of Constantine. These and other coins marked 
with a cross were thought specially efficacious against epilepsy, and are generally 
found perforated, for the purpose of being worn suspended from the neck.—The belief 
in the virtue of amulet3 is not extinct among the vulgar. 


AMURATH’, or Murap’, I., 1819-89; Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, succeeding his 
father Orkhan in 1860. He was the first to lead Turkish arms into Europe, and in 
1361 took Adrianople, fixed there his residence, built a splendid mosque, and further 
adorned the city. Urban VY. preached a crusade against him, but the venture was dis- 
astrous to the Christians. The Greek emperor John Palxologus was his ally; but the 
son of the Greek and one of A.’s sons made a conspiracy, which was defeated and young 
Amurath was put to death by his father. A. was a good soldier but illiterate, signing 
treaties by dipping his hand in ink and making a mark with three fingers together, with 
the fourth finger and thumb at distant places. He lost his life in the battle of Cassova, 
and was succeeded by his son Bajazet. 


AMURATH’, or Murav’, IL, about 1403-51; tenth emperor of the Turks, succeeding 
Mohammed I. in 1421. He took Salonika (Thessalonica) from the Venetians and opened 
the way for subjugating Greece. He went on successfully till 1442, when he was 
defeated by Hunniades and obliged to make peace with the Christians. At that time he 
lost a son, and abdicated in favor of another son, Mohammed, only 14 years of age. The 
Christians renewed the war, and hastening from retirement he defeated them in the 
important battle of Varna, Nov. 10, 1444, where Ladislas, king of Hungary, fell. He 
again retired, and again came forth to quell an insurrection of the janissaries. He invaded 
Albania and the Peloponnesus, where George Castriot (Scanderbeg) defeated him; but he 
retreated only to gain a great victory over his former adversary Hunniades, at Cassova, 
Oct. 17, 1448, in a battle lasting three days. He was the first Ottoman emperor who 
caused bridges of great length to be built; and in his reign poetry, jurisprudence, and 
theology began to flourish. He died of apoplexy at Adrianople. 


AMURATH’, or Murav’, III., 1545-95 ; succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1573 as 
sultan of the Turks. It is said that his first words to his courtiers at accession were, 
“Iam hungry; give me something to eat,” and they were prophetic of the famines and 
disasters of his reign. In 1579, queen Elizabeth gained his friendship, and made with 
him a commercial treaty. In his reign the janissaries began to know their power, and to 
hasten the ruin of the state by revolts. He was superstitious, feeble, irritable, fond of 
dancing, music, and the pleasures of the harem. 

AMURATH’, or Murav’, IV., about 1611-40; succeeded his uncle Mustapha in 1622. 
The chief event of his reign was the recovery of Bagdad after 30 days’ incessant assault 
upon the Persian defenders. His bloody character has given him the name of the ‘Turkish 


_ro 


Amsterd - 
405 minpedaiold, 


Nero. On Tepossessing Bagdad he slew 30,000 Persians in cold blood. It is supposed 
that this ferocity and his early death at the age of 39 were due to perpetual intoxication. 


AMURNATH’, a cave amidst the mountains which bound Cashmere on the n. e. It is 
a natural cave in a rock of gypsum, about 30 yards high and twenty yards deep. It is 
believed by the Hindus to be the residence of the god Siva, and is therefore visited by 
multitudes of pilgrims. It is inhabited by vast numbers of doves, which fly out in alarm 


on the loud shouting of prayers by the pilgrims, and this is supposed to indicate the 
acceptance of their prayers. 


AMUSSAT, JEAN ZULEMA, 1796-1856; a French surgeon. He entered the army, was 
assistant surgeon under Esquirol in La Salpétritre Hospital, and prosector at the Paris 
faculty of medicine. He improved and invented many surgical instruments, and was 
the first to show the importance of torsion of arteries in hemorrhage. He wrote on the 
nervous system, lithotomy, etc. 

AMY CLA, an old Laconian t., was situated on the eastern bank of the Eurotas, 2} 
miles s.e. of Sparta. in a richly wooded and fertile region. It was a famous city in the 
heroic age, the abode of Tyndarus and his spouse Leda, who bore to Jupiter the twins, 
Castor and Pollux (called Aimyclet fratres, the Amyclean brothers), and also Helena. 
Long after the Dorians had subjugated and peopled the rest of the Peloponnesus, A. con- 
tinued to be a free Achean town. It wasconquered by the Spartans only before the first 
Messenian war, and in consequence of a curious and absurd law. The inhabitants were 
so often agitated by false rumors of the approach of the Spartans, that, growing tired of 
living in a state of continual alarm, they decreed that no one should henceforth mention 
or even take notice of these disagreeable fictions. Unfortunately, the Spartans did come 
at length, and according to the Greek saying, ‘‘ A. perished through silence.” Hence the 
proverb, Amyclis tpsis taciturnior (more silent than A. itself). After its conquest, A. 
became a village, noted only for its annual festival of the Hyacinthia, and its temple of 
Apollo, with the colossal statue of the god himself.—A., an ancient city on the coast of 
Campania, Italy, said to have been built by a colony from the Greek A. It had ceased 
to exist in the time of Pliny. 


AMYGDA’'LEX, or DRUPACE#, according to some botanists, a natural order of 
dicotyledonous plants, but more generaliy regarded as a sub-order of Rosacea. The 
species are all trees or shrubs. They have the tube of the calyx lined with a disk, the 
pistil a solitary simple carpel with a terminal style, the fruit a drupe. For other botani- 
cal characters, see Rosacea. The bark yields gum, and hydrocyanic acid is present in 
very notable quantity in different parts, as the leaves, kernels, etc. The A. are chiefly 
natives of the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Some of them 
yield valuable fruits; and various products of the order are used in medicine. See 
ALMOND, PEAcH, PLUM, CHERRY, and CHERRY LAUREL. This order or sub-order con- 
tains about 110 known species. 


AMYG'DALIN, C2.H2;,NO1;, 3H20, is a crystalline principle existing in the kernel of 
bitter almonds, the leaves of the cerasus lauro-cerasus, and various other plants, which, 
by distillation, yield hydrocyanic acid. It is obtained, by extraction with boiling alco- 
hol, from the paste or cake of bitter almonds, which remains after the fixed oil has been 
separated by pressure. The alcoholic solution usually contains more or less oil, which 
must be removed by decantation or filtration; it must then be evaporated till a syrup is 
left, which must be diluted with water, mixed with yeast, and set aside to ferment, in 
order to get rid of any sugar that may be present: on now filtering and evaporating, the 
amygdalin crystallizes in thin transparent needle-like prisms, It has a sweetish, some- 
what bitter taste, and is not poisonous, and when treated with alkaline solvents, ammo- 
nia is expelled, and amygdalic acid, CooHesO1s, is produced. Its most remarkable 
change is, however, that which is noticed in the article ALMoNDs, VOLATILE OIL OF, 
and which may be thus briefly stated. When the bruised almond kernel, or almond 
paste, is brought in contact with water, the peculiar odor of bitter almonds is almost 
immediately evolved; and in twenty-four hours all traces of amygdalin will have disap- 
peared, its place being taken by essential oil of almonds, hydrocyanic acid, sugar, and 
formic acid. This transformation is due to the presence of a peculiar nitrogenous matter 
called emulsine (q.v.), or synaptase, which sets up a kind of fermentation. As the pro- 
portion of hydrocyanic acid which is liberated by the above reaction is fixed, Liebig 
and Wohler recommend that amygdalin should be employed in preparing that acid for 
medicinal purposes. Amygdalin may be dissolved in water for any length of time with- 
out undergoing change; but if it be mixed with an emulsion of sweet almonds, immedi- 
ate decomposition ensues. Seventeen grains of amygdalin, when dissolved in 1 oz. of 
emulsion of swect almonds, furnish exactly 1 grain of pure hydrocyanic acid, which may 
be readily diluted to the strength of the pharmacopeeial acid. 


AMYGDALOID (from amygdalus, an almond), a rock, consisting of a basis of some 
kind of trap-rock, very frequently of greenstone, forming numerous roundish or oval 
cells, which are filled with nodules, often of calcareous spar or of zeolitic minerals. 
The cells are not of large size, but even those which are almost adjacent differ much in 
this respect. The nodules are evidently the result of a sublimation and imperfect 
crystallization, under the action of the heat which formed the cells. Empty cells often 


406 


Am Ke 
Anatiptiata: 


occur amongst those which are filled with minerals. The name A. is sometimes ex- 
tended to rocks of the same character, although the basis be not of trap. 


AM YL, C;Hi, is the fifth in the series of alcohol radicals whose general formula is 
©,He.+1, and of which methyl and ethyl are the first two members. It enters into a 
large number of chemical compounds, most of which—as, for instance, bromide, chloride, 
iodide, etc.—-are derived from amylic alcohol, which bears precisely the same relation to. 
amyl that ordinary alcohol bears to ethyl (C2H;). Amylic alcohol is sufficiently described 
in the article FuseL Orn, which is the name given to the crude alcohol. The radical A. 
(C;H;1) has not been prepared in the free state, but a hydrocarbon containing two amyl 
radicals, diamyl (CsHi1)z, is obtained by heating amyl-iodide with an amalgam of zinc in 
a closed tube at a temperature of about 350°, and is one of the natural products of the 
distillation of coal. It is a colorless liquid, with asp. gr. of 0.741 at 32° F. (0° C.), a 
boiling-point of 311° IF. (155° C.), and a somewhat aromatic odor, and it exerts a right- 
handed rotatory action on a ray of polarized light. 


AMYLA'CEOUS (from amylum, starch), aterm used in chemistry and botany, and equiv- 
alent to starchy.—A. food is food consisting at least in great part of some kind of starch, 
as arrow-root, sago, etc.—A compound radical, called amyle, is formed by the decompo- 
sition of starch in a peculiar fermentation—the amylic fermentation—but to 1t the term A. 
has no reference, 

AM'YLENE, a thin colorless liquid, boiling at 102° F. (89° C.), density of vapor 2.48 ; sp. 
gr. 0.65; discovered in 1844 by Balard. It is produced by treating amylic alcohol with 
sulphuric or phosphoric acid. It is very volatile, mixes with alcohol and ether, and 
burns with a white flame; combines actively with bromine, the hydracids, and chloride 
of sulphur. Its vapor is rapidly absorbed by sulphuric anhydride and perchloride of 
antimony. It has been used like chloroform as an anesthetic, but with occasional fatal 
results. 

AMYLIC ALCOHOL. See Fuse. Or. 


AMYL, NITRATE OF, C;H;,NO,, a yellow mobile liquid prepared by the action of 
nitrous acid on amyl alcohol, or by distilling together potassium nitrate, amyl] alcohol,. 
and sulphuric acid. It boils at 210° F. (99° C.), and has a sp. gr. of 0.902. Its vapor 
explodes if heated much above its boiling-point. The odor of amyl nitrite is similar to 
that of ethyl nitrite, but more stupefying. Inhaled in small quantity, its vapor produces. 
a sudden quickening of the pulse and a rush of blood to the head. Itis said to have 
been used successfully in the treatment of asthma and epilepsy. 


AMYOT, or AMIOT, JacqusEs, a French writer, well known by his excellent transla- 
tions of the Greek classics, was b. in 1518, and d.in 1593. Racine highly esteemed the 
translations by A., of which the version of Plutarch is one of the best, and has passed 
through several editions.—AmiotT, Joseph, a celebrated Jesuit and oriental scholar, was 
b. at Toulon in 1718, and lived as a missionary in China from 1750 to the time of his. 
death, in 1794. His knowledge of the Chinese and Tatar languages enabled him to 
collect many valuable notices of antiquities, history, language, and arts, in China. 
Many of his writings may be found in the Alémoitres concernants ? Histoire, les Sciences et 
les Arts des Chinois (15 vols. Paris, 1776-1791). His Dictionnaire Tatar-Mantchou- Frangais 
was edited by Langlés in 1789. 

AMYRAUT, Moise, 1596-1664; an emineut French Protestant theologian and meta- 
physician, of an illustrious family from Alsace. His father set him to study law, and he 
made rapid progress in the university of Poictiers; but on his way home met at Saumur 
the Protestant minister, Bonchereau, who took him to Plessis-Mornay, governor of the 
city, and the two persuaded A. to leave law for theology. He dwelt at Saumur, and 
‘‘sat at the feet of the great Cameron,” a pupil as great as his master. His fame became 
such that universities and churches in Saumur, Paris, and Rome competed for his. 
presence. A. referred all to the synod of Anjou, and its decision settled him at Saumur, 
both as professor and pastor. His co-professors were Louis Capell and Josua de la. 
Place; and their life-long friendship was beautiful and remarkable, as is their memory 
as joint authors of the Theses Salmuriensis. In 16381, A. published Traité des Religions,. 
still a living work; and thenceforward he was foremost in provincial and national synods. 
His character was largely shown when the Charrenton synod of 1661 chose him to present 
to the king the Copy of the Complaints and Grievances for the Infractions and Violations of 
the Edict of Nantes. Before this time all save Roman Catholic deputies had addressed 
the king on their knees; but A. refused to speak unless he could stand as did the 
Romanists, and carried the day, his rehearsal charming even his adversaries. His ora- 
tion is an historic landmark in French Protestantism. He held fast to Calvinism, but 
with an unusual liberality. He left many religious works. 


AMYRIDA'CEE, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, consisting of 
trees and shrubs, natives of tropical countries, remarkable for the abundance of their 
fragrant balsamic or resinous juice. They have compound leaves, occasionally with 
stipules and pellucid dots. The flowers are in racemes or panicles; the calyx persistent, 
with 2 tod divisions; the petals are 3 to 5; estivation valvate or imbricated. The stamens 
are twice or four times as many as the petals. The ovary is superior, sessile,1 to 5 celled, 


Amyl. 
40 < Anabuotiee 


inserted in a large disk; the style solitary and compound, or wanting; the stigmas as 
many as the cells of the ovary; the ovules in pairs, anatropal. The fruit is hard and 
dry, 1 to 5 celled, its outer rind often splitting into valves The seeds are exalbuminous. 
About 40 or 50 species are referred to the order; but many of them are still very 
- imperfectly known. Some species afford valuable timber; but the principal products of 
the order are fragrant resins and balsams, as Myrrh (q.v.), and different kinds of 
frankincense (q.v.), olibanum (q.v.), elemi (q.v.), bdellium (q.v.), tacamahac (q.v.), 
balsam of gilead (q.v.), etc. Among the more important genera of the order may be 
named amyris, balsamodendron, boswellia, and icica. Canarium commune, a native of 
Java, which yields a gum similar in its properties to the balsam of copaiva (q.v.), 
produces also triangular nuts, which are eaten both raw and dressed, and from which 
an oil is extracted for the table and for burning. Balanites egyptiaca is cultivated in 
Egypt for its fruit, a drupe, which is eaten, and from the seeds of which a fat oil is 
expressed, called zachun. 


A'NA, a termination added to the names of remarkable men, to designate collections 
of their sayings, anecdotes, etc.; as in the works entitled Baconiana, Johnsoniana. 
Such titles were first used in France, where they became common after the publication 
of Scaligerana by the brothers Dupuy (Hague, 1666). In English literature there are 
many works of this kind. Ameri¢éa, also, has its Washingtoniana. A tolerably complete 
catalogue of works with such titles may be found in Namur’s bibliographie des Ouvrages 
publiés sous le Nom d@ Ana (Brussels, 1839). 


ANABAP TISTS, a term applied generally to those Christians who reject infant bap- 
tism, and administer the rite only to adults; so that when a new member joins them, 
he or she is baptized a second time, the first being considered no baptism. The name 
(Gr. to baptize again) is thus owing to an accidental circumstance, and is disclaimed by 
me more recent opponents of infant baptism, both on the continent and in Grea? 

ritain. 

The origin of the sect cannot be distinctly traced; but it is manifestly connected with 
the controversy about infant baptism carried on in the early church. Opposition to this 
doctrine was kept alive in the various so-called heretical sects that went by the general 
name of Cathari (i.e., purists), such as the Waldenses, Albigenses, etc. Shortly after the 
beginning of the reformation, the opposition to infant baptism appeared anew, especially 
among a set of fanatical enthusiasts called the prophets of Zwickau, in Saxony, at 
whose head were Thomas Miinzer (q.v.) (1520) and others. Miinzer went to Waldshut, 
on the borders of Switzerland, which soon became a chief seat of anabaptism, and a 
center whence visionaries and fanatics spread over Switzerland. They pretended to new 
revelations, dreamed of the establishment of the kingdom of heaven on earth, and sum- 
moned princes to join them, on pain of losing their temporal power. They rejected infant 
baptism, and taught that those who joined them must be baptized anew with the baptism of 
the Spirit; they also proclaimed the community of goods, and the equality of all Christians. 
These doctrines naturally fell in with and supported the ‘‘ peasant war” (q.v.) that had 
about that time (1525) broken out from real causes of oppression. The sect spread rapidly 
through Westphalia, Holstein, and the Netherlands, in spite of the severest persecutions. 
The battle of Frankenhausen (see MtnzeR) crushed their progress in Saxony and 
Franconia. Still, scattered adherents of the doctrines continued, and were again brought 
together in various places by traveling preachers. In this capacity, one Melchior Hoff- 
mann, a furrier of Swabia, distinguished himself, who appeared as a visionary preacher 
in Kiel in 1527, and in Emden in 1528. In the last town he installed a baker, John 
Matthiesen, of Haarlem, as bishop, and then went to Strasburg, where he died in prison. 
Matthiesen began to send out apostles of the new doctrine. Two of these went to 
Minster, where they found fanatical coadjutors in the Protestant minister Rothmann, 
and the burghers Knipperdolling and Krechting, and were shortly joined by the tailor 
Bockhold, of Leyden, and Gerrit Kippenbrock, of Amsterdam, a bookbinder, and at 
last by Matthiesen himself. With their adherents, they soon made themselves masters 
of the city; Matthiesen set up as a prophet, and when he lost his life in a sally against 
the bishop of Miinster, who was besieging the town, Bockhold and Knipperdolling took 
his place. The churches were now destroyed, and 12 judges were appointed over 
the tribes, as among the Israelites; and Bockhold (1534) had himself crowned king of the 
‘‘New Sion,” under the name of John of Leyden. The Anabaptist madness in Miinster 
now went beyond all bounds. The city became the scene of the wildest licentiousness; 
until several Protestant princes, uniting with the bishop, took the city, and by executing 
the leaders, put an end to the new kingdom (15385). 

But the principles disseminated by the A. were not so easily crushed. As early ag 
1533 the adherents of the sect had been driven from Emden, and taken refuge in the 
Netherlands; and in Amsterdam the doctrine took root and spread. Bockhold also had 
sent out apostles, some of whom had given up the wild fanaticism of their master; they 
Jet alone the community of goods and women, and taught the other doctrines of the A., 
and the establishment of a new kingdom of pure Christians. They grounded their doc- 
trines chiefly on the Apocalypse. One of the most distinguished of this class was David 
Joris, a glass-painter of Delft (1501-1556). Joris united liberalism with anabaptism, 
devoted himself to mystic theology, and sought to effect a union of parties. He 


Anabasidee. 
Anacharis. 40 8 


acquired many adherents, who studied his book of miracles (Wunderbuch), which appeared 
at Deventer in 1542, and looked upon him asa sort of new Messiah. Being persecuted, 
he withdrew from his party, lived inoffensively at Basle, under the name of John of 
Bruges, and died there in the communion of the reformed church. It was only in 1559 
that his heretical doctrines came to light, when the council of Basle had the bones of 
Joris dug up, and burned under the gallows. 

The rude and fanatical period of the history of anabaptism closes with the scandal 
of Miinster. A new era begins with Menno Simons. (See Menno.) Surrounded by 
dangers, Menno succeeded, by prudent zeal, in collecting the scattered adherents of the 
sect, and in founding congregations in the Netherlands, and in various parts of Germany. 
He called the members of the community ‘‘God’s congregation, poor, unarmed Chris- 
tians, brothers;” later, they took the name of Mennonites, and at present they call them- 
selves, in Germany, Taufgesinnte; in Holland, Doopsgezinden—corresponding very 
nearly to the English designation Baptists. This, besides being a more appropriate 
designation, avoids offensive association with the early Anabaptists. Menno expounded 
his principles in his Pundamentbuche von dem rechten Christlichen Glauben,1556 (Elements 
of the True Christian Faith). This book is still an authority among the body, who lay 
particular stress on receiving the doctrines of the scripture with simple faith, and acting 
strictly up to them, and set no value on learning and the scientific elaboration of doc- 
trines. They reject the taking of oaths, war, every kind of revenge, divorce (except for 
adultery), infant baptism, and the undertaking of the office of magistrate; magistracy 
they hold to be an institution necessary for the present, but foreign to the kingdom of 
Christ; the church is the community of the saints, which must be kept pure by strict 
discipline. With regard to grace, they profess universalism, or hold it to be designed 
for all, and their views of the Lord’s supper fall in with those of Zwingli; in its celebra- 
tion, the rite of feet-washing is retained. In Germany, Switzerland, and Alsace, their 
form of worship differs little from the Lutheran. Their bishops, elders, and teachers 
serve gratis. Children receive their name at birth, baptism is performed in the place of 
worship, and adults that join the sect are rebaptized. 

But along with these general principles there have been endless diversities and splits 
in the sect, occasioned by differences as to strictness of discipline. This cause divided 
the body, as early as 1554, into the mild and the strict Mennonites. The first are known 
by the title of Waterliinders, from a place in Holland; the second split again into a mul- 
titude of subdivisions, according to minute shades of strictness, and their several desig- 
nations, derived from the names of leaders, places, and even peculiarities of dress (John- 
Jacob Christians, Buttoners, Hook-and-eye-ers, etc.), bewilder the student of ecclesias- 
tical history. The purity of their lives, however, commanded everywhere respect, and 
their industry made them prosperous; so that they gradually secured formal toleration 
in many places. ; 

Almost the only split among the early continental Baptists on doctrinal grounds was 
that which took place in Amsterdam in 1664. Arminianism had not been without its 
influence, especially among the Waterlinders, originally more liberal in their views. A 
leading congregation accordingly divided into two parties, one (Galenists, from Galenus, 
their leader) advocating freer views in doctrine and discipline; the other (Apostoolists, 
from Samuel Apostool) adhering to absolute predestination and the discipline of Menno, 
The liberal party rejected creeds as of human invention, adopted much of the philosophy 
and theology of England, and exercised no little influence on the intellectual progress of 
Holland. These two parties gradually absorbed the other sections of the Baptists in the 
Netherlands; and about the beginning of the 19th c.,a union took place by which all the 
congregations now belong to one body. 

In Germany, the Baptists have made some attempts in more recent times to extend 
their church with considerable success. Under the Baptist Union of Germany (which, 
uithough including churches in Holand, Poland, and other countries, derives its strength 
largely from Prussia) the number of their churehes greatly increased. In Prussia, 
various concessions had been made to the Baptists early in this century, such as ex- 
emption from military service. They were tolerated in Bavaria, Baden, Wiirtemberg, 
Mecklenburg, Russia, France, and Denmark, but were expelled from Sweden. Wher- 
ever they are settled, they are respected as quiet, industrious subjects; but several Ger- 
man governments have imposed restrictions on their exercise of public worship; the 
reason assigned being the tendency to visionary enthusiasm, which had again shown itself 
in some congregations. 

As the representatives of the sect in Great Britain and North America have little or 
no historical connection with the earlier A. of the continent, they fall more properly to 
be noticed under BAPTIsTs. 


ANABAS'IDZE, or ANABANTID#, a family of acanthopterygious fishes, characterized 
by & remarkable structure of the upper membranes of the pharynx, which are 
di vided into small irregular leaves, containing between them cellular reservoirs. These 
retain water sufficient to keep the gills moist for a considerable time, and so enable 
the fish to subsist out of water, and to travel some distance on dry ground; some of the 
species, as the climbing perch (q. v.) of India (anabas scandens), climbing steep banks, or 
even trees, by means of the spines of the fins, tail, and gill-covers. Ophicephalus marg?- 


Anabaside. 
409 Ainchnvied 


natus is often seen traveling among the grass in the beginning of the rainy season. The 
fishes of this family appear to leave the water for various reasons; but very commonly, 
it would appear, upon account of the drying up of pools in periodical droughts, their 
peculiar organization enabling them to go in search of others. They are all fresh-water 
fishes, natives of the s.e. of Asia, continent and islands, and of South Africa. The species 
are numerous, and are arranged under 11 genera, Some of them are much esteemed for 
their delicacy as food. 


ANAB’ASIS (Greek), literally, an ascent or a march out of a lower into a higher coun- 
try—the name of two historical works: 1. The A. of Cyrus, written by Xenophon, which 
gives a narrative of the unfortunate expedition of the younger Cyrus against his brother, 
the Persian king Artaxerxes, and of the retreat of his 10,000 Greek allies under the com- 
mand of Xenophon; 2. The A. of Alexander, written by Arrian, and giving an account of 
the campaigns of Alexander the Great. 


ANABOLISM, the constructive processes within the protoplasm, by which food or other 
material, at a relatively low level, passes through an ascending series of ever more com- 
plex and unstable combinations, till it is finally worked up into living matter. See 
PuysroLoey and CELLs. 


AN’ABLEPS (from the Gr., anadlepo, to look up), a genus of fishes of the order mala- 
copterygu abdominales, family cyprinide of Cuvier—of the family cyprinodontide (q.v.) of 
Agassiz—characterized by a structure of the eyes to which there is nothing similar in any 
other vertebrated animals. ‘This consists in a division of the cornea and iris into two 
somewhat unequal elliptical parts, by transverse bands formed of the conjunctiva (see 
Eye), so that the animal appears to have four eyes, and there are really two pupils on 
each side, the other parts of the eye being single. This peculiarity of structure is sup- 
posed to be connected with a habit which these fishes are said to have of swimming with 
the eyes partly out of the water. They are elongated, scaly fishes, with flattish rounded 
back, and depressed head. The young are brought forth alive, and in a state of consid- 
erable advancement. The best known species, A. tetrophalmus, inhabits the rivers of 
‘Guiana and Surinam. 


ANACARDIA'CEH (TEREBINTACEH of some botanists, and part of TEREBINTACEZ of 
others), a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, consisting of trees and 
shrubs, which abound in a resinous, sometimes acrid and poisonous juice. The leaves 
are alternate and without dots; the flowers inconspicuous, usually unisexual. The calyx 
is generally small and persistent, and has generally five divisions; the petals are perigyn- 
ous, equal in number to the segments of the calyx, imbricated in sestivation, occasionally 
wanting. The stamens are equal in number to the petals,and alternate with them, o1 
twice as many, or more; distinct when there is a fleshy disk, cohering at the base when 
the diskis wanting. The ovary is usually single, free or adhering to the calyx, 1-celled; 
the styles 1, 3, or 4, occasionally wanting; the ovule solitary, attached to the bottom of 
the cell by acord. .The fruit is usually a drupe, the seed exalbuminous. The order 
contains about 95 known species, chiefly but not exclusively tropical, amongst which are 
a considerable number valuable for the resinous juices and varnishes which they yield, as 
the varnish of Sylhet, varnish of Martaban, Japan lacker, etc., and others, which produce 
wholesome and pleasant fruits. See CasHew Nut, Pisracra, Mastic, Maneo, Hoe 
PLuUM. 


ANACARD'IUM. See CasHew Not. 


ANACH’ARIS, a genus of plants of the natural order hydrocharidee, of which one 
species, A. alsinastrum (elodea canadensis of some botanists), has recently become natu- 
ralized in Britain, suddenly appearing in so great abundance as to impede the navigation 
of some rivers and canals. It is a native of North America, growing in ponds and 
slow streams and is a dark-green, much-branched perennial, entirely floating under 
water, its flowers only appearing above water for a very short time at the period of fer- 
tilization, as in others of the order to which it belongs. It has numerous leaves, which 
are either opposite, or in whorls of 3or 4, without foot-stalks, linear-oblong, transpa- 
rent, 3 to4 lineslong. The female flowers are sessile in the upper axils, and are inclosed 
in a small 2-lobed spathe; the slender tube of the perianth is often 2 or 3 in. long, so as 
to attain the surface of the water, where it terminates in three or six small spreading seg- 
ments. The male flowers are seldom observed. The plant was first found in Britain in 
1842, by the late Dr. Johnston of Berwick, in the lake of Dunse Castle - and again in 1847 
by Miss Kirby, in the reservoirs of a canal in Leicestershire. It is now very abundant 
and troublesome in the Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. Its rapidity of growth is 
extraordinary. Immense masses disfigure the shallows of the Trent, and cover the beds 
of the deeps. It strikes its shoots under the mud in a lateral direction for 6 in. or 
1ft., and then rises and spreads. The stems are very brittle, and every fragment is 
capable of growing, so that the means usually adopted to get quit of it serve rather for 
its propagation. It appears, however, that water-fowl are very fond of it; and by them, 
probably, its seeds may be conveyed from one river to another. It has been found that 
swans may be fed upon it with advantage, and its excessive growth kept down more 
effectually in this way than in any other. It is supposed to bea great impediment tothe 
progress of salmon ascending the rivers in which it occurs; but for some kinds of fish 
it probably affords both food and shelter. The manner of its introduction into Britain 


Aitucharsis, 
A MiRURAA 410 


is unknown, although it has been conjectured that it may have escaped from some gam 
den-pond. 

ANACHAR'SIS, a Scythian and brother of king Saulios, visited Athens in the time of 

“Solon, with whom he iived on terms of intimacy, but whose abilities for framing a con- 
stitution he does not seem to have estimated highly. Incited by a love of learning, he 
subsequently traveled through several countries. On account of his clearness of under- 
standing, he was numbered among the seven wise men; and many sagacious proverbs and 
sayings were ascribed to him. No other ‘‘ barbarian” ever received the Athenian fran- 
chise. The letters which bear his name were written long after his time. Itis said that, 
after his return to his native land, he was put to death by order of the king, who feared 
the introduction of the mysteries belonging to the Greek religion, in which it was sup- 
posed that A. had been initiated. 

Under the title, Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Gréce (Travels of the young Anachar- 
sis in Greece), Jean Jacques Barthélemy, a well-known French author (q.v.), wrote 4 
description of Greek life and manners, displaying learning and good taste, but disfigured 
by many anachronisms. A. is made to visit Athens only a few years before the birth of 
Alexander the great, and the features of several distinct periods in Grecian history are 
confusedly regarded as having been contemporaneous. The book, therefore, will not 
bear a critical examination; but it has contributed its share towards an improved know}l- 
edge of ancient life, and has given rise to several similar works, such as the Gallus and 
Charicles of Becker. The A. of Barthélemy has been translated into English, and is to 
be found in most old libraries; it is still a deservedly esteemed work, which may be read 
with advantage by the young. 

ANACH’RONISM, an error in chronology. Sometimes an A. is purposely made for the 
sake of effect, or to bring certain events within convenient compass for dramatic pur- 
poses. Shakespeare, in his Jwliws Cesar, makes the‘‘ clock” strike three; and Schiller, in 
his Piccolomini, speaks of a “‘lightning-conductor” as existing about 150 years before the 
date of its invention. These discrepancies, however, do not seriously injure the general 
truth of a poetical work. The A. is more offensive when, in a work which pedantically 
adheres to the costumes and other external features of old times, we find a modern 
style of thought and language, as in the old French dramas of Corneille and Racine. In 
popular epic poetry A. isa common feature. Achilles is always young; Helena, always 
beautiful. In their versions of old classic traditions, the writers of the Middle Ages con- 
verted Alexander, Aineas, and other ancient heroes, into good Christian knights of the 
12th century. In the Wibelungen-lied, Attila and Theodoric are good friends and allies, 
though the latter began to reign some 40 years after the former. At the end of the poem 
the heroine, who must have been nearly 60 years old, and had passed through great 
affliction and sorrow, is still the ‘‘ beautiful Queen Kriemhild.”—Many ludicrous exam- 
ples of A. may be found in old paintings, e.g., Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in modern 
costumes. 


ANACLA’CHE, one of the mountains of Bolivia, in 18° 12’ s., 69° 20’ w.; about 4 m, 
high, always covered with snow. 


ANACLE'TUS I., Saint ; second or third bishop of Rome, a martyr under Domitian. 
Others say that he succeeded Clement I. as fifth Roman bishop, and was martyred about 
109 A.D. 


ANACLE'TUS II., PETER DE LEON, anti-pope. He was chosen in 1130 by a faction 
of cardinals opposed to Innocent II., and was sustained by the Roman and some other 
states. He maintained himself at Rome against the arms of Lothaire, the opposition of 
other kings, and the clergy in general ; d. 1188. 


ANACONDA, LHunectes murina, a serpent of the boa family, native of tropical 
America. It passes most of its time in shallow lakes or streams, living chiefly on small 
rodents, iguanas, fish, and occasionally monkeys and ant-eaters, which it crushes and 
swallows. It is not venomous, and is handled without danger. The natives, who make 
shoes and bags of its skin, use its fat for oil, and its flesh for food. It is ovoviviparous; 
swims rapidly and can remain long under water. It sometimes measures 30 ft. in length. 

ANAC’REON, one of the most esteemed lyric poets of Greece, was b. at Teos, a sea- 
port of Ionia, spent part of his youth in Abdera, to which place most of his fellow- 
townsmen emigrated when the city was taken by the Persians in 540 B.c., and rose 
to fame as a poet about 5380 B.c. He was patronized by Polycrates, the ruler of 
Samos, who invited him to his court; and there he sang, in light and flowing strains, 
the praise of wine and beauty. After the death of Polycrates, he went to Athens (521 
B. C.), and was received with distinguished honor by Hipparchus. On the fall of Hip- 
parchus, he left Athens, and probably returned to Teos, from which, during the insur- 
rection of Ionia against Darius, he fled to Abdera, where he d., at the age of 85. 
According to tradition, he was choked by a dried grape. Great honors were paid to 
him after his death; Teos put his likeness upon its coins, and a statue was raised to 
him on the Acropolis of Athens, which represented him in a state of vinous hilarity. 

Only a few of his poems have been preserved. Of five books which once existed, 
only 68 lyrics now exist which bear his name; but of these, comparatively few are to be 
confidently regarded as genuine. They exhibit great simplicity and delicacy of expres- 


Anacharsis. 
4 } a Angzesthesia. 


sion, fertility of invention, and variety of illustration. Moore, a poet of congenial spirit, 
translated the Odes of A. into English verse. 


ANACY'CLUS. See PELLITORY OF SPAIN, 


ANADYOM'ENE (‘‘emerging ”’), one of the names of Venus; a painting by Apelles, 
representing Venus rising from the sea, and wringing her flowing wet hair. Phryne or 
Pancaste was supposed to have supplied the model for this master-piece of Apelles. 
The inhabitants of the island of Cos bought the picture, and placed it in the temple of 
AXsculapius. Augustus afterwards bought it for 100 talents of remitted taxes, and 
placed it in the temple of Venus Genetrix. It is frequently described in the Greek 
anthology. 


ANADYR’, or ANADIR, a Sea or large gulf of n.e. Asia, much resorted to by whalers. 
—ANADYR RIVER, in e. Siberia, flows 500 m. through rocky, barren, and snowy regions, 
and empties in the sea of A. 


ANZ'MIA (from a, privative, and aima, blood) is the condition generally termed pov- 
erty of blood, and consists essentially of a diminution in the fibrine, and especially in 
the proportion of red corpuscles of the blood (see BLoop), which in some cases of A. may 
be so low as 27 in 1000 parts. Persons in an anemic condition have pale waxy com- 
plexions, pallid lips and tongues, and if blood be drawn from them, it forms a clot 
which is less red, and also smaller in proportion to the serum, than blood from a 
healthy person. 

They suffer from palpitations, fainting, and headaches, singing in the ears, and dis- 
turbed vision; and the symptoms may simulate organic disease within the head or of 
the heart. This A. condition may be induced by repeated losses of blood, or by defect- 
ive nutrition, or by some cause, as in chlorosis, when the balance is disturbed between 
the loss and reproduction of the red corpuscles. ; 

The curative treatment of A. consists in allowing the patient fresh air, good nourish- 
ment, and those materials which promote the formation of the deficient elements of the 
vital fluid. Of these, the principal is iron, of which there are several preparations. 
This remedy has, in some instances of chlorosis, doubled the proportion of red blood 
corpuscles in a very short time. 


ANZSTHE'SIA (a, privative, and aisthésis, sensation) is a term used to express a loss 
of sensibility to external impressions, which may involve a part or the whole surface of 
the body. In some diseased conditions of the nervous centers, a part of the body may 
become totally insensible to pain, while, in another part, sensation may be unnaturally 
acute, or be in a state of hyperesthesia. When a nerve is divided, there is no feeling of 
touch or pain referred to the parts which it supplies, because these are cut off from 
communication with the brain; and in some diseases, as the elephantiasis grecorum, a 
loss of sensation in patches of the skin is an early and characteristic symptom. This 
insensibility to external impressions may be either peripheral—that is, on the surface 
of the body—or central, that is, from a cause acting primarily upon the brain or 
spinal cord. See METHYLENE. 

In ancient writers, we read of insensibility or indifference to pain being obtained by 
means of Indian hemp (cannabis Indica), either inhaled or taken into the stomach. The 
Chinese, more than 1500 years ago, used a preparation of hemp, or ma-yo, to annul pain. 
The Greeks and Romans used mandragora for a similar purpose (poiein anaisthéstan); 
and as late as the 18th c., the vapor from a sponge filled with mandragora, opium, and 
other sedatives was used. The mandragora, however, occasionally induced convulsions, 
with other alarming symptoms; and though Bulleyn, an English author (1579), mentions 
the possibility of putting patients who were to be cut for the stone into ‘‘a trance or a 
deepe terrible dreame” by its use, it gradually became obsolete and banished from the 
pharmacopeia. John Baptista Porta, of Naples, in his work on natural magic (1597), 
speaks of a quintessence extracted from medicines by somniferous menstrua. This was 
kept in leaden vessels, perfectly closed, lest the awra should escape, for the medicine 
would vanish away. ‘‘ When it is used, the cover being removed, it is applied to the 
nostrils of the sleeper, who draws in the most subtile power of the vapor by smelling, 
and so blocks up the fortress of the senses, that he is plunged into the most profound 
sleep, and cannot be roused without the greatest effort. .... These things are plain to 
the skillful physician, but unintelligible to the wicked.” In 1784, Dr. Moore, of London, 
used compression on the nerves of a limb requiring amputation, but this method was in 
itself productive of much pain. In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experimenting with the 
nitrous oxide or laughing-gas, suggested its usefulness as an anesthetic; and in 1828, Dr. 
Hickman suggested carbonic acid gas. As early as 1795, Dr. Pearson had used the vapor 
of sulphuric ether for the relief of spasmodic affections of the respiration. The fact 
that sulphuric ether could produce insensibility was shown by the American physicians 
Godwin (1822), Mitchell (1832), Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834); but it was first 
used to prevent the pain of an operation in 1846, by Dr. Morton, a dentist of Boston. 
At the request of Dr. John C. Warren, Morton administered ether in an operation at the 
Mass. General Hospital on Oct. 16, 1846. The fiftieth anniversary of this event was 
celebrated in Boston on Oct. 16, 1896. In Dec., 1846, Robinson and Liston, in England, 
operated on patients rendered insensible by the inhalation of sulphuric ether. This 

I.— 14 


A allis. 
rer 412 


material was extensively used for a year, when Sir J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, dis- 
covered the anesthetic powers of chloroform (see CHLOROFORM), and introduced the use 
of it into his own department, midwifery. Since that time, chloroform has been the 
anesthetic in general use in Europe, but ether is preferred in America. It is now the 
opinion of most medical men, that chloroform should not be given where there is weak 
action of the heart from disease, Other substances have been used by inhalation, such 
as nitric ether and bichloride of methylene. The latter substance has been recommended 
by Dr. Richardson, of London; but it has not been generally accepted, as it depresses to 
a dangerous extent after it has been administered for some time. 

Nothing could be more desirable than the power of producing local A. Freezin 
mixtures have been employed; a stream of carbonic acid or cooled air, or a finely divide 
spray of ether, have been thrown on the part. All of these methods have the disadvan- 
tage that they injure the tissues, and may be followed by much pain. An agent which 
would benumb the sensory nerves, without injuring them or the neighboring parts, is 
still a great want. Recently, in dentistry, the inhalation of nitrous oxide has been much 
employed. It is rapid in action, and is not usually followed by unpleasant effects; but 
as it induces a condition in the blood similar to that in asphyxia, its use is not unattended 
with danger. Chloroform continues to occupy its high place as one of the greatest bless- 
ings granted to man. It is proper, however, to say that it requires to be used under cer- 
tain precautions, and that in unskillful hands its application may be fatal. 


ANAGAL’LIS. See PIMPERNEL. 


ANAGNI is a town in the province of Roma, Italy, situated on a null thirty-seven 
miles southeast of Rome. It is anill-built town, but contains some interesting ruins, alsoa 
cathedral of the eleventh century, which has been much modernized. It is the ancient 
Anagnia, at one time the capital of the Hernici, and a place of considerable importance 
during the whole period of Roman history. Virgil speaks of it as the ‘‘ wealthy 
Anagnia.’’ It has also been the birthplace of four popes—Innocent III., Gregory IX., 
Alexander IV., and Boniface VIII. Population about 9000. 


AN’AGRAM (from the Greek ana, backwards, and gramma, writing), the transposition 
of the letters of a word, phrase, or short sentence, so as to form a new word or sentence. 
It originally signified a simple reversal of the order of letters, but has long borne the 
sense in which it is now used. The Cabalists attached great importance to anagrams, 
believing in some relation of them to the character or destiny of the persons from whose 
names they were formed. Plato entertained a similar notion, and the later Platonists 
rivaled the Cabalists in ascribing to them mysterious virtues. Although now classed 
among follies, or at best among ingenious trifles, anagrams formerly employed the most 
serious minds, and some of the puritanical writers commended the use of them. Cotton 
Mather, in his elegy on the death of John Wilson, the first pastor of Boston, in New 
England, mentions 


His care to guide his flock and feed his lambs 
By words, works, prayers, psalms, alms, and anagrams, 


The best anagrams are such as have, in the new order of letters, some signification 
appropriate to that from which they are formed. It was a great triumph of the medieval 
anagrammatist to find in Pilate’s question, ‘‘ Quid est veritas?” (What is truth?) its own 
answer: ‘‘ Hst vir qui adest” (It is the man who is here). Anagrams, in the days of their 
popularity, were much employed, both for complimentary and for satirical purposes; 
and a little straining was often employed in the omission, addition, or alteration of let- 
ters, although, of course, the merit of an A. depended much upon its accuracy. 

I. D’'Israeli (Curiosities of Literature, vol. iii.) has a chapter on anagrams, which, as an 
exercise of ingenuity, he ranks far above acrostics. Among a great many considered by 
him worthy of record, are the following: The mistress of Charles IX. of France was 
named Marie Touchet ; this became Je charme tout (I charm every one), ‘‘ which is histor- 
ically just.” The flatterers of James I. of England proved his right to the British mon- 
archy, as the descendant of the mythical king Arthur, from his name Charles James 
Stuart, which becomes claims Arthur’s seat. An author, in dedicating a book to the 
same monarch, finds that in James Stuart he has a@ just master. ‘‘ But, perhaps, the hap- 
piest of anagrams was produced on a singular person and occasion. Lady Eleanor 
Davies, the wife of the celebrated Sir John Davies, the poet, was a very extraordinary 
character. She was the Cassandra of her age, and several of her predictions warranted 
her to conceive she was a prophetess. As her prophecies in the troubled times of Charles 
I. were usually against the government, she was at length brought by them into the 
court of high commission. The prophetess was not a little mad, and fancied the spirit 
of Daniel was in her, from an A. she had formed of her name, 


ELEANOR DAVIES. 
Reveal, O Daniel ! 


The A. had too much by an J, and too little by ans; yet Daniel and reveal were in it, 
and that was sufficient to satisfy her inspirations. The court attempted to dispossess the 
spirit from the lady, while the bishops were in vain reasoning the point with her out of 
the scriptures, to no purpose, she poising text against text: one of the deans of the 


4 il 3 Anagallis, 


nal. 


arches, says Heylin, shot her through and through with an arrow borrowed from her 
own quiver; he took a pen, and at last hit upon this excellent A.: 

Dame ELEANOR Davies. 

Never so mad a Ladie! 
The happy fancy put the solemn court into laughter, and Cassandra into the utmost 
dejection of spirit. Foiled by her own weapons, her spirit suddenly forsook her; and 
either she never afterwards ventured on prophesying, or the A. perpetually reminded her 
bearers of her state—and we hear no more of this prophetess.” 

On a visit to King’s Newton hall, in Derbyshire, Charles II. is said to have left writ- 
Ps gue of the windows, Cras ero lux (To-morrow I shall be light), which is the A. of 
‘arolus Rex. 


AN’AHEIM, a city of Orange co., Cal., on the Santa Ana river, about 8 m. from 
the sea. It is situated on branches of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, To- 
peka and Santa Fé railroads; 27 m. s.e. of Los Angeles. It is in a beautiful valley 
and has a genial climate. The town contains churches, large school-buildings, the 
school of the Dominican Sisters, newspapers, etc. It manufactures wines and 
brandies, and has a large trade in oranges, lemons, walnuts, and farm and dairy 
products. The land in the vicinity is irrigated by canals from the Santa Ana river. 
Pop. 1890, 1278. 


ANAHVAC’, a Mexican term, said to signify ‘‘near the water.” Its application is 
vague in the extreme. It is either a plateau ora ridge. As a ridge again it oscillates 
between the continuation of the Rocky mountains, below lat. 40° n., and that branch of 
the chain which runs nearly parallel to the upper course of the Rio Bravo del Norte; 
and as a plateau, it designates either the whole of the table-land of Mexico or certain 
portions thereof, more or less extensive, with the capital as a common center. Practi. 
cally, if one acceptation is more generally admitted than another, A. may be regarded ag 
the largest of those plateaus—a definition which, with reference to the number of lakes, 
seems more peculiarly to suit the etymology of the word. See further, CORDILLERAS oF 
CENTRAL AMERICA—a description which, for want of a briefer and better one, may be 
made to embrace all that less regular section of the backbone of America which lies 
between the simple formations of the Andes to thes. and the Rocky mountains to the n. 


AN’AKIM, a gigantic race of people, whose stronghold was Kirjath-arba, in the s. of 
Palestine. In the opinion of some biblical critics, they were not Canaanites, as they are 
not included in the list of devoted nations; others, again, conclude from the fact that in. 
variably mention is made only of three individuals or families, that the name is appella- 
tive rather than gentile, and that the A. were merely particular tribes of the wide spread 
and powerful Amorites, distinguished for their unusual stature. The Israelites con- 
sidered them dangerous for neighbors, and conquered them. It was the A. whose 
appearance so terrified the Hebrew spies who entered the land of promise from Kadesh- 
barnea. Those who escaped the sword of Joshua fled to the country of the Philistines ; 
and it has been conjectured that Goliah and the other Philistine giants were their 
descendants. This is probable, because the particular places in which the fugitive A. 
took refuge were Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. ‘The word Anak means a necklace or neck- 
chain ; and some have supposed that these giants received that name from wearing such 
ornaments proudly round their necks; others translate the word A. by ‘‘long-necked 
men,” or men with long-stretched necks, z.e., men of great height. The A., however, 
in all probability, derived their name from Anak, the son of Arba, 


ANAKOLU'THON is aterm employed both in grammar and rhetoric, to denote the 
absence of strict logical sequence in the grammatical construction. Good writers some- 
times sacrifice this logical sequence to emphasis, clearness, or gracefularrangement. In 
coiloquial speech, nothing is more common than examples of A. 


ANAL'CIME, CunicitTs, or SARCOLITE, a silicate of alumina and soda, usually occur- 
ring in 24-sided crystals, and sometimes in cubes with the eight solid angles replaced by 
the faces of an octahedron. It is found in the lake Superior copper region. 


ANALEM’MA, a name given to a projection of a sphere upon a plane. In this form 
of projection, called also orthographic, the plane of projection is that of a meridian, or 
one parallel thereto, and the point of sight is assumed at an infinite distance on a line 
normal to the plane of projection and passing through the center of the sphere. A 
circle which is parallel to the plane of projection is projected into an equal circle; a 
circle perpendicular to the plane of projection is projected into a right line equal in 
length to the diameter of the projected circle; a circle in any other position is projected 
into an ellipse, whose major axis equals the diameter of the projected circle. The term 
A. was also applied to an instrument of brass or wood, on which such a projection 
was accompanied by a horizon; it was used in finding the time of the rising or setting of 
the sun, 

A'NAL GLANDS. Under this name may be described a large and diversified group 
of glands, found in many animals, and generally characterized by the disagreeable odor 
of their secretion. Those to which the name most strictly belongsare of frequent occur- 
rence among carnivora and rodents; they consist of follicles which pour their secretion 
intO sacs with muscular walls and narrow orifices, placed one on each side of the anus. 
According to the most recent investigations, it appears that these sacs are to be consid- 
ered as prolongations inwards of the common integument, and that two sorts of glands 
open into them; one of a lobulated structure, having a fatty secretion, and representing 


Analogue. 4 
Analysis. 41 


the sebaceous glands of the skin greatly hypertrophied; the other crowded more at the 
bottom of the sac, tubular, and elaborating the specific secretion. In the hyena, there isa 
single sac, which opens by a transverse fissure above the vent. There isa gradual pas- 
sage from true A. G. to others of a somewhat different character. Thus, there are 
glands called inguinal in the hare and rabbit—little bare places pouring out an unctuous 
secretion, which are held to be equivalent to A. G., only not inclosed in sacs, The civet 
cat has an anal sac on each side of the vent; and also two other sacs opening by a 
common outlet in front of the vent; and from the latter is derived the substance known 
as civet, which the negroes seek for on the trees where it has been left by the civet cats. 
The civet gland furnishes a natural link between the A. G. and those more closely con- 
nected with the genital apertures, called preputial. The most remarkable are those of 
the beaver, large sacs found both in the male and female, and which furnish the casto- 
reum of commerce. The beaver has true A. G. besides. The sac which contains the 
musk of the musk-deer lies in the middle line beneath the skin of the abdomen, and opens 
at the prepuce. The secretion peculiar to badgers, polecats, and skunks, and which 
they use as an instrnment of defense, shielding themselves from their adversaries by an 
overpowering and intolerable odor, comes from a pouch situated beneath the tail. In 
some animals, we meet with secretions similar to some of the above, poured out on other 
parts of the body. Thus, in the bat, there are glands on the face opening above the 
mouth, which prepare a fetid oily secretion; the so-called lacyrymal follicles of rumi- 
nants, and the cutaneous glands of the tail of the deer, secrete a dark unctuous humor; 
and the temporal gland between the eye and the ear of the elephant pours out an oily 
substance at rutting-time. The peccary has an odoriferous gland on its back; and the 
crocodile has a musk-sack under the lower jaw. Anal sacs opening immediately behind 
the vent are also found in the crocodile and in many serpents. 


AN'ALOGUE, a term in comparative anatomy. Organs are analogous to one another, 
or are analogues, when they perform the same function, though they may be altogether 
different in structure; as the wings of a bird and the wings of an insect. Organs, again, 
are homologous, or homologues, when they are constructed on the same plan, undergo a 
similar development, and bear the same relative position, and this independent of either 
form or function. Thus, the arms of a man and the wings of a bird are homologues of 
one another. See Homouoey. 


ANALOGY, a term originally Greek, and which signifies an agreement or correspond- 
ence in certain respects between things in other respects different. Euclid employed it to 
signify proportion, or the equality of ratios, and it has retained this sense in mathematics; 
but it is aterm little used in the exact sciences, and of very frequent use in every other 
department of knowledge and of human affairs. In grammar we speak of the A. of 
Janguage, i.e., the correspondence of a word or phrase with the genius of the language, 
as learned from the manner in which its words and phrases are ordinarily formed. A., 
in fact, supposes a rule inferred from observation of instances, and upon the application 
of which, in other instances not precisely, but in some respects, similar, we venture, with 
more or less confidence, according to the degree of ascertained similarity, and according 
to the extent of observation from which our knowledge of the rule has been derived. 
The opposite to A. is anomaly (Gr. irregularity); and this term is used not only in gram- 
mar, but with reference to objects of natural history which in any respect are exceptions 
to the ordinary rule of their class or kind. In the progress of science, analogies have 
been discovered pervading all nature, and upon which conclusions are often based with 
great confidence and safety. Reasoning from A. indeed warrants only probable conclu- 
sions; but the probability may become of a very high degree, and in the affairs of life 
we must often act upon conclusions thus attained. Reasoning from A., however, 
requires much caution in the reasoner. Yet even when its conclusions are very uncer- 
tain, they often serve to guide inquiry and lead to discovery. Many of the most brilliant 
discoveries recently made in natural science were the result of investigations thus 
directed. Where the proper evidence of truth is of another kind, arguments from A. 
are often of great use for the removal of objections. It is thus that they are employed 
by Bishop Butler in his A. of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and 
Course of Nature. Tnlaw, reasoning from A. must often, to a certain extent, be admitted 
in the application of statutes to particular cases. Upon similar reasoning, the practice of 
medicine very much depends. To discover the meaning of any composition, it is also 
often necessary; the sense of the author in a passage somewhat obscure being in some 
measure determined according to passages in which he has expressed himself more 
clearly. The application of this rule to the interpretation of Scripture is a point of dif- 
ference between Protestants and Roman Catholics, the latter insisting upon the interpre. 
tation of difficult passages by ecclesiastical tradition and authority. The extension of it 
to the whole Scriptures, however, depends upon the admission of their inspiration; but 
this, when fully admitted, warrants a more confident use of analogical reasoning than in 
the case of the works, or even of a single work, of an uninspired author. Protestant 
theologians have very generally employed, with reference to this rule of interpretation, 
the phrase ‘‘ A. of faith,” deriving it from Rom. xii. 6; but the meaning of the expres- 
sion In that verse is disputed. However, the reality of an A. of faith, and the right of 
reasoning from it, are not affected by any criticism on that verse. 


= Analogue, 
415 Analy ning 


ANAL’YSIS (Gr.), the resolution of a whole into its component parts. In mental 
philosophy, this term is applied to the logical treatment of an idea so as to resolve it into 
other ideas which combine to form it. A judgment or proposition may thus also be 
analyzed. The opposite of A. is synthesis (q.v.); and the opposition of these terms is 
common in other branches of science as well as in mental philosophy. We speak of an 
analytic method in science, and of a synthetic method; and both are necessary, the one 
coming to the assistance of the other to secure against error, and promote the ascertain- 
ment of truth. The analytic method proceeds from the examination of facts to the deter- 
mination of principles ; whilst the synthetic method proceeds to the determination of 
consequences from principles known or assumed. The test of perfection in a theory is 
the harmony of the results obtained by the methods of A. and synthesis. 

Mathematical A., in the modern sense of the term, is the method of treating all quan- 
tities as unknown numbers, and representing them for this purpose by symbols, such as 
letters, the relations subsisting among them being thus stated and subjected to further 
investigation. It is therefore the same thing with algebra, in the widest sense of that 
term, although the term algebra is more strictly limited to what relates to equations, and 
thus denotes only the first part of A. The second part of it, or A. more strictly so called, 
is divided into the A. of finite quantities, and the A. of infinite quantities. To the for- 
mer, also called the theory of functions, belong the subjects of series, logarithms, curves, 
etc. The A. of infinites comprehends the differential calculus, the integral calculus, and 
the calculus of variations. To the diligent prosecution of mathematical A. by minds of 
the greatest acuteness, is to be ascribed the great progress both of pure and applied 
mathematics within the last two centuries. 

The A. of the ancient mathematicians was a thing entirely different from this, and 
consisted simply in the application of the analytic method as opposed to the synthetic, to 
the solution of geometrical questions. That which was to be proved being in the first 
place assumed, an inquiry was instituted into those things upon which it depended, and 
thus the investigation proceeded, as it were, back, until something was reached which 
was already ascertained, and from which the new proposition might be seen by necessary 
consequence to flow. A reversal of the steps of the inquiry now gave the synthetical 
proof of the proposition. The modern mathematical A. affords a much more easy and 
rapid means of solving geometrical questions; but the ancient A. also afforded opportu- 
nity for the exercise of much acuteness, and was the chief instrument of the advance- 
ment of mathematical science until comparatively recent times. The invention of it is 
ascribed to Plato; but of the works of the ancients on geometrical A. none are extant, 
except some portions of those of Euclid, Apollonius of Perga, and Archimedes. 


ANAL’YSIS, in chemistry, is the term applied to that department of experimental 
science which has for its object the chemical disunion or separation of the constituents 
ef a compound substance: thus, the resolution of water into its components, hydrogen 
and oxygen; of common salt into chlorine and sodium; of marble into lime and carbonic 
acid; of rust into iron and oxygen; of sugar into carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and of 
chloroform into carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine—are all examptes of chemical A. This 
department of chemistry, therefore, takes cognizance of the breaking down of the more 
complex or compound substances into their more simple and elementary constituents, 
and is antagonistic to chemical synthesis, which treats of the union of the more simple or 
elementary bodies to produce the more complex or compound. Chemical A. is of two 
kinds: Qualitative A., which determines the quality or nature of the ingredients of a 
compound, without regard to the quantity of each which may be present; and quantita- 
tive A., which calls in the aid of the balance or measure, and estimates the exact propor. 
tion, by weight or volume, in which the several constituents are united. Thus, qualitative 
A. informs us what water, marble, common salt, etc., are composed of; but it remains for 
quantitative A. to tell us that water consists of 1 part of hydrogen by weight united with 
8 parts of oxygen; that marble is composed of 56 parts of lime and 44 of carbonic acid; 
common salt, of 35} parts of chlorine and 23 of sodium; turpentine, of 30 carbon and 4 
hydrogen; chloroform, of 12 carbon, 1 hydrogen, and 106 chlorine. 

The divisions of inorganic (mineral) chemistry and organic (vegetable and animal) 
chemistry have led to a corresponding classification of chemical A. into inorganic A.., 
comprehending the processes followed and the results obtained in the investigation of the 
atmosphere, water, soils, and rocks; and organic A., treating of the modes of isolation 
and the nature of the ingredients found in or derived from organized structures—viz., 
plants and animals. Both departments afford examples of what are called prozimate and 
ultimate A. Proximate A. is the resolution of a compound substance into components 
which are themselves compound: thus, in inorganic chemistry, marble is resolved into 
lime (calcium united with oxygen) and carbonic acid (carbon with oxygen); whilst ulti- 
mate A. comprehends the disunion of a compound into its elements or the simplest forms 
of matter: thus, lime into calcium and oxygen; carbonic acid into carbon and oxygen, 
water into hydrogen and oxygen. Organic chemistry affords still better examples of 
each class: thus, ordinary wheat-flour, when sujected to proximate A., yields, as its 
proximate components, gluten (vegetable fibrine), albumen, starch, sugar, gum, oil, and 
saline matter; but each of these proximate ingredients is in itself compound, and when 
they undergo ultimate A., the gluten and albumen yield, as their ultimate elements or 


1, 
Anarchists. 416 


constituents, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus; and the 
starch, sugar, gum, and oil are found built up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

Several other terms are in use In chemical treatises: thus Gas A. is applied to the 
processes employed in the examination of the various gases, and is every day becoming 
of more and more importance and interest. Metallurgic A. includes the smelting of 
metallic ores, the assays of alloys of gold, silver, etc., and, in general, everything that 
pertains to the ultimate A. of metallic ores and compounds. Agricultural A. is restricted 
to the examination of manures, feeding-stuffs, and soils; medical or physiological A. to 
the investigation of blood, urine, and other animal fluids and juices, and the examination 
of medicinal compounds; whilst commercial A. is the term used where great accuracy or 
nicety of detail is not required in an A., but where the commercially important constitu- 
ents alone are determined, as the separation and recording of the amount of phosphates, 
ammonia, and alkaline salts in a sample of guano; the total amount of saline matter in 
a certain water; the iron in an iron-stone, the lime in a limestone, etc. 

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY is that department of chemistry which takes cognizance of 
analyses. The analytical chemist requires some peculiar apparatus, together with 
re-agents, generally solutions, by the addition or reaction of which the nature and amount 
of the ingredients of a compound are determined. 


ANALYTICAL LANGUAGE, See Purmonoey, 


ANALYZER, that part of a polariscope (q.v.), by which, when light has been polarized, 
its properties are tested, usually something corresponding to the polarizer, as a movable 
reflecting plate, a tourmaline, or a doubly refracting crystal. 


ANAW’ or ANNAM, a French protectorate, forming a part of French Indo-China, 
formerly an independent kingdom including Lower Cochin China and Tonquin, now an 
ill-defined strip of territory extending along the coast of the China sea. ‘The country is 
mountainous in the interior, has rich plains in the n. and s., with excellent harbors along 
its coast. Area, including the land acquired from Siam in 18938, about 106,000 sq. m. 
Pop. about 5,000,000. At the beginning of this century the kingdom included Tonquin, 
Tsiampa or Champa and a part of the ancient kingdom of Cambodia, also six provinces 
of Lower Cochin China, namely: Saigon, Bienhoa, Mytho, Vinhlong, Chandor, and 
Haytien. This kingdom was under a kind of feudal subjection to the Emperor of 
China until released by the French. In 1862, the King of A. was obliged to accept 
French protection, in consequence of a rebellion among his Tonquinese subjects, and he 
also lost (1867) the six provinces mentioned above. The French continued to encroach 
upon the territory and rights of the King of A., until, in 1874, he was forced to accept a 
treaty which reduced him to vassalage; securing to A., however, independence of all 
foreign powers, especially of the emperors of China. For this protection the emperor of 
A. pledged himself to accommodate his policy to that of France, to annul the enact- 
ments affecting the Roman Catholic religion, to open several ports to foreign commerce, 
and to admit to those ports French consuls and a limited number of armed guards. 
This treaty opened the ports of Haiphong and Hanoi in 1875; and of Quinhon in 1876. 
Haiphong is a mere village on one of: the mouths of the Songkoi, or Hongkiang (red 
river), at a point reached by vessels drawing about 14 ft. of water. Hanoi, also on the 
Hongkiang, is properly the capital of Tonquin. Quinhon is a seaport in 138° 50’ n. and 
69° e, China refused to recognize the entire independence of A., and this action brought 
about war between China and the French occupants in Tonquin. The Chinese were 
aided by Anamites who were anxious to expel all foreigners. Finally, in 1883, the 
French government decided to annex the province of Tonquin, The war was closed 
by the treaty of June 6, 1884. Tonquin was annexed to France, and with the ratifica- 
tion of the treaty on Feb. 23, 1886, a French protectorate was formally established over 
Anam. The port of Thuan-an was ceded to France and the ports of Qui-Nhon, Turane 
and Xuan Dap were opened to European commerce. The French stipulated for control 
of the Anamite finances, and were to occupy permanently the citadel at Hué. The form 
of government in Anam is a monarchy. The king administers internal affairs, but 
under the control of French officials. The French resident-general for Anam and Ton- 
quin lives at Hué. The country is fertile, producing rice, maize and other cereals, 
spices, tobacco, sugar, excellent timber, caoutchouc, dye, and raw silk. The commerce 
is considerable, but is chiefly confined to trade with China and Japan. The principal 
exports are silk and cinnamon. Iron, copper and silver are found, and in 1891 a French 
company was formed to work the coal mines. The people are of Mongol stock and 
speak a monosyllabic language. In the towns there is a considerable number of 
Chinese, and the population in the upland tracts consists of Méis, a race generally of 
greater stature and lighter complexion than the Anamese. The latter are found for the 
most part in the coast region. They have certain peculiar racial characteristics, 
especially a curious mode of walking, due to the structure of the pelvis and the thigh- 
bone. The educated classes among the natives are generally either Buddhists or 
believers in the doctrine of Confucius, but there are between 400,000 and 500,000 Roman 
Catholics in the country. The capital is Hué with a population variously estimated at 
from 15,000 to 30,000. Among the works on Anam and French Cochin-China are the 
writings of Bouillebaux, De Rhins, Lemire, Launay, Ramaud, and De Lanessan. See 

also Frey, L’annamite, mére des langues (1892). See CocHIn CHINA; SAIGON. For type of 
people, see illus., Asta, vol. I. 


Analytical. 
4 1 7 RneOniats. 


ANAMBQ’, See ANNAMABOE’, 


ANAMIR’TA., See CoccuLus INpIcUus. 


ANAMOR’PHOSIS, an ideal change of development or form that may be found in the 
members of a group of plants or animals. It has been suggested that by the process of 
A. animals and plants of the present time have been developed. In optics A. is a draw- 
ing, which when viewed directly appears distorted or confused, but whose image in a 
curved mirror, viewed from a proper point, is an intelligible and consistent picture. 


ANA’NAS, See PINE-APPLE. 


ANANTI’AS, one of the members of the young church at Jerusalem who conspired 
with his wife, Sapphira, to make a false pretense respecting their gift of property to 
the community of the brethren, and was, with his wife, struck dead. Another A. is 
mentioned in Acts ix. 12, and elsewhere. Still another A. wasa high-priest at Jerusalem 
(Acts xxiii. 2), 

ANAPHRODISIACS. These are substances used tolessen the sexual desire. In the first 
place all causes of genital irritation should be removed, Careful cleansing should be 
insisted on, and in many cases circumcision is needed. Saccharine or highly acid urine 
should be corrected. Distension of the bladder should be avoided if possible. Vesical 
calculus, worms, hemorrhoids, and anal fissure may all act as causes of sexual excitement, 
and should be treated if present.. Other rarer lesions in this neighborhood may cause it. 
Constipation should be relieved. The clothing, especially at night, should not be too 
warm. The bed should be hard. The diet should be restricted in amount, chiefly 
vegetable, and spices and stimulants of all kinds should be avoided. Hard mental work 
and abundant exercise, especially with the arms, are strongly indicated. Ice, applied 
locally, and cold baths, local or general, are very potent in allaying sexual excitement 
for the time. Besides these measures, some drugs are of value. The best are probably 
the bromides. They should be given in full doses and if necessary pushed to the 
physiological limit. Next to these comes camphor, which should be used in the same 
way. ‘The nauseants are valuable temporary expedients, but cannot be used in a pro- 
longed treatment. It must be remembered that nymphomania and satyriasis, when at 
all pronounced, are usually due to some organic lesion about the genitals. In most other 
cases they are evidence of insanity. 


ANARCHISTS, those who desire to abolish all forms of authority and establish a system 
of complete individual liberty. Proudhon (q.v.) must be regarded as the first who 
attempted to give a scientific expression of the theory, although Josiah Warren (q.v.) 
had formulated similar views in the U. S. several years before the appearance of Proud- 
hon’s What is Property? In this work, property in its existing form is declared to be 
the cause of all social evils, but so closely connected with the state that its bad effects can 
be prevented only by the destruction of the state itself, which, under whatever form it 
exists, is considered synonymous with inequality and misery, since whether by the will 
of one or of many it subjects the individual to the will of another. Proudhon considers 
contract the only bond that can unite society, not the contract of Rousseau’s theory, the 
fallacy of which he keenly exposes, but an agreement supported by no external force, 
binding only upon the parties to it, and involving no further consequences than result 
from the mere personal promise. Communism he regards with no less disfavor than the 
state ; the latter he calls the exploitation of the weak by the strong, the former exploita- 
tion of the strong by the weak. Of the many evils of the existing economic system, 
the “ money monopoly” attracts his especial attention, and to. destroy money as a medium 
of exchange would be his first step ; in place of it there should be a method of basing 
bank paper upon products, the application of his theory that ‘‘ services should exchange 
for services and products for products.” The anarchists of to-day are divided into two 
groups: First, the faithful followers of Proudhon, who call themselves Individualistic 
Anarchists, and second, those who owe a portion of their theory to Marx, the Commu- 
nistic Anarchists, or Internationalists. The headquarters of the former school is at 
Boston, where their organ, Liberty, is published. In their denunciation of the state, they 
make no exception of the U. 8S. government, which they consider as oppressive as any of 
the European monarchies. Elections they deem tyrannical and foolish, and they neither 
vote nor perform the duties of citizens in any way, if they can avoid. it. Courts of justice 
are instruments of despotic power, and compulsory jury service a cruel infringement upon 
the rights of individuals. For the accomplishment of -their ends, however, they look 
not to deeds of violence, which they vehemently oppose, but to a peaceful evolution, in 
the course of which, the continued contemplation of political corruption, capitalistic 
tyranny, and the countless evils that disgrace our present system will impel men to cast 
off the restraints of government and establish a social order based on individualism. 
True to the principles of Proudhon, they deny the existence of God, but would permit 
believers to worship without molestation, provided only that the Church be self-support 
ing, the priest paid by those who listen to him, Averse to any form of constraint, they 
view with abhorrence attempts to check social vices by legislation, trusting to the sway 
of reason and the sense of right to keep society pure. Civil marriage should be abolished, 


& hy. 
anarchy, 418 


and in place of it they advocate ‘‘autonomistic’’ marriage, a sort of partnership from 
which either party could be released at will. The supporters of these views number 
about 5000 in the U. S. ; : b 

The Communistic Anarchists differ from these, especially as to the means by which 
the new order of things is to be brought about; they shrink from no plan of violence 
conducive to their ends. Forming the extreme left of the International Workingman’s 
association (q.v.), they separated from the more moderate party, and in 1872 were expelled 
with their leader, Bakunine, who advocated an international revolutionary movement of 
the laboring classes to culminate in a general insurrection. Another point of difference 
between them and the first group is that they do not entirely reject association, but limit 
it to very small numbers of individuals by carrying the principle of local self-govern- 
ment to anextreme. Their ideal, like that of the Individualistic Anarchists, is absence 
of government, but they direct their efforts primarily against private property, while 
the followers of Proudhon hold that after the destruction of the state property would no 
longer be dangerous and might continue. In their ultimate results, however, the ideals 
of the two schools contemplate socia. systems of a very similar character. H. L. Osgood ; 
Political Science Quarterly, March, 1889; Proudhon’s Works; Liberty, Boston ; Josiah 
Warren’s Works ; Bakunine, God and the State. See COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 

AN'ARCHY (from the Gr. a, privative, and arche, government), the state of society 
without any regular government, when a country is torn by the strife of parties, and 
no law or authority remains. Complete A. is necessarily rare and of short duration; 
but conditions approaching to it often arise after revolutions and gross abuses in 
government, and in such cases it is apt to become, as in the South American states, a 
chronic or permanent evil, attended with constant national decay. 


ANARRHICHAS, See Wour-FIsH. 


A'NAS, a Linnean genus of birds, included in the order palmipedes (web-footed 
birds) of the system of Cuvier, and divided by recent ornithologists into a number of 
genera; oneof which, retaining the name A., contains the true ducks, and others contain 
the swans (cygnus), geese (anser), scoters (otdemia), garrots (clangula), eiders (somateria), 
pochards (fuligula), shovelers (rhyncaspis), shieldrakes (tadorna), musk-ducks (cairina). 
teals (querquedula), widgeons (mareca), etc. 'These, with mergansers (mergus) and flamin- 
goes (phenicopterus), constitute the family anatide of some ornithologists. Cuvier piaces 
them in a family called by him lamelitrostres, and distinguished by a thick bill, horny 
only at the nail-like extremity, and elsewhere invested with a soft skin, the edges fur- 
nished with lamine, or with small teeth particularly adapted for the purpose of separating 
the food from the mud which is often taken into the bill along withit. The lamine, and 
large and broad bill, are the chief characteristics of the old genus A. Some, as the true 
ducks, subsist in great part on small insects; others, as geese and swans, almost exclu- 
sively on vegetable food. The species are very numerous, distributed over all parts 
of the world, some of them very abundant in the polar regions. Some are important 
for their feathers or down, others for their flesh and for their eggs. A few have 
been domesticated, and are commonly kept for economic uses. See Ducx, Gooss, 
Swan, E1DER, BARNACLE, TEAL, etc. 


ANASTA'SIUS I., emperor of the east, was b. in 480 A.p., at Dyrrachium, in Epirus, 
of an obscure family. The early portion of his life is unknown to history. On the 
death of Zeno, he was proclaimed emperor by the senate, and crowned on the 11th April, 
491,at the age of 60. He owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he 
married. No monarch was ever more notable for his heresies. One of his generals, 
Vitalian, taking advantage of this unpopular feature of his character, revolted, ravaged 
Thrace, Scythia, and Moesia, compelled A. to promise to recall the orthodox bishops 
whom he had banished, and secured for himself the title of governor of Thrace. A., 
however, had some good natural qualities, and performed certain praiseworthy actions. 
He suppressed the cruel and degrading spectacles where men fought with wild beasts, 
abolished the sale of offices, the tax on domestic animals, which had existed since the 
days of Vespasian, built a wall on the w. side of Constantinople to defend it from the 
incursions of the barbarians, constructed aqueducts in the city of Hierapolis, made 
a harbor at Cesarea, and restored the ‘‘pharos” or light-house at Alexandria. He 
died 8th July, 518. 

ANASTA’SIUS II., emperor of the east, elected to the throne of Constantinople by 
the senate and people in 718. He organized a formidable naval force which mutinied 
at Rhodes and proclaimed Theodosius, a low person, emperor; and this Theodosius 
took Constantinople six months later, and deposed Anastasius, who escaped to Thes- 
salonica and became a monk. In 719, he led a revolt against Leo, the successor of 
Theodosius, but fell into Leo’s hands and was put to death in the same year; but 
some authorities give the date of his death as 720. 

ANASTA’SIUS I., patriarch of Constantinople, was b. in the second half of the 7th 
century. He favored the party of iconoclasts, or image-breakers. He owed his elevation 
to the emperor Leon, who exacted from him a pledge that he would assist in the destruc- 
tion of the images. A. kept his word; but having made himself obnoxious to the new 


4 i: 9 anerchy. 


natolia, 


emperor, Constantine Copronymus, the latter (748) seized him, put out his eyes, and 
marched him through the hippodrome (race-course) mounted on an ass with his head to 
the tail. Hed. in 758. 


ANASTA'SIUS I. was elected pope, or rather bishop of Rome, 398 a.p. He succeeded 
Siricius, one year after the death of Ambrose. Under his pontificate, flourished Chry- 
sostom, Augustine, and Jerome. The most conspicuous act of his life was the reconcilia- 
tion of the church at Antioch with that of Rome, after a schism of 17 years. Among 
the epistles attributed to A., two are obviously apocryphal; the one addressed to Nere- 
nianus; the other to the German bishops. The latter commanded the faithful to remain 
standing while the gospel was read in the churches, that neophytes should receive holy 
orders only on the recommendation of five bishops, and that the Manichzeans, who had 
been expelled from Rome, should not be admitted into Germany. But the first of these 
epistles is posterior to the death of A., and the second anterior to his accession to the 
pontificate. A. was vehemently opposed to the doctines of Origen, one of whose works 
(Pert Archéns, i.e., Concerning Principles) he condemned as heretical. For this he is 
praised by Jerome, who calls him a man of a holy life, of a ‘‘rich poverty,” and of an 
apostolical earnestness. During his life, several councils were held, at Carthage, Con- 
stantinople, Ephesus, and Toledo. He d. Dec. 14, 401 a.p.—There were three other 
popes of this name: AnAsrastus II. (496-498), Anasrasius III. (911-913), and ANasra- 
srus IV. (1153-54). See Pore. 


ANASTA'SIUS, Sarnt, surnamed Astric, apostle of the Hungarians, was b. in 954, 
and d.in 1044. A Frenchman by birth, he finally settled, after various 
changes, at the court of Stephen, duke of Hungary, where he became very 
influential, and was intrusted with the ecclesiastical organization of the 
land. All his energies were devoted to securing the triumph of the Christian 
faith. 


ANASTATIC PRINTING. See PRINTING. 
ANASTATICA. See Rosk or JERICHO. 


ANASTOMO'SIS (Gr., the making of a mouth or opening), an anatomical 
term used to express the union of the vessels which carry blood or other 
fluids, and also, for convenience’ sake, the*junction of nerves. The veins 
and absorbents anastomose to form large single trunks, as they approach their 
ultimate destinations. The arteries break up into small branches, for the 
supply of the tissues, and each small vessel again communicates with others 
given off above and below. At each large joint there is a very free A., so 
that the safety of the limb beyond may not be entirely dependent on the single 
arterial trunk passing into it, exposed as it is to all the obstructive influences 
of the different motions of the limb. After the main artery has been perma- 
nently obstructed, the anastomosing vessels enlarge, so as to compensate for the 
loss; but after a time, only those whose course most resembles the parent trunk 
continue enlarged, and the others gradually regain their ordinary dimensions. 

An idea of the profusion of this anastomosing system may be formed from 
the fact that if the innominata artery, or great vessel destined for the supply 

Arteries of the right upper half of the body, be tied, and those on the left side injected 
iy ies an with size and vermilion, the injection will flow freely into the arteries of the 
right arm, through branches as minute as they are numerous. 


ANATH’EMA (Gr., a thing set or hung up or apart—i.e., as consecrated), a word origi- 
nally signifying some offering or gift to Deity, generally suspended in the temple. Thus, 
we read in Luke xxi. 5, that the temple was adorned ‘‘with goodly stones and gifts” 
(anathemasr). It also signifies a sacrifice to God; and, as the animals devoted to be sac- 
rificed could not be redeemed from death, the word was ultimately used in its strongest 
sense, implying eternal perdition, as in Rom. ix. 3; Gal. i. 8 and 9; and other places. In 
the Catholic church, from the 9th c., a distinction has been made between excommuni- 
cation and anathematizing; the latter being the extreme form of denunciation against 
obstinate offenders. The synod of Pavia, in 850, determined that all transgressors 
who refused to submit to discipline, such as penance, should be not merely excommuni- 
cated, but anathematized, and deprived of every kind of Christian hope and consolation. 
Such a sentence could not be pronounced without the concurrence of the provincial bish- 
ops with their metropolitan. See EXCOMMUNICATION. 


AN’ATHOTH, at. in Palestine,4m. n. of Jerusalem; the birthplace of Jeremiah; 
a city of priests and of refuge. It was an important place, but it is now supposed to 
exist only in the little village of Anata, at the top of a hilln. of Jerusalem, commanding 
a view of the Dead sea. At A., Jeremiah bought the field as a symbol of the return from 
captivity. 

ANATOLIA (Gr. Anatolé, the east, i.e., from Constantinople) is the modern name for 
Asia Minor; Turkish, Anadoli. It may be considered as coincident with the peninsula; 
the boundary line on the e. between it and Armenia and Mesopotamia, not being natu- 
ral, cannot be well defined. The area of the peninsula exceeds 200,000 square miles. It 
constitutes the western prolongation of the high table-land of Armenia, with its border 
mountain-ranges. The interior consists of a great plateau, or rather series of plateaus, 


420 


Anatomy. 


rising in gradation from 2400 to 5000 ft., with bare steppes, salt plains, marshes, and 
lakes; the structure is volcanic, and there are several conical mountains, one of which, 
the Agridagh (Argzeus), with two craters, rises 10,000 ft. above the plain of Kaisarijeh, 
which has itself an elevation of between 2000 and 8000 ft. The plateau is bordered on 
the n. by a long train of parallel mountains, varying from 4000 to 6000 ft. high, and cut 
up into groups by cross valleys. These mountains sink abruptly down on the n. side to 
a narrow strip of coast; their slopes towards the interior are gentler and bare of wood. 
Similar is the character of the border ranges on the s., the ancient Taurus, only that 
they are more continuous and higher, being, to the n. of the bay of Skanderun or Issus, 
10,000 to 12,000 ft., and further to the w., 8000 to 9000 feet. The w. border is inter- 
sected by numerous valleys, opening upon the archipelago, through the highlands of the 
ancient Caria, Lydia, and Mysia, to the northern part of which mounts Ida and Olym- 
pus belong. Between the highlands and the sea lie the fertile coast-lands of the Levant. 
The rivers of A. are not considerable; the largest are the Yeshil Irmak (Iris), the Kisil 
Irmak (Halys), and the Sakkariah (Sangarius), flowing into the Black sea; and the Sara- 
bat (Hermus) and Minder (Meander) into the Aigean. 

The climate wears on the whole a south-European character; but a distinction must be 
made of four regions. The central plateau, nearly destitute of wood and water, has a 
hot climate in summer, and a cold in winter; the s. coast has mild winters and scorching 
summers; while on the coast of the Aigean there is the mildest of climates and a mag- 
nificent vegetation. On the n. side, the climate is not so mild, nor the productions of so 
tropical a kind as on the w.; yet the vegetation is most luxuriant, and a more delightful 
or richer tract than the coast from the sea of Marmora to Trebizond, is hardly to be 
found. The whole peninsula, however, is liable to earthquakes, 

In point of natural history, A. forms the transition from the continental character of 
the east to the maritime character of the west. The forest-trees and cultivated plants of 
Europe are seen mingled with the forms peculiar tothe east. The central plateau, which 
is barren, except where there are means of irrigation, has the character of an Asiatic 
steppe, more adapted for the flocks and herds of nomadic tribes than for agriculture; 
while the coasts, rich in all European products, fine fruits, olives, wine, and silk, have 
quite the character of the s. of Europe, which on the warmer and drier s. coast shades 
into that of Africa. ° 

The inhabitants consist of the most various races. The dominant race are the Osmanli 
Turks, who number over 1,000,000, and are spread over the whole country; next to 
these come the Turkomans, belonging to the same stock, and speaking a dialect of the 
same language. These are found chiefly on the table-land, leading a nomadic life; there 
also live hordes of nomadic Kurds. Among the mountains e. of Trebizond are the 
robber tribes of the Lazes. The population of the towns, in addition to Turks, consists, 
in the w., chiefly of Greeks and Jews; and in thee., of Armenians; the non-Turkish 
population, along with Europeans in the maritime marts, have the whole commerce of 
the country in their hands. There is much uncertainty about the population of the 
peninsula, the census of 1885 not having been completed, but estimates place it at 
nearly 9,000,000. The political and social arrangements are much as in the rest of 
Turkey (q. v.). One peculiarity is the old Turkish system of vassal-dynasties, the Dere- 
begs (valley chiefs), who, like the feudal iords of the middle ages in Europe, are heredi- 
tary rulers and military commanders of their district, under the suzerainty of the 
sultan. This institution is in greatest force in then. e. of the peninsula. The power 
of these feudal chiefs, however, was broken by Sultan Mahmud. 

This region was the early seat of civilization, in the west the Greek provinces con- 
tained some of the greatest and most famous cities in the world. Yet the country never 
became united, and has passed under the supremacy of one race after another. It has 
been the scene of numerous wars both in ancient and in modern times, It has 
been the battle-ground of Medes and Persians, of Greeks and Persians, of Romans and 
Parthians, and of continual conflicts between Arabs, Seljuks, Mongols and Ottoman 
Turks. The last named people acquired a part of this region in the fourteenth century, 
wresting it from the weakening grasp of the Byzantine emperors. Since 1453 the 
Ottoman Turks have ruled it from Constantinople. The country is divided at present 
into vilayets or governments, under governors-general and each of these again into several 
sandjaks, or provinces, under lieutenant-governors. The chief cities are Smyrna, 
Broussa, Konieh, Sinope, Angora, Kutaieh and Trebizond. Most of the islands of the 
Archipelago belong to Anatolia. The ancient divisions of this region were Pontus, 
Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Galatia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Pisidia, Pamphylia, Cappadocia, 
Mysia, Lydia and Syria. 


ANATOMY (Gr., to cut up, to dissect) is the science, which, inits broadest sense, treats 
of the form and structure of organic bodies, a knowledge of which is acquired by the 
dissection or separation of the constituent parts. ’ 

In its ordinary sense, the term is understood as applying to the normal human body ; 
but for the sake of clearness, we speak of Human Anatomy, which treats of the struct- 
ure of man. 

The anatomy of animals is often called Zootomy ; that of plants vegetable A., or 
Phytotomy. ; 

CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY comprehends the investigation and comparison of the dif- 
ferent kinds of organic bodies. 


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491 Anatomy. 


On examining the structure of any organized body, we find that it is made up of 
various members or organs by which its functions are executed. ‘These organs are, 
moreover, themselves made up of certain materials called tissues. Hence, we speak of 
the woody or cellular tissue of plants, and of the bony, vascular, or nervous tissues of 
animal organs. 

Anatomy, therefore, is divided into two branches, General and Special. General A., 
or Histology (see Histology), treats of the minute structure of the body. 

SPECIAL, OR DkEscRIPTIVE A., treats of the several members, organs, or regions ; 
describing their outward form and internal structure, their relations and connections, 
and the successive conditions which they present in the progress of formation or devel- 
opment, 

According to this mode of study, which is essential as an introduction to Physiology, 
A. has been divided into six branches : 

1. Osteology, which treats of the bones. 

2. Lyndesmology, which describes ligaments and joints. 

3. Myology, which explains the system of muscles and their actions. 

4, Angeiology, which describes the blood and lymph channels, the arteries, veins, 
and lymphatics. : 

5. Neurology, which treats of the nervous system. 

6. Splanchnology, which describes the viscera or internal organs. 

Descriptive A. may be treated of in two methods, viz., Systematie or Topographical 
—In the former, the several parts or organs are considered in systematic order, accord- 
ing to their structure, their connections, and their relations to vital functions. In the 
latter, the parts are described in order of their position or association in any region of 
the body. 

pe A., therefore, is betteradapted for the elementary and complete study of 
the structure of organs. 

Topographical A. for the study of particular regions in relation to medicine and 
surgery. Hence we speak of it often, in this respect, as Surgical or Applied A. 

The adult or fully formed condition of the body is assumed commonly as the subject 
of the description ; but it is obvious, that a considerati6én of the structure of the body 
and its organs in various stages of life, is essential to render the knowledge of the anat- 
omy complete. To the description of the origin and formation of parts in the foetus or 
embryo, the name Hmbryological A. is given. 

The study of Anatomy may be viewed from the Physiological or the Morphological 
standpoint. Inthe former case, materials are supplied relating to the structure of parts, 
from which an explanation may be sought of their functions. 

In its morphological aspect, it investigates and combines the facts relating to the 
structure and relation of organs, from which may be deduced general principles as to 
the construction of the human or the animal body. In the determination of these prin- 
ciples, it is necessary to combine the knowledge of the anatomy of animals with that of 
man, and both with the history of development. 

Practical A. includes dissection and the making of preparations. When a part or 
organ is prepared, so that its form or position can be more clearly demonstrated, it is 
termed an anatomical preparation. A bone preparation, for example, is made by first 
clearing away all the adherent parts, by boiling and bleaching the specimen to make it 
white and dry. When the whole system of bones so prepared is connected together by 
wires, in the natural order, we have an artificial skeleton. Bodies for dissection are pre- 
served from rapid decomposition, by means of arsenical solutions injected into the arte- 
ries. The large arterial trunks and their smaller branches are prepared for demonstration, 
by the injection of a mixture of Plaster of Paris colored with red lead, which quickly 
hardens and brings the vessels into prominence. Other materials are also used. In the 
case of the lymphatics, quicksilver is often employed and renders the smallest channels 
easily demonstrable. 

Preparations may be dried and varnished, or kept moist in alcohol or other fluids. 
A series of such preparations ‘‘ dried” and ‘‘ wet, ” arranged in proper order, constitute 
an anatomical museum. 

As it is impossible to preserve all parts in their integrity for any length of time, arti- 
ficial copies in wood, ivory, wax, and papier-maché, are made with great exactitude. 

Apart from dissections and preparations of the natural organs, the most general and 
available assistance in the study of anatomy is found in anatomical plates and engrav- 
ings. This assistance was known in ancient times, and in the 16th century the greatest 
artists—Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian and Diirer—gave their aid 
in designing anatomical figures. 

Lithographic and photographic plates are now generally employed. 

Among the numerous illustrations of anatomy which we now possess, may be men- 
tioned the old works by Vasal (1543), Eustachius (1714), Bidloo (1685), Albin (1747), 
Haller (1748-56), and Vicq d’Azyr (1786-90). : 

In the present century the excellent works of Caldani (Venice, 1801-14) Mascagni 
(Pisa, 1823), Langenbeck (Gottingen, 1826), Bougery, and Jacob (Paris, 1832), Arnold 
(Zurich, 1888), Bock (Leipzig, 1840), Braune, Henke, and Luschka, are well known. 

History or A.- From the earliest times, it is probable that certain persons took 


Anatron, : 499 


Anaxagoras, 


advantage of favorable circumstances to acquaint themselves with anatomy. The 
Druids, who were at once the priests, judges, and physicians of the people, demanded 
of those who came for their advice, human victims as sacrifices,and were themselves the 
executioners. It isnotimprobable, therefore, that they availed themselves of these oppor- 
tunities of acquiring anatomical knowledge. Galen thinks sculapius probably dis- 
sected animals for the instruction of his pupils. His descendants, the Asclepiades cul- 
tivated anatomy to some extent. 

The rabbins tell us that, although among the Jews the touching of a dead body 
involved ceremonial uncleanness, they did not entirely neglect the subject, which they 
studied from the carefully prepared bones of their ancestors, and acquired, more or less, 
in the necessary Manipulations of embalming. They counted 248 bones and 365 veins 
or ligaments. 

In the Iliad, Homer shows a certain amount of anatomical knowledge in his descrip- 
tion of wounds. 

Pythagoras first reasoned physiologically from observations made by him in Egypt, 
where he witnessed the sacrifices and also the Egyptian methods of embalming. 

Alemson of Crotona, his disciple, first dissected animals to obtain a comparative 
knowledge of human anatomy. . 

Democritus also dissected animals. 

Hippocrates II., b. in Cos 35 A.M., was the first author who treats A. as a science 
He caused a skeleton of brass to be cast, which he consecrated to the Delphian Apollo, 
with the view of transmitting to posterity proofs of the progress he had made, and of 
stimulating others to the study. 

Aristotle, who lived 384 B.c., does not appear to have dissected men ; and he states 
that the parts of a man are unknown to him, or that they possess nothing certain on the 
subject beyond what can be drawn from the probable resemblance of corresponding 
parts of other animals. He first gave the name Aorta to the great artery. 

Diocles (B.c., 380), was the first who treated of the proper method of conducting 
anatomical examinations for the purposes of demonstration. No real progress was made 
in A., however, owing to the researches being confined to animals, till the time of Eras- 
istratus, b. about 800 B.c., who was the first to dissect human bodies. He discovered, 
among other things, the lacteal vessels. Fragments of his writings are preserved in the 
worksof Galen. Parthenius, who lived 200 B.c., published a book On the Dissection of the 
Human Body. 

In the first part of the Christian Era, the dissection of human subjects was forbidden 
under heavy penalties. Rufus, the Ephesian, 112 4.p., taught A. in a more exact 
manner, and devised a more exact momenclature. He made use of animals, however, in 
his demonstrations. Galen, 131 A.D , dissected apes as being most like human subjects, 
though he occasionally obtained bodies of children exposed in the fields, or of persons 
found murdered, which, however, he was obliged to dissect in secret. There was at this 
time no regularly prepared skeleton, as there was a Roman law forbidding the use of 
dead bodies. Galen’s writings show a knowledge of human A. Soranus had consider- 
able knowledge derived from human subjects. Moschion, had some anatomical illus- 
trations engraved at the end of the 4th century. Meletus wrote a treatise On the Nature 
and Structure of Man. Theophilus, a monk in the 7th century, published a good abridg- 
ment of Galen’s A. Among the Arabs, A. made small progress, which is accounted for 
by their religion, which prohibited contact with dead bodies. Until the time ot Fred- 
erick II., King of Sicily (1194-1250) the subject of A., was practically neglected. This 
king passed a law forbidding any one to practice surgery without having first acquired 
some knowledge of A. He founded a chair of A., where the science was demonstrated 
for five years to many students who came from all parts. 

Some time after a similar school was established at Bologna, but no material prog- 
ress was made. The University of Montpellier was founded by Pope Nicholas IV., in 
1284, and the chair of A. was filled with distinction by Bernard Gordon, who published 
a huge book called Liliwm Medicine. Mundinus, b. Milan, 1315, is considered the real 
restorer of A. in Italy. He publicly demonstrated it, and published a work which was 
the text-book in the Academy of Padua, 200 years afterwards. 

Then came Guy de Chauliac, who first correctly described the humerus. 

Matheus of Grado published several anatomical works about 1480. Gabriel de Ler- 
bus, published a confused and imperfect work in Verona, 1495. 

André Lacuna (1535), Gonthier (1586), Driander (1537), Sylvius (1539) Levasseur and 
Gesner, were celebrated for A. ; but especially Andrew Vesalius, b. 1514, who published 
a great work on A. before he was 28 years of age. 

Wm. Horman, of Salisbury, in 1530, wrote Anatomia Oorports Humani. Then came 
Ingrassias, and others of less note. Thomas Gemini, of London, in 1545, engraved upon 
copper the anatomical figures of Vesalius, which had appeared in Germany upon wood. 

Thomas Vicary, in 1548, is said to be the first who wrote in English on A. He pub- 
lished The Hnglishman’s Treasure, or the True A. of Man’s Body. John Ligzeus, in 1555 
published an anatomical treatise in Latin hexameters. 

Frances (1556), Valverda, Columbus, and others, wrote works of great merit. In 
1561, Gabriel Fallopius was Professor of A. at Padua, and made many original dis- 
coveries. . 


493 Anatron,. 


Anaxagoras. 


In the 17th century, progress was rapid. Harvey, in 1619, discovered the circulation 
of the blood, and the microscope was used to detect the structure of minute vessels. 

Asselli, in 1622, discovered and demonstrated the existence of the lymph vessels, 
and his conclusions were supported by the investigations of Pecquet, Bartholin, and 
Claus Rudbeck. 

The glandular organs were investigated by Wharton ; while Malpighi, Swamerdam, 
and in the following century, the illustrious Ruysch, by the use of injections and the 
microscope, gave a new impulse to research in the minute structures. 

Eminent names are numerous in the history of A. of the 18th century. In Italy, 
which still retained its former prominence, we find Pacchioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, San- 
torini, Mascagni, and Cotunni. 

In France, Winslow, D’Aubenton, Lieutaud, Vicq d’Azyr, and Bechat, the founder 
of general A. 

In Germany, Haller and Meckel prepared the way for the greater achievements in 
the 19th century. In Great Britain, Cowper, Cheselden, Hunter, Cruikshank, Monro, 
and Charles Bell, contributed much to the knowledge of the science. 

7; Holland was worthily represented by Boerhaave, Albinus, Camper, Sandifort, and 
onn. 

On the boundaries of the two centuries we find the names of Sémmerung, Loder, 
Blumenbach, Hildebrand, Reil, Tiedemann, and Leiler—nearly all connected with prac- 
tical medicine, which was much benefited by their studies in A. 

The anatomical bibliography of the present century is so extensive and comprehen- 
sive, that a mere mention of the works in general and special departments of the science 
would far exceed the limits of this article. 

Among'the well-known contributors to the literature of Embryological and Compara- 
tive A., may be mentioned the names of Owen, Huxley, Allen Thompson, F. M. Bal- 
four, and Michael Foster, in England. 

In Germany, 8. Strikker, S. L. Schenk, Albert M. Koélhker, His, Kupfer, Kobhl- 
mann, and Gegenbauer. 

Gegenbauer’s Comparative Anatomy (Eng. Trans.). Balfour and Foster. Elements 
of Embryology, etc., 1874, and Balfour’s Comparative Embryology (London, 80-’81) are 
all standard works on the subjects named. 

In the department of the A. of the nervous system, the older works of Tiedmann 
1816, Reichert, 59-61, Schmidt and Lockhart Clark, 1862, are wellknown. Besides this 
much has beeu furnished to the advancement of this important part of the subject, by 
the writings of His, ’79, Lowe, ’80, Schwalbe, ’81. 

Among the many works on A. which can be confidently recommended to the student, 
are the following: Gray’s Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical (American ed., 87) ; 
Quain’s Anatomy, 2 vols.—Leidy, Treatise on Human Anatomy ; Allen’s System of 
Human Anatomy; Ellis’s Demonstrations on Anatomy ; Holden’s Osteology ; Morris, 
Anatomy of Joints ; Holden’s Guide to the Dissection of the Human Body ; Treves, 
Surgical Applied Anatomy; Macalister, A Teat Book of Anatomy (1890); Weisse, 
Text Book of Practical Anatomy ; Tillaux, Anatomie Topographique; Heule, Grun- 
driss der Anat. des Menschen; Hyitl, Yopographische Anatomie; Gegenbauer, Anat. 
des Menschen; Ridinger, Topograph. Anat.; Joessel, Topog. Chirurgische Anat. ; 
Nuher, Praktische Anat. ; Roser, Topograph.-Chirurg.,; also the works by Merkel, 
Schmidt, Schwalbe, Henke, Hartmann, and Langer. 


ANATRON (through Arabic al natrun from Gk., natron, soda), spume or glass-gall, a 
scum which rises upon melted glass, in the furnace, and when taken off, becomes liquid 
in the air, and then hardens into common salt. The term is also applied to the salt 
which collects on the walls of vaults. 


ANAXAG'ORAS, one of the most eminent philosophers of the Ionic school, was b. 
at Clazomene, in Ionia, 500 B.c. ‘He belonged to a wealthy and distinguished family, 
which circumstance may have enabled him to devote himself exclusively to intellectual 
pursuits. Yet he does not seem to have entered into the possession of his property, but 
left it to his relations. When only 20 years of age, he went to Athens, where, in 
the course of time, he acquired a high reputation, and had several illustrious pupils, 
among whom were Pericles, Euripides, Socrates, and Archelaus. But at last, being 
accused of impiety towards the gods, he was condemned to death. His sentence, how- 
ever, was commuted into banishment for life, through the eloquence of Pericles. He 
withdrew to Lampsacus on the Hellespont, where he died in the 78d year of his age. 
The old man was accustomed to say proudly, in his exile: ‘‘It is not I who have lost 
the Athenians, but the Athenians who have lost me.” When on his death-bed, the 
magistrates of the town asked what funeral honors he desired; ‘‘Give the boys a hdéli- 
day,” was the quaint reply of the sage; and for several centuries the day of his death 
was commemorated in all the schools of Lampsacus. 

It is not easy to ascertain what were the opinions of A. in philosophy. Fragments 
merely of his works have been preserved, and even these are sometimes contradictory. 
Of one thing we are certain, that he had a deeper knowledge of physical laws than any 
of his predecessors or contemporaries. The absurdities of opinion which are attributed 
to him are no proof of the contrary, for, in his time, any attempt to explain even a 

- moderate number of the phenomena of nature was sure to-be attended with what every- 


A archus. 
A nGGRrare 424 


body now sees to be extravagant fictions, He believed the heavens to be a solid vault; 
the stars to be stones thrown up from the earth by some violent convulsion, and set on 
fire by the ether which ever burns in the upper regions of the universe; the milky-way 
to be the shadow of the earth; that the soul had an aérial body; that the sun was a 
burning mass of stone, larger than the Peloponnesus. But he also arrived at some 
tolerably accurate conclusions regarding the cause of the moon’s light, of the rainbow, 
of wind, and of sound. His great contribution to ancient philosophy, however, was his 
doctrine as to the origin of all things. He held that all matter existed originally in the 
condition of atoms; that these atoms, infinitely numerous, and infinitely divisible, had 
existed from all eternity, and that order was first produced out of this infinite chaos of 
minutise through the influence and operation of an eternal intelligence (Gr. nous). He 
also maintained that all bodies were simply aggregations of these atoms, and that a bar 
of gold, or iron, or copper, was composed of inconceivably minute particles of the same 
material; but he did not allow that objects had taken their shape through accident or 
blind fate, but through the agency of this ‘‘ shaping spirit” or Nous, which he described 
as infinite, self-potent, and unmixed with anything else. ‘‘ Nous,” he again says, ‘‘is 
the most pure and subtle of all things, and has all knowledge about all things, and 
infinite power.” A.’s theory is thus only one step from pure theism. He makes the 
work of the Eternal commence with providence, not with creation. 

The fragments of A. have been collected by Schaubach (Leipsic, 1827), and by Schorn 
(Bonn, 1829). 


ANAXAR'CHUS, of Abdera. He was with Alexander in the Asian expedition, and 
is supposed to have been a friend and counselor, checking the conqueror’s vainglory, 
and consoling his grief when he had slain Clitus. 


ANAXIMAN’DER, a Greek mathematician and philosopher, the son of Praxiades, and 
the disciple and friend of Thales, was b. at Miletus 610 B.c., and d. in 546. His prin- 
cipal study was mathematics. He is said to have discovered the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, and certainly taught it. He appears to have applied the gnomon, or style set on 
a horizontal plane, to determine the solstices and equinoxes. ‘The invention of geo- 
graphical maps is also ascribed to him. As a philosopher, he speculated on the origin 
(arche) of the phenomenal world, and this principle he held to be the infinite or indeter- 
minate (to apeiron). This indeterminate principle of A. is generally supposed to have 
been much the same with the chaos of other philosophers. From it he conceived all 
opposites, such as hot and cold, dry and moist, to proceed through a perpetual motion, 
and to return to it again. Of the manner in which he imagined these opposites to be 
formed, and of his hypothesis concerning the formation of the heavenly bodies from 
them, we have no accurate information. It would seem, however, that he did not believe 
in the generation of anything in the proper sense of the word, but supposed that the 
infinite atoms or units of which the wrche, or primary matter, is composed, merely change 
their relative positions in obedience to a moving power residing in it. Some of his 
particular opinions were that the sun is in the highest region of the heavens, is in 
circumference 28 times greater than the earth, and resembles a cylinder from 
which flow continual streams of fire; that eclipses are caused by the stopping of the 
openings from which the fire flows; that the moon is also a cylinder, 19 times 
greater than the earth; and that the moon’s phases are caused by obliquity of position, 
and eclipses by complete turning round. He taught that the earth is of the form of a 
cylinder, and that it floats in the midst of the universe, that it was formed by the drying 
up of moisture by the sun, and that animals are produced from moisture. 


ANAXIM’ENES, a Greek philosopher, b. at Miletus, flourished about 556 B.c. He 
held air to be the first cause of all things, or the primary form of matter, from which all 
things are formed by compression. 


ANAXIM INES, a Greek historian, b. in Lampsacus, Asia Minor. in the 4th c. B.c.; 
a pupil of Zoilus and Diogenes; said to have taught Alexander rhetoric, and to have 
accompanied him in the Persian expedition. He wrote histories of Philip of Macedon, 
of Alexander, and of Greece, of which a few fragments exist. 


AN'BURY, a disease to which turnips are liable, and which often proves of serious 
importance to farmers, destroying the crop of entire fields. It is sometimes called club- 
root, because of the knobs or tubercular excrescences which form upon the root. The 
root, instead of swelling into one turnip of good size, generally becomes divided into a 
number of parts, each in some small degree swelling separately by itself ; whence the 
popular name, fingers and toes, See TURNIP. 


ANCACH’, the n. w. department of Peru, between the Andes and the Pacific; about 
17,405 sq. miles; pop. about 284,000; productive in cereals, sugar, and cotton. Marble 
and minerals abound. The capital is Huaras, in an extensive and populous valley. 
Other cities are Huaylas, Santa, Huari, Cajatombo, Panabamba,. and Pallaca, each the 
capital of a province of the same name. Through the passes in this department the 
Colombian army of the war of independence made its wonderful march to fall upon 
the Spanish forces at Junin. 


A 
425 Rageutdvaae 


ANCAS'TE, a t. of the Argentine Republic, 8. A., in the province of Catamarca, 23 m, 
n.e. from Catamarca. Pop. about 8000. 


ANCELOT, JAcQquES-ARSENE-POLYCARPE-FRANGOIS, a French poet, b. Feb. 9, 1794, 
at Havre, where his father was cierk of the chamber of commerce. The latter being a 
well-informed gentleman, delighting in verse, early taught his son to recite passages 
from the French poets. A. was from the first intended for active life in connection 
with the administration of the navy; and was employed, until the revolution of July, 
in the government service. His reputation was first established in 1819 by his tragedy 
of Louis [X., which was played fifty nights in succession, and procured him a pension 
of 2000 francs from the king. His next piece, The Mayor of the Palace (1823), was not 
so well received. In 1824, appeared his Fvesque, a work which exhibited the great skill 
of the author in adapting a masterpiece of Schiller to the French stage. In 1825, he 
gave to the world an epic poem in six cantos, Marie de Brabant; and in 1827, a clever 
and graceful work, partly prose and partly verse, entitled Sia Months in Russia; besides 
a novel in four volumes, Zhe Man of the World. Olga, a drama, was published in 1828; 
and Hilizabeth of England in 1829. Both of these works were highly successful, though 
neither met with the brilliant reception of Louis IX. In 1834 appeared Les Hmprunts 
aux Salons de Paris. 'The revolution of July deprived him of his pension, and also of his 
situation as librarian of Meuden; and for the next ten years he was compelled to support 
himself and family by the concoction of numberless vaudevilles, dramas, comedies, anec- 
dotes, etc., sometimes of very questionable morality. In 1841, the French academy 
chose him as the successor of Bonaid. Shortly after appeared his Familiar Letters (Hpitres 
Familiéres), a cellection of satires as remarkable for freshness of epigram as for grace 
of style and richness of versification. In 1848, he published La Rue—Quincampoir. 
He died Sept. 7, 1854. 

A’s chef-@euvre, Louis IX., is a work of genius; the versification is correct, ele- 
gant, and harmonious; the manners and characters of the period are delineated with 
great fidelity and brilliancy; the plot is skilfully constructed; and some of the scenes 
are contrived with singular felicity. 


ANCELOT, MARGUERITE LOUISE VIRGINIE CHARDON, 1792-1875, a French novelist 
and dramatist, wife of Jacques A. She greatly aided her husband in his dramas, and 
produced several comedies of her own, in all 20 plays, besides many novels which were 
popular. She was also an amateur painter. In 1828 she exhibited Un Lecture de M. 
Ancelot, which was much talked about for its portraits of Parisian celebrities. 


ANCESTORS, WorsutP or, the chief element in the religions of perhaps the larger 
portion of mankind. It arises naturally from the primitive conception of asoul animat- 
ing the body and exercising influence over it, and after death retaining its power, contin- 
uing into the unseen world the life and social relations of the living world. The dead 
chief now passes into a deity, goes on protecting his clan and receiving service from it, 
and continues to keep the same temper as in life, so that it is not mere family affection 
but actual fear that impels this reverence among the North American Indians, the 
Ancient Aztecs, the Negroes in Guinea, the natives of Polynesia, and especially among 
the Zulus, who conquer in battle with the help of the ‘‘amatongo,” the spirits of their 
ancestors. 

The worship of Ancestors is really a subdivision of animism (q.v.). The spirits of the 
dead are assimilated to the spirits that reside in the objects of nature, at first revered 
like them, then more than them. Where direct worship of the objects of nature unfolds 
itself into a rich mythology, as among races highly endowed with the speculative and 
esthetic faculties, such as the ancient Greeks, animism and the worship of ancestors 
develop but feebly. But where, as in China, mythology remains barren, or where, as 
among savages, it never gets beyond the embryonic stage, there animism prevails, 
and along with it the worship of ancestors. In Chinait is the dominant religion. Ances- 
tors have their temples and ticir offerings, and remain so present that the virtues or the 
crimes of their descendants are always considered in relation to them, as covering them 
with honor or infamy. The Hindu pays his offerings to the pztrzs or divine manes, and 
looks to them for success and happiness. In Europe the most conspicuous example was 
the usage of the ancient Romans, whose manes or ancestral deities were embodied as 
images, set up as household patrons, and appeased with offerings. They were counted 
among the gods of the lower world, and tombs were inscribed D. M. “ Diis Manibus.” 
The universality of ancestor-worship has led Herbert Spencer to the opinion that it was 
the origin of religion everywhere. His view isa kind of revival of the old Euhemerism 
(q.v.). He argues that all religious beliefs arose out of the erroneous conclusions drawn 
by primitive man from the ill-understood facts of his own nature, especially in the phe- 
nomena of sleep and dreams. These have to the savage as much objective reality as 
those he sees when awake. This primitive conception finds support in the facts of 
syncope, apoplexy, catalepsy, and other forms of temporary insensibility. During 
these his ‘‘ double,’ the soul, has, he believes, been actually absent from the body. 
These ideas applied to death, which is merely a lengthened sleep or prolonged absence, 
have engendered the idea of an awakening following regularly after death. Hence, 
primitive funeral rites assume that the dead can eat, drink, and fight anew, and act in 
everything like a living man. Upon this conception of the state of the dead, in Spencer's 


Anchises, 496 
Anchorage, 


view, the savage man’s idea of another life is grafted. A future life assumes another 
world, a region of souls, located at first near the place of burial, afterwards above, 
below, and around the living world. These disembodied souls are ordinarily invisible, 
but are able to manifest themselves from time to time. Hence arises, naturally, the idea 
that things extraordinary or exceptional are caused by the action of the dead spirits. 
Since these disembodied spirits still continue influential for good or evil, it is wise to 
conduct ourselves in such a way as to conciliate their good-will and to deprecate their 
wrath. 

This argument, however, fails to account for many of the facts, and its fundamental 
negation may be questioned, that primitive man is incapable of taking the inanimate and 
impersonal for the animate and the personal. He forgets that the savage man is full 
of imagination, and that he is constantly personifying. Mr. Spencer’s theory does not, 
explain the analogies between myths among races of the most widely different degrees 
of civilization, nor the difference in the degree of divinity between the first and later 
ancestors, nor why the dead man has more power for good or evil than he had when 
alive. See Tylor’s Primitive Culture ; Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Sociology : 
Caspari, Die Urgeschichte der Menschheitt. 


ANCHI'SES, in legend, the son of Capys and Themis, the founder of Ilium ; fro 
many indications supposed to have come from Assyria. Venus was enamored of hig 
beauty, and by him became the mother of Aineas, whose maternity A. was not to dis- 
close ; but he did so, and was killed by a bolt from Jupiter—some say only blinded. His 
son bore him on his shoulders, fleeing at the destruction of Troy, and he is heard of 
in Italy, Sicily, and elsewhere. There was a grave on Mt. Ida said to be his, and he 
had a sanctuary at Egesta, in Sicily. 

ANCHITHE’RIUM, an extinct quadruped of the miocene, now thought to represent 
a genus distinct from but analogous to the horse. The shaft of the ulna is complete and 
separate from the radius ; the fibula and tibia are attached ; the short crowns of the molars 
lack cement, and the teeth are inserted by distinct fangs. The foot has three digits, the 
middle being largest, and all reach the ground. 


ANCHOR. A device for securing a vessel to the ground under water by means of a 
cable. Many forms of anchor were made by the ancients; some were merely large 
stones, others crooked pieces of wood weighted, to make them sink in the water, the 
earlier ones acting mainly as weights and holding the vessel by their own inertia instead 
of hooking into the ground. The Greeks are credited with having used the first cron 
anchor. As originally made the anchor had only one fluke, or arm, for penetrating the 
ground, but a second was afterwards added ; it had no stock, or transverse piece, and 
was on that account ill suited for insuring a firm grip into the ground when lowered. 
The Greek vessels had several anchors, one of which, called the ‘‘sacred anchor,” was ~ 
never let go until the ship was in dire distress. The number of working anchors 
furnished both men-of-war and merchant vessels is two, culled the starboard and port 
bowers ; if one should be somewhat heavier than the other, it is sometimes designated 
as the best bower. In addition there are other anchors called sheet-anchors, which are 
generally somewhat heavier than the bowers, and are only used in cases of emergency. 
The smaller anchors are known as stream anchors, kedges, and grapnels, or boat anchors. 
Anchors are generally made of iron, and consist of a strong shank or main supporting 
piece, at the upper end of which is a ving or shackle, and just below the ring a trans. 
verse piece called the stock ; the other extremity is called the crown, from which branch 
out two arms or blades in directions making a right angle to that of the stock ; each arm 
spreads out into a broad palm or fluke, the sharp extremity of which is called the peak 
or bili. Allof these parts bear special relation to the fast-holding of the anchor in the 
ground. When the anchor is let go from the cat-head the crown first strikes the bottom ; 
it then falls over in such a manner that one end of the stock rests upon the bottom, and 
the subsequent movements of the ship and the cable cause one or other of the flukes to 
dig vertically into the bottom and maintain a firm hold. On the firmness of this gripe 
depends the safe anchoring of the ship, and the sizes of all the different parts of the 
anchor, as well as the curve of the arms and flukes, are calculated with direct reference 
to this condition. The most favorable angle between the face of the flukes near their 
extremities and the shank has been found to be about 45°, that is, the planes of the two 
flukes should lie approximately at right angles to each other. The manufacture of 
anchors furnished, until steam hammers came into use, the most formidable exemplifi. 
cation of smith’s work anywhere presented on account of the great dimensions and 
weight of iron which had to be welded into one mass. The anchor-smiths wielded the 
most ponderous sledge-hammers known to our artisans, and the services of a large 
number were needed to weld the metal while in the heated and yielding state. 

The government anchor shops are now located at the navy-yard, Boston, Mass., 
where the cables are also made. Many improvements and novelties in the shape and 
construction of anchors have been introduced in recent times. The stock, formerly of 
wood, gave way to iron, and that in turn has, in some patent anchors, been entirely 
removed. The principal names connected with the newer types are those of Lieut. 
Rodgers, who introduced the hollow-shanked anchors, with the view of increasing the 
strength without adding to the weight; Mr. Porter, who made the arms and flukeg 


427 Anchises. 
a Anchorage, 


movable by pivoting them to the shank, instead of fixing them immovably, causing the 
anchor to take a readier and firmer hold and avoiding the danger of fouling the cable; 
Mr. Trotman, who has further improved Porter’s invention, and M. Martin, whose 
anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so as to be self-canting, the arms 
revolving through an angle of 80° either way, and the sharp points of the flukes being 
always ready to enter the ground; the stock is also bent and adds considerably to the 
resistance of the anchor. Tyzack’s anchor has only one arm, pivoted on a bifurcation 
of the shank and arranged to swing between the two parts. Mitchell’s screw-anchors 
are very powerful screws made use of for mooring purposes. They havea broad flange 
nearly four feet in diameter which, when entered into the ground, presents a resistance 
equal to that of ten square feet. This is not much greater than that of an ordinary 
anchor, but the screw type is less liable to be fouled by other ground tackle. 

The Inglefield and Lenox patent double-holding anchor, which has been approved 
by the English Admiralty for use in the naval service, was invented with the special 
object of supplying all descriptions of vessels with an anchor on the ‘‘ two-arm-hold- 
ing” principle, which may be relied upon for quick and efficient holding at both long 
and short scope of cable in all kinds of anchorage. The great improvement in this 
anchor lies in the construction and position of the canting or tipping piece. This is 
placed beyond instead of under the head of the anchor, consequently the anchor cannot 
rest upon it ; but it depresses the arms, bringing them into position to take the ground 
not only by their own weight, but by the whole weight of the anchor. Should the 
anchor be let go in soft ground into which it could sink rapidly, leaving the arms or 
flukes in an upward position, as soon as a strain came upon the cable it would be im- 
parted to the shank, the first movement of which would cause the arms to fall and take 
firm hold of the ground. These anchors stow flat on vessels’ bows, clearing the prows 
of iron-clad rams ; there is no possibility of the cable fouling ; they are certain of hold- 
ing, and of comparatively cheap construction. They can also be used without a stock 
so as to draw up to the hawse-hole if desired. A stockless anchor, known as the Dunn 
anchor, designed by Lieutenant Dunn of the U. 8. Navy, is being quite generally used 
by the new men-of-war. It is made of cast steel and has only three principal parts—the 
shank, the pin, and the combined crown and flukes. ‘These last rotate on the pin joining 
them to the shank head, and are so constructed that if the pin breaks the anchor will 
still hold and perform its functions, while the shank cannot draw out and the anchor be 
lost in consequence. When let go from a ship the anchor on striking the bottom 
‘* bites” immediately after strain is brought upon the chain, irrespective of the position 
in which it strikes, owing to the shape of its crown. Having no stock, and both flukes 
engaging atonce, it can never foul the chain, nor is it possible for the ship in shoal 
water to ground on her own anchor, an accident not uncommon with older types. There 
is no stock, so that the anchor can be hove up snugly into the hawse-pipe. It can stow 
on the rail if vessels are not fitted for carrying it in the hawse-pipe, and while there 
presents no protruding arms or other parts likely to foul ropes or interfere with 
firing the guns. It is also lighter than other types of equal efficiency. <A floating, or 
sea-anchor, is an apparatus variously constructed, designed to be sunk below the swell 
of the sea where there is no anchorage to prevent a vessel from drifting. A mooring 
anchor is a large heavy mass, usually of iron, placed at the bottom of a harbor or road- 
stead for the purpose of securing a buoy or of affording safe and convenient anchorage 
to vessels. In the latter case a floating buoy, to which a ship may readily and speedily 
be secured by a cable, is fastened to it by a chain. A mushroom anchor is an anchor 
with a saucer-shaped head on a central shank used for mooring. Mushrooms are also 
used without a shank, the cable ring being on the outer portion or crown of the saucer, 
so that when on the bottom the suction added to the weight gives additional holding 
power. An anchor is said to be fow/ when the cable is wound around it ; cockbilled, when 
suspended vertically from the cat-head ; apeak, when the cable is so tight that the anchor 
is under the ship ; atrip or aweigh, when it is just pulled out of the holding ground, and 
awash when the stock is hove up to the surface of the water, a term applied to the 
iron and masonry used in holding the ends of the cables of suspension bridges and other 
similar structures. 


ANCHORAGE—ANCHOR-GROUN D. The terms in general mean that portion of a har- 
bor or roadstead best suited for anchoring vessels. It is marked on the charts with an 
anchor, so that a stranger on first entering will know where to find the best holding 
ground for his anchors. The matter is generally in charge of an official known as the 
harbor master. The anchorage of vessels in the port of New York was made a matter 
of congressional action and has been placed in the hands of the officers of the Revenue 
Marine, who are empowered and directed in cases of necessity, or when proper notice 
has been disregarded, to use the force at their command to remove from the channel- 
ways any vessel found violating the rules. The owner, master, or person in charge of 
such offending vessel is liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars, which if not paid 
renders the vessel liable to seizure. There are anchorages for vessels in the East river, 
Hudson River, Upper Bay, off Governor’s Island, Staten Island, and in Sandy Hook bay, 
which are well defined and leave ample room about the pier-heads, ferry-slips, and places 
frequented by excursion steamers. Points where cables and water-pipes cross are clearly 


Anchorites. 9 
Ancona. 428 


marked, so that vessels will not interfere with them. The dumping of ashes from scows 
is not allowed, excepting outside of certain limits, and the direction of such matters is in 
charge of a naval officer whose title is Supervisor of the Port. 


ANCH ORITES, or ANcHORETS (Gr. anachorétai,; literally, persons who withdraw 
from society), the hermits who began to appear in the Christian church in the 3dc., 
living in solitude, and not, like the monks or cenobites, in communities. During the 
first two centuries, Christians generally thought it enough to withdraw from the world 
by refusing to participate in heathen festivals and amusements; but extreme views be- 
came gradually prevalent, and were connected with a belief in the merit of celibacy, of 
abstinence from particular kinds of food, of self-inflicted tortures, etc. The persecutions 
to which Christians were subjected, drove some into the solitude of deserts; afterwards, 
the glory of a life spent in loneliness and austerity became a substitute for that of the 
martyr’s death. The general corruption of society also caused many earnest and well- 
meaning persons to shun it; the Ascetics (see AscETrctsm) set the example of retiring 
from cities to rural districts and villages ; the A. went further, and sought to withdraw 
themselves altogether from mankind ; and if the reputation of sanctity which was con- 
nected with a life of solitude constituted its chief attraction to some, there can be no 
doubt that many chose it in the hope of thereby attaining to real sanctity. Many of the 
A. voluntarily subjected themselves to the vicissitudes of the weather, without proper 
habitation or clothing, restricted themselves to coarse and scanty fare, wore chains and 
iron rings, and even throughout many years maintained painful postures, such as 
standing on the top of a pillar (see PrnuaR Sarnrs), thus displaying an earnestness 
which greater enlightenment might have advantageously directed to the good of man- 
kind, Saint Antony (q.v.) was one of the first and most celebrated A. The A. were not 
always able to preserve their solitude unbroken. The fame of their sanctity drew many 
to visit them; their advice was often sought; and the number of their visitors was much 
increased by the belief that diseases, particularly mental diseases, were cured by their 
blessing. Sometimes, also, they returned for a short time to the midst of their fellow- 
men to deliver warnings, instructions, or encouragements, and were received as if they 
had been inspired prophets or angels from heaven. The number of A., however, 
gradually diminished, and the religious life of convents was preferred to that of the 
hermitage. The western church, indeed, at no time abounded in A. like the eastern, and 
perhaps the reason may in part be found in the difference of climate, which renders a 
manner of life impossible in most parts of Europe that could be pursued for many years 
in Egypt or Syria. 

ANCHOR WATCH, a portion of the watch constantly on deck while the ship is at 
single anchor, ready to attend to the anchor, let go another, set head-sails, and the like, 
as required. 


ANCHO'VY, Fngraulis enchrasicholus, a small fish, abent a span long, much esteemed 
for its rich and peculiar flavor. It is not much longer than the middle finger, thicker in 
proportion than the herring, to which it has a general resemblance; the head is sharp. 
pointed, and the under jaw much shorter than the upper; the scales large, silvery, and 
easily removed, the tail deeply forked. It is occasionally found on the British coasts, 
and is said to be not at all uncommon on the coast of Cornwall in the latter part of 
summer and beginning of autumn. It would seem to have been formerly more abun- 
dant than it now is in the British seas, as several acts of parliament, of the reign of 
William and Mary, regulated the A. fisheries. It occurs on the coasts of the Baltic and 
of Greenland, and abounds in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Spain, 
Portugal, and France, where extensive and very productive fisheries are carried on, par- 
ticularly in the months of May, June, and July, when the shoals of anchovies leave the 
deep seas, and approach the shores for the purpose of spawning. They are fished during 
the night, and are attracted to the boats by fires. They are salted in small barrels, and 
are much used for sauces, etc. The Romans made from them a highly valued sauce 
called garwum.—Sardines (q.v.) are often sold as anchovies.—The genus engraulis belongs 
to the clupetdw, the herring family, and it was formerly included in elwpea. Three 
species are found in North American Atlantic waters, and four on the Pacific side. Ali the 
species are small, and most of them tropical. HH. brownzi is used for making a delicious 
condiment called red fish in India. 


ANCHOVY PEAR, Grias cauliflora, a tree, the only known species of a genus some- 
what doubtfully referred by Lindley to his order barringioniacee (more generaliy 
regarded asa sub-order of myrtacew, q.v.). It grows in boggy places in the mountainous 
districts of Jamaica and other West Indian islands, attains a height of 50 ft., and has 
great oblong leaves 2 or3 ft. in length. The flowers are numerous, on short pedun- 
cles, large and whitish, the corolla consisting of four petals, and the calyx 4-cleft. 
The fruit is an ovate drupe, crowned with the persistent calyx, the stone marked with 
eight ridges. This fruit is pickled and eaten like the East Indian mango, which it much 
resembles in taste. 


ANCHUSA. See ALKANET. 
ANCHYLO’SIS. See ANKYLOSIS. 


‘1 


Anchorite 
4929 Ancona. . 


ANCIENNE LORETTE, a Canadian village, 7 m. w.s.w. of Quebec ; pop. est. 2500 ; 
the last refuge of the Huron Indians after their defeat at lake Huronin 1650. A remnant 
of the race still exists in the village. 


ANCIENT ORDEROFHIBERNIANS, See AssociaTIONS, SECRET AND BENEVOLENT 


ANCIENTS, COUNCIL OF, one of the two assemblies composing the French legis 
lature in 1795-99, _There were 250 members, none less than 40 years old. It was dis- 
solved at the overthrow of the directory by Napoleon. 


ANCIL’LON, a French family who, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
migrated from Metz into Prussia.—Davip A. studied theology at Geneva, was afterwards 
pastor of the French Reformed colony at Hanau, and d. in Berlin in 1692.—CHaAr ius, 
son of the former, was b. at Metz, July 28, 1659, and d. in Berlin, July 5, 1715. 
He is known by his writings: [’lrrévocabilité de 0 Edit de Nantes (1688), and Histoire de 
? Htablissement des Francais Refugés dans les Etats de Brandenbourg (1690).—Lovuis 
FREDERICK, grandson of Charles A., was b. in Berlin 1740, and d. there as pastor 
of the French congregation in 1814. His son FREDERICK, who rose to be a minister of 
state in Prussia, was b. in Berlin, April 30, 1767. In 1792, he was appointed professor 
of history in the military academy of Berlin, and afterwards royal historiographer, a 
post to which he had recommended himself by his work, Tableau des Révolutions du 
Systeme Politique del Hurope depuis le 15™° Siecle (4 vols., Berlin, 1803-1805). In 1814, he 
took an administrative post under Hardenberg, and, in 1818, held a very prominent 
position under Count von Bernstorff. In 1830, when the July revolution occurred in 
France, he assisted the measures of king Frederick William III. for the preservation of 
peace in Europe. While, like the politicians of Austria, he argued that ‘‘all should be 
done for the people, but nothing dy the people,” he also contended for the necessity of 
progressive reforms in legislation, in order to prevent all violent collisions between 
government and popular opinion. His private life was simple and unostentatious. 
Though thrice married, he left no children. <A. d. April 19, 1887. His various writings 
on politics, philosophy, and literature are chiefly devoted to an exposition of the prin- 
ciples by which he was guided as a statesman. 

ANCK’ARSTROEM. See ANKARSTROM. 

ANCON (Gk., the bent arm), as a term of anatomy, denotes the olecranon or elbow, 
the larger posterior process at the upper end of the ulna. The term has other applica- 
tions, e. g., it is applied to an elbow or angle or corner-stone, or to the corners or quoins 
of walls, cross-beams, or rafters. It denotes also a bracket supporting a cornice as of 
doorways, frequently used merely as an ornament, as on the keystone of an arch, and 
called also console (q. v.). 

ANCO’NA, a province of Italy, bounded on the north by the Adriatic Sea and the 
province of Pesaro-Urbino, on the south by Macerata, and on the east by the Adriatic. 
Its surface is mountainous. Its area is 762 sq. m., and its estimated pop. in 1894 was 
273,941. 

ANCO’NA, the capital of the province in Italy, of the same name, lat. 48° 38’ n., and 
long. 18° 35’ e. It is situated on a promontory of the Adriatic coast, and, rising in the 
form of an amphitheater, presents a picturesque appearance from the sea. It is the seat 
of a bishop, and contained (1893) 55,000 inhabitants. The harbor was greatly improved 
in 1887, and is now available for large vessels. It is enclosed by moles and defended 
by forts. The commerce is much less considerable than it once was, though, in that 
respect, it is still one of the most important places on the Adriatic. Corn, and woolen 
and silk goods, oils, sulphur, alum, fruits, etc., are the chief exports. It manufactures 
flour, macaroni, ships’ rigging, tobacco, and leather. A mole of 2000 feet in length, built 
by the emperor Trajan, and a triumphal arch of the same emperor are the most notable 
monuments of antiquity. There are some fine public buildings. One of the most ven- 
erable of these is the cathedral of St. Cyriac, built in the 10th c., and possessing the 
oldest cupula in Italy. But the houses are in general mean, and the streets narrow. 
A. is supposed to have been founded by Syracusans who had fied from the tyranny of 
Dionysius the elder. It was destroyed by the Goths, rebuilt by Narses, and again de- 
stroyed by the Saracens in the 10th century. It afterwards became a republic; but in 
1532 Pope Clement VII. annexed it to the states of the church. In 1798 it was taken 
by the French, but in 1799 Gen. Meunier was obliged to surrender it to the Russians and 
Austrians after a long and gallant defence. Since 1815.the citadel has been the only 
fortification. When the Austrian troops in 1831 occupied the Roman frontiers, whose 
inhabitants were then in a state of insurrection, the French ministry determined to 
neutralize the influence of Austria. A French squadron appeared before the harbor, 
and landed 1500 men, who took possession of the town on the 22d Feb., 1832, without 
any resistance, the citadel capitulating on the 25th. It remained in their hands till 1838, 
when both French and Austrians retired from the Papal states. In 1849 a revolutionary 
garrison in A. capitulated after enduring a siege by the Austrians of 25 days. 

ANCO’NA, ALESSANDRO D’, Italian philologist and critical writer, born in Pisa, 
1835. He was active in politics during the exciting period which preceded the war of 
Italian independence, but after the peace of Villafranca he retired from political life. 
He wrote many works, among which may be mentioned Zhe Precursors of Dante (1874), 
Orijsins of the Theatre in Italy (1877), Lialian Popular Poetry (1878), and other works on 
Italian literature and Romance philology. 


Ancona. 480 


Andelys. 


ANCONA, CrrrAco, an Italian traveler; b. 1890; d. 1450. 


ANCONE. Sce ANCON. 
ANCONOID. A mathematical term applied to a process of the cubit. 


ANCON SIN SALIDA. A deep narrow bay wlLich stretches across the southern ex- 
tremity of the Andes from the Pacific. 


ANCONY. A technical term of iron manufacturing, applied to a bar of half-wrought 
iron. 


ANCO’RA (Italian). The same as the French word encore (again), and used in de- 
manding the repetition of a song, for which, however, the French use the word dis 
(twice), 

AN'CRE, Concrno Concint, BARon DE Lussieny, Marshal d’,a Florentine by birth, 
who came to the French court in the year 1600, with Maria de’ Medici, the wife of 
Henry LY., and along with his wife, Eleonora Galigai, exercised an unhappy influence 
in promoting the disagreement between the king and queen. When, after Henry’s death, 
the queen became regent, Concini, as her favorite, obtained possession of the reins of 
government; and in 1618, was made a marshal and prime minister. He purchased the 
marquisate of Ancre in Picardy, and took his title from it. He became an object of 
detestation equally to the nobility and the people. A conspiracy was formed against 
him, to which the young king Louis XIII. was himself privy—De Luynes the king’s 
worthless favorite, being one of the conspirators—and he was assassinated in the Louvre 
in open day, on the 24th of April, 1617. His body was privately buried, but was soon 
disinterred by the populace, dragged through Paris, and burned before the statue of 
Henry IV. His wife was soon afterwards accused of witchcraft, which she sarcastically 
repudiated, saying that the only sorcery she had employed to influence the queen was 
“‘the power of a strong mind over a weak one.” The sneer, however, did not save her. 
She was executed, and herson, deprived of rank and property, was driven from the country. 


ANCRUM MOOR, England, 5} miles northwest of Jedburgh (q.v.), was in 1544 the 
scene of the defeat of 5000 English under Sir Ralph Evers and Sir Brian Latoun, by a 
Scottish force under the Earl of Angus and Scott of Buccleuch. A defaced monument 
marks the spot where a Scottish maiden, named Lilliard, is said to have done prodigies 


of valor. 


ANCUS MAR'CIUS, son of Pompilia, daughter of King Numa Pompilius, was the 
fourth king of Rome. Following the example of his grandsire, Numa, he endeavored 
to restore the almost forgotten worship of the gods and the cultivation of the arts of 
peace among the Romans. But, despite his inclination for peace, he was engaged in 
several wars with the neighboring Latin tribes, whom he subdued and reduced to order. 
These Latins, Niebuhr considers to have formed the original plebs. Against the Etrus- 
cans he fortified the Janiculum, connected it with Rome by a wooden bridge, and 
gained possession of both banks of the Tiber, as far as its mouth, where he founded Ostia 
as the port of Rome; he dug what was called ‘‘ the ditch of the Quirites”’—a defense for 
the open space between the Celian hill and Mt. Palatine; and built the first Roman 
prison of which we read, a proof that civilization had really commenced, inasmuch as 
offenses then formally ceased to be regarded as private and personal matters, and were 
treated as crimes against the community. He d. in 614 B.c., after reigning twenty-four 
years. 


A'NCYLUS, A genus of small fresh-water gasteropodous mollusks found in the lakes 
and streams of the United States and Canada. 


ANCY’RA, See ANGORA. 


AN'DA, a genus of plants of the natural order ewphordiacee, the only species of which, 
A. brasiliensis, is a Brazilian tree, with large yellow flowers, and an angular fruit about 
the size of an orange, containing two roundish seeds, like small chestnuts. The seeds 
are called in Brazil purga dos paulistas, are much used medicinally in that country, and 
are more purgative than those of the castor-oil plant. This quality seems to depend upon 
a valuable fixed oil, of which twenty drops are a moderate dose. It is obtained by 
pressure. The bark of the tree, roasted in the fire, is accounted in Brazil a certain 
remedy for diarrhea, brought on by cold. The fresh bark, thrown into ponds, is said 
to stupefy fish. 


ANDABATISM, a term derived from the Latin andabata, a gladiator whose helmet wag 
without openings for the eyes, meaning literally, therefore, blind, uncertain fighting, but 
applied to doubt or uncertainty in general, or to wild, uncertain argument. 


_ANDALU’SIA, or ANDALUCTA, a large and fertile region in the south of Spain, 
lying between 386° 2’ and 38°,39’ n. lat., and 1° 38’ and 7° 20’ w. long. Having 
been overrun by the Vandals, it is supposed by some that they gave it the name of 
Vandalucia or Andalucia; but the real origin of the name is probably <Andalosh, 
the land of the west. It is the Zarshish of the Bible, and was called Tartessus in 


431 Andelys, 


ancient geography. The Romans named it Betica, from the river Beetis (the modern 
Guadalquivir). The Moors founded here a splendid monarchy, which quickly attained 
a high degree of civilization. Learning, art, and chivalry flourished in harmony with 
industry and commerce. The four great Moorish capitals were Seville, Cordova, Jaén, 
and Granada. During the darkness of the middle ages, Cordova was ‘‘ the Athens of the 
west, the seat of arts and sciences;” and later still, under the Spaniards, when ‘‘the sun 
of Raphael set in Italy, painting here arose in a new form in the Velasquez, Murillo, and 
Cano schools of Seville, the finest in the peninsula.” On the n., A. is divided from 
Estremadura and New Castile by the mountain-chains of Aroche, Cordova, and Morena. 
On the e. it is bounded by Murcia, and on the w. by Portugal and the Atlantic. 
The s. coast eastward from Gibraltar is mountainous; the w., where the Guadalquivir 
flows into the Atlantic, is level. A. was esteemed the richest district of Hesperia, 
and its former wealth of produce has been indicated by such names as the ‘‘ garden,” 
the ‘‘ granary,” the ‘‘ wine-cellar,” and the ‘‘ gold-purse” of Spain. But, in the present 
day, such predicates are merited only by comparatively small portions of the hilly 
country on both sides of the Guadalquivir, where, even with careless cultivation, the 
soil is luxuriantly productive. Here wheat and maize ripen in April, and yield abun- 
dantly. Olives and oranges attain their greatest height, and vegetation generally 
assumes a tropical character. Cotton, sugar-cane, Indian figs, and batatas flourish in 
the open air, and the cactus and aloe form impenetrable hedges. Wine and oil abound. 
The botany and mineralogy of A. are very rich. The ranges of the Sierra Nevada are 
composed principally of primary and secondary formations. In the w., towards 
Xenil, cultivation is more sparing, as there is a natural deficiency of water, and the 
artificial means of irrigation formerly employed have fallen into disuse. Nearer to 
the coast lie tracts of land still more barren; and the level strip extending between the 
mouths of the Guadalquivir and the Tinto is covered with moving sands. On the 
whole, A. is still one of the most fertile districts of Spain, owing to its delicious southern 
climate and the abundance of water supplied by its snowy mountains. Its breed of 
horses has long been celebrated, and the mules are superior to those of other countries. 
The Sierra Morena mountains supply the wild cattle exhibited in the bull-fights of 
Madrid. The natural riches of the district have at various times invited colonists and 
invaders, such as the Phcenicians and the Moors. The Andalusians are regarded as 
among the most lively, imaginative, and active people of Spain. But they are also con- 
sidered by the rest of their countrymen to be the Gascons—the braggarts and boasters 
of Spain. Apparently they have never at any time been warlike, since even Livy calls 
them imbelles. They are, like all braggarts, extremely credulous, and are, besides, 
remarkable for their intense superstition. 'The worship of the Virgin prevails to such 
an extent that the very country is called ‘‘the land of the most holy Virgin.” They 
speak a dialect of Spanish mixed with Arabic. A. is divided into the provinces of 
Almeria, Jaén, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordova, and Granada. The chief 
owns are Seville, Cordova, Jaén, Cadiz (q.v.). 


ANDALU'SITE, an anhydrous silicate of alumina, occurring in four-sided prisms, 
distinguished from feldspar by being harder and less fusible. A variety called chiasto- 
lite is found in abundance at South Lancaster, Mass. 


AN'DAMANS, a group of thickly-wooded islands towards the e. side of the bay of 
Bengal, between 10° and 14° of n. lat., and about 93° of e. long. The population is both 
barbarous and scanty, and bears no resemblance whatever either in physical features or 
language to the neighboring Asiatic races. In 1793 the Great Andaman received a 
British colony, which was withdrawn, however, in 1796. Since 1857, the A. have been 
a penal settlement for sepoy mutineers and other criminals. In 1872, lord Mayo, gover. 
nor-general of India, was assassinated here by one of the convicts. It is physically, 
however, that the A. deserve mention, not for anything in themselves, but from their 
being a portion of the long arch, mostly volcanic, of the Indian archipelago, which, 
with Timor at its bend, comprises the Moluccas, Celebes, the Philippines, and Formosa, 
on the one side; and on the other side the Sunda isles, Java, Sumatra, the Nicobars, and 
the A.—the outline only requiring to be filled up in imagination, in order to produce a 
peninsula harmonizing more or less with the other southern projections of the world, 
Hindostan, Africa, and South America. 


ANDAN'TE (Italian), in music, implies a movement somewhat slow and sedate, but 
in a gentle and soothing style. This term is often modified, both as to time and style, 
by the addition of other words—as A. affettwoso, slow, but pathetically; A. cantabdile, 
Slow, but in a singing style; A. con moto, slow, but with emotion; A. grazioso, slow, but 
gracefully; A. maestoso, slow, with majesty; A. non troppo, slow, but not too much s0; 
A. pastorale, slow, and with pastoral simplicity, 


ANDELYS, LES, at. in the department of Eure, France, 20 m.n.e. of Evreux. It 
consists of Grand and Petit A. The former dates from the 6th c., and has a collegiate 
church with wonderful stained-glass windows. Petit A. clusters around chateau Gail 
lard, built by Richard Cour de Lion in 1195, and once one of the strongholds of 
France. The chief trade is in cloth. Thereare thread and leather manufactures. Pop 
about 4000. 


Andennes. 
Anderson, 4 3 2 


ANDENNES, a t. of Belgium, in the province of Namur, 10 m. e. from Namur, and 
nearly 2m.s. fromthe Maas. It has manufactures of paper, porcelain, and tobacco-pipes, 
for the last of which it is particularly famous. Cotton-spinning, bleaching, and other 
branches of industry are also prosecuted. There are beds of pipe-clay, quarries of 
marble, and lead, iron, and coal mines in the neighborhood. Pop. about 7000. 


ANDERAB’, or INDERAB, a t. in the Afghan portion of Turkestan, on the northern 
slope of the Hindu Kush mountains, and on the right or northern bank of the Anderak 
or Inderab river, a branch of the Ghori or Kunduz, itself a branch of the Jihun, 80 m. 
s.s.e. from Kunduz. It is surrounded by gardens, orchards, and vineyards. It is aprin- 
cipal entrepét of commerce between Persia and Indta. Pop. supposed to be about 6500. 


AN’DERLECHT, a t. in Belgium, 2 miles s. of Brussels; pop. 32,200. Here, Nov. 13, 
1792, Dumouriez defeated the Austrians. 


ANDERLO NI, Faustino, 1766-1847; an engraver of Padua. Among his works are 
a portrait of Herder, a Magdalen after Correggio, anda Holy Family, after Poussin. 


ANDERLO'NI, Pierro, 1784-1849 ; brother of Faustino; an Italian engraver, pupil 
of his father, and director of the Longhi school in Milan. His best pieces are ‘‘The 
Woman taken in Adultery,” after Titian; ‘‘The Virgin,” after Raphael; ‘‘ Moses and 
Jethro’s Daughter,” after Poussin, and portraits of Da Vinci, Canova, and Peter the Great. 


AN’DERNACH, a little t. belonging to the district of Coblenz on the Rhine, in lat. 50° 
247 n., long. 7° 25’ e., was once a Roman fortress styled Antunnacum, then a residence 
of the Merovingian kings, and afterwards became one of the most flourishing places on 
the Rhine. The great tower on the n. side, the fine old church—with one tower built 
in the Carlovingian times—and the old gates and walls, give quite a medieval aspect to 
the town. It now contains about 5300 people, supported by trade in leather, wine, and 
corn, and is especially celebrated for its millstones, exported to distant parts of the world, 
and for its tujfstein or trass, an indurated volcanic mud, which, when pulverized and 
mixed with lime, makes a mortar or cement for constructions under water. 


ANDERSEN, Hans Curist1An, one of the most gifted poets that Denmark has recently 
produced, was b. April 2, 1805, at Odense in Funen, His father was a poor shoemaker, 
who used, however, to console himself by speaking of the former prosperity and wealth 
of his family. After his father’s death, he was for a short time employed in a manufac- 
tory. The widow of Bunkeflod, a poet of some reputation, charitably adopted him. He 
early displayed a talent for poetry, and was known in his native place as ‘‘ the comedy- 
writer.”’ Hoping to obtain an engagement in the theater, he went to Copenhagen, but 
was rejected because he was too lean. He was next encouraged to hope for success as a 
singer; but had hardly commenced his musical studies when his voice failed. He found gen- 
erous friends, however, to help him in his distress; and application having been made by 
one of them to the king, he was placed at an advanced school at the public expense, and so 
pegan his academic education in 1828. Some of his poems, particularly one entitled The 
Dying Child, had already been favorably received, and he now became better known by 
the publication of his Walk to Amak, a literary satire in the form of a humorous narra- 
tive. In 1880, he published the first collected volume of his Poems, and in 1831 asecond, 
under the title of Fantasies and Sketches. His Traveling Sketches were the fruit of a tour 
in the north of Germany. He completed his Agnes and the Merman in Switzerland; and 
one of his best works, Te Improvisatore, a series of scenes depicted in a glowing style, 
and full of poetic interest, was the fruit of a visit toItaly. Soon afterwards, he produced 
O. T. (1835), a novel containing vivid pictures of northern scenery and manners, which 
was followed (1837) by another, entitled Only a Fiddler. In 1840, he produced a roman- 
tic drama, entitled The Mulatto, which was well received; but another drama, Raphaella, 
was less successful. In the same year appeared his Pictwre-book without Pictures, a series 
of the fimest. imaginative sketches. In the end of 1840, he commenced a somewhat 
Jengthened tour in Italy and the east, of which he gave an account in A Poet's Bazaar 
(1842). In 1844, A. visited the court of Denmark by special invitation, and in the fol- 
lowing year he received an annuity. After that date he traveled much, visiting England 
as well as other countries. Among other works of A. are Tales from Jutland (1859); 
The Sandhills of Jutland (1860); Tales for Children (1861); The Wild Swans, and The Ice 
Maiden (1863); The Story of my Infe; Ahasuerus, a drama; and New Tales and Adven- 
tures (1872). His works have been translated into German, English, ete. His Dying 
Child has been translated into the language of Greenland; and on his 70th birthday he 
was presented with a book containing one of his tales in 15 languages. On the same 
occasion the king of Denmark gave him the grand cross of the Dannebrog Order. A. 
died in Aug., 1875. He is best known in America by his beautiful fairy tales. See 
Nisbet Bain’s Life and Letters of Andersen (1895). 


ANDERSON, a co. in s.e. Kansas; 576 sq.m.; pop. 790, 14,203. The productions are 
agricultural. Oo. seat, Garnett, 

ANDERSON, a co. in n. central Kentucky, on the Kentucky River, intersected by Salt 
River ; 200 sq.m. ; pop. 790, 10,610. Co. seat, Lawrenceburg. 


4338 Andennes. 


nderson, 


, ANDERSON, aco. in South Carolina,on Savannah river ; 690 sq.m.; pop. 90, 48,696, 
inclu. colored. Two railroads pass through it. The surface is uneven: soil fertile and 
well cultivated to wheat, corn, cotton, etc. Co. seat, Anderson. 


ANDERSON, a co. in n.e. Tennessee, on the Clinch and Powell rivers ; 860 Sq.m. | 
pop. ‘90, 10,128, with colored. There are coal veins, and salt and sulphur springs ; prod. 
ucts, wheat, corn, and oats. Co. seat, Clinton. 
ANDERSON, a co. in central Texas, on Trinity river ; 1000 sq.m.; pup. 790, 20,923 
inclu. colored. It is heavily timbered, and has a rolling surface and fertile soil, produc- 
ing corn, cotton, and sweet potatoes. Co. seat, Palestine. 


_ ANDERSON, city and co. seat of Madison co., Ind., on the west fork of the White 
river, and the Chicago and Southeastern of Indiana, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago 
and St. Louis, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroads. It is 35m. 
n.e. of Indianapolis, has churches, banks, a normal college, manufactures iron, paper, 
glass, wire-nails, straw boards, tiles, etc., in the operation of which natural gas is used. 
A canal with a 44 foot fall supplies water power for milling. Pop. 1890, 10,741. 

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, 1775-1870; the first American wood engraver, son of a 
Scotch printer of a patriotic paper in New York, Phe Constitutional Gazette. At the age 
of 12, A. made attempts at engraving on type metal and copper plates. Then he studied 
medicine, and took the degree of M.D, in Columbia college in 1796; but he returned to 
art studies, his first regular employment being in illustrating a small book called the 
Looking Glass for the Mind. He invented his own tools, and followed Bewick of 
England in using wood blocks for engraving, in which he attained great perfection. He 
illustrated the first edition of Webster’s Spelling Book, and for many years the American 
Tract Society’s publications, 


ANDERSON, Sir Epmunp, 1540-1605 ; an English judge, chief justice of common 
pleas in 1582, distinguished for zeal in the cause of the established church and for 
harshness toward dissenters. He was one of the commissioners in 1586 to try queen 
Mary of Scotland, and afterwards to try Sir Walter Raleigh. His reports of cases in 
his time in the common pleas and the courts of Westminster are very valuable. 


ANDERSON, James, 1662-1728 ; a Scotch lawyer and antiquary, of high reputation 
as a historian. He was employed by the Scotch parliament to prepare for publication 
what remained of the public records of the kingdom; on this work he labored many 
years, but he did not finish it, though it was published after his death. After the union 
he was appointed postmaster-general of Scotland, 1715, but lost the place two years later, 
and did not secure any adequate reward for his immense literary labor. His Royal 
Genealogies from Adam to These Times appeared after his death. 


ANDERSON, JAMES, LL.D., a writer on political economy and agriculture, was b. 
in 1739 at the village of Hermiston, near Edinburgh. He lost both his parents 
when very young, so that the management of a large farm, which had been in the pos- 
session of the family for a long time, devolved upon himself. Recognizing the prac- 
tical importance of a knowledge of chemistry to a farmer, he attended the chemistry 
class in the university of Edinburgh, and brought the results of his study to bear on 
his profession. He invented, at an early period of life, the small two-horse plough 
without wheels commonly called the Scotch plough, which is generally admitted to 
have been one of the most useful improvements of agricultural implements ever intro- 
duced. When only 24 years of age, he went to Aberdeenshire, where he rented a 
large moorland farm of 1300 acres. Here he remained for a considerable time, devot- 
ing his leisure hours to writing upon agriculture. His first attempt was a series of 
essays upon planting, which, under the signature of Agricola, he contributed to the 
Edinburgh Weekly Magazine. In 1780, the university of Aberdeen bestowed on him 
the degree of doctor of laws. In 1784, on account of his pamphlet, entitled Hncour- 
agement of the National Fisheries, he was engaged by government to make a survey of 
the western coast of Scotland, with special reference to that object. Henext commenced 
in 1791 the publication of a periodical called The Bee, which was continued for three 
years; in 1797 he went to London, where he pursued his literary avocations with such 
intense assiduity, that his health gradually gave way. He died onthe 15th of Oct., 1808. 

A. will deserve a place in any record which details the remarkable advances made by 
Scotland in agriculture and other sources of wealth in the latter half of the 18th century. 
His Bee was the type of many periodical miscellanies of a cheap nature, mingling in 
struction with entertainment, which have since been published. It is also to be observed 
that, in his essay called A Comparative View of the Effects of Rent and of Tithe in In- 
fluencing the Price of Corn (contained in one of his latest publications, The Recreations of 
Agriculture), he anticipated some important principles subsequently advocated by 
Malthus, Ricardo, and West, particularly the famous theory of rent. 

ANDERSON, Jounn, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the university of 
Glasgow, and founder of the eminently useful institrtion bearing his name, was b. 
in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 1726. He studied at the university of 
Glasgow, in which, in his 80th year, he was appointed professor of oriental languages. 
Four years later (1760) he was transferred to the chair of natural philosophy. He 
entered upon his new duties with extraordinary ardor. Besides the work of the class, 
he was indefatigable in studying the application of science to mechanical practice. 


Anderson. 484 


Andes. 


Inspired by a rational philanthropy, he instituted, in addition to his usual class, which 
was strictly mathematical, one for artisans. He continued to teach this antitoga class, ag 
he called it, twice every week, during the session, to the end of his life. In 1786 
appeared his valuable work, entitled Institutes of Physics, which went through five editions 
in ten years. Shortly before the French revolution, he invented a species of gun, the 
recoil of which was stopped by the condensation of common air within the body of the 
carriage; but having in vain endeavored to attract the attention of the British govern: 
ment to it, he proceeded to Paris in 1791, and, being himself a great friend of liberty, 
presented his model to the national convention. It was hung up in their hall, with the 
following inscription over it: ‘The gift of Screncr to Liserty.” Afterwards, when 
the allied monarchical forces had drawn a military cordon around the frontiers of France, 
to prevent the introduction of French newspapers into Germany, A. ingeniously sug- 
gested the expedient, which was adopted and proved quite successful, of making small 
balloons of paper, to which newspapers and manifestoes might be tied, and letting them 
off, when the wind was favorable, for Germany. A. died 18th Jan., 1796. By his will, 
dated 7th May, 1795, he directed that the whole of his effects, of every kind, should be 
devoted to the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be denominated 
Anderson’s University, for the use of the academical classes, 


ANDERSON, Larz, 1805-78; b. Ky.; a capitalist and philanthropist, prominently 
connected with many charities and public enterprises in Cincinnati. 


ANDERSON, Martin BREWER, LL.D., b. Maine, 1815; a graduate of Waterville 
college : tutor of Latin, and in 1848 became professor of rhetoric in the same institu- 
tion. He resigned in 1850 and became editor of the New York Recorder, a Baptist 
paper. In 1853 he was called to preside over the new Rochester university, and in 1868 
was offered (but declined) the presidency of Brown university. He was a vigorous and 
popular preacher, though never ordained to the ministry. He d. 1890. 


ANDERSON, Mary ANTOINETTE (MADAME NAVARRO), American actress, was born at 
Sacramento, Cal., in 1859. Her father, General Anderson, was killed in the civil war, 
and her mother married Dr. Hamilton Griffin and removed with him to Louisville, Ky. 
At the age of thirteen Miss Anderson began to study for the stage under Charlotte Cush- 
man, and made her début in the character of Juldet at Louisville, Nov. 27, 1875, with such 
success that she was engaged for other réles. In 1876 she traveled through the west, and 
in the season of 1877-78 appeared in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. In 1884-85 
she played at the Lyceum Theatre, London, and in the character of Rosalind in ‘‘ As 
You Like It,” opened the Memorial Theatre at Stratford-on-Avon. From 1885 to 1889 
she played both in Great Britain, her chief parts being Juliet (Bianca in ‘‘ Fazio’’), Julia 
(in ‘‘ The Hunchback’’), Hvadne, Meg Merrilies, Pauline, Galatea, Clarice (in ‘‘ Comedy 
and Tragedy’’), Parthenia and Rosalind. Illness in 1889 compelled her to retire tempo- 
rarily from the stage ; in 1890 she married Antonio Navarro de Viana, of New York, and 
left the stage. 


ANDERSON, Rasmus BJorn, b. Albion, Wis., 1846. From 1875 to 1884 he was pro- 
fessor of Scandinavian languages and literature in the university of Wisconsin, and was 
U.S. minister to Denmark, 1885-89. Besides contributions to periodicals and encyclo- 
pedias he has published America Not Discovered by Columbus, 1874; Norse Mythology, 1875: 
Viking Tales of the North, 1877, and numerous translations, including the works of 
Bjornstjern Bjornsen (1881-82) and Brandes’ Eminent Authors inthe Nineteenth Century (1886). 


ANDERSON, Ricnarp H., 1821-79; b. S.C.; graduated at West Point in 1842; served 
in the Mexican war, and rose to captain of dragoons ; resigned in 1861 and entered the 
confederate service as colonel of infantry. At the close of the war he had reached the 
grade of lieutenant-general. 


ANDERSON, Rosert, b. Ky., 1805; d. France, 1871 ; brigadier-general in the U. S. 
army. He graduated at West Point in 1825; served in the Black Hawk war of 1832, and in 
the Florida war, and, May, 1838, became assistant adjutant-general on gen. Scott’s staff. 


He was in the Mexican war, and was wounded at Molino del Rey. In 1857 he was made ~ 


major of the 1st artillery. In Nov., 1860, he took command in Charleston harbor, and 
was for fifteen weeks shut up in fort Sumter by the confederates. On April 14th, after q 
bombardment of 86 hours, being short of provisions, though the fort was still tenable, he 
marched out with the honors of war, losing none of his men, and went to New York. 
He was appointed brigadier-general in May, 1861, and sent to command the department of 
the Cumberland, but his health failed, and with brevet of major-general in the regular 
army he retired from the service. He translated and adapted several works on artillery 
practice. 


ANDERSON, Rurus, D.D.; Lu.D. b. Maine, 1796-1880; graduate of Bowdoin, 1818 ; 
studied theology at Andover. He was secretary of the American board of foreign mis- 
sions for 34 years. Resigning at the age of 70, he received a gift of $20,000 from New 
York and Boston subscribers, all of which he gave to the American board. He was the 
author of various books concerning missions and the work of the American board. 


435 Anas 


ANDERSONVILLE, a village of Sumter co., Ga., on the Central Georgia railroad, 60 
m.s. of Macon. Here was situated a military prison of the southern confederacy. 
The prison site was a pine and oak grove of 22 acres, on the side of a hilLof red clay, 
1600 ft. e. of the railroad. The first prisoners arrived Feb. 15, 1864, and the last in 
April, 1865 ; total received, 49,485; died, 12,926; of which 3952 died from diarrheea ; 
3574 from scurvy ; 1648 from dysentery. The prison was notorious for unhealthfulness 
and its discipline for severity ; and in 1865, after the close of the war, Henry Wirz, a 
Swiss, the chief instrument of ill treatment, was indicted for ‘‘injuring the health and 
destroying the lives of prisoners by subjecting them to torture and great suffering, by 
confinement in unhealthy and unwholesome quarters, by exposing them to the inclem- 
ency of the winter and the dews and burning sun of the summer, by compelling the use 
of impure water, and by furnishing insufficient and unwholesome food ; for establishing 
the dead line and ordering the guards to shoot down any prisoner attempting to cross 
it; for keeping and using bloodhounds to hunt down prisoners attempting to escape ; 
and for torturing prisoners and confining them in stocks.” He was found guilty and 
hanged Nov. 10, 1865. The village has a large national cemetery, adorned with gravel 
walks and trees; 12,461 dead soldiers of the union army were identified, and their places 
of burial marked. 


ANDERSSON, Caru JOHAN, 1827-67; natural son of an English sportsman residing 
inSweden. In 1849, he joined Francis Galton inajourney in South-west Africa, continued 
alone through 1853-54, and on his return to England published Lake N’gami, or Hxplora- 
tions and Discoveries during Four Years’ Wanderings in the Wilds of South-western Africa. 
He made a journey to lake N’gami in 1858 with Green, the elephant hunter, and found 
his way to the red tribes of Herrevoland. On his return he published a book on the 
Okovango river. In May, 1866, he went on an exploration to the Cunene for the pur- 
pose of establishing commercial intercourse with the Portuguese settlements n. of that 
river. He came in sight of the stream, but was too feeble to cross it, and died in trying 
to return to Cape Town. 


ANDERTON, THomas, composer, born in Birmingham, England, April 15, 18386. 
Although an amateur, his works are frequently played at musical festivals and concerts. 
These include:a symphony and overtures for orchestra, string-quartets, pianoforte 
music, and cantatas on Cowper’s John Gilpin and on Longfellow’s Wreck of the 
Hesperus. 


AN'DES, the great mountain chain of South America, extending in a direction nearly 
parallel with the Pacific, along almost the whole length of the continent. The chain falls 
short of the isthmus of Darien, between which and the Atrato—a river falling into the 
Caribbean sea—it gradually subsides into a merely undulating country. It appears, also, 
to fall still further short of the strait of Magellan, so far as the mainland is concerned. 
But, on geological grounds, it has been traced, first along the islands that breast Pata- 
gonia to the w., and next along those that form the Fuegian archipelago. Thus may the 
chain be said to stretch from the neighborhood of the mouth of the Atrato, not merely 
to Cape Horn, but even to the rocks of Diego Ramirez, which lie about 60 m. to the 
s.w. of that promontory. The extreme length, therefore, is from lat. 8° 15’ n. to lat. 56° 
30’ s.—comprising, of course, 64° 45’, or, without any allowance for windings or devia- 
tions, about 4500 English miles. But to mark the scale on which nature has molded 
the new world, the A. may be regarded as merely a part of the sufficiently continuous 
chain of about 9000 m:. which loses itself near the mouth of the Mackenzie, towards the 
shores of the Arctic ocean. In this respect, the old continent can bring nothing into 
comparison. 

Position.—The A., besides being generally in a direction nearly parallel with the Pacific, 
verge closely on that ocean. From the rocks, indeed, of Diego Ramirez to about lat. 40° 
s., the mountains, whether they are found on islands or on the mainland, are almost 
literally washed by the surf; while northward from that parallel, there spreads out, 
between the chain itself and the sea, a belt of land not exceeding, in average breadth, 70 
or 80 miles. Within the limits of Peru, the belt in question is narrowest, while above 
and below it is, in general, somewhat more extensive. The position of the A. with 
respect to the Atlantic ocean presents a striking contrast. To illustrate this, a passage is 
subjoined from Herndon, the explorer of the Amazon in behalf of the United States. 
Crossing from Lima to the head-waters of the Amazon, by the pass of Antarangra, he 
writes thus: ‘‘ Yanacoto, on the western slope of the A.,at the height of 2337 ft. above 
the sea-level, is only 28 m. from the ocean that washes the base of the slope on which 
it is situated ; while Fort San Ramon, at nearly the same elevation on the opposite side, 
cannot be much less than 4000 m. from its ocean by the windings of the river, and in 
the river’s direct course is at least 2500 miles.” Further to compare the two areas 
respectively to the w. and e. of the dividing ridge, the former has been estimated at 
180,000 sq.m., and the latter at twenty times as much. 

Hydrography.—This interesting feature of the A. has been already anticipated to a 
considerable extent, under the heads of the AMAzon and AmErRIcA. It only remains to 
observe that from one end of the continent to the other, the true and only water-shed, 
wherever there are two ranges, is the range nearer to the Pacific. Not only is the water- 
shed in question obviously far closer to the w. than to the e., but, beyond this, it is, 
apparently without a single exception, pushed as far to the westward as possible; it. 


Andes. 436 
thus affords the most conspicuous and most decisive example of an almost universal law 
in the hydrography of the earth. Throughout both continents, almost every leading 
water-shed presents a longer descent towards the e. than towards the w., or, in other 
words, sends off larger streams in the former direction than in the latter. To cite a few 
instances: compare, in North America, the Missouri with the Columbia; in Europe, the 
Volga with the Neva; in Asia, the Hoang-ho of China with the Oxus of the sea of 
Aral; and even in Africa, where, as also in- Arabia, hydrographical traces have been 
largely overlaid by deserts of sand, the plateau of the Sahara and the chain of the 
Atlas gradually incline, both of them, towards thee. But, if the water-shed be inva- 
riably found as far as possible to the westward, it necessarily follows, that, wherever 
there are two ranges, the more easterly range cannot also be a continuous water-shed— 
unless, indeed, it may be regarded as such with respect to the landlocked basin of the 
connected lakes, Titicaca and Uroz, already mentioned under the head of AMERICA. 
With this exception, all the gatherings between the two ranges, whether the interme- 
diate space be plateau or sierra, have found or formed channels of escape—narrow, 
deep, and dark as they often are—only to that sea which is 30 or 40 times more distant 
than the one at their back. 

Breadth and Area.—The area, on an estimate, necessarily rough and vague, has been 
computed to be triple that of the belt of comparatively level land that borders on the 
Pacific. In other words, the average breadth of the chain is reckoned to be thrice that 
of the belt in question. In arough way, the breadth may be estimated from the very 
shore of the Pacific, whence the w. slope commences, to the lowest pongos, or cataracts, 
on the eastwaid streams. But it is more correct to measure it from the foot of the 
mountains, properly so called, on the one side to that on the other. The phraseology of 
the country, which, on such a subject, ought to be conclusive, appears to support the 
latter mode of computation. In Lima and its neighborhood, where Herndon crossed 
the A., that officer speaks of ‘‘coast” and “sierra,” as distinguished from each other even 
to the westward of the dividing ridge. The entire distance of the pass of Antarangra, as 
measured on the actual road, was 87 m.—the first 50 being coast and the remaining 37 
being sterra. Nor does the distinction seem to have been anarbitrary one. From Callao 
to Cocachera—a line of 44 m.—the rise above the sea-level, tolerably uniform the 
whole way, amounted to 4452 ft., or rather more than 101 ft. to the mile; but the next 
15 m., of which about a half still belonged to what was called coast, yielded an increase 
of 2850 ft., an average probably of 200 ft. for that part of the stage that fell under the 
definition of sterra. To give instances of extreme breadths of the A.—an average 
breadth being unattainable—the least breadth, and that in Patagonia. is believed to be 60 
or 70m.; the greatest breadth, again, pretty nearly on the parallel of lake Titicaca, and 
right through the grand plateau of Bolivia, is said to be 400 m.; and to give an inter- 
mediate case, the breadth from Mendoza, in the basin of La Plata, to Santiago, in Chili, 
is given at 140 m.—the former city being 4486 ft. above the Atlantic, and the latter 
2614 above the Pacific. 

In order, then, to have a definite idea of the breadth of the A:, the chain must be 
viewed from one end to the other. In doing this there will be adopted the ordinary 
nomenclature, referring each division of the A. to the particular country through which 
it may pass. 

sae Rie Andes.—Including the A. of the Fuegian archipelago, this part of the 
chain, extending from lat. 56° s. to lat. 42° s., a distance of more than 960 m., is the 
narrowest of all, or is, at all events, too irregular to have its breadth accurately esti- 
mated. The Patagonian shore, strictly so called, is breasted, very much like the n.w. 
coast between Fuca’s strait and Mt. St. Elias, by a number of islands. On these, 
as already mentioned, the true A. are to be found, or rather, of these the true 
A. consist—the continent itself affording no footing to the chain till fully 300 m. to the 
northward of Cape Horn. Even after the chain has laid hold of the mainland, it by no 
means can be said to abandon the islands; so that here, as farther to the n., the chain 
may be regarded as made up of parallel ranges—the main difference being that the inter- 
VeUIne aay which, to the n., are basins of fresh-water rivers, here present salt-water 
channels. 

Chilian Andes, stretching from lat. 42° s. to lat. 24° s., a distance of nearly 1250 miles. 
Throughout nearly the whole of this line, the A. consist of only one range, for the par- 
allel ridges, which run along between the great water-shed and the Pacific, cannot 
claim to be any exception to this remark, inasmuch as their highest points do not exceed 
an elevation of 2500 ft. above the level of the sea. This part of the chain, however, 
presents several lateral ranges, if it does not present any parallel ones of importance. 
These spurs are to be seen on both sides, though of very different magnitudes. To the w. 
they are akin to the comparatively insignificant parallel ranges just noticed, being, if A. 
at all, merely A. in miniature. But to thee. the spurs deserve more consideration. They 
are two in number, the one branching off between the 33d and 31st parallels, and 
the other between the 28th and 24th. The former, called the Sierra de Cordova, 
advances like a promontory into the plains of Rio de la Plata, or Pampas, as they are 
more generally denominated, as far as the 65th meridian; and the latter, called the Sierra 
de Salta, runs nearly as far to the e., and in a direction nearly parallel. 


43 vi Andes. 


Peruvian Andes.—This part of the chain, stretching from lat. 24° s. to lat. 6° s.—a 
distance about the same as in the last paragraph—is perhaps the broadest of all the divi- 
sions of the A. It certainly contains the largest of the plateaus, the plateau of Bolivia. 
Between the 20th and 19th parallels, not far from the city of Potosi, the chain separates 
into two ranges, known as the East and West Cordilleras of Bolivia; and it is the reunion 
of these ranges, between the 15th and 14th parallels, that incloses the landlocked plateau 
of Titicaca, containing, as is said, 30,000 sq.m., or an area equal to that of Ireland. 
Immediately above this table-land, the united ranges in question constitute the moun- 
tain-group of Cuzco, which, in point of superficial extent, is stated to be thrice as large 
as all Switzerland. About a degree further north, the chain again separates as before, 
reuniting also, as before, between the 11th and 10th parallels, so as to embrace the cities 
of Guanta and Guancavelica. Hardly have the two ranges reunited, when they mass 
themselves into the table-land of Pasco, not quite half the size of that of Titicaca. Fur- 
ther to the n., the chain divides, not into two, but into three ranges, which unite again, 
on the frontiers of Ecuador, in the group of Loxa, about lat. 5° s. 

Aides of Hewador.—Immediately beyond the group of Loxa, between 4° and 3° of s. 
lat., the chain divides into two ranges, which, by again uniting in 2° 27’, form the valley 
of Cuenca; and immediately beyond this is the group of Assuay, with its table-land. 
Then another plateau of no great extent,and a short stretch of the undivided chain, lead 
to the vast table-land of Quito, which is said to be subdivided by low hills into five 
smalier plateaus, two to the east and three to the west. ‘Towards the n. the table-land of 
Para succeeded by the group of Los Pastos, forming the extreme portion of the A. of 

cuador. 

Andes of Colombia.—Beyond the city of Almaguer the chain breaks off into two 
ranges, which never again join each other. The range on the w. side remains undi- 
vided, till it disappears rear the mouth of the Atrato, a little to the e. of the isthmus of 
Darien. But the range on the e., after massing itself into the group of Paramo de los 
Papas, breaks into two branches, which, as distinguished from the range aforesaid on 
the west are styled the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of Colombia. These two contain 
between them the upper waters of the Magdalena, the eastern separating them from the 
basin of the Orinoco, and the central dividing them from that of the Cauca. Between 
them also they contain several considerable table-lands, the principal one being that of 
Santa Fé de Bogota. 

Height.— Under this head must be treated separately the plateaus, the most prominent 
mountains, and the passes—the altitudes of the lines of perpetual snow falling more natu- 
rally under the head of climate. Here, as in the case of breadth, the chain will be fol- 

-lowed from south to north. 


HEIGHT OF PLATEAUS. 


Feet. 

PRAtMGHETICC PN LIGOUAEY ants eee cat ar ont ok fc. aw Geveeiete a tne e 12,700 
Gyroun Of CUZCO... 3. at. A al Ret as He tate Pt tts Peritoneal teh 8,300 
Pee ee RC tt ME ECON eect grt Conc Gin tas shee apes Goat care oeceak Gane Oo cio 11,000 
a Se GOTT yee a ac agate: Al apie delicate de ai teced ella base Pe a i 15,520 

“f opel UH ASSURE ght» ot bia i eR A Seb Pe ahah hy 9,543 

rt Oo LETWECIN eh cela tae 4 ae pal tinge biped lng gL Mak Bite eT AR AA oe 8,958 


The average height of these six colossal masses above the sea-level is thus 11,000 ft., or 
considerably more than two English miles. 


HEIGHT OF MOUNTAINS. 


Fuegian Andes— Feet. Bolivian Andes— Feet. 
Cane Horn 70 thir. ss Saleen At 3,000 Cerronde? Potosi Msi, mid eels 16,040 
SArmrenty. sl doe ae ee ae ee 6,800 Gipliiont Ceres IIS. SO. e ee 22,000 

Patagonian Andes— Nevado de Chuquibamba ec eee 21,000 
RT eR wc a id Wiarton tree tie Ooe : [llimani............ 21,150 
MeCODaU OL. co... oe othe oes 7,510 i IOTATA Ha a be a's eld 21,290 
Minchinadom...............-4 8,000 Analache......... seeeeeeeeees 18,500 

Chilian Andes— _ Andes of Hewador— 
oS, Se ee ee a. 13,000 Chimborazo Mies Kees ea hc AOC Oe 20,517 
AD UR ways «fics cbr siee of \« + 22, 296 Cotopaxi.......sesee eee eee es, 19,550 
DPOBEOI MEAG, fort cw) vs) bie «pace let ae 12,102 AMUSANA, -- 0. oe see secs ss veie ns 19,092 
Nevado de Chorolque.......... 16,546 Leal TS KOR CUTE AE ORONO guparmecenh maga Wed ie 15,920 

Peruvwan Andes— Cayambe = gials is) s) ehsisimhe eels eels) eae ate 19,250 
OE i a a ee 20,820 Andes of Colomiia— 

1 ed 1d YF nc: RR ed 18,314 


This last-named mountain is said to be the only one in Colombia that rises above the 
limit of perpetual snow. Ali the others appear to fall short of that line. 


438 


Andes. 
HEIGHT OF PASSES. 

hitian Andes— Feet. Bolivian Andes— Feet, 
z isi AS ean 2) bp oh ees S05 12,454 ECOUOML EL WES sco ae bre alaelens set eneo 4820 

Portillo... cen entecitinshieins ie 14,365 Las Gualillas. - oo )..0 yN eee eee 14,830 
Peruvian Andes— Andes of Ecwador— 

Alto de Jacaibamba............ 715,185 PABSUA Gs os c's ee cs 3 ts ee oe 12,388 

TLachagual ...ic.9 sie once ence sys 15,480 Andes of Colombia— 

AntarangtTa. ....ceesereecer eee 16,199 COTATICIUL. © Ws. . «|e va od Selene 11,500 


These passes will bear a comparison with the loftiest pinnacles in Europe. The last 
and lowest overtops the highest summit of the Pyrenees by 332 feet; while the last but 
two, that of Antarangra, which Herndon traversed, soars 389 ft. above Mont Blanc, the 
culminating peak of the Alps. 

The passes across the A. present a vast variety of surfaces and levels. They appear 
to skirt, as often as practicable, the mountain-torrents ; and, when that is impracticable, 
sometimes surmount them by bridges, and sometimes avoid them by means of a path cut 
along the shoulder of the overhanging height. A railway is (1897) in process of con- 
struction across the Andes s. of Aconcagua. 

With respect to the mountain-torrents, Herndon, after leaving Antarangra behind 
him, was enabled to avail himself chiefly of this resource. ‘‘ As far as the traveler,” says 
he, ‘‘is concerned, there are not, on the route we have traveled, two ranges of the A.— 
that is, he is not to ascend and descend one range, and then ascend and descend another. 
From the time that he crosses at Antarangra, his progress is downward, till he reaches 
the plain. Really, however, there aretwo ranges. The streams from the first or western 
range have broken their way through the second, making deep gorges, at the bottom of 
which the road generally runs, and leaves the peaks of the second range thousands of ft. 
above the traveler’s head.” 

In addition to the essential perils of such a course, Herndon encountered, on one 
occasion, an incidental danger, which he thus describes—the scene being a narrow path 
on the shoulder of an almost precipitous hill: ‘‘ Mr. Gibbon was riding ahead. Just as 
he was about to turn a sharp bend, the head of a bull peered round it on the descent. 
When the bull came in full view, he stopped; and we could see the heads of other cattle 
clustering over his quarters, and hear the shouts of the cattle-drivers, far behind, urging 
on their herd. I happened to be abreast of a slight natural excavation; and, dismounting, 
I put my shoulder against my mule’s flank, and pressed her into this friendly retreat; 
but I saw no escape for Gibbon. The bull, with lowered crest and savage look, came 
slowly on, and actually got his head between the perpendicular wall and the neck of 
Gibbon’s mule. But his sagacious beast, pressing her haunches hard against the rock, ' 
gathered her feet close under her, and turned as on apivot. This placed the bull on the 
outside; and he rushed by at the gallop, followed in single file by the rest of the herd.” 

In the bridging of the mountain-torrents, a good deal of rude ingenuity is displayed. 
Sometimes chains are suspended from side to side, and sometimes a rough flooring is 
laid between projecting beams from either bank, which have previously been fixed as 
solidly as possible. Nature also has done something in this respect to help man, having 
thrown two bridges of her own over a fearful chasm at Icononzo. The torrent which 
they span, falls down a beautiful cataract into a murky crevice—the noisy haunt of noc- 
turnal birds. Ata height of 400 ft. above the foaming waters, the two bridges hang in 
mid-air, both of them, apparently, though in different ways, the work of an earthquake. 
The upper one is merely a fragment of the original sandstone, which must have resisted 
the shock that formed the ‘rent; while the lower, probably the most singular arch in the 
world, consists of three detached rocks, so adjusted as to support each other. 

The loftiest pinnacles of the A., when viewed from the table-lands, and, still more, 
when seen from the crests of the passes, lose, to the eye of the beholder, much of their 
real altitude. Under such circumstances, not a single mountain presents the actual 
dimensions of Mont Blanc, as overhanging the vale of Chamouni. It is only from a 
distance—best of all, perhaps, from a good offing in the Pacific—that the A. appear in 
all their gigantic proportions. Standing thus on their pedestal, the most rugged and 
colossal in nature, they almost realize to the spectator the highest. Pyrenees piled on the ~ 
highest Alps; while, to enhance the grandeur of the scene, the igneous action, which has 
means the chain into existence, is here and there adding to its stature a pillar of smoke 
and flame. 

The geology of the A. is as yet very little known. It is more than half a century since 
Humboldt traveled through these mountains, and to him we are even now chiefly 
indebted for our knowledge regarding them. At that time, geology was in its infancy— 
its language had not been formed; its classification, at least as it now exists, was 
unknown, and its facts were mixed with absurd and now long-exploded theories; it could, 
in fact, scarcely be called ascience. It is fortunate that as regards the materials con- 
stituting the great_ mass of the A. range—the igneous rocks which form its backbone, 
and the metamorphic rocks which form its great bulk—our knowledge was almost as 
extensive and explicit 50 years ago as it is now, and therefore, in respect to them, Hum- 
boldt’s observations are as good as if made but yesterday. Not so as regards the more 
recent sedimentary formations. The value of fossils was not then known, and the 
vaguest ideas prevailed as to the chronological order of the stratified rocks. Hence 


= 


43 9 Andes: 


descriptions written at that time are almost valueless to modern science. <A few scat- 
tered notes may be gleaned from the small number of intelligent travelers who have 
recently visited these mountains; and to them we are obliged for any of the facts we are 
able to give regarding the deposits referred to. 

The elevation of the A. took place at an epoch anterior to the formation of the 
Rocky mountains of North America, which are geographically a continuation of them. 
They are composed, to a very large extent, of stratified metamorphic rocks. It is 
remarkable that granite occurs in them not as an unstratified plutonic rock, but only 
intercalated with the other members of the stratified azoic series. The true igneous 
rock belong either to the trappean or volcanic divisions. The grand ridge is every- 
where covered with one or other of the varieties of trap (greenstone, clinkstone, basalt, or 
porphyry). These are often broken into columns, and appear at a distance like ruined 
castles, producing a very striking effect, 

Bursting through the trap-rocks, there are a number of volcanoes covering their sum- 
mits with more recent igneous rocks. Among the mountains specified above as to alti- 
tude, Yanteles, Corcobado, Minchinadom, Antuco, Gualteri, Arequipa, Cotopaxi, Anti- 
sana, and Pichincha belong to this class. Fifty-one volcanoes have been described as 
existing throughout the whole range. The mountains of Ecuador are so extensively and 
continuously of volcanic origin, that they have been regarded as different safety-valves 
of one and the same burning vault. It is generally maintained that there is a relation 
between the height of a volcano and its activity and the frequency of its eruptions. 
Thus, Stromboli (2957 ft.) has continued in a state of activity since the earliest ages, 
serving the purpose of a light-house to the navigators of the Tyrrhenian sea; while Coto- 
paxi (18,887 ft.) and Tunguragua (16,579 ft.) have been active only once in a hundred 
years. Many of these 51 volcanoes have consequently not yet been observed by Euro- 
peans in an active state. Inthe Quito district there are 10 active and 7 of doubtful 
activity; in Peru and Bolivia, the numbers are 9 and 38; in Chili, 17 and 5; making in 
all 36 active and 15 about which there is some uncertainty as to their activity. Another 
characteristic of these volcanoes, resulting from their gigautic altitude, is that few of 
them emit streams of lava. ‘Thus Antisana is probably the only one in the Quito range 
that has ejected lava. The force, however, which is repressed apparently by the 
immense superincumbent mass which fills the crater, is exhibited in a terrific manner when 
an eruption does take place. Cotopaxi, for instance, the most regular and beautiful out- 
let of this the grandest of nature’s laboratories, has been known to shoot its fiery tor- 
rents 3000 ft. above its snow-bound crater, while its voice is said to have been heard at a 
distance of 550 miles. On one occasion, a piece of rock, measuring 3800 cubic ft., was 
thrown from its crater to a distance of more than 8 miles. 

Earthquakes are intimately connected with these volcanic phenomena. No portion 
of the globe is subject to such frequent and destructive earthquakes as the countries 
embosomed within the range of the A., and those lying between them and the Pacific. 
The cities and towns of Bogota, Quito, Riobamba, Callao, Copiapo, Valparaiso, and 
Concepcion have all at different times been more or less devastated by their agency. 
During the year 1859, an earthquake buried many of the inhabitants of Quito under 
the ruins of its churches and public edifices; scarcely a single building of any size 
having escaped uninjured. 

It is to the same subterranean agency that upheaved and still convulses the A. that we 
are to ascribe those fearful ravines which are almost peculiar to the chain. An apt in- 
stance has already been cited in the case of the deep and dismal crevice which has been 
spanned by the natural bridges of Icononzo. A still better specimen is the valley or den 
of Chota, which, with a width at top of only 2600 feet, is 4875. feet in perpendicular 
height. This den might overlap the loftiest hill in Scotland, with St. Peter’s at Rome 
on its summit. 

The flanks of the mountains are clothed with crystalline stratified rocks, consisting 
of innumerable varieties of granites, gneiss, schists, hornblende, chloritic slates, porphy- 
ries, etc. These have been greatly disrupted by the underlying igneous rocks, and now 
occupy a vertical or nearly vertical position. They often run up into bold and rugged 
peaks ori the summits. They alternate with each other in great meridional bands, but 
without any apparent order in the succession, except that the varieties of schist depend 
on the crystalline parent rock below; otherwise, no regular sequence can be observed; 
for miles, only granite and gneiss are found, then schist, quartz, gneiss, etc., interchang: 
ing. The variety and quantity of the mineral wealth of these rocks is remarkable; 
with the exception of lead, most of the metals are obtained in large quantities—see 
below. The topaz, amethyst, and other gems are abundant. 

Lying uncomformable with these almost vertical metamorphic rocks, there occur in 
the valleys and table-lands, and creeping up the base of the mountains, a variety of fos- 
siliferous beds, which require further examination before they can be clearly under- 
stood. A better estimate of the nature of these deposits will be arrived at by describing 
one of the localities where they occur. Take the large plateau on which Bogota is 
built, which is 8958 ft. above the sea. The deposits filling up this plain have been formed 
subsequent to the present conformation of the district, though not necessarily at the 
present altitude: the whole range may have been since elevated. The almost horizontal 
rocks, from their organic contents, consisting of ammonites, hamites, etc., have been re- 


Andira. 440 : 


Andiron, 


ferred by Edward Forbes to the cretaceous era. The basin consists of many beds of 
sandstones, limestones, shale, coal, gypsum, and salt. The salt occurs in large quantities, 
one bed being no less than 100 ft. in thickness, and the coal in sufficient abundance to 
be wrought. All these rocks have been more or less affected by their proximity 
to the underlying metamorphic rocks. The molecular action going on below has in 
many places been continued in them, and has induced a cleavage at right angles to their 
planes of stratification. The other patches—some of great extent, as the plateau of the 
Titicaca—cannot yet be referred to any particular geologic epoch. Coal has been 
found near Huanco, in Peru, at the height of 17,000 ft. ; fossiliferous limestones and sand- 
stones have been noticed in Peru at Micuipampa and Huancavelica. 

Metals.—The aboriginal term A. is said to have been derived from the Peruvian ania, 
which signifies metal in general, or rather, perhaps, copper in particular. Within the 
limits of the empire of the incas, mining-tools, evidently not European, have been dug 
up in various places; and in one district the ancient Peruvians have left behind them 
traces of their mining operations at a height of 17,000 ft. Moreover, the term, whatever 
may have been its meaning, appears to have been, at all events, of Peruvian origin, for 
it does not seem to have been applied to the great chain of mountains by the aborigines 
of New Granada, now called the United States of Colombia. 

The A. are understood to yield every metal used in the arts. 

Gold is found in Chili, Peru, and Colombia, In Chili, however, it is so little produc- 
tive that proverbially a gold-mine is inferior to a silver one, and that, again, to a copper 
one. In Peru, gold is most abundant between the 9th and 7th parallels; though further 
s., to the e. of Lima, the mines of Carabayo have been recently wrought to great advan- 
tage; and further s. still, to the e. of Titicaca, very rich washings are situated on the 
river Tipuani. In the Colombian states, gold-mines are generally so inaccessible as not to 
bear the expense of working them. ‘The washings, again, though perhaps remotely the 
product of the A., are confined chiefly to the alluvial soils that lie between the chain and 
either sea. 

Silver also is found in Chili, Peru, and Colombia. In Chili, the most valuable, 
almost the only very valuable, mines are wrought on the e. face of the A., not far from 
the city of Mendoza, already mentioned in connection with the breadth of the chain. In 
Peru, the most productive mines are those of Pasco and Potosi. In those of Pasco, which 
have now been open for more than two and a quarter centuries without even approach- 
ing to exhaustion, the ore is a mixture of silver and oxide of iron. In the mines, again, 
of Potosi, whose very name has become a proverb, there are said to be no fewer than 
5000 excavations, while, to all appearance, only the upper crust of the inexhaustibis 
deposits has been penetrated. In Colombia, it is with silver as it has been shown to be 
with gold, the mines of the former metal, as well as of the latter, being so inaccessible as 
not to bear the expense of working them. 

Mercury or quicksilver is found in Quito, near the village of Azogué, which lies to the 
n.w. of Cuenca—taking its name, as is said, from this metal; and it is found likewise in 
Peru, not far from Guancavelica, a t. situated, as already stated, to the n. of the group 
of Cuzco. The mercury exists chiefly in combination with sulphur, forming what is 
called cinnabar. 

Platinum appears to exist only in Colombia; but like the gold-washings of that coun- 
try, it is found rather in the alluvial soils, that have been flooded down from the chain, 
than in the chain itself. 

Copper is found chiefly in Chili, but also in Peru. In the latter country, it is of little 
account in comparison with silver; but, in the former, it may be styled the staple metal, 
or even the staple production. The most valuable mines are in the northern and south- 
ern provinces; in Coquimbo and Copiapo above, and in the neighborhood of Araucania 
below. 

Climate.—The climate of the A. is, at every point, affected by three different consid- 
erations—position with respect to the length of the chain, position with respect to its 
breadth, position with respect to its height. 

In connection with the length of the chain, the variations of climate, though less pecu- 
liar than its variations under either of the other aspects, are not merely a counterpart of 
similar changes in other parts of the globe. In the new world generally, temperature 
rises and falls more rapidly in proportion to latitude than in the old; and, again, as within 
the new world itself, more rapidly in the s. than in the n. In connection, therefore, 
with the length of the A., the variations of climate may be regarded as the greatest pos- 
sible—the tropical heat of the equatorial regions passing gradually into something like 
polar cold, even within a latitude not greater than that of Edinburgh. This may be best 
illustrated with reference to the limits of perpetual snow. Within the strait of Magel- 
lan, in about the latitude of Wales, the Jimit in question is only about 3500 ft., nearly the 
precise height of the summit of Snowdon. In lat. 83°s., about the center of Chili, the 
snow-line, according to Humboldt, is estimated at 12,780 ft.; while, on the nearly corre- 
sponding parallel, the Himalayas present on their northern slope a snow-line of 16,620 ft. 
In the tropical regions of the A., the snow-line seems to range from 16,000 ft. to 18,000. 
This result, excepting that it does not greatly surpass the height of the snow-line as 
above on the Himalayas, can scarcely be compared with anything in the old world, whose 
tropical regions do not present any chain of the requisite altitude for the purpose. The 


= 


Andira. 
441 Andiron. 


explorations of Whymper (q.v.) have proved the incorrectness of the old assumption that 
there were no glaciers in the central and northern divisions of the A., as in Patagonia and 
Terra del Fuego. It was formerly believed that the alternations of heat and cold, or 
rather of thaw and frost, necessary to the production of glaciers did not exist in the lower 
latitudes of the A., where, generally speaking, every stage or terrace, as already noticed 
under the head of AMERICA, possesses an almost monotonous temperature. Whymper, 
who examined carefully many of the chief peaks, in 1880 announced with confidence that 
there are several glaciers, some of them of enormous extent, on Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, 
Antisana, Sincholagua, and at least six other great peaks. 

In connection, next, with the breadth of the chain, the variations of climate, if not 
peculiar to the A., have no perfect parallel elsewhere. At every point, excepting, per- 
haps, towards the extreme s., the chain is almost as much of a water-shed to the clouds 
as it isto the rivers. MRarefied as the air is at the elevation of the A., no vapor, generally 
speaking, can cross them—even the existence of snow at the height of several miles 
being a phenomenon which, @ priori, was hardly to be expected. This fact is rendered 
more important by the ordinary directions of the currents of air. The prevailing winds 
blow against the A.,not alongside of them, being generally from the e. between the 
equator and 30°,and from the w. in latitudes towards the s. Thus, generally speak- 
ing, every section of the chain has permanently a windward and a leeward side—the 
former intercepting nearly ali the moisture, and the latter being condemned to compara- 
tive drought. Peru, Chili, and Patagonia, one and all, confirm these observations in 
detail. On the w., Peru, unless in the immediate vicinity of the mountain-streams, is 
little better than a desert; while, on the e., the Montana, as it is called, is remarkable 
for its fertility. To the w., on the contrary, Patagonia has its glaciers to show as the 
result of its rains from that quarter; while, to the e., its five terraces, extending 700 m. 
to the Atlantic, are almost uniformly arid and sterile. Between Patagonia and Peru, 
Chili has something in common with both, resembling the former in its southern half, 
and the latter in its northern. To take the Pacific side alone: in the northern parts, 
showers are only occasional, sometimes at an interval of three years—the deficiency being 
partly supplied by frequent dews; while, to the s. of lat. 34°, the rains are sufficiently 
copious to form considerable rivers. 

In connection, lastly, with the height of the chain, the variations of climate stand 
alone in the world, beg approached, though at a great interval, only by the corre- 
sponding changes in Central America. The Alps, to take a familiar analogy, have, it 
is true, their gradations of climate. But, situated, in round numbers, on about the 
45th parallel, they represent only half of the latitudes between the equator and the 
pole; while the A. of Quito, before reaching this level, must have seen melting into each 
other the temperatures of Borneo, India, Persia, Asia Minor, and Italy. Taking the 
snow-line of the A. of Quito at 18,000 ft., and that of the Alps at 8000, the lower and 
hotter 10,000 ft. of the former have no counterpart at all on the latter. Now, Herndon 
found Tarma to lie within this height, precisely at an elevation of 9738 ft.; and he there 
saw apples, strawberries, almonds, grapes, and maize—a state of things not far behind 
that at the foot of the Alps. No space remaining for details, one general observation 
must close this article. In an open locality, the naked eye may embrace half a zone, 
for, to quote a traveler’s words, it may look upwards to the barley-field and the potato- 
patch, and downwards to the sugar-cane and the pine-apple. Perhaps the most striking 
instance of this more than telescopic vision is connected with the magnificent fall of 
Tequendama, the single outlet of the waters of the table-land of Bogota. This fall, 
600 ft. high, leaps down from the temperate zone to the torrid, from rich crops of wheat 
to a few scattered palms. 


ANDI'RA, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminose, sub-order papilionacea, 
having an almost orbicular, one-celled, one-seeded pod.—A. tnermis (formerly known as 
geoffroya tmermis) grows in low savannahs in the West Indies, and is there called cab- 
bage tree or cabbage-bark tree. It is a tree of considerable height, having pinnate leaves, 
with 13 to 15 ovato-lanceolate leaflets, and panicles of reddish lilac flowers. Its bark, called 
cabbage bark or worm bark, is a powerful anthelmintic; and although it has recently 
been discarded from the pharmacopeeias of Britain, still finds a place in those of other 
countries, along with Surinam bark, the bark of A. retusa (formerly geoffroya swrina- 
mensis), a native of Surinam. Similar properties reside in the bark of several species of 
the allied genus geoffroya. Cabbage bark contains an alkaloid called jamaicina. 


AND IRON, or Hanprron, is a term frequently to be met with in inventories of the 
furniture of old houses; and in most parts of the country is still used for what is less 
generally known as a fire-dog. Andirons are used for burning wood on an open 
hearth, and consist of a horizontal bar raised on short supports, with an upright stand- 
ard at one end. A pair are used, one standing at each side of the hearth, and the logs 
of wood rest across the horizontal bars. The upright portions of the A. are of vari- 
ous forms, some of them, in later times, representing ahuman figure. More generally, 
the design is architectural. much ornamented with arabesques, and sometimes with the 
monograms of their possessors. The ornamental parts of the A. are sometimes silver, 
Bat more often copper. 


Andkhuy. 449 


Andral. 


ANDKHUY’, a town formerly of Bokhara, but now of Afghanistan, central Asia, 
about 200 m. s. of Bokhara, in an oasis on a river of the same name flowing north-north- 
east from the Tirband-i-Turkistan mountains, It is west of Balkh and between the 
northern hills of the Paroparnisus and Oxus. _ It lies on the high-road to Herat, and is 
much exposed to the attacks of the emirs of Bokhara and Afghanistan. Down to the 
year 1840, it is said to have been tolerably flourishing. It was then subject to Bokhara, 
and was compelled to oppose the victorious march of Mohammed Khan, who besieged 
it during four months, and at last only took it by storm. ‘The city was plundered, and 
left a heap of ruins. The sovereign, Gazanfer Khan, to preserve himself fror utter 
destruction, threw himself into the arms of the Afghans. The land is fertile, but the 
climate is very unhealthful. The population consists principally of Turkomans, with a 
mixture of Uzbegs and a few Tadjiks. 


ANDOC'IDES, 467-391 B.c.; a Greek orator and diplomatist. He held for a time a 
command in the Athenian fleet, and was employed in various embassies to foreign states. 
He was implicated with Alcibiades in the charge of mutilating the busts of Hermes; 
he accused others, who were put to death, but he was deprived of the rights of citizen- 
ship and went into exile. Thrice he returned to Athens, and was as often sent out; 
but from 403 to 393 he held honorable positions there. Three orations by him of great 
historical value are extant. 


ANDORRA, a valley in the eastern Pyrenees between the French department of Ariége 
and Catalonia, in Spain. Itis inclosed by mountains, through which its river, the Balira, 
breaks to join the Segre at Urgel; and its inaccessibility naturally fits it for being the 
seat of the interesting little republic which here holds a kind of semi-independent posi- 
tion between France and Spain. Area (divided into six parishes) about 300 sq.m.; 
population stated by Deverell in 1890 as 5231. The capital is Andorra, on the Balira, 
with a pop. of 2000. The former abundant forests are becoming thin from use as fuel; 
there is much excellent pasture; vines and fruit-trees flourish on the lower grounds, 
and the mountains contain rich iron mines; but agriculture is so neglected, and the 
quantity of arable land so small, that the inhabitants partly depend for corn upon France. 
A was declared a free state by Charlemagne, in reward for services rendered to him by 
its inhabitants, when he was marching against the Moors. He retained certain rights 
which Louis le Débonnaire afterwards transferred to the bishop of Urgel, in 819 a.p., and 
which the bishop of Urgel still exercises. The republic is governed by a sovereign coun- 
cil of twenty-four members, chosen by the people, and the council elects two of its mem- 
bers to be syndics for life, who exercise the chief executive power. There are two judges 
called viguiers, of whem the first is appointed by France, which exercises a kind of pro- 
tectorate, and the second by the bishop of Urgel. There is also a civil judge appointed 
by France and the bishop of Urge! alternately. The first viguier is a Frenchman, and 
the second a native of A. Under each viguier is an inferior judge called a bazlie; but 
there is an appeal from his judgment to the civil judge, and finally to the court of cas- 
sation at Paris, or to the Episcopal college at Urgel. In criminal cases, there is no appeal 
from the court of the republic itself, in which the first viguier presides. The revenue of 
the state is derived from lands, and from some inconsiderable taxes. A sum of 960 
francs is paid biennially to France, in return for which is granted the privilege of free 
importation of corn. A payment of 891 francs is made in the intervening years to the 
bishop of Urgel. The manner of life of the Andorransis very simple. There are schools, 
but education is in a low state. There is a militia force of 600 men. In the Car- 
list wars the neutrality of A. was strictly respected, though various complications resulted 
from its connection with the bishop of Urgel, etc. French speculators have endeavored 
to introduce gambling at the springs of Escaldas. See Deverell, Andorra (1890). 


ANDOVER, a market-t. of Hampshire, lies in the n.w. part of the co., lat. 51° 12’ n., 
long. 1° 28'w. The origin of the t. dates from a remote antiquity, as might indeed be 
suspected from its name, which is a modification of the Saxon Andeafaran, i.e., ferry 
over the river Ande. Itis said that the corporation of A. is as old as the time of king 
John. The inhabitants, 5852 in 1891, are chiefly supported by their malt-trade, their 
agriculture, and their traffic in timber with Portsmouth. At Weyhill, a few miles to 
the w. of the t., a fair is held, formerly one of the most celebrated and important in 
England. It lasts for six days. The church of A. is a new erection, in the early Eng- 
lish style of architecture, and cost £30,000, was defrayed by the late rector, the Rev. W. 
S. Goddard. Various relics of antiquity have been discovered near Andover, 


ANDOVER, a town of Essex co., Mass., bounded on the n. w. by the Merrimac river, 
drained by the Shawsheen, a tributary stream, and traversed by the Boston and Maine 
railroad. The town proper, settled in 1643, lies on the e. bank of the Shawsheen, 
23m. n. of Boston and 10 m. e. of Lowell, and includes several manufacturing villages. 
It produces flax, woolen goods, shoes, rubber goods, flannel, printer’s ink and other 
manufactures. A. is noted, even in Massachusetts, for its educational institutions, 
namely, the Phillips Academy for boys, founded in 1778; Andover Theological Semi- 
nary (q. v.), founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy for young ladies, founded in 1829. 


Andkhuy. 
443 Ayden 


The town has banks, a public library, periodicals, an electric railway connecting with 
Lawrence, waterworks, and several public schools. There are several other places of 
the same name in the United States. Pop. ’90, 6142. 


ANDOVER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, at Andover, Mass., founded in 1807, and 
endowed by Samuel Abbot, John Phillips, jr., and Phoebe Phillips of Andover, 
Moses Brown and William Bartlet of Newburyport, and John Norris of Salem. Since 
the founding, the funds have been increased by large donations, and now amount to 
$850,000. The value of the property is $250,000. ‘The theological seminary was placed 
under the same management as Phillips Academy, which had been in operation more 
than a quarter of a century; and its purpose was declared to be ‘‘ to provide for the 
church a learned, orthodox, and pious ministry.’’ It is one of the oldest distinctly theo- 
logical schools in this country. The colleges had previously supplied the public training 
of candidates for the ministry. Its general plan has been taken as the model for many 
institutions of like purpose. The government is by a board of 18 trustees, 5 visitors, 9 
professors, and a librarian. Since the foundation of the seminary, there have been i1 
professors of sacred literature, 3 of Christian theology, 8 of sacred rhetoric, 4 of ecclesi- 
astical history, 1 of Christianity and science, 1 of biblical history and oriental archeology, 
1 of biblical theology, 1 in the special course, and 1 of elocution. In 1896 it had 9 pro- 
fessors and 4 lecturers. Special lecturers address the students every year in various de- 
partments of theological and practical instruction. Its situation is quiet and beautiful, 
about 23 m. n. of Boston. The seminary is under the control of Congregationalists, but 
is administered in a spirit of such evangelical liberality that many who are now eminent 
ministers in other denominations have availed themselves of its privileges. Room-rent 
and tuition are free, and indigent students are assisted. The course of study occupies 
three years, and the aim is for a solid and thorough training. An advanced or fourth 
year class has been established. It has a library of 50,000 volumes. On the roll of its 
professors, past and present, are names distinguished in all departments of theological 
learning. Its graduates are scattered through all portions of the United States, and as 
- missionaries in many heathen lands. 


ANDOVER THEOLOGY. See New THEOLOGY. 


ANDRA’DA, DirGo PAayva D’, 1528-75; a Portuguese theologian, who distinguished 
himself in the council of Trent, to which he was sent by king Sebastian. He wrote 
several volumes of sermons, and other works. His De Conetliorum Auctoritate was much 
esteemed at Rome for the great extension of authority it accorded to the pope. His 
Defensio Tridentinw Fidei is a rare and curious work. 


ANDRA’DA & SYI’VA, Jost BontFAcio pb’, 1765-1838; a Brazilian statesman and 
mineralogist. He studied in Paris under Lavoisier, and in 1800 was appointed professor 
of geology at Coimbra, and, soon after, inspector-general of the Portuguese mines. In 
1812, he was made perpetual secretary of the Lisbon academy; in 1819, became one of 
Dom Pedro’s ministers. When the independence of Brazil was declared, A. was made: 
_ minister of the interior and of foreign affairs, but his democratic principles induced his 
dismissal from office, in July, 1823; and on the dissolution of the assembly in Nov. he 
was banished, living in exile in France until permitted to return, in 1829. When Dom 
Pedro I. abdicated, April 7, 1831, he selected:A. for the guardian and tutor of Dom 
Pedro If. In 1833, A. was again arrested, this time for intriguing in behalf of Dom 
Perlro I., and was deprived of position, passing his remaining years in retirement. He 
wrote no large work, but many papers on mines and mining. 


AN'DRAL, GABRIEL, a celebrated French physician, member of the institute and of 
the academy of medicine, was b. in Paris on the 6th of Nov., 1797. In 1828, he estab- 
lished his reputation by the publication of the first part of his Clinique Medicale; in 
1828, partly through the influence of M. Royer-Collard, whose daughter he had married, 
he was appointed professor of hygiene; and in 1880, was advanced to the chair of in- 
ternal pathology, a branch of medical science which had always possessed great attrac- 
tions for him. A., in fact, commenced his investigations with pathological anatomy. 
He presented to the academy, at a comparatively early period of his career, a paper, 
Sur ? Anatomie Pathologique du Tube Digestif (on the pathological anatomy of the 
alimentary canal), which was greatly admired. Besides, he published, in 1829, a 
Précis Hiémentaire of the same science, which met with striking success; and his Clinique 
Medicale treats principally of diseases of the chest, of the abdomen, and of the brain. 
In 1889, A. was almost unanimously elected by his colleagues to succeed Broussais in 
the chair of pathology and general therapeutics, the highest in the school. Here he 
showed the vast range of his medical knowledge; but in occupying himself so much 
with the pathological anatomy of the dead body, it is alleged that he did not pay 
sufficient attention to the phenomena of disease before the organs begin to exhibit 
traces of alteration. Though actively en gaged in his general practice, he found time to 
write several other works besides those already mentioned. In 1885, appeared his 
Projet Wun Essai sur la Vitalité ; in 1836, he edited and considerably enlarged Laennec’s 
Traité de Vauscultation Médiate et du Ceur ; in 1836-87, a Cours de Pathologie Interne; in 
1837, his report to the academy, Sur le Traitement de la Fievre Typhoide par les Purgatifs: 

I. —15 


Andrassy. 444 


Andres. 


in 1843, he presented to the institute his Traité Elémentaire de Pathologie et de Théra- 
peutique Générale (published in 1840), etc. He died in 1876. 

ANDRASSY, GyuLaA, Count, b. 1823; of an old and noble Hungarian family. He 
was in the Presburg diet, 1847-48; lord-lieutenant of Zemplen co.; and led the militia 
against the Austrians. He was Hungarian envoy to Turkey, and, 1849-57, an exile in 
France and England. Returning home, he was a member of the diet in 1861, and its 
vice-president 1865-66. After the recognition of Hungary as a part of the Austrian 
empire, Deak procured the appointment of A. as prime minister Feb. 17, 1867, and he 
led a popular and reforming administration, working for the political emancipation of 
the Jews and against the temporal power of the pope. He succeeded count Beust, Nov. 
9, 1871, as minister of foreign affairs, and framed the policy of the so-called Andrassy 
note for pacificating the revolted provinces of Turkey by forcing the Porte to adopt 
reforms (1876). He resigned Aug. 18, 1879. He died in Feb., 1890. 


ANDRE, JOHN, an unfortunate soidier, who met his death under circumstances 
which have given his name a place in history, was b. in London, in 1751, of Genevese 
parents. At the age of 20, he entered the army, and soon after joined the British 
forces in America, where, in a few years, through the favor of Sir Henry Clinton, he 
was promoted to the important post of adjutant-general, with the rank of major. 

Sir Henry Clinton being in treaty with the American Gen. Arnold, who commanded 
the fortress of West Point, for the betrayal to the British of the fortress, with its maga- 
zines, including the whole stock of powder of the American army, confided the conduct 
of the correspondence on his part to Major A. The secret correspondence was con- 
ducted by Arnold and A. under assumed names, and as if it related to commercial 
affairs; and the treachery was so well concealed, that the Americans had no suspicion 
whatever of Arnold’s fidelity. At last it remained only to settle the time and means of 
carrying the scheme into execution; and these, it was determined, should be settled in 
a personal interview between Arnold and A., either because Arnold required such an 
interview, or, more probably, because Clinton had some misgivings as to the identity of 
his correspondent. Various projects to bring about the interview having failed, A., 
at last, on the 20th Sept., 1780, proceeded ina British sloop of war—the Vultwre—up 
the Hudson nearly to the American lines. The original design was to have met under 
cover of a flag of truce, on the pretense of effecting some arrangement as to the seques- 
trated property of a Col. Robinson, a loyalist gentleman who accompanied A., and whose 
house was at the time Arnold’s headquarters; but this design had to be abandoned, and 
Arnold was obliged to contrive a secret interview. On the night of the 21st Sept., he 
prevailed on a Mr. Smith, who lived within the American lines, to go to the Vultwre with 
a packet for Col. Robinson. Smith went, and returned with A., who passed under the 
assumed name of Anderson. Arnold met him on the shore, where they conferred some 
time, after which they went within the lines to Smith’s house, and there spent the rest 
of the night and part of the next day arranging the details of their plan for the treacher- 
ous surprisal of West Point. The attack was fixed for the day when the return of gen. 
Washington was expected; and there is reason for thinking that part of Arnold’s : 
scheme was, if possible, to betray Washington also into the hands of the enemy. 

Early on the morning of the 28d Sept., a gun was brought to bear on the Vultwre, 
and obliged her to fall down the river so far that A. could not prevail on the boatmen to 
take him to her, and so was forced to make his way by land to the English lines in a 
disguise furnished by Smith, and provided with a pass from the general. A. actually 
got safely within sight of the English lines, when he was stopped and taken prisoner by 
three American militia-men, to whom, mistaking them for British, he inadvertently 
revealed the fact that he was a British officer. His captors, on searching him, having 
discovered concealed in his stockings the plans of West Point and other papers connected 
with the proposed treachery, which he was bearing‘from Arnold to Clinton, carried him 
asa spy to a Col. Jamieson, who, not suspecting anything, was for sending him on to 
Arnold. Here achance of escape opened for him, but only for a moment. He was 
ultimately sent, with the papers found on his person, to Gen. Washington. Jamieson, 
meantime, having sent word to Arnold of the capture of A., Arnold fled to the Vulture, 
and so saved his life. 

A., as a spy taken in the act, was liable, according to the rules of war, to be hanged 
at once. But considering the rank of the prisoner, and the circumstances, Washington 
resolved on referring the case to a board of general officers, to report the facts, with their 
opinion of the light in which the prisoner ought to be considered, and the punishment 
that ought to be inflicted. The board found that he ought to be considered as a spy 
from the enemy, and punished with death. Strenuous efforts were made by the British 
commander to save him. It was represented to Washington that A. could not be 
regarded as a spy, because—1. He entered the American lines under a flag of truce; 
2. That all his movements within the lines were directed by the general. _ The first plea, 
on A.’s own authority, was contrary to the fact; and to the Americans it rightly appeared 
that the point of the offense lay in the communication with the base traitor Arnold. All 
the efforts of Clinton failed to move the American commander. A. was sentenced to 
death. On one condition only would Washington spare him—that the British should 
surrender Arnold. But this they could not think of doing; the sense of honor which, 
yielding to the spirit of war, offered no opposition to a bargain with Arnold for the blood 


And i 
44 » ‘Audeceae 


aud liberties of his compatriots, made it impossible to deliver up the runaway traitor to 
the death that otherwise awaited the soldier who only went too far in his zeal for his 
country. 

A. suffered death by hanging at Tappan, in the state of New York, on the 2d Oct., 
1780, in his 29th year. His death everywhere excited the deepest sympathy. The whole 
British army went into mourning for him; a monument was erected to his memory in 
Westminster Abbey, and in 1821 his remains were disinterred at Tappan, and conveyed 
to a grave near his monument. 

Much has been written on the subject of A.’s execution. It has often been main- 
tained, and recently by Lord Mahon, in his History of England (vol. vii.), that his 
sentence was unjust. but a simple narrative of the circumstances, evenas they are to be 
gathered from lord Mahon’s own pages, shows that the American general had no alter- 
native. Indeed, the circumstances cited to show that A. was not a spy, in the ordinary 
sense, all go to prove that he was a spy of the worst sort. The success of the treachery 
of Arnold would have been the destruction of the American cause; and it is hard to see 
how the agent who went secretly within the American lines, and was captured returning 
in disguise with the information that was to insure that success, is to be held in a better 
case than the common soldier who steals his way into the enemy’s camp of a night, to 
see the extent of his preparations and forces. 

A. was a handsome and amiable man, of considerable accomplishments; he was a 
good artist, and appears, when in England, to have been known to certain literary 
circles of his time. ‘These circumstances naturally heightened the feeling with which 
his fate was regarded. 

See Biographical Dictionary of the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, 
vo). ii.; also, in vol. vi. of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1858, 
The Case of Major A., with a Review of the Statement of ttin Lord Mahon’s History of 
England, by Charles J. Biddle—an essay containing a full narrative of the case, with a 
discussion of all the questions of law and duty raised in connection with it. 


ANDRE’A, GIOVANNI, an Italian canonist of the 14th c., of whom many remarkable 
stories are told, such as his sleeping every night for 20 years on the bare ground with 
only a bear’s skin for covering; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in 
law that she read his lectures in his absence, but who was so beautiful that she read 
behind a screen lest her face should distract attention from the theme. <A. was 45 years 
professor of canon law at Bologna, where hedied of the plague. He was the author of 
several works on law, but not much is known of his life. 


ANDRE’A, Pisano, or ANDREA DA Pisa, 1270-1345; an Italian sculptor and ar- 
chitect ; employed on the Pisa cathedral, on the bronzes of Perugia, and on the fagade 
of the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore of Florence. He made for the same church 
statues of Sts. Peter and Paul and of Boniface VIII.,and spent some timein Venice | 
making statues for thefront of St. Mark’s. Returning to Florence, he was put in charge 
of all public works. Among his own productions are the bronze relievos for the gates 
of the baptistery, which represent incidents in the life of St. John, and which gained 
him the honorary citizenship of the republic. Among designs by him are the castle of 
Scarperia, the Venice arsenal, the church of San Giovanni at Pistoia, enlargements for 
the ducal palace at Florence, towers and gates for the city wall, and a citadel. 


AN'DREZ, Jaxon, 1528-90 ; a German theologian. He studied at Stuttgart and was 
pastor there in 1549; in 1557, he preached to the Wiirtemberg court, and attended the 
die#s of Ratisbon and Frankfort. He was afterwards professor of theology and chancellor 
in the university of Tiibingen and provost of the church of St. George. He took a lead- 
ing part in Protestant discussions and movements, particularly in the adoption of a 
common declaration of faith by the two parties. He was one of the secretaries of the 
conference of Worms. In the latter part of his life he traveled in Bohemia and Germany, 
working for the consolidation of the reformation, conferring with pastors, magistrates, 
and princes. He was the author of more than 150 works, nearly all polemical and 
vigorously written, Lutheran for the most part, and opposed to Calvinism. 


ANDRE, Jon. VALENT., a very original thinker and writer, b. at Herrenberg, near 
Tiibingen, on the 17th of Aug., 1586. He studied at Tiibingen, spent some time in 
traveling in the s. of Europe, obtained ecclesiastical preferments in the Protestant 
church of his native country, and d. on June 27, 1654, at Stuttgart, where he was 
chaplain to the court. Eminently practical in his mental disposition, he was grieved 
to see the principles of Christianity made the subject of mere empty disputations, 
and all science and philosophy in hike manner perverted by a frivolous scholas- 
ticism. To the correction of this prevailing tendency of his age, the efforts of his whole 
life were directed. His writings are remarkable for the wit and humor, as well as for the 
learning, acuteness, and moral power which they display. He has been long regarded as 
the founder, or at least the restorer, of the order of the Rosicrucians (q.v.); and this opin- 
ion is plausibly supported by reference to three publications—the Chymische Hochzeit 
Ohristiani Rosenkreuz (1616), the Fama Fraternitatis R. C., i.e., rosew cructs (1614), and the 
Confessio Fraternitatis R. C. (1615), of the first of which he acknowledged himself the 
author, and the other two have so much resemblance to it as to be evidently from the 
same pen, But however these works were misunderstood by his contemporaries, and 


Andrez. 446 


Andrew. 


particularly by those who were inclined to mysticism in religion, his intention in them 
was certainly not to originate or promote secret societies of mystics and enthusiasts, but 
to ridicule the follies of the age. He attacked Rosicrucianism itself in some of his later 
writings with great severity. Among the best of his works are his Menippus s. Satyricorum 
Dialogorum Centuria (1617). His Mythologica Christiana (1619) is another of the best 
known. He wrote an allegoric poem called Die Christenburg (of which an edition was 
published, Stuttg., 1886), and an autobiography (Winterthur, 1799). Herder has done 
much to extend a knowledge of A.’s works in the present age. 


AN'DREE, LAURENTIUS, or LARS ANDERSSON, 1480-1552 ; a Swedish reformer and 
deacon of the cathedral of Upsal. He studied in Rome, but came home a Protestant. 
He was made chancellor by Gustavus Vasa, who desired him to translate the Bible, in 
which work he was assisted by Claus Petri. A. was in high favor until he was charged 
with having neglected to disclose a conspiracy against the king, of which he had knowl- 
edge, for whicb he was sentenced to death. He escaped, however, by the payment of a 
large sum, and d. peacefully at Strengness. 


ANDREA'NI, ANDREA, 1540-1628 ; an Italian painter and engraver on wood, in which 
art he excelled. Some of the most notable of his works are Titian’s Deluge, Pharaoh’s 
Host Destroyed in the Red Sea, The Triumph of Cesar (after Montegna), and Christ Retiring 
from the Judgment Seat of Pilate. From using a similar monogram his work has some- 
times been mistaken for that of Altdorfer. 


AN DREE, Karu Tueopor, b. 1808 ; a German journalist. He was studying at Jena, 
when he was arrested and tried for revolutionary complicity in 1888, but was acquitted 
and turned his attention to journalism. His special pursuit was geography, and for many 
years he edited the Globus, a geographical and ethnological publication. Andree paid 
much attention to the western continent in his North America, Buenos Ayres, and other 
works. He d. 1875. 


ANDREOS'SY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS, Count, was b. on Mar. 6, 1761, at Castelnaudary, 
in Languedoc, and was the great-grandson of Francois A., who, along with Riquet, con- 
structed the canal of Languedoc in the 17th century. He entered the army as a lieutenant 
of artillery in 1781, joined the revolutionists, rose rapidly in military rank, served under 
Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, accompanied him on his return from Egypt to France, 
and took part in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. He was ambassador at London 
during the peace of Amiens, and afterwards at Vienna, was governor of Vienna when if 
was in the hands of the French after the battle of Wagram, and was for some time 
ambassador at Constantinople, from which he was recalled by Louis XVIII. on the 
restoration. He was raised to the peerage by Napoleon after his return from Elba. 
After the battle of Waterloo, he advocated the recall of the Bourbons; but as deputy 
from the department of Aube, he generally took part with the opposition. He d. at 
Montauban on Sept. 10, 1828. He was a man of eminent scientific attainments, and dis- 
tinguished himself as a member of the institute founded at Cairo. One of his first works 
was the Histoire Générale du Canal du Midi (Par., 1800; new edition, 2 vols., 1805), in which 
he asserted the right of his great-grandfather to honors long enjoyed by Riquet. Among 
the most valuable of his works are his Mémoire sur UIrruption du Pont-Huzin dans la 
Méditerranée, his Mémoire sur le Systeme des Haux qui abreuvent Constantinople, and his 
Constantinople et le Bosphore de Thrace pendant les Années 1812-1814 et pendant l Année 
1826 (Par., 1828), a work of importance in physical geography. 

ANDRES’, Juan, 1740-1817; a learned Spanish Jesuit, and a teacher of philosophy 
at Ferrara until the suppression of the college. He wrote much on scientific subjects, on 
music, art, and teaching the deaf and dumb; but his main work was On the Origin, Prog- 
ress and Present State of All Literature, in Italian. He was keeper of the royal library 
at Naples, in 1806; became blind in 1815, and retired to Rome. 


ANDREW, aco. in n.w. Missouri, on the Kansas border; intersected by the Platte 
and other streams, and having railroad communication with St. Joseph ; 420sq.m. ; pop. 
*90, 16,000, with colored. The soil produces cereals and tobacco, and coal has been found. 
Co. seat, Savannah. 


ANDREW, the first disciple of Christ, and afterwards an apostle, was, like his brother 
Peter, a fisherman. Previous to his recognition of Christ as the Messiah, he had been 
numbered among the disciples of John the Baptist. (See John i. 40, 41.) The career of 
A., as an apostle, after the death of Christ, is unknown. ‘Tradition tells us that, after 
preaching the gospel in Scythia, northern Greece, and Epirus, he suffered martyrdom on 
the cross at Patree in Achaia, 62 or 70 4.p. A cross formed of beams obliquely placed is 
styled St. A.’s cross. In the early times of the church, a spurious supplement to the 
Acts of the Apostles was circulated among certain sects under the title Acta Andree. 
The anniversary of St. A. falls on Nov. 80. St. A. is the patron saint of Scotland; 
he is also held in great veneration in Russia, as the apostle who, according to tradition, 


first preached the gospel in that country. In both countries there is an order of knight- 
hood named in his honor. 


ANDREW, or Anprds, I., King of Hungary from 1046 to 1058: cousin of St 
Stephen, the introducer of Christianity. A. fought with varying fortune against Henry 


lod Andrez. 
44 ( Andrew. 


III. of Germany, and against his own brother, Bela, and was finally defeated by Polish 
and Hungarian opponents. He d. in 1061. 


ANDREW II., 1176-1236; King of Hungary in 1205, after a civil war with his 
nephew, Ladislas III. In 1217, he conducted an unsuccessful crusade against the Moslem 
powers. In 1222 he granted the golden bull called the magna charta of Hungary, which 
confirmed the rights and titles of the bishops and nobles whose revolts had disturbed his 
reign. 


ANDREW ‘IIL, d. 1301; the last Hungarian king of the Arpad family; grandson of 
Andrew II.; b. in Venice and succeeded Ladislas IV. in 1290. He had to defend his 
crown against the pretensions of Rudolph of Hapsburg and pope Nicholas IV., both 
being claimants, and also against a son of the king of Naples, who claimed to be of the 
house of Arpad by his mother. His reign was brief and disturbed by rebellion. 


ANDREW, JAMES OsGooD, D.D., 1794-1871; b. Georgia; an itinerant Methodist 
Episcopal preacher of South Carolina conference, consecrated bishop at Philadelphia in 
May, 1832. On his social relations began the division of the M. E. church into ‘‘ North” 
and ‘‘South.” His second wife was a slave-holder, and in the general conference of 
1844 it was declared that ‘‘ this would greatly embarrass the exercise of his ofiice as an 
itinerant general superintendent, if not in some places entirely prevent it,” and it was 
resolved ‘‘ that it is the sense of this general conference that he should desist from the 
exercise of this office so long as this impediment remains.” The southern delegates 
protested that the action was extrajudicial and unconstitutional, and the difficulty was 
finally settled by dividing the churches and property into the northern and southern 
jurisdictions. Bishop A. adhered to the south, and continued his episcopal work until 
1868, retiring then from age. He wrote on Family Government, and other subjects. 


ANDREW, Joun ALBION, LU.D., b. Maine, 1818; d. Boston, 1867; a graduate of 
Bowdoin in 1837. He was admitted to the Boston bar in 1840; practiced there 20 years, 
and was conspicuous in cases arising under the fugitive slave law. In 1858 he was a 
member of the legislature; in 1860 he was a delegate in the national convention 
which nominated Lincoln for president, and was himself elected governor of Massachu- 
setts by the largest vote ever given for a candidate. He foresaw the danger of civil war 
and took immediate steps to perfect the organization of the militia of his state. Within 
a week after the first call for troops he sent forward five infantry regiments, a battalion 
of riflemen, and a battery of artillery. In 1861, and yearly until he insisted on retiring 
in 1866, he was re-elected governor, and he was in all the war conspicuous for his 
friendly care of soldiers. He was at the conference of loyal governors in Sept., 1862, 
and wrote the address presented by them to the president. In religion he was Unitarian; 
and presided at the first national convention of that denomination in 1865. He declined 
the offered presidency of Antioch (Ohio) college. 


ANDREW, ST., or Tue TuisTLe, a Scottish order of knighthood, named after the 
patron saint of Scotland. Nisbet, with pardonable partiality, prefers it to all other 
orders, purely military, ‘‘ chiefly for the antiquity of it, which gives it a place and 
precedency over all other orders now in being.” (Heraldry, part iv. c. xi., p. 107.) He 
then proceeds, after bishop Lesley, to recount the story of the St. A.’s cross having 
appeared in heaven to Achaius, king of Scots, and Hungus, king of the Picts, as a sign of 
the victory which they should gain the following day over Athelstane, king of England; 
and their subsequent vow, when the prophecy was fulfilled, to bear it on their ensigns 
and banners. It is frequently’said to have been recognized as an order of knighthood in 
the reign of James V., and after a period of abeyance, to have been revived by James II. 
of Great Britain in 1687. For the actual facts of the case see, however, the article 
THISTLE, ORDER OF THE. 

The star of the order of the thistle is worn on the left side. It consists of a St. A.’s 
cross of silver embroidery, with rays emanating from between the points of the cross, in 
the center of which is a thistle of gold and green upon a field of green, surrounded by a 
circle of green, bearing the motto of the order in golden characters. 

The badge or jewel is worn pendent to the collar, or to a dark-green ribbon over the 
left shoulder, and tied under the arm. It consists of a figure of St. A. with the cross 
enameled and chased on rays of gold; the cross and feet resting upon the ground of 
enameled green. The collar is of thistles, intermingled with sprigs of rue. By a statute 
passed in May, 1827, the order is to consist of the sovereign and 16 knights. The 
letters K.T. are placed after the names of knights of the order. The motto is Nemo me 
impune lacessit. 


ANDREW, S8T., THe RusstAn ORDER oF, is the highest in the empire, and was 
founded by Peter the Great in 1698. It is confined to members of the imperial family, 
princes, generals-in-chief, and others of like rank. The badge of the order shows on 
the obverse a cross enameled in blue, bearing a figure of the saint surmounted by a 
crown, and in the four corners of the cross the letters S. A. P. R. (Sanctus Andreas 
Patronus Russie). On the reverse is a spread eagle, with the legend (in Russian) Yor re- 
ligion and loyalty, and the name of the saint. The collar consists of St. A.’s crosses alter- 
nating with imperial crowns. 

ANDREWS, a co. in Texas, formed 1876 ; bounded w. by New Mexico; part of Llano 


Estacado, unorganized and attached to Shackelford for judicial purposes. Area, 1500 
sq.m. 


Andrews. 448 


Androclus. 


ANDREWS, CHARLES BARTLETT, b. Sunderland, Me., 1834; educated at Amherst 
college. He was a member of the Connecticut senate, 1868-69; of the legislature, 1878; 
governor, 1879-81; became a judge of the superior court of Connecticut in 1882, and 
chief Justice in 1889. 

ANDREWS, EpwARD GAYER, D.D., b. N. Y., 1825; a graduate of Wesleyan univer- 
sity in 1847. He became a minister in the-Methodist Episcopal church in 1848, presi- 
dent of the Oneida conference seminary in 1855, and bishop in 1872. 

ANDREWS, ELISHA BENJAMIN, educator; b. 1844; served in the Union army through 
the civil war; graduated at Brown University in 1870, and at the Newton Theological 
Institute in 1874; president of Denison University, 1875-79; elected president of Brown 
University in 1889, and a U. 8. commissioner to the Brussels monetary conference in 
1892, being a strong supporter of international bimetalism. He published works on 
history and economics, including Jnstitutes of American constitutional history, of gen- 
eral history, and of economics, and Zhe History of the Last Quarter Century in the United 
States, 1870-95 (1896). 

ANDREWS, ErHan ALLEN, LL.D., 1787-1858; b. Conn.; a graduate of Yale. He 
published a number of school-books, and, in 1850, a good Latin-English lexicon. 

ANDREWS, J AMEs Pettit, 1737-97; an English historian. He left unfinished a History 
of Great Britain, Connected with the Chronology of Europe, commencing with Cesar’s invasion; 
the English history on one page and the synchronous European history on the opposite page. 

ANDREWS, LANCELOT, an eminent English prelate, was b. in London in 1555, and 
educated successively at the Coopers’ Free School, Ratcliffe, Merchant Taylors’ School, 
and Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, of which college, after having greatly distinguished 
himself by his industry and acquirements, he was in 1576 elected a fellow. On taking 
orders, he accompanied the earl of Huntingdon to the north of England. His talents 
attracted the notice of Walsingham, queen Elizabeth’s secretary of state, who appointed 
him successively to the parsonage of Alton, and the vicarage of St. Giles, Cripplegate. 
In 1589 he was appointed a prebendary and canon residentiary of St. Paul’s, a preben- 
dary of the collegiate church of Southwell, and master of Pembroke Hall. The queen 
next testified her esteem for his gifts and piety by appointing him one of her chaplains 
in ordinary, and a prebendary and dean of Westminster. He rose still higher in favor 
with king James, who was well qualified to appreciate his extensive learning and pecu- 
liar style of oratory. He attended the Hampton Court conference, as one of the ecclesi- 
astical commissioners, and took part in the translation of the Bible. The portion on 
which he was engaged was the first twelve books of the Old Testament. In 1605 he was. 
consecrated bishop of Chichester. In 1609 he was translated to the see of Ely, and 
appointed one of his majesty’s privy-councilors, both for England and Scotland. To 
the latter country he accompanied the king in 1617, as one of the royal instruments for 
persuading the Scotch of the superiority of episcopacy over presbytery. Inthe following 
year he was translated to Winchester, where he died on Sept. 25, 1626. Bishop A. was, 
with the exception of Usher, the most learned English theologian of his time. As 
a preacher, he was regarded by his contemporaries as unrivaled; but the excellent quali- 
ties of his discourses are apt to suffer much depreciation in modern judgment from the 
extremely artificial and frigid character of the style. His principal works published 
during his life were two treatises in reply to cardinal Bellarmin, in defense of the right 
of princes over ecclesiastical assemblies. His other works consist of sermons, lectures, 
and manuals of devotion. Bishop A. was the most eminent of that Anglican school in 
the 17th c. of which the 19th has seen a faint revival under the name of Puseyism. Its 
distinctive peculiarities were high views of ecclesiastical authority, and of the efficacy of 
sacraments, ceremonies, and apostolic succession, and extreme opposition to Puritanism, 
the 17th c. of which the 19th has seen a faint revival under the name of Puseyism (q.V.). 


ANDREWS, Lorrin, 1795-1868; b. Conn., educated at Jefferson and Princeton 
colleges, and went as missionary to the Sandwich islands in 1827. In 1831 he founded 
what became the Hawaiian university, in which he was professor. He was long privy- 
councilor and judge under the native government. He wrote a Hawaiian dictionary, 
and published part of the Bible in that tongue. 


ANDREWS, ST., an ancient city of Scotland, is situated on the bay of the same name, 
in Fifeshire, about 10 m. from Cupar, and 44m. from Edinburgh. Tradition dates the 
origin of this city as far back as the 9th c., when St. Regulus or Rule is said to have 
taken refuge in this place, then called Mucros, and afterward Kilrymont, bringing with 
him some of the bones of St. Andrew, which, being enshrined here, continued to be an 
object of pilgrimage for several centuries. A cave on the sea-shore still bears the name of 
St. Rule. He would seem to have founded a Culdee monastery, of which the Scottish king 
Constantine, having resigned his crown, became abbot about the year 940. Probably 
about the same time, it became the seat of a prelate, who, as ‘‘ bishop of the Scots,” con- 
tinued to enjoy a certain pre-eminence among the other bishops, until, in 1471, the see 
was erected into an archbishopric, when he became primate. In the reign of Alexander 
I, a priory of canons regular was founded at St. A., which afterwards became one of 
the chief ecclesiastical establishments in Scotland. The last prior was the regent Moray. 
In 1140 St. A. was created a burgh by the bishop, with consent of king David I. The 
cathedral, commenced in 1162, and consecrated in 1818, was sacrificed in 1559 to the 
frenzied zeal of the mob, an outrage which it is customary to attribute to the preaching 
of Knox. The eastern gable, part of the western, and part of the south side wall and of 
the transept, are all that remain of this building. - It was the second cathedral of St. A.. 


Andrews. 
449 Androclus. 


the first being what is now called St. Rule’s church, but was long known as ‘the old 
eathedral.’? Of this interesting little edifice, built between 1127 and 1144, the roofless 
omnia and a square tower 108 ft. high, are still preserved. They are in the romanesque 
style. 

The university of St. A., the oldest in Scotland, was founded by Bishop Wardlaw 
in 1411. It consists of the United College of St. Salvator, founded by Bishop Kennedy in 
1456, and St. Leonard, founded in 1512; and St. Mary’s college, founded by Beaton in 
1537. The education in the latter is exclusively theological. A considerable number of 
women take university courses. The university has an excellent library, which formerly 
had a right to a copy of every book published in the kingdom. In lieu of this right it 
now receives a fixed annual allowance. The castle, once a very extensive and strong 
building, is now inruins. It was for some time the residence of Cardinal Beaton, who 
was assassinated here in 1546. As the ecclesiastical metropolis of Scotland, an ancient 
seat of learning, and the center of a considerable trade, St. A., at the time of the refor- 
mation, was an important and flourishing city. Since that period it has greatly declined 
in importance; but its excellent educational establishments and convenience as a water- 
ing-place still make it an eligible residence for a highly respectable population. Its chief 
interest is still connected with the past. Here, in the center of the papal jurisdiction in | 
Scotland, the reformation first made its appearance; Scotland’s proto-martyr, Patrick 
Hamilton, suffered here in 1528, and George Wishart in 1546, and here John Knox first 
opened his lips as a preacher of the reformed faith. The trade of St. A. is inconsidera- 
ble. The harbor is difficult of access, and particularly exposed to the e. wind. A few 
coasters and fishing-boats constitute all the shipping of the port. St. A. is much fre- 
quented as a bathing-place, and the game of golf is more practiced than anywhere else 
in Scotland on the links or downs which stretch along the shore to the n. of the t. for 
about two miles. The manufacture of golf-balls and golf-sticks is one of its principal 
industries. Besides its university, St. A. affords singular advantages for cheap and 
excellent education in the Madras college, established by the well-known Dr, Andrew 
Bell, which attracts a very large number of pupils. The grammar school and commercial 
school are incorporated with it. St. A. is a royal and parliamentary burgh, and unites 
with several smaller burghs in returning a member to parliament. The corporation 
includes a provost, dean of guild, and four bailies. Pop. in 1891, 6853. 


ANDREWS, STEPHEN PEARL, b. Mass., 1812; a student of social science and 
philology. His writings discussed themes of society, government, and language. 
Among his works are: Comparison of the common law with the Roman, French, and Span- 
ish civil law, on entails, and other limited property, in real estate; Love, Marriage, and 
Divorce; French without a master; phonographic readers and class-books: and a phono- 
graphic reporter. Hed. 1886. 


AN’DRIA, a t. of south Italy, in the province of Bari, 31 m. w. from the t. of Bari. 
Tt stands on a plain, and in its vicinity are numerous caverns (antra), whence its name. 
Its cathedral, a fine edifice, was founded in 1046. During the wars of the Parthenopean 
republic (q.v.), it was besieged by the republican army under gen. Broussier, and being 
taken after a gallant resistance, was burned, at the suggestion of Ettore Carafa, count of 
Ruvo, himself its feudallord. The neighboring country is famous for its almonds, which 
are a principal article of trade of the city. Pop. 39,493. 


ANDRIEUX, FRANGOIS GUILLAUME JEAN STANISLAUS, a French writer of comedies 
vas b. at Melun, May 6, 1759. In 1798, he was elected deputy of the Seine department, 
and distinguished himself by his speeches on several points of public interest. In 1800, 
he was made secretary, and soon afterwards president of the tribunal. From this post 
he was removed by Bonaparte in 1802, and afterwards devoted himself to literature. 
During his political career he had written a comedy, Les Htouwrdis, 1787. From 1803 to 
1815, he held a professorship in the polytechnic school, and in 1814 was appointed pro- 
fessor in the collége de France. Louis XVIII. gave him a place in the academy in 1816, 
~of which he was made perpetual secretary in 1829. In this position he took an active 
part in the preparation of the Dictionnaire del Académie. His most popular dramas were 
Moliére avec ses Amis, Le Vieux Fat, and the tragedy of Brutus. <A collection of his 
vesthetic lectures was published under the title La Philosophie des Belles- Lettres (Paris, 
1828). Hed. May 10, 1833. 


ANDRIS’CUS, or Psreupo PHILIP, a person of mean. origin, who claimed to be ason 
of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia. He was imprisoned in Rome because of this 
pretense, but escaped and found partisans enough in Thrace to defeat the praetor Juventius, 
who had been sent against him. After a brief reign of cruelty and extortion he was 
defeated, 148 B.c., taken to Rome by Q. Cecilius Metellus, and put to death. But the 
recapture of Macedonia cost Rome 25,000 men. 


AN’DROCLUS, or AN’DROCLES ; a Roman slave, perhaps a tamer of wild animals, 
who led about the streets a lion which had refused to attack him when set loose upon him 
in the arena. But Aulus Gellius says that A. took refuge from a severe master in an 
African cave, where came a lion with an injured foot which the slave cured, after pulling 
out a large thorn, and the grateful animal followed him thereafter. Aulus Gellius relates 
the story as having come to him from an eye-witness, 


Androgynous. 
Andujar. 4 y 0 


ANDROG'YNOUS (i.e., male-female; from two Greek words), a term sometimes 
employed in botany to designate an inflorescence which consists of distinct male and 
female flowers; and more frequently in zoology in reference to animals which possess a 
distinct male and female generative system in thesame individual. This is the case with 
very many of the lower kinds of animals, but is not inconsistent with a necessity for 
the co-operation of two individuals in the propagation of the species. See HERMAPHRO- 
DITE, PuystoLoGy and REPRODUCTION. 


ANDROM’ACHE, the wife of Hector, was the daughter of king Eétion of Thebes, in 
Cilicia, and is one of the finest female characters in Homer’s iad. During her child- 
hood, Achilles slew her father and her seven brothers. Her love of Hector is patheti- 
cally depicted in her address to the hero on his going to battle and her lamentation over 
his death (didiad, 6 and 24). After the fall of Troy, she was given into the hands of 
Pyrrhus (son of Achilles), who took her away to Epirus, but afterwards surrendered her 
to Helenus (Hector’s brother), by whom she had a son named Cestrinus, A. is the heroine 
of one of the tragedies of Euripides. 


ANDROM’EDA, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus, by Cassiopeia, was, like her 
mother, remarkably beautiful. When Cassiopeia, with motherly pride, boasted that her 
daughter was more beautiful than the Nereids, these offended deities prayed Neptune to 
revenge the insult. Accordingly, the territory of king Cepheus was devastated by a flood; 
and a terrible sea-monster appeared, whose wrath, the oracle of Ammon declared, could 
only be appeased by the sacrifice of A. As A. was fastened to a rock, and left as a prey 
to the monster, Perseus, returning from his victorious battle with Medusa, saw the beau- 
tiful victim, and determined to rescue and win her. Having slain the sea-monster, he 
received A. as his reward. Minerva gave A. a place among the constellations. 


ANDROM'EDA, a genus of plants of the natural order ericee (q.v.), distinguished by 
a 5-valved naked capsule, which splits up through the back of the cells; anthers with 
two awns, and a globose corolla with the orifice contracted. The species, which are 
pretty numerous, have very much the general appearance of heaths. Most of them are 
small shrubs, but some attain a considerable size. The only British speciesis A. polifolia, 
occasionally found in peat-bogs in different parts of the country, and common through- 
out the north of Europe and of North America, a small evergreen shrub with beautiful 
rose-colored drooping flowers. It has acrid narcotic properties, and sheep are some- 
times killed by eating it. The shoots of A. ovalifolua in like manner, poison goats in 
Nepaul; and similar effects are ascribed to A. mariana and other species in the United 
States.—A. fastigiata was observed by Dr. Hooker abounding at great elevations in the 
Himalaya; a humble shrub, resembling the heather of Scotland. The leaves are used as 
a substitute for tea. See SORREL-TREE. 


ANDRONI'CUS, the name of three Byzantine emperors.—A. I., the son of Isaac 
Comnenus, was one of the most conspicuous characters of his age, which produced no 
man more brave, more profligate, or more perfidious. His life was full of extraordinary 
vicissitudes. During part of his youth, he was a prisoner of the Turks in Asia Minor. 
He afterwards spent some time at the court of his cousin, the emperor Manuel, and a 
niece of the emperor became his mistress. He was appointed to a military command in 
Cilicia; but although his courage, his noble appearance, and his gracious manners made 
him the favorite of the army, his imprudence and waste of time in dissolute pleasures 
involved him in defeat. Having engaged in a treasonable correspondence with the king 
of Hungary and the German emperor, he was thrown into prison by Manuel, and 
remained there above 12 years; but at last succeeded in making his escape, and, 
although not without further extraordinary adventures, reached Kiew, the residence of 
the grand duke Jaroslav. He regained the favor of his cousin by persuading the Rus- 
sian prince to join him in the invasion of Hungary, and by his gallantry in that war; 
but incurred his displeasure again by refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the prince 
of Hungary, the intended husband of Manuel’s daughter, as presumptive heir to the 
empire. He was sent in honorable banishment to Cilicia, where he found a new mistress 
in a sister of the empress. The resentment of the emperor breaking out against him, he 
sought refuge in a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. His professions of zeal made his former 
conduct to be forgotten, and he was invested with the lordship of Berytus; but his prof- 
ligacy became, if possible, more scandalous than ever in the seduction of Theodora, the 
widow of Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, who lived with him for years as his mistress 
The emperor’s anger made Palestine unsafe for him, and he fled with Theodora ta 
Damascus, and finally settled among the Turks in Asia Minor, with a band of outlaws. 
making frequent inroads into the Roman province of Trebizond; from which he carried 
away spoil and slaves. Theodora and her children were at last taken and sent to Con 
stantinople, and thither he followed, imploring, with a chain about his neck, and in a 
form of abject submission, the forgiveness of the emperor, which he obtained, but was 
sent to Oenoe in Pontus. After the death of Manuel, popular indignation was excited 
against the empress, who acted as regent for her son, Alexius II., and A. was recalled in 
1182 to deliver the empire from her tyranny. He was appointed guardian of the young 
emperor, and goon after, his colleague in the empire. He caused the empress-mother to 
be strangled, and afterwards Alexius himself, with whose widow he contracted an inde- 
cent marriage. His reign, though short, was vigorous, and restored prosperity to the 


Andr 
4 5 1b ana ef lesb 


provinces; but tyranny and murder were its characteristics in the capital. He set no 
bounds to the gratification of his revenge against all who had ever offended him, and his 
jealousy of possible rivals was equally sanguinary. At last, a destined victim, Isaac 
Angelus, one of his relatives, having fled to the church of St. Sophia for sanctuary, a 
crowd gathered, and a sudden insurrection placed Isaac on the throne, whilst A., 
now 73 years of age, was put to death by the infuriated populace, after horrible mutila- 
tions and tortures, on Sept. 12, 1185. He was the last of the Comneni that sat on the 
throne of Constantinople; but the succeeding dukes and emperors of Trebizond were 
descendants of his son Manuel.—A. II., the son of Michael Paleologus, ascended the 
throne in 1283; but after a weak and inglorious reign, was driven from it in 1328 by his 
grandson, A. III., who, after a reign equally inglorious, d. in 1841. During these reigns, 
province after provmce was conquered by the Turks, 


ANDRONI'CUS—surnamed Cyrruestes from his birthplace, Cyrrhos in Syria—is 
said to have erected the octagonal tower called the tower of the winds at Athens, a 
building of the 3d or 2d c. B.c. It probably received its name from figures representing 
the eight principal winds, and from a brazen Triton which surmounted it, and showed 
the direction of the wind—the first known weathercock. 


ANDRONI‘CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, lived at Rome in Cicero’s time, 
and employed himself in criticising and explaining the works of Aristotle, a great num- 
ber of which he was probably the means of preserving to us. None of the writings of 
A. himself are extant; for the works ascribed to him are probably the productions of 
Andronicus Callistos, a learned Greek of the 15th century. 


ANDRONI‘CUS, Livius. See Livius ANDRONICUS. 
ANDROPO'GON. See LEMON-GRASS. 


AN'DROS, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most northern of the Cyclades, 
separated from Eubcea by a channel, the Doro channel, 6m. broad. The island is 21 
m. long, and about 8 m. in its greatest breadth. Its eastern coast is very irregular. It 
is very mountainous, and on some of its mountains snow lies during great part of the 
year. The soil is very fertile, and wine, silk, wheat, barley, lemons, oranges, and pome- 
granates are produced. Silk is the chief article of export. The population is supposed 
to be about 18,000. The chief town, ANDROS, is situated on a bay of the eastern coast. 
It has manufactures of silk and carpets, and a large port, which, however, is suitable 
only for small vessels. Pop. about 3000. 

ANDROS, Sir Epmunp, 1637-1714 ; son of an officer in the English royal household, 
a major in Prince Rupert’s dragoons. In 1674 he was sent to America as governor of 
the colony of New York, and to him Sir Anthony Colve, the governor during the tem- 
porary Dutch supremacy, surrendered without forcible opposition. A. was in more or 
less trouble with the English colonies over which he claimed authority, and deposed 
Carteret of East Jersey in 1680. The next year he was called home under accusation, 
but managed to escape serious prosecution. When the New England colonies were con- 


solidated in 1686, A. was made governor-general with large powers. He was to admit 


religious toleration, but could suppress all printing, name and change his council at will, 
and, with their consent, levy taxes and control the militia. Connecticut refusing to 
obey his orders, he appeared in the council chamber at Hartford, in Oct., 1687, with 
an armed guard, and demanded the surrender of the colony’s charter. Evidence is 
wanting for the story of the hiding of the charter in the oak tree; a duplicate may have 
been so hidden, but A. seems to have secured the original document. In 1688 New 
York and New Jersey were attached to New England and his rule extended over them. 
On hearing of the revolution in England the people of Boston imprisoned A. and some 
of his officers, April 18, 1689, and Leisler set up a rebel government in New York. In 
July, A. and a committee of accusers were ordered to England, but he was acquitted 
without formal trial. In 1692, he came back as governor of Virginia, where he was 
popular, retiring in 1698, and becoming governor of Guernsey in 1704-6. In 1691, he 
published an account of his proceedings in New England. 


ANDROSCOG’GIN, a co. in s.w. Maine ; 485 sq.m.; pop. 90, 48,968 ; noted for its 
water power and manufactures on the two Androscoggin rivers. Agriculture is the 
main business ; dairy products are exported. The Portland branch of the Grand Trunk, 
the Maine Central, and other railroad lines, traverse the county. Co. seat, Auburn. 


ANDROSCOG’GIN, a river in Maine and New Hampshire, rising in Umbagog lake 
and emptying into the Kennebec above Bath. It is 157 m. long, about half of it in each 
state. 

ANDU'JAR, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Jaen, 24 m. n.n.w. from 
Jaen, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, at the base of the Sierra Morena. Its 
streets are irregular, but many of the houses are well built. The river is crossed by an 
old dilapidated bridge. The situation of the.town is unhealthy. The inhabitants are 
mostly employed in agriculture; but there is some trade in grain, fruit, oil, and cattle, 
the produce of the neighboring country, and the town is famous for the manufacture of 
the porous cooling clay water-vessels which are in general use throughout Spain. The 
convention of Baylen was signed here on 23d July, 1808. Pop. 12,000. 


Andvari. 4 5 9 


Anemone, 


ANDVA RI, in Norse mythology, the name of the fish-shaped dwarf who owned the 
ring, with the curse of ill-obtained gold, fatal to the possessor. This is the key-note of 
the remarkable stories of Sigurd Fafnisbane and the German legends recently written in 
music by Wagner in an elaborate trilogy, consisting of ‘‘The Rhinegold” (the tempta- 
tion), the ‘‘ Valkyrie” (or Fates), ‘‘Siegfried” (the hero), and ‘‘ Die Gotterdimmerung” 
(the ‘‘ Twilight of the Gods,” or end of all things). 


ANECDOTE, from the Greek, originally meaning something not published. Pro- 
copius called his secret history of Justinian’s court Anecdota. It is applied also to 
portions of ancient writings long unpublished, and a number of such Anecdota have 
been collected in volumes and printed. As ordinarily used, A. now means some 
isolated fact, usually of a personal nature, which would interest a listener. There 
are a great many books of A., the most celebrated in English being the Percy Anecdotes, 


ANEGA'DA, the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, its lat. being about 19° n., and 
its long. between 64° and 65° w. It contains about 13 sq.m., with a scanty population of 
little more than 200. It belongs to England. It is of coral formation, being, like 
most islands of the kind, low and beset by reefs. One reef in particular, which runs 
out 10 m. to the s.e., is marked, even on ordinary maps, as the scene of numerous ship- 
wrecks. 


ANEL, DoMINIQUE, about 1679-1730; a French surgeon, inventor of the probe and 
syringe, bearing his name; skillful in treating aneurism and fistula lachrymalis. 


ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. anemos, the wind, and metron, a measure; Fr. anémometre, Ger. 
Windmesser), an instrument for measuring the strength and velocity of the wind. The 
simplest and best A. is that which is generally known as Robinson’s hemispherical-cup 
A. It consists of four hollow hemispheres or cups fixed to the ends of two horizontal 
iron rods crossing each other at right angles, and supported on a vertical axis which 
turns freely. The cups revolve with a third of the wind’s velocity, and the instrument 
is so constructed that 500 revolutions are made whilst a mile of wind passes over it. 
The revolutions are registered by a system of wheels similar to those of an ordinary gas- 
meter. The difference between two readings gives the-number of revolutions passed 
over during the intervening time, from which the miles can be calculated, and the rate 
per hour. 

The following table gives approximately the relation of the height of the water in the 
A. to the force and velocity of the wind in winds of different characters. (See AmRODyY- 
NAMICS. ) 

Height of | Pressure per Velocity 


water. square foot, per hour. 
Feeble wind snes sks stoi Roe gz in. FLY Ibs. 4, 
Frésh: breeze . 55 iaeeinen Satie eee dats B. . £4 164 
Very strong pwintl:1is24 iterks ns meets h Pony By“ 324 
Tem peas .iwss ivkin eee paced 4“ 2035 “ 65 


Pressure anemometers are of very great importance in meteorological observatories. 
Of these, the most complete is that invented by Osler. In this instrument, the force of 
the wind is ascertained in a different way from the hemispherical-cup A. <A brass plate 
one foot square is suspended by means of springs, and being attached to the vane of the 
instrument, is maintained at right angles to the direction of the wind. This plate, by 
the action of the wind, is beaten back upon the springs, and in so doing, causes a pencil 
to move backwards and forwards on a sheet of paper placed below it. This sheet of 
paper is made to pass under the pencil in a direction at right angles to its oscillation; 
and by means of clock-work, moves at a uniform rate, so that the force of the wind at 
any particular time of the day is recorded with perfect accuracy. A pencil in connec- 
tion with the vane, and moving in the 
same transverse line as the former, 
records the changes in the direction of 
the wind; and a third pencil, guided 
by a rain-gauge, registers the quantity 
of rain that has fallen. The preceding 
sketch, taken from the first half of a 
daily register-sheet, gives an idea of 
the kind of record made by an Osler’s 
A. The space between two upright 
lines indicates an hour; that between 
two horizontal lines, in the rain-reg- 
ister 3, of an inch of rain, in the direc- 
tion of the wind two cardinal points, 

Register-sheet, of an Osler’s anemometer. and in the force of the wind 1 Ib, of 
, pressure on the square foot. 

Thus, on the day in which these lines were traced, there was in the rain-register, 
brought over from the former account, between .10 and .15 of an inch; and during the 
12h., the pencil had only risen one space, indicating a fall of .05, or ~, of an inch, 
almost entirely between the hours of 3 and 4 in the morning, and immediately before 12 


ae 


Andvari. 
45 3 Anemone, 


in the day. If the day had been very rainy, and the pencil had risen to the top of the 
register, 1t would have fallen immediately to the bottom of it, and begun a new account; 
and it might have done so several times in the course of the twelve hours. This would 
have been effected by the mechanism connected with the rain-gauge, which enables the 
gauge to empty itself each time that the pencil reaches the top of the rain-register. As 
regards the direction of the wind, it was, during the first six hours, s., veering slightly 
towards the e.; and for the last six hours, it was tending decidedly towards the w., being 
between 10 and 11 nearly west. From the line marking the force of the wind, it will be 
seen that the day was stormy. Between 1 and 2, and at 11, the wind was blowing a very 
high gale, producing a pressure of upwards of 12 lbs. on the sq.ft.; and between the 
hours of 4 and 4, there was a decided lull, the wind being brisk, but not stormy (2 to 3 Ibs.). 
Both the hemispherical-cup A. and the pressure A. are equally indispensable in fully 
equipped observatories. The former registers the quarterly wind which passes over the 
place, but cannot register the force of those sudden and almost instantaneous gusts of 
wind to which storms and hurricanes owe their destructive energy. 

In Lind’s A., the wind, entering the mouth of one of two upright glass tubes, con- 
nected below, depresses the column of water contained in the one tube, and raises pro- 
portionately that in the other. This A.is convenient for rough purposes. 


; ANEMONE, a genus of plants of the natural order ranuwnculacee, having an involucre 

of three divided leaves, more or less remote from the flower, a petaloid calyx, scarcely 
distinguishable from the corolla, and soft woolly achenia (see ACHENTIUM), which in some 
species have tails. The name is originally Greek, and is said to be derived from the 
word for wind, because many of the species love very exposed situations. The species 
are numerous, and generally beautiful. Most of them flower early in spring. They are 
natives of temperate and cold climates, chiefly of the northern hemisphere. One species, 
A. nemorosa, the wood A.,is a common native of all parts of Britain, and its white 
flowers, externally tinged with purple, are an ornament of many a woodland scene and 
mountain pasture in April and May. Another species, A. pulsatilla, the pasque flower, 
adorns chalky pastures in some parts of England at the same season. Its flowers are 
purple and externally silky. The garden A. is a favorite florist’s flower; the varieties 
are very numerous, and whole works have been published on them and their cultivation, 
which is most extensively carried on in Holland, and has prevailed from a very early 
period. It is generally supposed that all these varieties have originated from two species, 
A. coronaria and A. hortensis or stellata. Both are natives of the Levant; the latter is 
found also in Italy and the south of France. By cultivation, the size of the flower is 
increased, its form and colors are modified, and many of the stamens are often changed 
into small petals, forming a sort of heart of the flower. The cultivation of A. requires 
great attention. It prefers a light soil. The root, which consists of clustered tubers, is 
taken up after flowering. The plant is propagated by parting the roots, or by seed. In 
the latter way, new varieties are obtained. Seedling plants do not flower till the second 
or third year.—Besides the species which have been named, others occasionally appear 
as ornaments of our flower-gardens. A. apennina and A. pratensis have beautiful blue 
flowers. They are both natives of the south of Europe. A. japonica, a most beautiful 
species, has recently been introduced from Japan.—The species of this genus are char- 
acterized by the acridity prevalent in the natural order to which they belong; and the 
rhizomes of A. nemorosa and others have been recommended in obstinate rheumatism 
and in tenia.—The genus hepatica was formerly included in A. JZ. triloba (A. hepatica), 
with 3-lobed leaves, grows wild in most parts:of Germany and throughout the n. 
of Europe, but is not a native of Britain. It is also found in North America. Varieties 
of different colors, and both single and double, are among the finest ornaments of our 
flower-borders in early spring. The plants are very apt to suffer from being removed or 
having the earth much loosened about them, and must be permitted to remain as much 
as possible untouched. 


ANEMONE, SEA, a popular name of the species of actinia (q.v.) and some other 
actiniade. It seems to have been first applied to them about a century ago by Ellis, one 
of the most celebrated investigators of the department of natural history to which they 
belong, who remarks that ‘‘ their tentacles, being disposed in regular circles, and tinged 
with a variety of bright lively colors, very nearly represent the beautiful petals of some 
of our most elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the carnation, marigold, and 
anemone.” It is only, however, when in their proper element and undisturbed that the 
sea-anemones expand their tentacula and exhibit their beauty. When left dry by the 
receding tide, they contract into a jelly-like mass, usually hemispherical or conical, with 
a puckered hole in the top. The most common of all the British species of sea-A. is the 
actinia mesembryanthemum, which has received its specific name from another floral 
association. It attaches itself to rocks and stones from low-water almost to high-water 
mark, and when left by the tide appears as a sub-conical liver-colored or greenish mass, 
not more than 1 to 14 in. in diameter, which, when touched, is found to be very smooth 
and slippery, but of pretty firm consistency. The tentacula, when fully extended, are in 
length nearly equal to the height of the body, and are nearly of the same color. An 
azure line frequently encircles the base; and on the base are dark-green lines converging 
towards the center, and which are formed by radiating vertical plates in the fleshy 


Anemoscope. 
Aneurism. 45 4 


substance of the animal, analogous (although not calcareous) to the calcareous partitions 
in the single-starred madrepores. Around the margin of the mouth there is a circle of 
azure tubercles, like turquoise beads of the greatest beauty. These are only to be seen 
when the mouth is pretty fully expanded. They are about 25 in number in full- 
grown specimens. Their use is not known, though they have been conjectured to be 
eyes.—A smaller species, actinia (or sagartia) troglodytes—olive-green, with snow-white 
stripes and numerous tentacula—is pretty common on the British shores, inhabiting 
holes in the rocks, often the deserted holes of the pholas, above which its oval disk and 
tentacula scarcely rise, and into which it quickly withdraws upon being disturbed. A 
number of species inhabit holes as this does.—Actinia (or bunodes) coriacea, which attains 
a diameter of 2 in., attaches itself to sand-covered rocks, and is often much buried 
in the sand. It is covered with pale perforated warts, which have the power of agglu- 
tinating to themselves sand, gravel, fragments of shell, etc.; so that, when the tide is 
out, the animal is readily passed over by the inexperienced eye as a mere inequality in 
the surface of the sand, unless some accidental pressure cause it to squirt out water 
through its tentacula, as, in such circumstances, many of the species are very apt to do, 
sometimes to the annoyance of those who incautiously meddle with them.-—Actinia 
(bunodes) crassicornis is one of the largest and most beautiful British sea-anemones, 
being about 4 in. in height, and fully more when expanded between the tips of the 
opposite tentacula. It exhibits great diversity of the most beautiful colors. Red is 
usually predominant; the surface of many is variegated with white, or with orange-green 
and yellow. It occurs almost totally white, cream color, sulphur yellow, and bright 
scarlet, with pale warts like ornamented beads. —Beauty of color and form are still more 
abundantly lavished on actinia dianthus, a still larger species, with very numerous 
tentacula, which inhabits deep water.—Anthea cereus is, on some parts of the coast, one 
of the most abundant sea-anemones. Its tentacula are from 120 to 200 in number, are 
longer than in the actinie generally, and are incapable, it is said, of being retracted, as 
in the true actiniz, but remain constantly expanded, and are almost never completely 
at rest. 

Of all the species, actinia mesembryanthemum is perhaps the most easily kept in the 
aquarium. It not unfrequently changes its place, and its locomotion is an interesting 
subject of observation. It will subsist for a considerable time without supplies of food, 
but readily accepts morsels of beef or mutton, fish, or almost any kind of animal food. 
The tentacula with which the offered food first comes in contact attach themselves to it; 
those next to them are in motion, as if to support them, if necessary, and a sort of 
sympathy seems to extend even to the most remote; but except in the case of struggling 
prey, or of a very large morsel, only a small number of the whole tentacula are usually 
employed in conveying the food into the mouth, or, more properly, into the stomach, 
for they do not seem to part from it till they have fairly lodged it there. 

Sea-anemones are extremely voracious, and almost every observer has his own anec- 
dotes to illustrate it. Dr. Johnston relates one which at the same time remarkably illus- 
trates their power of reproducing organs of their own body. ‘‘I had once brought to me 
a specimen of act. crassicornis, that might have been originally 2 in. in diameter, and that 
had somehow contrived to swallow a valve of pecten maximus of the size of an ordinary 
saucer. The shell, fixed within the stomach, was so placed as to divide it completely 
into two halves, so that the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened 
like a pancake. Ail! communication between the inferior portion of the stomach and 
the mouth was of course prevented; yet, instead of emaciating and dying of an atrophy, 
the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident, 
to increase its enjoyments and its chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished with 
two rows of numerous tentacula, was opened up on what had been the base, and led to 
the under-stomach: the individual had indeed become a sort of Siamese twin, but with 
greater intimacy and extent in its unions.” (British Zoophytes, i. 235.) 

As inmates of the aquarium, sea-anemones are apt to prey upon their fellow-prisoners. 
‘‘Simple contact of the tentacula,” says Sir J. G. Dalyell, ‘‘is the prelude of destruction. 
Some animals, as if conscious of their inevitable fate, seem paralyzed by the touch and 
yield without a struggle. Others, whose size and strength should insure indemnity, are 
held in the relentless grasp; the tentacula crowding faster and faster around, until the 
victim is speediiy swallowed alive.” There appears to be in other marine animals an 
instinctive horror of the tentacula of the sea-A. The hermit-crab will instantaneously 
flee out of its shell, if the shell is caught by them. It is now believed that, like the 
acalephe (q.v.) and the hydras (q.v.), the sea-anemones possess a power of benumbing 
their prey. Sea-worms (nereddes) have been observed first to writhe, and then to become 
paralyzed. Little elliptical capsules are in some species scattered over the whole surface 
of the body; in others, confined to the tentacula, or even to their tips. These are fur: 
nished with spicula or minute spears, by which it is probable that not only are wounds 
inflicted, but poison is also conveyed into them. The sensations produced by the touch 
of the tentacula appear to be very different in the case of different persons, from a mere 
“‘rasping feeling” on the withdrawal of the hand, to a slight tingling and even toa 
stinging as by a nettle. The anthea cereus possesses the stinging power in a much greater 
degree than the ordinary actiniw. Probably the skin of the human hand 1s in general 
too thick or hard to be pierced by their fine spicula. Dr. A. Waller of Birmingham dis- 


Ane Ss 
455 A flesiskeeee 


covered that, on submitting the tip of his tongue to the tentacula, a pungent pain and 
stinging, as by a nettle, were the constant result. He also found that a thin India- 
rubber membrane grasped by the tentacula retains the microscopic ‘‘ poison darts” stick- 
ing on its surface. Some of these are only two or three times the length of the capsule 
which contains them, or at most 100th part of an inch; but others are much longer, and 
when within the capsule, are coiled up after the manner of a watch-spring, The cap- 
sules are therefore called filiferous or thread capsules. This thread is highly elastic, and 
the expulsion of it, as of the shorter spicula, is effected, Mr. Gosse tells us, by organs 
having this for their special office. 


_ ANEM'OSCOPE, a vane or weathercock, or any instrument which shows the direc- 
tion of the wind; often with a spindle attachment that turns an index or a compass 
scale in a room, showing within a house the course of the wind. Latterly the A. has 
been made self-recording, and now in most observatories needs no watching, every move- 
ment of the wind being written down; the force or pressure and the velocity in miles per 
hour being also recorded. This is done by pencils which press lightly upon a cylinder 
covered with a sheet of paper divided into horizontal hour lines, the lines moving at the 
rate of half an inch an hour, a complete revolution of the cylinder occupying 24 hours. 
Lines marked by the pencils show by their relation to the graduated lines the direction 
of the wind at any moment of the day. 


AN’EROID (formed in an anomalous way from Gr. a, priv., and néros, wet), the name 
given to a barometer invented by M. Vidi of Paris, in which the pressure of the air is 
measured without the use of liquid, as in ordinary instruments. The face of the A. 
barometer, represented in fig. 1, has a diameter of about 5 in., and the case behind, 
which contains the mechanism, a general idea of which is given in fig. 2, is about 2 in. 
deep. The pressure of the atmosphere acts upon a circular metal box, AA, about 8 in. 
in diameter, and + of an inch deep, which has been nearly exhausted of air, and then 
soldered air-tight. The sides are corrugated in concentric rings, so as to increase their 
elasticity, and one of them is fixed to the back of the brass case which contains the 
whole. The amount of exhaustion is such that if the sides of the box were allowed 
to take their natural position, they would 
be pressed in upon each other, and to 
prevent this they are kept distended, to a 
certain extent, by a strong spring, 5, 
fixed to the case, which acts upon the 
head of the stalk, B, attached to the side 
next the face. When the pressure of the 
air increases, there being little or no air 
inside the box to resist it, the corrugated | 
sides are forced inwards, and when it 
diminishes again, their elasticity restores | 
them to their former place; and thus the | 


little box becomes a spring extremely cy Atvepow® > 
sensitive to the varying pressure of the 02, AS 
external atmosphere. Supposing the two “uf, Fe l ae 
sides pressed inwards, the end of the Sai Us G 


spring, EK, will be drawn towards the 
back of the case, and carry with it the : 
rod, EG, which is firmly fixed into it. Aneroid barometer. 

EG, by the link GH, acts on the bent 

lever, HKL, which has its axis at K, so that, while the arm, KH, is pushed to the right, 
LK is moved downwards. By this motion, a watch-chain, O, attached at L, is drawn 
off the little drum, M, and the index-hand, PP, which is fixed to it, would move from 
the position represented in fig. 1 to one towards the right. When-the contrary motion 
takes place, a hair-spring moves the drum and the hand in the opposite way. By this 
mechanism, a very small motion of the corrugated sides produces a large deviation of 
the index-hand, 54, of an inch causing it to turn through 3 inches. The A. barometer is 
graduated to represent the inches of the mercurial barometer. Both from its small size 
and construction, it is extremely portable, and consequently a very useful instrument; 
but from its liability to change from time to time, it must be frequently compared 
with the mercurial barometer. The ‘‘metallic barometer” of M. Bourdon is a modifica- 
tion of the A. principle.—See BAROMETER. 


ANEURIN, a Welsh poet (603), who according to the received account was the son of 
Caw ab Geraint, the chief of the Otadini; whilst others have identified him with Gildas 
the historian, and Mr. Stephens, the translator of his poem, makes him Gildas’sson. He 
was present at the battle of Cattraeth as bard and taken prisoner. After his release he 
returned to Llancarvan and later in life lived at Galloway. He is said to have perished 
at the hands of Hidyn ab Einygan. His epic poem Gododin, which in its present form 
contains over 900 lines, tells of the defeat of the Britons by the Saxons at Cattraeth, but 
the obscurity of the language has made it impossible to gain from it a clear account of 
the defeat, and it has even been maintained that the subject of the poem is the massacre 
of the Britons at Stonehenge (472). The Gododin was published with an English version 
and notes in 1852 by Rev. J. Williams ab Ithel, and the text appears with a translation 


Anaersaa 456 


in F. Skene’s Four Ancient Books of Wales (1866). The Cymmrodorion Society pub. 
lished, in 1855, a new edition, with translation by the late Thomas Stephens. 

AN'EURISM (Gr. aneurysma, a dilatation) is a pulsating tumor consisting of a sac or 
pouch into which blood flows through an opening in an artery. The sac of an arterial 
A. may be formed in the first instance by one or more of the tunics of the vessel, gen- 
erally the outer one, the two inner having given way. ‘This is called a true A., in con- 
tradistinction to the false, in which the sac is formed of cellular tissue condensed by the 
blood flowing into it after a wound has been inflicted on the artery from without. 
Should the sac give way, and the blood escape among the tissues, the A. is said to be 
diffused. Varicose A. is when the sac communicates both with an artery and a vein, 
aneurismal varix, when these vessels communicate without any sac intervening; both 
of these are generally the results of bleeding being performed by non-professional per- 
sons. Aneurisms prove fatal by their pressure on some important part, or by burst- 
ing and allowing a sudden escape of blood. They are cured by the deposit, within 
the sac, of fibrin from the blood—a result the surgeon can promote by obstructing 
the artery above the A. by compression or by ligature; applying the latter close to 
the sac, if the A. is of the ‘‘false” variety, but at a distance, if it is the result of 
disease. Internal aneurisms are treated by those remedies which moderate the heart’s 
action, as digitalis, etc. 


ANGEIOLEUCITIS. See ADENITIS. 


ANGEL, an ancient English gold coin, varying in value from 6s, 8d. to 10s. It was 
so called from the figure of the archangel Michael piercing the dragon upon its obverse. 
A. continued to be coined down to the time of the Commonwealth. 


ANGEL-FISH, Squati'na a'ngelus, a fish common on the southern coasts of Britain, 
and remarkable for its extreme ugliness. On some parts of the coast, it is called monks’ 
fish. Tt is very nearly allied to the sharks, and was included by Linneeus in the genu- 
squalus. See SHARK. It is very voracious, preying chiefly upon fishes. It attains a 
length of 7 or 8 ft.; and the body is broad and flattened horizontally. The head 
is nearly round, and broader than the body, from which it is separated by a very 
distinct neck; the mouth is extremely large, and at the extremity of the snout; the eyes 
are on the upper part of the head, and are very small; behind the eyes are large spout- 
holes; the skin is very rough, and covered with tubercles. The upper parts are of a 
gray color; the under parts, dirty white. The female is said to produce seven or eight 
young in spring and autumn, 


ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order wmbellifere (q.v.), by some 
botanists divided into two: A., and archangelica. The species are mostly herbaceous 
and perennial, natives of the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. 
They have bippinate or tripinnate leaves. Wuup A. (A. sylvestris) is a common plant in 
moist meadows, by the sides of brooks, and in woods in Britain and throughout many 
parts of Europe and Asia. The root is perennial, short, ringed, and branched; it is 
white within, and contains a yellow milky juice. The stem is hollow, 14 to 5 ft. high, 
often fiecked with red; the umbel is convex. GARDEN A., A. archangelica or arch- 
angelica officinalis, is a biennial plant, becoming perennial when not allowed to ripen 
its seeds. It has greenish flowers in almost spherical umbels. The stem is as high as a 
man. The fruit is long and straw-colored. ‘The root is long and fusiform, an inch or 
more in thickness, with thick irregular rugose radicles. The whole plant, and especially 
the root, is aromatic and bitter, containing much resin and essential oil. The root is 
admitted into the pharmacopeia as an aromatic stimulant and tonic, and is used in 
nervous ailments, and in indigestion and flatulence. It is very little used in Britain. 
The root of A. sylvestris is sometimes substituted for it, but is much weaker.—The 
garden A. was at one time much cultivated for the blanched stalks, which were used as 
celery now is; but its cultivation for this purpose has long been almost entirely discon- 
tinued. The tender stalks and midribs of the leaves, candied, are still, however, a 
well-known article of confectionery, and an agreeable stomachic; the roots and seeds 
are employed in the preparation of gin and of ‘‘ bitters.” The plant is a very doubtful 
native of Britain, but is common in many parts of Europe, and even in Lapland and 
Iceland. The Laplanders not only use it as food, but regard the stalks roasted in hot 
ashes as an efficacious remedy in pectoral disorders.—The powdered seeds of the wild 
A. are used by the country people in some parts of Europe to kill lice. Several species 
of A. are natives of North America. 

ANGEL'ICA TREE. See ARALIA. 

ANGELIC HYMN, another name for the Gloria in Hacelsis. See GLORIA. 


ANGELICO, Fra. See FImsoLeE, 


ANGELINA, a co. in e. Texas; 880 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 6306, with colored. It ig 
heavily timbered with a great variety of trees. Corn, cotton, sugar-cane, rice, and 
es are produced. There are steam mills, and petroleum is found. Co. seat, 

omer. 


AW’GELL, JAMES BURRILL, LL.D., b. R. I., 1829. In Sept., 1845, he entered Brown 
university, and graduated four years later, In 1851 he went to Europe, where he spent 


A . 
457 angen’ 


two years in study and travel. He returned to accept the chair of modern languages 
and literature in the university of which he was a graduate, a position which he filled 
for seven years. He was the editor of the Providence Daily Journal, from 1860 to 1866, 
when he was appointed to the presidency of the university of Vermont. In 1871 he 
became president of the university of Michigan, at Ann Arbor. In March, 1880, he was 
appointed minister to China; was a member of the U.S. Fishery Commission in 1887, 
and of an international commission on the building of canals to enable ocean steamers 
to pass from the Atlantic to the Great Lakes. He is the author of many articles in the 
North American Review, and other magazines. 

AN’GELL, JosepuH Kinnicut, 1794-1857 ; b. R. I. ; a graduate of Brown university 
in 1818. He was a writer on law; edited a law journal in 1828-81; and was for years a 
reporter for the Rhode Island supreme court. He was author of a treatise on the laws 
of property, and at his death was engaged on a treatise on the Law of Highways, which 
was completed by Thomas Durfee. Lord Brougham praised A.’s work on Limitation 
of Actions. } 

AN'GELO, Micuagrt. See MicHarEL ANGELO. 

ANGELOLOGY, the current belief of a people or period concerning angels (q.V.). 

AN GELS (Gr. messengers), in Jewish and Christian theology, aclass of superior spirits, 
represented as the immediate instruments of Divine Providence. As Scripture contains 
no complete and systematic account of angels, the belief of the church respecting them, 
except in a few points, has never been exactly defined. It has always been held that A. 
and human souls, notwithstanding the high origin of the latter, are distinct; only Diony- 
sius Areopagita (q.v.) and a few modern speculators have maintained the contrary. Diony- 
sius, in his Hverarchia Celestis, divides A. into nine orders. Whether there are not spirits 
superior both to men and A., has been a disputed point. As to the number of A. and 
their names, the church in the middle ages repeatedly checked the tendency to go 
beyond the usually received accounts; a Roman council, in 745 A.p., mentions with 
reprobation the use of the unwonted names of Uriel, Raguel, Simiel, etc. The names 
that have all along been in most common use are Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael. 

The creation of the A. was placed, by the Platonizing church-fathers, before that of 
the material world; others assigned it to some one of the six days. Equally various were 
the opinions as to the nature of the A. The second synod of Nice (787) assigned them a 
subtle, ethereal, or fire-like body; the scholastics, on the other hand, and the Lateran 
council of 1215, maintained their immateriality; while others, owing to the appearing of 
A., mentioned in Scripture, attributed to them the power of assuming momentarily the 
corporeal form. ‘The poet Nonnus (lived in Egypt in the 5th c.) is the first to speak of 
angels’ wings. 

The belief in guardian A. was common both to heathen and Jews, and had been 
reduced to system by Philo; and the doctrine was adopted in the Christian church, and 
defended by Origen and others, founding on Matthew xviii. 10,and Acts xii.15. It has 
been cherished by many in all ages and of all parties, but has never been decided on by 
the church. Some of the fathers also spoke of good and bad guardian-angels, the former 
of whom were always ready to prompt to good actions, and to avert evil, while the latter 
were equally quick in bringing about mischief, wickedness, and calamity. From the 
belief in the guardianship of A., and their participation in the government of the world, 
arose naturally the early practice of invoking and worshiping them. Many Christian 
teachers condemned it, appealing to Colos. ii. 18; and the council of Laodicea, 300, 
called 1t disguised idolatry. But after the council of Nice had conceded that though A. 
were not to receive divine worship, they might receive reverential obeisance, the prac- 
tice mentioned became more and more rooted, and continues in the Greek and Roman 
Catholic churches to this day. 


ANGELUS BELL, THE, is rung in all Catholic countries morning, noon, and night to 
ivite the faithful to the recitation of the angelic salutation. Formerly the hour for the 
ringing of the Angelus was at sunrise, noon and sunset, but it is now more generally 
heard at the appointed hours of noon, and six o’clock both morning and evening. The 
bell receives its name from the title given the prayer recited at this time, Angelus Domini, 
also called Ave Maria (q.v.). 

Two peasants who are performing their devotions in the open field, where the sound 
of the Angelus reaches them at the sunset hour, are the subject of the famous painting 
by Millet (q.v.). 

AN’GELUS DOM/INI, the name of a brief prayer repeated by Roman Catholics at the 
sound of the Angelus bell at sunrise, noon, and sunset, 


ANGER is displeasure or vexation accompanied by a passionate desire to break out in 
acts or words of violence against the cause of the displeasure; which must, of course, be 
a sentient being, capable of feeling the infliction. Like most other emotions, it is accom- 
panied by effects on the body, and in this case they are of a very marked kind. The 
arterial blood-vessels are highly excited; the pulse, during the paroxysm, is strong and 
hard, the face becomes red and swollen, the brow wrinkled, the eyes protrude, the whole 
body is put into commotion. The secretion of bile is excessive, and it seems to assume 
a morbid consistency. In cases of violent passion, and especially in nervous persons, 
this excitement of the organs soon passes to the other extreme of depression; generally 


Angerboda,. 
anes 45 8 


this does not take place till the A. has subsided, when there follows a period of general 
relaxation. The original tendency to 3 differs much in individuals according to tem- 
perament; but frequent giving way to It begets a habit, and increases the natural ten- 
dency. 

on the nature of A. it is easy to see that it must be—often at least—prejudicial to 
health. It frequently gives rise to bile-fever, inflammation of the liver, heart, or brain, 
or even to mania. ‘These effects follow immediately a fit of passion; other evil effects 
come on, after a time, as the consequence of repeated paroxysms—such as paralysis, 
jaundice, consumption, and nervous fever. The milk of a mother or nurse in a fit of 
passion will cause convulsions in the child that sucks; it has been known even to occa- 
sion instant death, like a strong poison. 

The controlling of A. is a part of moral discipline. In a rudimentary state of society, 
its active exercise would seem to be anecessity; by imposing some restraint on the self- 
ish agressions of one individual upon another, it rendersthe beginnings of social co-oper- 
ation and intercourse possible. This is its wse, or, as it is sometimes called, its final cause. 
But the more social intercourse comes to be regulated by customs and laws, the less need 
is there for the vindictive expression of A. It seems an error, however, to suppose that 
the emotion ever will be—or that it ought to be—extirpated. Laws themselves lose their 
efficacy when they have not this feeling for a background; and it remains asa last resource 
for man, when society, as it does every now and then, resolves itself into its elements. 
Even in the most artificial and refined states of society, those minor moralities on which 
half the happiness of social intercourse depends, are imposed upon the selfish, in great 
measure, by that latent fund of A. which every man is known to carry about with him. 


ANGERBO’'DA, in Norse mythology, a giantess, mother of Fenrir, the monster wolf 
which, at the last day, is to swallow and conquer Odin, or the Sun. 


'ANG'ERMANLAND (Swedish Angermaniand, pronounced Ongermanland), a former 
division of Sweden, now chiefly comprised in the lin of Westernorrland, extends along 
the Gulf of Bothnia, and is watered by the river Angermann. It exhibits great variety 
of wild and beautiful landscape—wood, mount, stream, and lake; vieing with the banks 
of the Rhine, the Danube, or the far-famed scenery of Switzerland. In addition, it is 
one of the best cultivated districts in Sweden, producing barley, rye, and pease, and 
abounding in excellent pasturage. The river Angermann, in its lower course, becomes 
navigable for the largest ships, and broadens out into a lake shortly before discharging 
itself into the gulf of Bothnia. The inhabitants are reckoned among the solidest of the 
Swedes, and are favorably known for their sobriety and industrious habits, on account 
of which, prosperity is general. The chief town of the district is Hernesand, with @ 
population of about 5800, standing on the small island of Herno, and having steam com- 
munication weekly with Stockholm. It is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral, school, 
and literary and printing establishment with Lappish type, public baths, and building 
docks. It exports linen fabrics, and the Baltic products generally. 


ANGERMUN'DE, a t. in Prussia, capital of a circle of the same name in the province 
of Brandenburg, 43 m. from Berlin by railway. Pop. about 6500. The chief industry 
is the manufacture of woolen and linen goods. 


ANGERS, the ancient Juliomagus or Andegavum, formerly the capital of the duchy of 
Anjou, and now of the French department of Maine-et-Loire, is situated on both sides 
of the navigable river Mayenne, not far from its junction with the Loire, lat. 47° 28’ N., 
long. 0° 338’ W. A. is the see of a bishop, and was the seat of a university founded in 
1246; instead of which it has now an academy of the highest class. Lord Chatham and 
the duke of Wellington received a portion of their education at the military college 
which was once here, but which is now removed to Saumur. It has also given birth to 
two distinguished men, Bernier, the traveler, and David, the sculptor. It has also a 
‘heolomical seminary, an institution for the deaf and dumb, a botanical garden, a large 
nicture-gallery, and a public library. The ruins of the ancient castle of A., built by 
‘st. Louis, about the middle of the 13th c., are situated on a projecting rock above the 
river. The cathedral of St. Martin is a fine building of the 9th c., in the Roman basilica 
style. Sail-making, cotton-spinning, stocking-weaving, etc., are carried on to a con- 
siderable extent, and a trade in corn, wine, brandy, fiax, hemp, honey, etc. There are 
slate quarries in the neighborhood. Pop. 796, 77,164. 


ANGHIA’RI (anc. Castrum Angulare), a town of Central Italy, in the province of 
Arezzo, Tuscany, 10 m. n.e. from Arezzo, on the slope of a hill near the Sovarda, one of 
the head-waters of the Tiber. In 1440, a battle was fought here, in which the Milanese 
were defeated by the Florentines. Pop. of commune, 6941. 


ANGHIE'RA, PretTrRo MARTIRE, D’ (PETER Martyr), 1455-1526 ; an Italian historian. 
He became a priest in Spain in 1488 ; in 1501 he was on a mission of state to Egypt, and 
in 1505 was prior of the church of Granada. He was a member of the council of the 
Tndies. His works are important ; the Opus Hpistolarum records almost every event of 
consequence from 1488 to 1525, and De Rebus Oceanis et Orbe Novo is a valuable account 
of the new-world discoveries, taken from the lips and reports of Columbus and other 
early navigators, 


~~ 


bi A b és 
459 MiGs 


AN’GILBERT, Sarnvt, secretary and friend of Charlemagne, and the most distin- 
guished poet of his age. He filled the highest offices, and married the great monarch’s 
daughter Bertha; he afterward retired from public service and became abbot of a mon- 
astery, returning from time to time as the state required his services. In 800 he assisted 
ar are at the coronation of the emperor, who called him the ‘‘ Homer of the age.” He 

ied in 814. 


ANGI'NA PEC’TORIS, or HEART-SrROKm, is characterized by intense pain and sense 
of constriction, which occur in paroxysms beginning at the breast-bone, or deep in the 
chest, and extending towards the left shoulder. The fits recur, and the patient either 
dies in one of them, or from effusion of fluid within the chest. 

A. P. rarely occurs before the 50th year, and is caused by some defect in the vascu- 
lar or-nervous supply of the heart itself; but the exact seat of the disease has not yet 
been ascertained, and, indeed, probably varies with the individual. The paroxysms are 
induced by any excess in diet, by exertion, as walking uphill or against a boisterous 
wind, or by mental emotions. As, during the paroxysm, but little can be done, ‘‘ who- 
ever is subject to fits of the heart-stroke, should studiously shun all occasions of having 
his feelings roused or his passions warmly interested. If he is prone to anger, he must 
either endeavor to restrain his passion, or must withdraw from scenes likely to awaken 
it. Ifhe feels keenly contradiction, disappointment, or insult, he had better avoid all 
disputes in which he may meet either one or the other. He must lead a sober, quiet, 
and temperate life, in which neither the emotions of the soul are to disturb the func- 
tions of the body, nor corporeal affections are allowed to disturb the serenity of the 
mind.”— Craigie. 

ANGIOSPER MOUS (from the Gr. angeion, a vessel, and sperma, seed), a term in 
botany, applied to phanerogamous plants which have their seeds inclosed in a pericarp. 
This is the case with the greater part of phanerogamous plants. Those which have the 
seeds naked, as the conifere (q.v.), are called gymnospermous. In the Linnean system, 
one of the two orders of the class didynamia is called angiospermia. 


ANGLAISE, an English country-dance (contre danse), in 2-4, 3-4, or 3-8 time. It is 
gay, and probably originated in the older form of the French Rigadoon (q.v.). 


ANGLE (from Lat. angulus, a corner) means, in geometry, the opening or inclination 
of two lines that cut or meet one another. If the lines are straight, the A. is rectilinear. 
The magnitude of an A. depends, not upon the length of the lines or legs, but upon the 
degree of their opening. If the legs are supposed closed, like a pair of compasses, and 
then gradually opened till they come into one straight line, they form a series of gradu- 
ally increasing angles ; when half-way between shut and straight, they contain a right 


‘A. Any A. less than aright A. is called acute, and one greater is called obtuse. Angles 


are measured by degrees, of which a right A. contains 90. The A. made by two curved 
lines (cwrvilinear) is the same as the A. made by the tangents to the two curves at the 
point of intersection. Angles made by planes with one another can also be reduced to 
rectilinear angles. When three or more planes meet at the same point, the angular 
space included between them is called a solid A. 

The FactaL ANGLE, on which Camper founded a scheme for estimating the degrees 
of intellect and sagacity bestowed by nature on the several members of the animal king: 
dom, was measured by him in the following way: One straight line was drawn from the 
ear to the base of the nose, and another from the prominent center of the forehead to 
the most advancing part of the upper jawbone, the head being viewed in profile. ‘‘ In 
the angle produced by these two lines,” says the physiologist, ‘‘may be said to consist 
not only the distinction between the skulls of the several species of animals, but also 
those which are found to exist between different nations; and it might be concluded 
that nature has availed herself at the same time of this angle to mark out the diversities 
of the animal kingdom, and to establish a sort of scale from the inferior tribes up to the 
most beautiful forms which are found in the human species. Thus it will be found that 
the heads of birds display the smallest angle, and that it always becomes of greater 
extent in proportion as the animal approaches most nearly to the human figure. ‘Thug 
there is one species of the ape tribe in which the head has a facial angle of 42°; in 
another animal of the same family, which is one of those s¢miw approaching most 
closely to the human figure, the facial angle contains exactly 50°. Next to this is the 
head of the African negro, which, as well as that of the Kalmuc, forms an angle of 70°, 
while the angle discovered in the heads of Europeans contains 80°. On this difference 
of 10° in the facial angle the superior beauty of the European depends; while that high 
character of sublime beauty which is so striking in some works of ancient statuary—as 
in the head of the Apollo and in the Medusa—is given by an angle which amounts to 
100°.” ‘ 

ANGLE, Dap. In fortification, where an angle of the wall is so formed that a small 
plot of ground in front of it can neither be seen nor defended from the parapet. it is 
called a ‘‘dead angle.” See BASTION, CURTAIN, FORTIFICATION. 


ANGLER, Lophius piscatorius, a fish not uncommon on the British shores, and 
sometimes called the jfishing-frog, sometimes, from its ugliness and voracity, the sea-devit, 


Angles. 460 


Angling. 


It usually attains the size of about 3 ft. in length, sometimes 5 ft. The head is enor 
mously large, depressed, and spinous; the mouth is of similar proportions (whence the 
Scottish name wide gab), and furnished with many sharp curved teeth. The lower jaw 
is considerably longer than the upper. The body is narrow in comparison with the 
great breadth of the head, and tapers rapidly to the tail. The whole fish is covered 
with a loose skin, almost without scales. There are two dorsal fins, which are spinous, 
and three anterior rays, regarded as belonging to the first dorsal, are free and articulated 
to the head, which are with great probability supposed to serve the animal as delicate 
organs of touch. The nostril tube is elongated into a membraneous stalk, capable of 
spreading out like a cup at the upper end, and of being moved in every direction by a 
very numerous set of muscles, the bottom of the cup being divided into projecting 
leaflets, on which the olfactory nerve is finally distributed. There are also numerous 
worm-like appendages about the mouth, and by means of these, and still more of the 
filaments which rise from the upper part of the head, the creature is supposed to attract 
small fishes, upon which it seizes. The wonderful stories told upon this point seem to 
require authentication, yet they are in themselves by no means incredible, and have 
been current concerning this fish and its congeners since before the days of Aristotle, 
who mentions them, and says that this fish is called a fisher because of the means by 
which it procures its food. Yarrell justly remarks of the stratagem ascribed to the 
lophius, that it is not more wonderful than that of spiders, which spin and repair their 
webs to catch insects, upon which they subsist.—The genus lophius belongs to a family 
of acanthopterygious fishes called lophiade or lophioids, and by Cuvier pectorales pedun- 
culati, remarkable for the elongation of the carpal bones, so as to form a sort of wrist, 
to the extremity of which the pectoral fin is articulated; so that, by means of it, these 
fishes are able to leap suddenly up in the water to seize prey which they observe above 
them; and some of them can hop about upon sea-weeds or mud from which the water 
has retired. They do not suffer so quickly as most other fishes from being out of the 
water, their gill-opening being very small, and an A. has been often known to devour 
flounders or other fish which have been caught along with it. The bones are much 
softer than those of acanthopterygious fishes in general- 


ANGLES (Angi), a German tribe of the race of the Sues1, who seem originally to 
have occupied the country lying on the e. of the Elbe, between the mouths of the Saale 
and the Ohre, and, moving northwards, to have settled in Schleswig, between the Jutes 
and the Saxons. Along with the latter the A. passed over in great numbers to Britain, 
during the 5th c.,.and ultimately established there the Anglo-Saxon (q.v.) kingdoms of 
the heptarchy. From them England derives its name (Lat. Anglia, Anglo-Saxon 
Engla-land). After these migrations from Schleswig, the Danes from the north entered 
the deserted districts, and mingled with the A. who remained there. The German’ 
language and manners were afterwards introduced by immigrant nobles from Holstein, 
and prevailed among the higher classes; but to the time of Christian VI., the Danish 
was still generally spoken by the common people. During the present century, the 
German has more completely gained the ascendency. ‘The modern Angles are of a more 
passive disposition than the Frieslanders and the people of the Dithmarsch, and religious 
sentiment is very strongly manifested among them. ‘The district called Angeln extends 
from the Schlei on thes., to the Flensburg hills on the n., contains about 330 sq. m., and 
a pop. of about 50,000. The name has no political or administrative signification. 

ANG'LESEA, ArTHUR ANNESLEY, Earl of, 1614-86; lord privy seal in the reign of 
Charles II, He was educated at Oxford, and studied law at Lincoln’sInn. He was sent 
as commissioner to Ulster in 1645 to oppose the designs of the rebel Owen Roe O’Neil. 
After the death of Cromwell he was president of the council of state, and concerned in 
bringing about the restoration. He succeeded to his father’s titles in 1640. A. wasa 
man of great abilities and extensive learning, well acquainted with the constitution and 
the laws of England, and the author of several works of a political and polemical char- 
acter. 


AN’GLESEA, or ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, first marquis of A., b. May 
17, 1768, was educated in Oxford, and, as Lord Paget, entered the army at the beginning 
of the French revolution, From 1793 to 1794 he commanded a volunteer corps in 
Flanders, and subsequently acquired a high reputation as a cavalry officer in the penin- 
sular war, especially during the retreat under Gen. Moore. At the battle of Waterloo, 
where he commanded the British cavalry, he lost a leg. On his return to England, he 
received a vote of thanks from parliament, and was made marquis of A. Afterwards, 
he took a part in the administration under Canning, and in 1828 was appointed lord- 
lieutenant of Ireland, at a period when that country was greatly agitated on the question 
of its religious privileges. He at first opposed the emancipation of the Catholics; but 
ultimately became convinced that it was essential to the peace of the country, in conse- 
quence of which he was recalled from Ireland by Wellington in 1829. He was again 
appointed to the same office under Lord Grey’s administration in 1831; but the perverse 
policy of the tories had involved matters in such perplexity that even the decisiveness 
and integrity of his character could not allay the irritation. O’Connell had now 
commenced his ruinous career of agitation, and the marquis was compelled to resort to 
severe coercive measures, which destroyed the popularity he had previously acquired. 


Angles. 
4 6 1 An are 


His rule in Ireland was not characterized by any superior statesmanship; but it ought 
to be remembered, to his honor, that he founded the Irish board of education, which has 
been of immense service to that nation. In 1888, he was succeeded by the marquis of 
Normandy; but did not again take any prominent part in public proceedings till 1846, 
when he accepted the oflice of master-general of the ordnance in:Lord John Russell’s 
ministry. In the same year he was raised to the dignity of field-marshal. He d. on 
the 29th April, 1854. 


ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA (Sax. Angles’ Ey, i.e., ‘‘the Englishmen’s island”), an 
island and co. of Wales, on the n.w. coast of that principality, being separated from 
the mainland by the Menai strait. Its form is that of an irregular triangle, the base 
facing the mainland. Its length is about 20 m.; breadth, about 17; coast-line, about 80; 
area, 275 square miles. Pop. ’91, 50,098. The climate is mild, but foggy, especially in 
autumn; the soil generally a stiff loam, varying with sandy and peaty earth; the general 
aspect of the island flat and uninteresting, there being very little wood. The prevailing 
rock is mica schist; limestone ranges traverse -the country; granite, marble, coal, serpen- 
tine, soapstone, are also found. ‘The island is rich in minerals; the Parys and Mona 
copper-mines, near Amlwch, were opened in 1768, and until 1800 they were the most 
productive in the kingdom. Lead ore, containing much silver, has also been found. 
The manufactures of A. are inconsiderable. Agriculture, though still rather backward, 
has yet in recent years made considerable advance in the way of adopting means of 
improvement, Increased attention has also been given to the breeding of cattle and 
sheep. The cattle are of the white-faced, hornless variety, and are the largest bred in 
North Wales. Communication by the mainland is by the Menai suspension bridge, 
and the great Britannia tubular bridge, over which the Chester and Holyhead railway 
passes. The Anglesea Central railroad runs from Amlwch to Caerwen. See TUBULAR 
BripG@es. A. was kndivn to the Romans under the name of Mona. It was one of the 
chief seats of the Druidical power, which in 61 A.D. was all but destroyed by the Roman 
general, Suetonius Paulinus. The island was again subdued by Agricola, 76 A.D. 
Egbert conquered it in the 9th c.; but the native princes afterwards recovered their 
dominion, establishing the seat of government at Aberffraw. It was finally subdued 
by Edward I. The ancient remains consist chiefly of dolmens, two of which, side by 
side, are in the park of Plas Newydd, the seat of the marquis of A. At Holyhead are 
the remains of a Roman camp. 

The climate of A. is milder than that of the mainland of Wales; but in the autumn 
the air is frequently filled with noxious mists. The co. is divided into three districts, 
called cantrefs, each subdivided into two cwmwds, The market-towns are Amlwch (a 
flourishing little seaport of 4500 inhabitants), Beaumaris (q. v.), Holyhead (q. v.), 
Llangefni, and Lianerch-y-medd. The first four of these towns formerly united in 
returning a member to the imperial parliament; the co. returns one member. 


ANGLIA, East, a kingdom founded by the Angles about the middle of the 6th 
century, in the eastern part of central Englana, comprising the modern counties of 
Norfolk and Suffolk, and equivalent in extent to the modern see of Norwich. At first 
to some extent dependent on Kent, and afterwards on Mercia, on the fall of the latter, 
it was attached to Wessex, still continuing under its own kings until formed into a 
Danish kingdom under Guthrum (878). Edward, the son and successor of Alfred, forced 
the Danes to acknowledge him (921); and under him Wessex grew to be England. 
Henccforward East Anglia formed part of the kingdom. 


ANGLICAN, belonging to the Church of England or to the other churches in com- 
munion with it, Scotland, Ireland and the United States. The term is sometimes applied 
to the High Church party. See ANeLo-CarnHotic CHURCH ; ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. 

ANGLING. Angling differs from fishing in that it is practised, not as a means of 
obtaining a livelihood, but as a source of recreation and refining pleasure. It implies a 
certain degree of zesthetic culture, coupled with moral and religious susceptibility, and 
is thus pre-eminently the scholarly gentleman’s pastime, the brain-worker’s diversion. 
The meditative, humane, unselfish nature of the angler is proverbial—his sympathetic 
disposition, his regard for the rights of others, his moderation in the pursuit of his 
sport. Angling may therefore be appropriately defined as a ‘‘school of virtues,” in 
which, while the tendency to introspection and self-examination is decided, men learn 
also lessons of wisdom, resignation, forbearance, and love—love for the lower forms of 
animal life, love for their fellow-creatures, and love for the God of nature. 

The art of angling is one of the most ancient employments. Cave men of the 
paleolithic age were susceptible to its fascinations, as is evidenced by the discovery 
umong troglodyte refuse of the tracings of the outlines of fishes. Prehistoric man had 
artistic feeling, which he expressed in faithful representations of the mammoth he 
hunted and the fishes he angled for ; and from the fact that many sketches of the latter 
are found engraved on his ornaments may be inferred, not only his partiality for fish- 
food, but his delight in successfully matching his superior intellect against the instincts 
of the denizens of sea, lake, and river. This quaternary savage went farther, and pro- 
vided stimuli of pleasing memory images in the shape of rude representations of actual 
fishing scenes and exploits. Examination of the remains of lacustrine settlements in 
Swiss lakes has revealed the angling implements of the neolithic age—among them fish- 


Nat 


A, 
Angling. 4 Z 


hooks of clever workmanship, made of bone, deer-horn, and boars’ tusks, whose size is 
suggestive of the huge proportions of the salmon, pike, and carp caught at that early 
day. The lake-dwellers were clever line-fishermen, as well as experts with the net, 
employed perforated stone sinkers, and floated their bait with oval or rectangular pieces 
of bark. With the bronze age came lighter and more symmetrical fish-hooks, which in 
due time were displaced by hooks of iron. Gold fish-hooks were a refinement of the 
aborigines of Colombia ; while the ancient people of Peru made their hooks of copper. 
Remote North American tribes, it is believed from the appearance of certain artificial 
excavations, maintained fish-preserves, a practice common also among the Romans and 
‘the ancient Egyptians. The latter people obtained their sport not only in such artificial 
‘ponds, but fished also with net, spear, and bronze hook in the swamps of the Delta, and 
‘according to Isaiah “ cast angle into the brooks.” From Egyptian paintings that have 
‘survived, we learn that angling was considered an amusement worthy of the leisure of 
men of rank; and certain Mexican pictographs make it evident that Aztec youth 
received systematic instruction in this art. So accurately is the spawning of fish 
described in the Bundahish, a Pahlavi work relating to the creation, as to suggest the 
existence of angler naturalists among the followers of Zoroaster. Hebrew writers, too, 
refer not unfrequently to angling. The art was commonly practised in the time of 
Christ ; and not without reason is it believed that their simple calling acted as an ap- 
propriate preparation for the life of purity, patience, and self-denial that was demanded 
of his disciples. (Read W. C. Prime’s I Go a-Fishing, Harper & Bros.) Both Greeks 
and Romans pursued angling for diversion’s sake. Many allusions in classical authors 
justify the inference that the idea expressed by our word sportsman had defined shape 
in antiquity. From Homer to Oppian there were piscatory poets, who dwelt on the 
exciting delights of the craft. Oppian’s Halieutica, a poem of the second century A.D., 
treats of the natural history of fishes, and of the fishing methods of the ancients. The 
perfect angler is herein defined as ‘‘ a well-made, active man, patient, vigilant, enter- 
prising, courageous, and full of expedients ;” and his outfit is summed up in a couplet— 


** The slender woven net, the osier creel, 
The tapering reed, the line, and barbéd steel.”’ 


The earliest mention of fly-fishing occurs in the Epigrams of Martial, wherein is 
sung the rising of the wrasse ‘‘ decoyed by fraudful flies ;”’ but lian, the author of a 
/second-century zoology, gives a consummate description of this method of taking 
a certain species of trout as practised by the Macedonians. From the angling pictures 
,of Ausonius in the fourth century, there is a break in the literature relating to this sub- 
(ject, until we reach the interesting work of Dame Juliana Berners, prioress of Sopwell 
‘Nunnery—A Tvreatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle, printed in England in 1496. This 
treatise, probably a compilation from monkish manuscripts that are lost, presents 
detailed instructions for the manufacture of tackle, gives faultless directions for fly- 
fishing, and describes minutely ‘‘ xij flyes wyth whyche ye shall angle to ye trought & 
grayllyng.’’ The flies have been tied by a modern expert, in accordance with the direc- 
tions given in the treatise, and they do credit to the taste of the first English authoress. 
Her work proved a source of inspiration to a horde of succeeding writers, who scrupled 
not to adopt her sentiments and borrow her instructions verbatim. Leonard Mascall’s 
A Booke of Fishing with Hooke & Line (1590), the next work of importance in Eng- 
lish, is largely a reproduction of the essay of the literary prioress. ‘‘ The Secrets of 
Angling,” a delightful poem by John Dennys, appeared in 16138, and in 1651, Thomas 
Barker’s The Art of Angling, the first work in which the reel is recognized as 
essential to success in the capture of large fish with rod and line. Barker appears also 
to be the discoverer of the value of salmon roe for bait. Two years later, Walton’s 
The Compleat Angler ; or, the Contemplative Man’s Recreation, was given to the world, 
a well-known classic which has reached its one hundredth edition. It was of this 
book that Charles Lamb wrote: ‘‘It would sweeten a man’s temper at any time to 
read it ; it would Christianize every discordant, angry passion.” From the date of its 
first publication to the present, about one thousand volumes have been written on 
subjects connected with fishing, so that the literature of angling is one of the richest 
departments of English letters. 

Angling, as practically pursued at the present day, may be considered under three 
heads, viz.: fly-casting, bait-fishing, and trolling. 

Fly-casting, the most scientific of all kinds of angling, implies the use of natural 
insects or artificial flies. A light, elastic three-jointed rod is required, from nine to ten 
feet in Jength, the best for the purpose being the high grade hexagonal split-bamboe 
rod, varying in weight, according to the use for which it is designed, from 8} ounces 
up. Such a rod may be operated for hours without fatigue. A line of water-proof 
braided silk should be selected, of size F or G@ (the heavier being more easily cast) ; 
a six-foot tapered casting-line, or Jeader, made of single strands of clear, round silkworm 
gut, to which two, or at most three, flies are attached ; and a steel-pivoted, single-action 
click reel, always placed at the extreme end of the butt and underneath the rod. The 
beginner should equip himself with the lightest and finest tackle consistent with the 
required strength, avoiding cheap wares as worse than useless. All gut casts and 
strands must be softened by thorough steeping in water; if manipulated when dry, the 


LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


FLOATING FLIES AND COMMON FLIES. 


FISHING | 


INSECTS, WITH SCALE WINGS. 


IES. COPYRIGHTED. 


CourTESY OF T. H. CHusBB Rop Co. 


UNIVERSITY OF ILLINDIS, 
Be UT LY ie ao. 


Vi ' 


‘ 


463 Angling. 


gut cracks and is rendered worthless. It is well to stain the leader some neutral tint, to 
render it less perceptible, an excellent color being secured by soaking for several hours 
in a strong infusion of .green tea, Leaders may be kept in proper condition for use 
between pieces of damp felt. Lines are always to be dried after using, and flies care- 
* fully protected from moths. 

It is impossible within the limits of a brief article to give full instructions in regard 
to fly-fishing and other angling ; the general remarks that ‘follow are therefore supple- 
mented by reference to standard monographs on the several subjects in which the reader 
may be interested 

Casting the fly involves a backward and a forward motion of the rod, and the success 
of the learner depencs entirely on his ability to acquire these two motions. The hand- 
piece of the rod is grasped firmly by the fingers of the casting hand, the thumb is 
extended along the rod, and the line from the reel (below and behind the hand) is 
allowed to pass between the rod and the forefinger, so that it can be controlled by pres- 
sure. The secret of success lies in allowing time enough for the line in the back cast to 
straighten out before a forward impulse is given to the rod. The motion required is 
largely a wrist motion, and must be deliberate and not jerky. It is here that the tyro 
fails ; but a few lessons from an accomplished coach will afford any intelligent person 
an insight into this most essential principle of fly-fishing. After practice, the angler 
automatically allows in the back cast for varying lengths of line. The flies must fall 
gently on the water, without splashing, in advance of the leader, and must be kept 
moving for an interval, in simulation of the struggles of a natural insect, or be allowed 
to float down with the current. The angler should strike quickly at the rise, gauging 
the force with which he strikes by the size of the rising fish. Care must be taken not to 
draw the flies so far towards the caster that the power to strike islost. Whena fish is 
hooked, the object is to ‘‘ play” it until it is exhausted; the angler responds to its 
rushes by giving it line from the reel, recovering the line as opportunity offers. When 
** killed,” the fish is reeled close enough to be landed with a hand net. The most intel- 
ligible and practical directions for acquiring the art of fly-casting will be found in 
Henry P. Wells’s admirabie work entitled Ply-rods and Hly-tackle (Harper & Bros.). 

As to choice of flies, no two anglers will agree, each having his favorites, and 
each being prejudiced by his experience in certain waters. There area thousand varie- 
ties to select from, the leading forms of which, for American waters, are illustrated in 
color in Orvis & Cheney’s Pishing with a Fly (Nims & Co., Troy). In general, small 
sombre flies are appropriate in sunny weather and smooth water ; larger and more brill- 
iant flies during cloudy weather, and for evening or rough water fishing. But where- 
ever much angled for, fish become educated and wary, and the flies must be refined 
accordingly, while the manner of offering them must be deft and cautious. The very 
hat and clothing of the angler should be of some inconspicuous color, dead grass or dull 
olive, as such shades enable him to conceal himself more effectually from the trout—an 
important requisite. Some secure better results by fishing up stream, because trout 
naturally lie with their heads directed toward the current, on the watch for food that 
may float down, and hence are not likely to notice the angler’s approach from behind. 
Those who desire to tie their own flies will find ample instructions in Keene’s Fly- 
Fishing and Fly-Making for Trout, Bass, and Salmon (Forest & Stream Publishing 
Co., N. Y.), and in Ronald’s Mly-fishers’ Entomology (Longmans, London). 

In fly-casting for black bass, the rod should not be under eight ounces in weight ; 
and in minnow-casting, a favorite mode of angling for this popular game fish, a shorter 
and stiffer rod is employed. Reels are now perfected to deliver the bait at the desired 
distance without over-running or back-lasbing. The authority on black bass fishing is 
Dr. Henshall’s Book of the Black Bass (Clarke & Co:, Cincinnati). 

Salmon fishing necessitates the use of a longer and heavier two-handed rod, greater 
length of line, stronger leader, and larger and gaudier flies. “The most practical work 
on the subject is Henry P. Wells’s The American Salmon Fisherman (Harper & Bros.). 
—The fly has also been used successfully in the capture of shad, white perch, and other 
species. 

2 In bait-fishing a stiffer rod is required, and hooks are attached to the leader instead 

of flies. When it is desirable to sink the bait, split shot or other lead sinkers are fasten. 
ed to the leader or line, at least a foot from the nearest baited hook. A cork or quil) 
float is frequently of service. The baits commonly employed are worms, grasshoppers, 
and minnows, for trout ; minnows, the helgramite or dobson (larva of the Carydalus), 
craw-fish, the small speckled frog, grasshoppers, crickets, etc., for bass. Light tackle, 
mist-color leaders, and small hooks insure success. Sea fish are taken principally by 
bottom fishing ; but much heavier tackle is used and an entirely different category of 
baits, including shrimp, sand-worms, shedder crabs, soft-shell clams, etc. The largest 
fish angled for is the giant tarpon of Florida waters ; a specimen weighing over two 
hundred pounds has been brought to gaff with rod and line. For full information re- 
garding the history and method of capture of this fish, see Pinckney’s The Tarpon, or 
Silver King (Anglers’ Publishing Co., N. Y.). 

Trolling is usually practised with the spoon-bait, live or artificial minnow, or gang 
of flies. A swivel at each end of the leader is always necessary to prevent twisting of 
the line from the spinning of the bait ; and leads may be attached when it is necessary 


Anglo-Catholic. } 
Anglomania,. 464 


to sink the lure below the surface. A No. 1 or No. 2 Skinner’s fluted spoon at the ex: 
tremity of a nine-foot leader instead of the tail fly, or stretcher, and one or two flies as 
droppers, will be found a killing gang. Troll slowly with a ten or twelve-ounce fly- 
rod and multiplying click-reel, and with fifty to a hundred feet of line according to the 
state of the weather or water. When a fish is struck, it is to be kept under the spring 
of the rod, and ‘‘ played’’ in the manner already described. Large fish are taken into 
the boat with a gaff, small ones with a net. ‘Trolling for muskallonge in the Great 
Lakes and the waters of the Northwest is among the most exciting sports. As this fish 
attains a weight of 40 Ibs., strong and heavy tackle is indispensable. Blue-fish and. 
Spanish mackerel are trolled for off the coast. 

To such as wish to follow the sport of angling with brain as well as with muscle, to 
understand the natural history of the objects of their pursuit as well as to master the 
various methods of capture, the following instructive monographs are recommended in 
addition to the volumes referred to in this article: Giimther’s An Introduction to the 
Study of Fishes; Day’s British and Irish Salmonide ; Goode’s American Fishes ; Seth 
Green’s Home Fishing and Home Waters ; Green & Roosevelt’s Fish Hatching and Fish 
Catching ; Wright’s Fishes, their Loves, Passions, and Intellects ; Choimondeley-Pen- 
nell’s Modern Improvements in Fishing Tackle, The Angler Naturalist, and the two 
volumes of the Badminton Library of Sports, entitled Fishing; Rau’s Prehistoric 
Hishing ; and Manley’s Literature of Sea and River Fishing. 


ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH, or ANGLICAN CHURCH, a term frequently employed to 
designate collectively those churches which embrace the principles of the English ref- 
formation. The following are, in brief, the views generally entertained of those prin- 
ciples by the members of the churches in question: By referring the Anglo-Catholic 
church to the English reformation, it is not meant that her origin dates from that event, 
but that her tenets, as she now exists, are those which the reformation cleared of what 
she holds to be corruptions. For, as the word ‘‘ church” itself suggests—being derived, 
like ‘‘ kirk” in Scotland, from the Greek adjective kwriaké, which means ‘‘ the Lord’s” 
(i.e., housé)—the origin of the Anglican church is to be traced not to a Roman but to an 
eastern source, She claims the name of Catholic—which also is from the Greek katho- 
liké, universal—because she is united, in origin, in doctrine, and in form of government, 
with the universal church as it has existed, with various differences of rites and cere- 
monies, in all countries and in allages. Eusebius even asserts that some of the apostles 
passed over into Britain. Tertullian, who lived in the 2d c., speaks of places in Britain 
which, though inaccessible to the Romans, were subject to Christ: ‘‘ Britannorum tnac- 
cessa Romanis loca, Christo vero subdita.” At the Council of Arles, 314 a.p., there were 
three British bishops present; and St. Alban suffered martyrdom, under Diocletian, 
about the close of the 8dc., or nearly three centuries before the landing of St. Augus- 
tine (q.v.) and his missionaries, 596 A.D. Christianity, however, was driven by the hea- 
then Saxons into the mountainous districts of Wales; and though Augustine, on his 
arrival, found no less than seven bishops and one archbishop in those parts, and though 
Bertha, queen of Ethelbert, was a Christian, yet the whole Saxon part of the country 
was in a state of heathenism. The British church differed from the Roman and other 
western churches, as to the form of administering baptism, and the time of keeping the 
festival of Easter (see Easter), following the customs of the Greek or eastern church; 
and it was not until the close of the 7th c., under Theodore, that the two churches be- 
came united. In the meantime, the conversion of Britain was as much due to the 
Jabors of St. Aidan, the Scottish bishop of Lindisfern, in the north, and of St. Chad, the 
Saxon saint, as to the missionaries of the Roman church in the south. See ANGLO- 
SAXONS. 

Nor is this glance at the history of the Anglican church, in the earlier period of her 
existence, unimportant, when we come to consider what and whence are her present 
form and tenets. From the beginning of the 8th to the middle of the 16th c., she became 
gradually, and at last completely, assimilated in doctrine and practice to the church of 
Rome, as well as subject to her domination; and the fact of her having at length freed 
herself from both, is in no small degree due to her having existed, in Saxon times, in a 
state of freedom and purity. It required, as we have seen, a struggle of nearly a century 
to make the British church conform to the Roman in the matters of baptism and Easter; 
and it was the same spirit which offered a strenuous, and for some time an effectual, 
resistance to the peculiar doctrines of the church of Rome and the claims of papal domin- 
ion. ‘There were always found individuals, some of great eminence, to protest against 
the former, whilst large sections of the church never ceased to protest against the latter, 
For a hundred and fifty years previous to the reformation, the doctrines of Wycliffe 
were leavening the body of the Anglican church. Theoverthrow of the papal supremacy 
was indeed effected by Henry VIII.; but that monarch rather hindered than favored the 
reformation of doctrine, as appeared from the rapid progress which it made when 
Edward VI. came to thethrone. The bloody reign of Mary interposed a check to further 
progress; and it was not till the accession of queen Elizabeth that the principles of the 
reformation finally triumphed, and the Anglo-Catholic church assumed the form in which 
she has since continued to exist. During the period of more than 800 years preceding 
the reformation, she became gradually, and at length completely, merged in the Roman 
Catholic; at the reformation, she may be said to have emerged; when Rome, at the 


465 Anglo-Catholic, 


Anglomania, 


Council of Trent, anathematized all who would not receive her articles, the separation 
became final, and the positions of the two churches with respect to each other irrecon- 
cilably hostile. 

The doctrines of the A. C. are found in the Book of Common Prayer (see Common 
PrayteR-Boox), based upon the second prayer-book of Edward VL., and was settled in its 
present form 1662 A.p, Her tenets are more Jegally defined in the thirty-nine articles, 
which were settled 1562 A.p. (see ArricLEs, THIRTY-NINE). As distinguished from 

tome, she rejects tradition as a rule of faith, though admitting it as to rites and cere- 
monies, and basesall her teaching upon the books of the Old and New Testaments, reject- 
ing from them as apocryphal certain which Rome receives as canonical. She recognizes 
only two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s supper, whereas Rome allows five others— 
namely, confirmation, orders, penance, matrimony, and extreme unction ; she denies the 
doctrines of transubstantiation and the propitiatory sacrifice of the mass ; she forbids what 
Rome practices—the adoration of the Virgin, saints, and angels, and the reverence of 
relics and images; she also denies the Roman doctrines of purgatory and the spiritual 
supremacy of the pope. It is not, however, to be forgotten that a great part of her 
liturgy is derived from the missals of the Roman church. As distinguished from the 
Presbyterian churches—e. g., that of Scotland—she is episcopal, and holds the unbroken 
succession of her orders from the apostles, as one of her most esteemed privileges; 
whereas the Presbyterians, especially in Scotland, reject prelacy as a remnant of popery. 
These do not, however, differ from her materially in essential matters of faith, but 
chiefly as to the sacraments, form of administering them, and the grace conveyed in 
them; as to the observance of seasons, such as Christmas, Lent, Easter; and as to the 
forms of public worship, the Presbyterians using no set forms. Her differences with 
the Greek Catholics are less wide than with the Roman, and will be best seen by refer- 
ring to the article GREEK CHurcH. From the Lutherans she differs on the doctrines of 
consubstantiation in the sacrament of the Lord’ssupper. From the Calvinists she differs 
radically as to the extent of the efficacy of Christ’s death, they believing only in ‘‘ partic- 
ular,” she in ‘‘ universal,” redemption (meaning, of course, not that all men will be actually 
saved, but that Christ died for all); nevertheless, some of her articles, as the 17th, are 
decidedly Calvinistic. The numerous sects of Wesleyans, Baptists, and Independents 
do not differ from her on what they themselves consider essential articles of faith, but 
chiefly as to the necessity of orders, the grace conveyed in the sacraments, and the forms 
of public worship and of church government. But since their separation from her, 
endless varieties of doctrine and worship have spread among them. Unfortunately, 
there remains no Gallo-Catholic church with which to compare her. 

The Anglo-Catholic church embraces the church of England, the Protestant Episcopal 
church in Ireland, the Episcopal clturch in Scotland, all the colonial and the American 
Episcopal churches. All but the latter use the English Book of Common Prayer; in 
America this has been slightly altered, 'The American church is one of the most flour- 
ishing offshoots of the Anglican. It was planted in Virginia, 1607 A.p., but for nearly 
two centuries the mother church in England withheld from her offspring the necessary 
boon of an episcopacy of her own. It was not till the close of the 18th century that the 
first three American bishops were ordained (one by the Scottish bishops in 1784, and 
two by the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishops of Bath and Peterborough in 
1787); but now this branch of Anglo-Catholicism has spread over the greater part of the 
United States. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF: EPISCOPACY: ETC. 


ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, an opinion as to the orivin of the English people held 
quite extensively both in Britain and America. It is maintained that the English are de- 
scended from the Israelites who were made captives by the Assyrians under Sargon 
(721 B.C.), and brought into Media, where they are identified with the Sacze or Scythi- 
ans who appeared aS a conquering horde there about the same time. They next 
swarmed westward into Northern Europe, and became progenitors in particular of the 
Saxon invaders of England. But unfortunately for the conclusion, we have not yet been 
presented with any satisfactory proof either that the Anglo-Saxons are the Sace or the 
Sace the Israelites, and it must not be forgotten that Scythia is much more a geo- 
graphical than an ethnological term. Moreover, the so-called ‘‘ identifications,” on ex- 
amination prove to be nothing more than verbal quibblings on the English letter, 
depending for success upon the reader’s ignorance of Hebrew exegesis. Thus, according 
to the prophecy, lost Israel’s location must be ‘‘ the isles,” which have been identified 
with the British Isles ; but unfortunately for the argument, the word rendered “‘ island,” 
or ‘‘isle” is applied in the Hebrew text indifferently to any district on the sea-coast sepa- 
rated from Palestine by water—the shores around the Mediterranean and the coasts of 
Greece and Asia Minor, as well as islands proper. On this and many similar arguments 
they base their theory, and seek to establish it by a method of interpretation of Scripture 
aa though opposed to all ethnological and linguistic evidence, they still consider 

nfallible. 


ANGLOMA'NIA, designates, in America and other countries, a weak imitation of 
English manners, customs, etc., or an indiscriminate admiration of English institutions. 
In German literature, an A. was especially prevalent in the 18th c., when translations of 
English books became numerous, and were read with great admiration. 'The Germans 


Anglo-Saxon, 466 


have ascribed the sentimental and affected style of some parts of their literature to the 
influence of the English literature of last century. But the A. was harmless in compar- 
ison with the GALLOMANTA, or imitation of French literature and customs, which pre- 
vailed in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and was developed in the writings of 
Wieland. A remarkable A. prevailed in France for some time before the commence- 
ment of the revolution. It arose out of political considerations and admiration of 
English free institutions, but extended to trifles even of fashions and manners, and often 
became very ridiculous. Gallomania was prevalent in the United States during the last 
few years of the Third Empire, from 1864-1870. The Empress Eugénie set the fashions 
for American women, and everything French was admired and imitated by the ‘‘ smart” 
set in New York and other American cities. It was at this time that the famous saying 
originated which declares that ‘‘ when good Americans die, they go to Paris.’ Since the 
garish and somewhat vulgar court of the third Napoleon has been replaced in France 
by the more sober régime of the Republic, Anglomania has replaced Gallomania with 
our fashionable set. English dress, amusements, phrases, and even accent are copied 
with more or less fidelity, and often to the point of absurdity. Fox-hunting is at- 
tempted, coaching is fashionable, English tailors and milliners have opened branch 
establishments in New York, and the devotion of certain people to the cult of British 
manners, has for some time been a fruitful theme of popular satire. Of the many skits 
that have appeared upon this subject, the reader is referred to the novel, Hxpatriation 
which appeared in 1890. 


ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The term Anglo-Saxon is of 
quite modern origin, the ruling race in England before the Norman conquest not know- 
ing itself by any other name than AMnglisc or English. Mr. Freeman, prof. Stubbs, 
and other able scholars of the present day, argue stoutly for a return to the old and true 
name; and to all appearance the abolition of ‘‘ Anglo-Saxon” and the restoration of 
‘*English” is only a question of time. English is one of the Low German family 
of Teutonic languages. We do not know it in its earliest form. Some centuries elapsed 
after the invasions of the 5th c., before any literature was produced or recorded. 
During this time, the dialectic differences of the various Low German tribes who had 
come into the island were probably diminishing, while separation from their kinsmen on 
the continent must on the other hand have tended to develop new peculiarities. The 
result is that the very oldest English is by no means the same as the very oldest dialects 
of Low German in the coast regions between the Rhine and the Baltic. But it most 
nearly resembles the old Saxon of Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia, and the old Dutch 
and the old Frisian of the provinces of Holland, and to the last of these it has the closest 
affinity. It is not to be supposed, however, that at any time before 1066, Englishmen 
spoke or even wrote a single dialect. There is evidence of at least two being used—a 
northern and a southern—an Anglian by the people of Northumbria, and a Saxon by the 
people of Wessex. The former is the more primitive, and as Mr. Kington-Oliphant 

oints out (Sources of Standard English, 1878, pp. 85-40), has more in common with old 

orse and Frisian than its southern sister; e.g., the infinitive ends not in the an of 
Wessex English, but ina. The history of England during the 600 years before the 
Norman conquest accounts both for the antiquity of the Northumbrian literature and 
for the subsequent triumph of the Wessex dialect. In the 7th and 8th centuries, North- 
umbria was the strongest, the most civilized, and the most learned of the English states. 
Christianity had poured its benign influences over it in double measure. Paulinus and 
Aidan, Rome and Iona, had both striven successfully against paganism, and light flowed 
over the land. Cadmon and Bede and Alcuin were all Northumbrians. That so little 
of this Northumbrian literature has come down to us is owing to the destruction of 
the northern monasteries by the Danes. The influence of Alfred, ‘‘king of the west- 
Saxons,” and the unification of government in the island under his successors, gave the 
dialect of Wessex an irresistible supremacy; so much so, that even most of the early 
northern literature only survives in a southern dress—e.g., we can only read Cadmon in 
a Wessex version of the 10th century. Yet so strong was the impression left on its 
neighbor by the Anglian state, that not even the havoc made by the Danes of its literary 
monuments and its political prosperity could prevent its name from being given to the 
island, the people, and the tongue. 

Wessex English, then—that is, the English of the court, of books, and probably in 
great measure of the schools—prevailed in England for more than 150 years before the 
Norman conquest, and is substantially what we mean when we speak of the ‘‘ Anglo- 
Saxon” language. There is no reason to suppose that it ever superseded the dialect of 
the north for ordinary purposes of intercourse. Anglian lived on in the mouths of the 
people, and in later times has wonan immortal fame in literature under the name of 
lowland Scotch. Cadmon and Burns both used it, though in the unapproachable verse 
of the Ayrshire bard it has become utterly inorganic, and so remains. English, then, 
before the conquest, differs from modern English in being an inflected language. Its 
inflections are not so rich, or various, or euphonious as those of Latin, or Greek, or 
Mceso-Gothic, that oldest and noblest of the Low German dialects; but they are still suf- 
ficient to give it a distinct character, and to make it strange and almost unintelligible 
at first sight to one whose reading does not go back beyond Shakespeare, Its nouns can 
be grouped into declensions, and classified according to gender, and faint traces of the 


467 Anglo-Saxon. 


terminations are preserved in the English of the present day. The en in “children” and 
‘‘oxen” is the old an of the plural in nouns of the first declension; the s and és, the old 
as marking the plural of masculines of the third. Adjectives have both a definite and 
indefinite form. The article is as complete as in Greek, though everything has now van- 
ished but a fragment of the neuter thet (modern the). Some mutilated remains of the 
pronominal inflections still survive to puzzle school-boys, and delight the lovers of 
‘‘hoar antiquity.” Verbs are divided into “strong” and ‘‘ weak” conjugations, as is 
still the casein German. The distinction between the indicative and subjective moods, 
though slight, is real; and we have not only an infinitive in an, but a gerund in enne, 
while the present participle in ende is not confused with the verbal noun in wng, as is 
unhappily the case with us who have made ing do duty for both. Of late years the 
study of the English tongue, particularly in its earliest stage, has become almost pop- 
ular, and grammatical works are now numerous. Besides the fragmentary or discursive 
contributions to the subject of English grammar by Guest, Madden, Garnet, Grimm, 
Earle, Morris, Kington-Oliphant, we may specify Rask’s Angelsiksisk Sproglaere (Stockh., 
1817, with Thorpe’s translation of 1865); Marsh’s Lectures on the Hnglish Language (1861); 
Koch’s Historische Grammatik der Englische Sprache (1863-69); Miitzner’s Hnglische 
Grammatik (1865); Latham’s English Language (1855); March’s Comparative Grammar of 
the Anglo-Saxon Language (1870); and Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon Reader (1877). 

Having thus indicated very briefly some of the salient features of English as it was 
spoken and written before the conquest, we proceed to make a rapid survey of the con- 
temporary literature. From what has been said above, one will naturally look to the 
north for the earliest examples. The Runes graven upon the Ruthwell cross, which 
was set up about 680 A.D., are now proved from the inscription itself to be the composi- 
tion of Cadmon, and are the very oldest relic of Anglian poetry. Here we find Cadmon 
speaking his own speech, not, as in his other poems, speaking to us through a Wessex 
version. Other and later monuments of Northumbrian English are a Psalter (800 A.D.); 
the Rushworth Gospels (900 A.D.); the Lindisfarne Gospels (970 A.D.). But the great body 
of this early literature, whether produced in Northumbria, or Mercia, or Wessex, has 
come down to us only in the dialect of the last of these states; therefore, in referring to 
it, we shall consider, not the antiquity of the Ms., but of the author. A good deal of it 
is poetical. The verse is alliterative, as in the Norse and oldest German poetry; and 
only in some of the later poems do we find a beginning of rhyme. The epic or narrative 
poems are remarkable for superabundance of often-recurring epithets, bold metaphors, 
and a certain pomp and magnificence of style. Of the genuine heroic poetry, however, 
there are few remains, the principal one being the poem of Beowulf (q.v.), a work which 
must have been composed before the Angles and Saxons quitted their original seats on 
the continent. Other pieces produced in Germany, though only surviving in an English 
form, are the Traveler’s Song and the Battle of Finsburgh. The introduction of Chris- 
tianity gave a religious character to Anglo-Saxon poetry; and many narrative poems are 
extant on religious subjects, some of which may be seen in the Codex Oxoniensis, a col- 
lection edited by Thorpe (London, 1842). The Song.of Cadmon (see CaspMoN), which is 
preserved in Alfred’s translation of Bede, has been edited both by Junius and Thorpe; 
and a metrical paraphrase of parts of the Holy Scriptures, ascribed to the same author, 
has found editors both in Thorpe (London, 1882) and Bouterwek (vol. i., Elberfeld, 1847). 
Cadmon is said by Bede to have d. about 680, so that both of the works in question 
must belong to the 7th century. Two poems from the Codex which Dr. Blum discovered 
at Vercelli in 1832, have been edited by Jacob Grimm (Cassel, 1840), under the title of 
Andreas und Kilene,; a poetical calendar of the saints by Fox (London, 1880); and a ver- 
sion of the Psalms by Thorpe (London, 1885). Among the most important prose works 
must be mentioned the laws, civil and ecclesiastical, from the time of Ethelbert of Kent 
to that of Canute, of which the best edition is in Thorpe’s Ancient Laws and Institutes of 
England (London, 1840). Of historical works may be mentioned Alfred’s translations of 
Orosius and Bede; and the Chronicle carried on by different hands to 1154, of which the 
best edition, down at least to the conquest, is Price’s,‘in the Monumenta Historica Britan- 
nica, 1848, an earlier one being that of Ingram (London, 1828). It is in the province of 
theology that English literature before the conquest is most rich, abounding particu- 
larly in legends and homilies. A collection of homilies made by bishop Ailfric has been 
published by the Elfric society (2 vols., London, 1847), a society instituted in 1848 for 
the promotion of the knowledge of the England and English language of those times. 
Atlfric did much to enrich it with translations, and began a translation of the Bible. He 
translated the first seven books, the book of Job, and the apocryphal gospel of Nico- 
demus, and also a fragment of a poem on the history of Judith, of great celebrity 
(Oxford, 1698). The Durham Book, or St. Cuthbert’s book, a very famous manuscript, 
now in the British museum, contains an interlinear gloss of the gospels in the East 
Anglian dialect, the text being probably of the 8th, and the gloss of the 10th century. 
Alfred translated the work of Boethius, De Consolatione Philosophie. The opinions of 
Englishmen before the conquest di astronomy, natural philosophy, and medicine are 
exhibited from their works by Wright in his T7’vreatises on Sciences written during the 
Middle Ages (London, 1841), and Turner’s History of the Anglo-Saxons (8 vols., 7th ed., 
1852). Compare also Thorpe’s Analecta Anglo-Saxonica; Marsh’s Origin and History of 


Anglo-Saxons. 
Aneoue 468 


the English Language and the Early Literature it embodies (1862); and Grein’s Bibliothek 
der Angelsichsischen Poesie (1857-61), and his Bibl. d. Angels, Prosa (1864). See ENGLISH 


LANGUAGE. 


ANGLO-SAXONS, the collective name generally given by historians to the various 
Teutonic or German tribes which settled in England, chiefly in the 5th c., and founded 
the kinedoms of the Heptarchy. They consisted for the most part of Angles, Saxons, and 
Jutes. The generally received opinion is, that the first of these invaders made their 
appearance in Britain in 449, having Hengest and Horsa as their leaders. But under the 
more searching scrutiny of later writers, these famous leaders have evaporated into 
mythical heroes of romance, common to most of the Germanic nations; and though the 
fact of a great Germanic invasion in the middle of the 5th c. is not doubted, it is believed 
that this was by no means the earliest period at which Germanic settlements were effected 
in England. Long previous to this period, a portion of the coast, extending from Ports- 
mouth to Wells in Norfolk, was known as the Littus Saxonicum,; but whether in reference 
to Saxons by whom it was settled, or to roving adventurers of that race by whom it was 
ravaged, is still a subject of dispute. Of the three tribes mentioned above, the Jutes 
are believed to have been the first comers, Their original settlements were in what is 
now the duchy of Slesvig; and the portions of England of which they possessed them- 
selves were Kent, the Isle of Wight, and the opposite coast of Hampshire. The Saxons, 
who were the next invaders, settled chiefly in the southern and central parts of England 
—in Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, the south of Hertford, Surrey, the part of Hampshire not 
possessed by the Jutes, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and the portion of Corn- 
wall which did not remain in the possession of its former Celtic inhabitants. The Saxons 
who invaded England probably belonged chiefly to the portion of that great nation, or 
confederacy of nations, whose territories lay on the shores of the Baltic—occupying what 
are now the duchy of Holstein, the north of Hanover, and the west of Mecklenburg. 
The third tribe arrived at a somewhat later period. Whether, as some recent historians 
claim, they were Enger-Saxons, fromthe lower Weser, or, as most historians assert, Angles, 
from the duchy of Slesvig, a corner of which is still called Angeln, it is certain that they 
made, from 527 to 547, a succession of descents on the coasts of Suffolk and Norfolk, 
and latterly, on the country to the north of the Humber, and the southern part of Scot- 
land between the Tweed and the Forth. Eventually, the Angles obtained possession of 
the whole of England, except the portions already mentioned ; that is to say, of all the 
part to the north of the Avon, on the one side, and the Thames on the other— Essex, 
Middlesex, and part of Hertford excepted. The union of different bands of these con- 
querors amongst themselves, with their countrymen who had preceded them, and with 
the Celtic population which, though conquered, there is no reason to suppose was ex- 
terminated, gave rise to the so-called Heptarchy (q.v.)—the kingdoms of Northumbria 
(originally Bernicia and Deira), Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and Mercia. 

The various independent states into which England had till then been divided, were 
united by Egbert, king of Wessex, in 827, into the one kingdom of England (the land of 
the Angles). The royal family of Wessex, which was thus raised to what, for the first 
time, probably, is entitled to be called the kingly dignity, never again lost its supremacy, 
except, indeed, during the Danish period (1017 to 1042) till the Norman conquest; and 
to it Alfred the Great (q.v.) belonged. 

The English constitution, the origin of which is sometimes ascribed to Alfred (849- 
901), was not framed by him, though he restored it and improved it after the deliverance 
of the country from the Danes. It was-essentially the same as that of other Germanic 
nations. At the head of the government was the cyning or cyng. 'The kingly office, 
among the Germanic nations in early times, had reference solely to the tribes or peoples 
governed, and never to the land which they occupied. During this period, it was natu- 
rally elective; but after the idea of great territorial possessions came to be inseparable 
from it, it became hereditary, though a form of election, or color of ascertaining the 
national will, was still retained. The life of the king, like that of every other man, was 
assessed at a fixed price (weregild, q.v.), which was that of an @theling, or person of 
royal blood, with a sum superadded as the price of his royalty. The first of these 
sums went to his family, the second to the people. The king possessed the power of 
calling together the Witenagemot (q.v.), and of laying before them propositions for the 
public weal; but he had not the power of dismissing the assembly, so that in 
England, from the first, the real center of power seems to have been in parliament. 
Neither was the convocation of the Witenagem6t at the option of the sovereign, for there 
is every reason to believe that his power was all along limited by the necessity of consult- 
ing the principal members both of the clergy and laity of the kingdom; nor, it would 
seem, could he impose taxes, or declare peace or war, without their consent. The sons 
and other near relations of the king constituted an aristocracy of birth, called ethelings 
or «ethelings (the same word with the German Adel, noble). Out of the great officers of 
the state, or immediate servants of the king, was gradually formed a hereditary aris- 
tocracy, closely corresponding to that which subsequently existed in feudal times. Of 
these, the person next in rank to the king was the ealdorman (‘‘elderman,” Lat. “‘ sena- 
tor”) or heretoga (‘‘army-leader”). ‘‘ But inasmuch as the ducal functions, in the Anglo- 
Saxon polity, were by no means confined to service in the field, the peculiar title of 


: Anglo-Saxons. 
469 Angola. 


heretoga is very rarely met with, being for the most part replaced by ealdorman or aldor- 
man, Which denotes civil as well as military pre-eminence’ (Kemble, wt swp. 11. 126). 
Though the word is derived from an adjective signifying age, in practice, no such 
meaning attached to it, more than to senior, which is the original form of the word 
seigneur. It was to the same class of officials that subsequently the Danish title of eorl 
or earl came to be applied. The powers of these officers probably varied in the different 
kingdoms, whilst they remained separated; but we shall form, on the whole, a pretty 
accurate conception of the position of the ealdorman, if we regard him as the governor 
of the gd or shire, the scirgeréfa or sheriff being his deputy. Much difference of opinion 
exists as to the rank and position, social and political, of the thane; and all that can be 
said with confidence is, that before the conquest, it was not convertible with ealdorman. 
or equivalent to baron, as it came to be after the conquest. The office seems to have 
implied subordinate landed tenure, similar to that by which the lands of the vassal were 
held of the lord in feudal times; and thus, whilst the king’s thanes were frequently 
ealdormen, these, in their turn, had thanes of a lower rank, who appear to have been 
very numerous. ‘This view is strengthened by the derivation of the term from thegnian 
or thenian, to serve, which is the same word as the modern German denen, and from the 
fact of its being frequently translated minister in the Latin charters of pre-Norman times. 
The whole class of ordinary freemen or commoners were Called ceorls, afterwards churls (a 
word preserved in the German e7/, and in the lowland Scotch carle), and were generally 
associated under the protection of some person of rank and influence, who was called 
the Alaford (our ‘‘lord,” but lit, ‘‘ bread-winner,” or rather ‘‘ bread-beginner”). This, how- 
ever, was in itself no recognized title, and up to a very late period the Anglo-Saxon laws 
knew no other distinction than that of ceorl and eorl. The Britons, who retained some 
degree of freedom, constituted a lower class called wealhas or ‘‘ Welsh” (lit. ‘‘ foreigners,” 
as they seemed to the conquerors). The number of slaves (theowas) was not very great, nor 
does the character of the servitude imposed on them seem, comparatively speaking, to 
have been oppressive. Different rights and privileges belonged to the different ranks of 
the Saxon people, and, as we have already said, a different weregild (q.v.), or pecuniary 
estimation, was fixed for each rank, as the penalty for homicide. The great districts or 
shires were subdivided into tithings (teothunga), each containing ten free heads of families, 
who were held mutually responsible for each other. Ten tithings formed a hundred, 
which had a court subordinate to the court of the shire. In important matters, the ealdor.- 
man of the shire could not decide without the concurrence of an assembly (scirgem0t, 
assembly of the shire) or thanes of the shire and representatives of townships, which met 
half-yearly, and corresponded to the Witenagemét (assembly of the wise), or micelgemot 
{assembly of the great) for the whole kingdom. 

Christianity was introduced among the new-comers in the end of the 6th, or begin- 
ning of the 7th c. by St. Augustine, a missionary sent by pope Gregory I., called the 
great. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury; and before the close of 
the 7th c., the whole of Hngla-land was a Christian country under one metropolitan. Ethel- 
bert, king of Kent, was the first sovereign who embraced the Christian doctrine. Bring- 
ing with them the traditions and feelings of the empire, the whole influence of the clergy 
was thrown into the scale of monarchy, and greatly tended to its consolidation. A 
Christian church, however, already existed in Scotland and the n. of England; and the 
influence of the Culdees (q.v.) long prevailed against the efforts of the southern prelates 
to establish uniformity of worship and complete conformity to Rome. But in truth, 
the English clergy in general were not very submissive to the authority of the popes, 
who did not succeed in reducing the land to complete subjection till after a long struggle. 
St. Dunstan (q.v.) gained for them their final victory in the 10th century. During the time 
of its comparative independence, the English church was distinguished for the learning 
and laboriousness of itsclergy. Beda (q.v.) is the most eminent author whom it produced, 
Between his time and that of Alfred, a very great degeneracy had taken place both in 
the learning and efficiency of the clergy, which that active and enlightened sovereign 
labored to restore, but only with partial success. St. Boniface (q.v.) and many other 
English and Scottish missionaries labored with success in the propagation of Christianity 
in Germany.—Besides the works already referred to see Freeman’s History of the Nor- 
man Conquest, and Old-Hnglish History, and Green’s Short History of the English People 
(1875); also his Making of Hngland (1882). 


ANGO'LA, a name often applied to the whole of the w. African coast from cape 
Lopez de Gonsalvo in lat. 0° 44’ s., to San Felipe de Benguela in 12°14’s.; but, in a 
more restricted sense, the name of a kingdom in lower Guinea dependent upon Portugal, 
and extending from the river Coanza on the south, in lat. 9° 20's., to the Danda on the 
north, in 8° 20's. The natives generally call it Donga. The interior is very imperfectly 
known, and the boundaries uncertain; but A. is supposed to contain about 250,000 
inhabitants. The country being well watered, is covered with a most, luxuriant vegeta- 
tion. The heat being moderated by the sea-breeze, the orange and other fruits of the 
warmer temperate climates are produced, as well as those which are strictly tropical. 
There is a great abundance and variety of wild animals, and the mouths of the rivers 
swarm with sharks and crocodiles. ‘The principal rivers are the Coanza and Danda 
Much of the country is mountainous. The mountains are covered with forests, ‘and are 


Angon. 470 


Angouleme, 


rich in metals, particularly copper, iron, and silver, which, with wax and ivory, are the 
principal legitimate exports, although the great trade, almost to the present day, has 
been in slaves. Fetichism is the prevailing superstition, and circumcision is general 
among the natives. A. might easily be rendered very productive both of sugar and cot- 
ton, but the manner in which it has been governed by the Portuguese has not tended to 
develop its resources. They discovered it in 1486,and have had settlements in it 
since 1488; but the number of resident Portuguese is very small, and they are almost 
entirely confined to a few spots—forts and commercial establishments called fedras or 
fairs. The capital is Loanda, or Saint Paul de Loanda (q.v.). 

ANGON, a barbed spear used by many early nations. The Franks, in the 7th c., 
employed angons both for thrusting and hurling. The staves were armed with iron, so 
as to leave but little of the wood uncovered; the head had two barbs. When hurled or 
thrust at an opponent, the head of the A. became fixed in the flesh by means of the barbs. 
This form of spear was much adopted by the Anglo-Saxon and other Teutonic nations. 


ANGO’RA, the Ancyra of the ancients, capital of the Turkish vilayet of the same 
name, in the mountainous interior of Asia Minor, and distant from Constantinople 
about 220 m. e.s.e. It is said to have been built by Midas, the son of the Phrygian Gor 
dius; was a flourishing city under the Persians; became the capital of the Gallic Tecto- 
sages, who settled in Asia Minor about 277 B.c.; was a principal seat of eastern trade 
under the Romans; and was made the capital of the Roman province of Galatia Prima. 
It was the seat of one of the early churches of Galatia, and the scene of two Christian 
councils held respectively in 314 and 358. A decisive battle between the Turks and 
Tartars was fought near A. in 1402, in which Timur defeated and took prisoner the sul- 
tan Bajazet I. A temple of white marble was erected by the citizens of Ancyra to the 
emperor Augustus, who had greatly beautified the city, and his deeds were recorded in 
inscriptions upon a number of tablets and the columns of an altar. These inscriptions, 
the Monumentum Ancyranum, discovered by Busberg in 1553, are important for the 
elucidation of ancient history. They were first printed in Schott’s edition of Awrelius 
Victor (Antw. 1579), and have recently been edited with notes by Franz and Zumpt (Berl. 


1845). The present A. is said to contain not more than 30,000 inhabitants, of whom one 


third are Armenians. It is famous for its breed of goats, with beautiful silky hair, 8 in. 


long. Of this goat hair,a kind of yarn is made, known as Turkish yarn or camel. 


yarn, and of which also a manufacture of camlets is extensively carried on in A. itself. 
The A. goat is bred for its hair at the Cape of Good Hope, in Victoria, and has also been 
successfully introduced into the United States. Of the skin of the A. goat, the fine 
oriental Morocco leather is made. Many of the animals in this region are characterized 


by the length and softness of their hair, especially the dogs, rabbits, cats, etc. This: 


peculiarity seems to depend upon the climate, and soon disappears in Europe. 


ANGORNOW’, or Neor'nv, a t. of Bornu, central Africa, on the s.w. bank of lake: 


Tchad, 15 m. s.e. from Kukawa. The surrounding country is very level and monoton- 
ous, but fertile. The waters of lake Tchad are usually some miles distant from the town, 
yet the whole intervening plain is sometimes covered with water, and the town itself 
is liable to destructive inundations. It is a place of considerable commercial import- 
ance; the principal articles of trade are slaves, cotton, amber, coral, and metals. The 
pop. is supposed to be about 30,000. 


ANGOSTU’RA, or CrupDAD BoLivar, a seaport t. of Venezuela, in lat. 8° 8’ n., and 


long. 63° 55’ w., on the right bank of the Orinoco, about 240 m. from its mouths. It is. 


built at a point or pass (angostura), where, on both sides, the river is narrowed by 
rocks to a width of 3134 ft., after having measured 3 m. across at thrice the distance 
from the sea. The site of A. is only 191 ft. above the sea-level—an elevation which, 
on the intermediate distance as above, yields an average of less than 10 in. to the 
mile. In fact the bottom of the river in front of the town is lower than the surface of 
the sea, for, even in the lowest state of the water, it is said to be 200 ft. deep, with a 
margin for floods to the amount of 50 or 60 ft. more. Under these circumstances, the 
bed of the stream must be about 250 ft. under the level of the city, or about 60 ft. 
under the level of the sea. When the river does rise to its highest, there are at least 
portions of: the city inundated; and instances are believed to have occurred in which 
careless people were devoured by alligators in the very streets. Chiefly, as is supposed, 
through the free access of the trade-winds over the flat surface of the country, A. enjoys, 
in proportion to its latitude, a singularly temperate climate. Even in the hottest season 
of the year, the thermometer is said seldom to show more than 86° F. ; while, between the 
beginning of Nov. and the end of April, it ranges from 77° by day to 69° by night. 

The situation of A. is highly favorable, in a commercial view. The basin of the 
Orinoco, which lies nearly all above the town, and is estimated to contain 250,000 sq.m., 


or more than twice the area of the British isles, is particularly rich towardsthe north. On. 


that side it reaches very nearly to the coast-line, so as to comprise some of the best parts 
of Venezuela. Towards the south, again, it consists, in a great measure, of boundless. 
plains, traversed by countless herds of cattle. Over the whole of this vast basin, and 
that almost equally in both directions, the main stream and its affluents are, with hardly 
any interruptions, navigable to near the foot of the mountains. Owing to the impetu- 
osity of the currents and the obstruction of shoals, sailing-vessels are said to take fifteen 


AQ1 Angon. 


Angouleme. 


days to sail up to A.; but with steam-navigation these impediments would in great 
measure disappear. 

With such advantages of position, A. was a flourishing mart before the commence- 
ment of the war of independence; but the civil broils materially interfered with its pros- 
perity. As far back as 1807, A. had 8500 inhabitants; ere twenty years elapsed, the 
population had been reduced to little more than a third part of the number,-but has 
since increased to 11,686. 


ANGOSTURA BARK, or ANGusTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter bark of certain trees 
of the natural order rubiacee and tribe cuspariee, natives of the tropical parts of South 
America. It derives its name from the town of Angostura, where it is a considerable 
article of commerce. It was first brought to England in 1788. It is used in medicine as 
a remedy for weakness of digestion, diarrhoea, dysentery, and fevers. It is tonic and 
stimulant. The most important of the trees producing it is the galipea officinalis, which 
grows upon the mountains of Colombia and near the Orinoco. It is a tree of 12 to 2 
ft. high, and 3 to 5 ft. in diameter, having a gray bark, trifoliate leaves, with oblong 
leaflets about 10 in. long, which, when fresh, have the odor of tobacco, and flowers about 
an inch long, in racemes, white, hairy, and fragrant. The bark contains a chemical 
substance not yet sufficiently examined, called angosturin, cusparin, or galipein, to 
which its medicinal efficacy is ascribed. It is supposed that a variety of A. B. is pro- 
duced by galipea cusparia (called by some bonplandia trifoliata), a majestic tree of 60 
to 80 ft. in height, with fragrant trifoliate leaves more than 2 ft. long. <A. B. is believed 
to be one of the most valuable of febrifuges; but its use is at present very limited, and 
has, indeed, in some countries of Europe, been prohibited, in consequence of its frequent 
adulteration with the poisonous bark of the strychnos nux vomica, or the substitution of 
that bark for it. This poisonous bark is sometimes called false A. B. It differs from 
the true A. B. in having no smell, in its much greater weight and compactness, in its 
inner surface being incapable of separation into small lamine, and in the effects which 
are produced upon it by acids and other tests, particularly in its outer crust being 
rendered dark-green or blackish by nitric acid, whilst that of the true A. B. is rendered 
slightly orange-red. See Liqueur. 


ANGOT, or ANGO, Jean, d. 1551; a French merchant, in African and East India 
trade. When some of his ships had been taken by the Portuguese he provided and 
fitted out an armed fleet that kept Lisbon blockaded until he had received indemnity for 
his losses. Immensely rich at one time, he lost in speculations and in money lent to the 
king of France, and _ his last years were passed in destitution. 


ANGOULEME, the capital of the department of Charente in France, and formerly of 
the province of Angoumois. It is situated on the Charente, and has narrow and crooked 
streets, a number of paper-mills, manufactures of woolen stuffs, linen, and earthenware. 
etc., and a pop. (1896) of 38,068. It possesses a royal college, a museum of natural history, 
and several other useful institutions. In the center of the town stands the remnant of 
the ancient castle of A., in which was born the celebrated Marguerite of Navarre, the 
authoress of the Heptameron, and other works. The railway from Paris to Bordeaux 
passes through it. Much saffron and wine are produced in the neighborhood. The 
province of Angoumois was in early times a county; but the heir of it, in the beginning 
of the 14th c., being an adherent of the English, Philip the fair took possession of it, 
and it became an appanage of younger branches of the royal family. It was made a 
duchy by Francis I., and was sometimes bestowed upon natural sons of the French kings. 
Charlies de Valois, Duke of A., a natural son of Charles IX. was a distinguished general 
in the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. 


ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, Duc pn’, 1573-1650; son of Charles IX. of 
France, and Marie Touchet ; reared by his uncle Henry III. One of his half-sisters, the 
marchioness of Vermeuil, became the mistress of Henry IV. Charles was well educated, 
and at the age of 16 was grand prior of France in the order of knights of Malta. In 
1591 he married a daughter of Marshal d’Amville, afterwards duke of Montmorenci. 
In 1589, Henry III. was assassinated, but on his death he commended Charles to his 
successor, Henry IV., by whom he was made colonel of horse; but the relationship of 
his sister to the king so displeased him that he joined with the duke of Savoy, Biron, 
and Bouillon, one of their main purposes being to force the king to repudiate his wife 
and marry the marchioness. Biron and Charles were arrested, and the former was 
executed, but the latter was released after a short imprisonment, owing to the influence 
of his relative, aided by his aunt the duchess d’Angouléme, and his father-in-law, the 
marquis d’Entragues. In 1604, he and his father-in-law were condemned to death and 
his mother to perpetual imprisonment in a convent; the woman obtained pardon and 
had the other sentences commuted to perpetual imprisonment. A. was in the Bastile 11 
years, but in 1616 he was released and restored to his rank of colonel-general of horse. 
He was afterwards engaged in an important embassy to Germany. In 1627, he com- 
manded the large force assembled for the siege of La Rochelle; m 1635, he was general 
of the French army in Lorraine, and in 1636 lieutenant-general of the armies. He was 
the author of Memoirs from the Assassination of Henry LI, to the Battle of Arques, and 
other works, 


Angouleme. 
‘Anhyarite: 4 7 2 


ANGOULEME, Lovurs ANTOINE DE Bourson, Duc D’, the eldest son of Charles X. oi 
France, and Dauphin during his father’s reign, was b. at Versailles on the 6th Aug., 
1775. He retired from France along with his father at the commencement of the Revo: 
lution, and spent some time in military studies at Turin. In Aug., 1792, he entered 
Germany at the head of a body of French emigrants, but the ill success of the campaign 
and his own unfitness for military command led to his seeking tranquillity along with 
his father at Edinburgh. Till 1814, he continued an exile from France, wandering from 
one place to another on the continent, and latterly resident with the other members of 
his family in England. On the entrance of the allies into France, he appeared at the 
British headquarters at St. Jean de Luz, and thence issued a proclamation to the French 
army. He entered Bordeaux under protection of the British on 12th Mar., and made 
siberal promises in the name of his uncle, Louis XVIII., among which was that of com- 
plete religious liberty. He was again in the south when Napoleon returned from Elba. | 
He was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and hastened with such forces as 
he could collect to oppose the emperor; but although he obtained some advantages at 
first, he was soon deserted by his troops, was for some days detained a prisoner, and at 
last sent away in a Swedish merchant-vessel to Barcelona. After the second restoration, 
he was sent by Louis XVIII. to the southern provinces to repress the political and 
religious movements there, and in 1828 he led the French army into Spain to put an end 
to the constitution. A man of phlegmatic disposition and mean abilities, he was, in all 
political matters, a tool of the ultra-royalists and the priests. When the revolution took 
place in July, 1830, he signed, along with his father, an abdication in favor of his 
nephew, the Duc de Bordeaux; and, when the Chambers declared the family of Charles 
X. to have forfeited the throne, he accompanied him into exile to Holyrood, to Prague, 
and to Gérz, where he died, 3d June, 1844. 


ANGOULEME, MARrIE-THERESE-CHARLOTTE, DUCHESSE D’, the daughter of Louis 
XVI., was b. at Versailles on 19th Dec., 1778, and early displayed much quickness of in- 
telligence and energy of character, with the most tender sympathy in the distresses of 
others. Having passed through the horrors of the revolution, and endured a long im- 

risonment, she was exchanged, on 25th Dec., 1795, for some French prisoners in the 

ands of the Austrians, and lived at Vienna till her marriage, in 1799, with her cousin, 
the Duc d’Angouléme, whose subsequent fortunes she shared. She survived him seven 
years, and d. Oct. 19, 1851. 


AN'GRA, the capital of the Azores, a seaport at the head of a deep bay on the s. 
coast of the island of Terceira, lat. 38° 38’ n., long. 27° 12’ w. It is a station for ships 
between Portugal and Brazil and the East Indies; but the harbor is very much exposed. 
It is the seat of the Portuguese governor-general of the Azores and of the bishop; is well 
built, but dirty; strongly fortified, and protected by a citadel at the foot of the Monte de 
Brazil; contains a military college and arsenal, several scientific and literary societies, a 
cathedral and numerous churehes; and 11,067 inhabitants. There is a considerable 
export of wine, cheese, honey, and flax. This city furnished an asylum for the Portu- 
guese regency from 1830 till the taking of Oporto, in 1835, by Don Pedro. 

ANGRA PEQUENA, or PeQuENHA, a district in s.w. Africa, extending from the 
Orange river to latitude 26° 38’ south, and inland, eighty miles from the coast. Copper 
is abundant, and gold, silver, and iron are found. There are eleven guano islands a mile 
distant from the coast. The chief settlement, Angra Pequeifia, at the mouth of the Lit- 
tle Fish river, is the best harbor on that part of the coast, except Walfish bay. The gov- 
ernment of Cape Colony claimed this territory, buta German colony was planted at A. P. 
in 1883, and in 1884 England reluctantly consented to the establishment of a German 
protectorate over the district, excepting Walfish bay and some of the guano islands. 

AN’GRI, a town of South Italy, in the province of Salerno, and 17 m. n.w. from 
Salerno, not far from the Naples and Nocera railway. The surrounding country 
abounds in vineyards and cotton plantations. Pop. 11,000. 


ANGSTROM, ANDERS Jonas, a Swedish natural philosopher, was b. 1814; entered 
the university of Upsala (1833), became keeper of the observatory (1848) ; and professor 
of physics (1858). From 1867 till his death in 1874 he was secretary to the Royal 
Society of Sciences at Upsala. He has written upon heat, magnetism, and especially 
optics. Among his works are Recherche sur le Spectre solaire (1869), Swr les Spectres des 
Gas simples (1871), and memoire sur la Temperature de la Terre (1871). 

ANGUILLA. See EEL. 

ANGUIL’LA, or Lirrie SNAKE, one of the West India islands, so-called, perhaps, 
from its long and narrow figure. Next to Anegada, it is the most northerly of the 
Lesser Antilles, lying almost due east of the eastern extremity of Porto Rico, in lat. 183 
n., and in long. 63°-64° w. It belongs to England, having an area of 35 sq.m., and a 
pop. (1891) of 3699. It is low and wooded, and produces cattle, horses, salt, and phos- 
phate of salt. Its harbor, such as it is, is beset with reefs. 

ANGUIS. See BLIND-WORM. 

ANGUS, Eart or. See DOUGLAS. 

ANGUSSO’LA, or ANGUISCIOLA, SoronisBA, 1533-1620; one of the best portrait 
painters of the latter part of the 16th century. In 1560, at the invitation of Philip IL 


4 iv 3 Angouleme, 
Anhydrite. 


she visited Madrid, where her work received great praise. Vandyck is reported to have 
said that he derived more knowledge of the principles of his art from her conv 2rsation 
than from any other source. Specimens of her work are to be seen tn Madrid, and in 
Florence, and one portrait of herself is at Althorp. She had three sisters, all of whom 
were artists of repute. 


AN’HALT, one of the oldest principalities of Germany, and now a state of the Ger- 
manic empire, is situated on the Elbe, the Mulde, and the Saale. It consisted formerly 
of three duchies—A.-Dessau, A.-Bernburg, and A.-Kéthen. <A. contains 906 sq. m. 
Pop. ’85, 248,166; *90, 271,759. A. is almost entirely surrounded by the Prussian 
territories, which intermix with it and divide it into portions. Dessau, Zerbst, Bernburg, 
and Kéthen, are the principal towns. The country is level and fertile, producing wheat, 
flax, rape-seed, hops, and tobacco. Wine is produced on the Saale. Agriculture is the 
chief employment of the people, who are generally Protestants. Part of the former 
duchy of A.-Bernburg approaching the Harz mountains possesses mineral wealth in iron 
and-other mines. A. began to be an independent principality in the first half of the 138th 
century. It has been repeatedly, in the course of its history, divided amongst branches 
of the reigning family. The division into three duchies dates from the beginning of the 
17th century. It was divided originally into four parts, but the line of A.-Zerbst has 
become extinct. The three duchies were independent of each other; but a family com- 
pact connected the reigning lines, which often led them to take public action conjointly. 
Some of the princes of A. have been eminent in the political, military, and ecclesiastical 
history of Germany. 


ANHY’DRIDES, is the term now commonly given to the compounds formerly known 
as anhydrous acids, which was a very unsatisfactory name, seeing that these bodies do 
not present any of the ordinary properties of acids. In some cases, they are the result 
of the dehydration of acids, and in all cases they represent in their composition the acid 
minus water. One of the most eminent French chemists, Prof. Wurtz, lays down 
the following general principles: ‘‘(1) The anhydrides of monobasic acids (@) contain the 
elements of two molecules of a monobasic acid, minus 1 molecule, H.O, of water ; (2) 
the anhydrides of bibasic acids (0) contain the elements of a molecule of a bibasic acid, 
minus a molecule of water ; (8) the anhydrides of tribasic acids (c) contain the elements 
of a tribasic acid, minus water.” Thus, using the modern formule and the type theory, 
we give a case of each form of acid : 


Nitric acid. Nitric anhydride, 


(a)  2(HO-NO,) Es H.0 = 0 4NO’ 
Sulphuric acid. F ‘i ; 
HO ] Sulphuric anhydride. 
Phosphoric acid. Phosphoric anhydride. 
(c) 2( 110 Po | a 3H,0 = 6! ie 
HO O 


The reader who may not at once be able to interpret these formule, will readily see 
that HO-NO, = HNOs, the new formula for nitric acid, that HOt SO. = H2SOu,, the 
new formula for sulphuric acid, which is now universally placed amongst the bibasic 


HO 
acids; and that HO l po = H;PO,, the old formula for tribasic phosphoric acid. 
HO 


According to the old system, the three anhydrides would be represented by NO;, SOs, and 
PO; respectively. We might have taken organic acids, as, for example, acetic acid, suc’ 
cinic acid, in place of nitric and sulphuric. 

The anhydrides of the monobasic acids are formed in various ways ; thus, hypochlorous 
anhydride is formed by the action of chlorine on oxide of mercury ; nitric anhydride is 
formed by the action of chlorine on nitrate of silver, etc. By the action of ammonia, 
the anhydrides of monobasic organic acids are converted into amides ; thus, benzoic an- 

/(% A 
hydride oH cor 0) + ammonia 2(NHs) = benzamide 2(CsH;sCONH2) + water 
2(H.0). The anhydrides of tribasic acids are often formed by the mere action of heat 
on the acids, as is the case with lactic and tartaric acids. 

The anhydrides present no uniformity of appearance ; for example, carbonic anhy- 
dride (COz) (commonly known as carbonic acid, which in reality is COo,H.O) isa gas; 
phosphoric anhydride is a white powder ; nitric anhydride occurs in crystals ; sulphuric 
anhydride forms transparent prisms or white needles; while the anhydrides of several 
organic acids are oily bodies heavier than water. ' 

The most important property of this class is their conversion intc the corresponding 
acids, under the influence of water. 

AN'HYDRITE, a mineral, consisting of anhydrous sulphate of lime, with some slight 
addition of sea-salt, appears in several varieties, as, 1. Granular ; found in concretions 
with a foliated structure ; 2. Fibrous ; easily broken with a fracture in delicate parallel 
fibers; 38, Radiated; translucent; 4. Sparry, or cube spar; 5, Compact, of various 


Anhydrous. bn 
quia 4 ‘ 4 


shades, white, blue, gray, red. A. is converted into gypsum by combination with a 
certain proportion of water, and where it isfound in large masses, as on the s. of the 
Harz mountains near Osterode, the surface consists of gypsum. For building, A. has 
no great value, on account of its tendency to this change; but some of its varieties, 
especially the siliciferous or vulpenite, found at Vulpino, in upper Italy, are used for 
sculptures, and take a fine polish. When burned and reduced to powder, it is used as a 
manure, resembling gypsum in its effects. 


ANHYDROUS is the term applied to a chemical substance free from water. Thus, 
ordinary lime-shell as it comes from the kiln is simply lime, CaO, without any water, and 
is called anhydrous lime; but when water is thrown upon the lime-shell, the liquid dis- 
appears by combination with the lime, which very much increases in volume and be- 
comes hydrated lime, CaO-.H.O. Again, ordinary stucco, before being used by the 
modeler, contains only lime and sulphuric acid, CaSO,., with no water, and is therefore 
anhydrous ; but when water is added, and the stucco sets into its mould, it combines with 
two equivalents of water, and becomes hydrated stucco, CaSO,2H.O. Examples of A. 
substances are also found amongst liquids ; thus, alcohol free from water is called A. al- 
coho] ; and in like manner we speak of A. acetic acid, A. nitric acid, etc. 

ANILINE or Amipo-BENZENE was discovered in 1826, as a product of the dry 
distillation of indigo ; hence the name derived from ani, the Portuguese for indigo. 
This source has now ceased to be of importance, for, practically, all the A. now manu 
factured is obtained from coal-tar. When coal is heated in the manufacture of illumi- 
nating gas, a large number of substances are produced, and are obtained as a tury matter 
of varying composition. Only a few of these bodies are of commercial importance, 
the chief being ammonia, carbolic acid, anthracene, naphthalene, pitch, and benzene. It 
is this last-named substance that yields A. If it is treated with strong nitric acid, an in- 
termediate compound, nitro-benzene, CsHsNOz is formed, which, when mixed with acetic 
acid and iron filings, yields acetate of A. A. may also be prepared by passing a mixture 
of benzene and ammonia through a red-hot tube, after the following reaction : 


Benzene Ammonia Aniline 
OsHe -- NHs = CsH;sNH. + H, 


A. may be regarded either as benzene in which one atom of hydrogen has been replaced 
by the group amidogen, NHz, or as ammonia, NHs, in which one atom of hydrogen has 
been replaced by the radical phenyl, CsH; ; and according as the one or the other view is 
held, it is called amido-benzene, or phenylamine. The pure article called A. is a col- 
orless, oily fluid, slightly soluble in water, but readily dissolving in alcohol and ether. 
It refracts light strongly, and possesses a rank aromatic taste. It boils at 360° F. (182° C ), 
and when pure, has a specific gravity of 1.020. It is a well-marked Base (q.v.), pro- 
ducing numerous crystalline salts, although it has no alkaline action on vegetable colors. 
It is a powerful narcotic poison, its fumes causing giddiness, and subsequently insensibil- 
ity, while the body becomes of alivid leaden-blue color. Taken internally, it soon causes 
death ; and even when respired in small quantity, as by the workmen engaged in its 
manufacture, it causes severe headaches, nausea, and vomiting. 

It is, however, as being the source of the numerous A. dyes, that this body has be- 
come of leading importance. A. unites with the acids, forming salts, but these do not 
constitute the A. dyes. These consist of various bases obtained by the oxidation of A. by 
means of nitric acid, chlorine, arsenic, or other agents. In many instances, these bases are 
yuite colorless, and only develop their tints when they are formed into salts. They 
may be regarded as amines—i.e., ammonia in which hydrogen has been replaced by one 
or more radicals. Thus we have diphenylamine, NH(C,H;)2 ; dimethyl A., N(C.Hs) 
(CHs)2; methyl ethyl A., N(C.H;) (CHs) (C2Hs), etc. To refer at length to the various 
A. dyes would be impossible, as these now number some hundreds, and we can only in- 
dicate the leading varieties. The colors produced by these dyes include every shade and 
tint, and the list of red or violet compounds would alone exhaust our available space. 
Fuchsine, which may be taken as typical of the red dyes, is formed when A. is treated 
with strong nitric acid. But, in practice, many other chemicals may be substituted for 
the acid. Blue dyes are produced when aqueous A. salts are treated with chlorate of 
potash and hydro-chloric acid. 

Maurine, a powerful violet dye, was discovered by Perkin, in 1856, and this led the 
way in the manufacture of A. colors. Perkin produced it by acting on A. with bichromate 
of potash. We must pass over the various green, brown, yellow, and grey dyes, merely 
mentioning that the so-called A. blacks are usually either very intense greens or blues, 
appearing black through concentration. 

The A. dyes are noted for their intense coloring power, one part of a rosaniline salt in 
a million parts of water still possessing a deep crimson color, and instantly dyeing a 
skein of silk moistened with vinegar. Even in so dilute a solution as one grain dissolved 
in 1500 galls. of water, it is capable of dyeing a silk thread immersed in it for 24 hours. 
Many of the dyes exhibit complementary colors (see LiaHt) when looked at by reflected and 
transmitted light; thus, the strong solution of salt above referred to looks a purple red 
by transmitted, and a brilliant green by reflected light; a fact familiar to the users of A. 
red ink, or an ink for any of the familiar ‘‘ graph” copying processes. Here the pen 


A 
475 EE 


assumes a green, shining appearance, quite different from the color of the ink. A. dyes 
are used as lacquers for cheap toys, being readily soluble in spirit varnish, the well- 
known “‘ bronzing liquid’’ being an example of this. Mixed with gelatine or collodion, and 
allowed to dry in thin sheets, they furnish the thin transparencies so much used for pro- 
ducing stained glass imitations. They have been also used for coloring wines and sweet- 
meats, but as arsenic was formerly, or is still employed in the manufacture of the red 
varieties, this practice is not unattended with risk. The use of arsenic has of late been 
largely abandoned ; or, when used, makers take care to eliminate the arsenic at the end of 
the process, so that the final product is innocuous. Numerous cases of skin-eruptions have 
been traced tothe wearing of red flannel or red stockings dyed by A. dyes. The readiness 
with which any housewife can dye articles of clothing or household ornaments has made 
them great favorites. The chief drawback lies in the fugitive nature of many varieties, 
but, notwithstanding, there is a wide field still open to them. The A. colors are, asa 
whole, disapproved from the artistic point of view. Some of them are especially objec- 
tionable when used in the same textile fabric along with natural dyes. Notwithstanding 
this, the introduction of A. dyes is said to have closed half the dyers’ shops in India. A 
few years ago, the shah of Persia prohibited the importation of these colors into that 
country. Germany is now the headquarters of the industry, its products being of the 
highest class and the lowest price. See Perkin, ‘‘ On the Coal-tar Colors,” in Nature, vol. 
xxxii.; and The Chemistry of the Coal-tar Colors, by Benedikt (Eng. trans. 1886). 


ANIMA, Con, in music; with animation, in a spirited manner. 


ANIMA MUNDI literally signifies ‘‘ the soul of the world.” The doctrine contained 
in this phrase was a favorite one with the early philosophers, who conceived that there 
resided in nature a force immaterial, yet not intelligential, which was the source of all 
physical and sentient life. Plato held it impossible for pure spirit—the atmosphere in 
which alone eternal and archetypal ideas could exist—to bear any relation whatever to 
matter, and he therefore supposed the latter to be operated upon by an inferior agency, 
the A. M. In the system of the Stoics, the A. WM. was conceived to be the sole vital 
force in the universe; it usurped the office of pure spirit, and the doctrine became indis- 
tinguishable from pantheism (q.v.). 

ANIMAL and ANIMAL KINGDOM. According to a very old classification, all bodies 
are divided into three kingdoms—the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal. Animals 
and vegetables are again classed together as organic, in opposition to minerals, which 
are inorganic. Mineral bodies are masses of matter without internal movement, increas- 
ing by additions from without, having, with the exception of crystals, no determinate 
form or size, homogeneous throughout, and without relation of one part to another. 
Animals and plants, on the contrary, exist as individual beings, consisting of various 
organs. Their existence has a beginning and an end, and at their death they are 
replaced by other similar beings developed out of them. 

Living matter, or protoplasm, is clearly distinguished by its chemical composition, it 
being composed of very highly complex compounds, or mixture of compounds of carbon, 
nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, together with water and salts. During life, 
it is incessantly disintegrating and combining with the oxygen of the atmosphere, many 
products of change, chiefly carbonic acid, water, and nitrogenous waste, being evolved ; and 
reintegration must therefore take place by intussusception, for which purpose new matter 
containing the necessary elements must be taken up, either from other organisms or from 
the inorganic world. Certain cyclical changes are also exhibited by all forms of living 
matter—that is to say, each arises as a detached portion of some previous organism ; de- 
velops into a form similar to that from which it arose ; tends to reproduce itself ; and 
finally ceases to live, when its protoplasm breaks up, and its elements ultimately return ina 
highly oxidized state to the inorganic world. 

While living bodies are thus clearly distinguishable from inorganic, every attempt to 
erect a similarly sharp distinction between plants and animals completely breaks down. 
Sensibility is not a purely animal characteristic, the well-known sensitive-plant, the sun- 
dew, and Venus fly-trap exhibiting it inthe most markeddegree. Cellulose, again, which 
forms the coating of the vegetable cell, was regarded as completely characteristic of this ; 
but many alge and fungi are naked at some period of their lives, while the thick external 
tunic of those degraded vertebrates known as ascidians has essentially the chemical com- 
position of plant cellulose. Chlorophyl, the green coloring matter of plants, is absent 
from fungi and from many flowering parasites, and is yet present in infusorians, in hydra 
and some other invertebrates, which are thus enabled to vegetate in sunshine, forming 
starch and evolving oxygen. Animals thus donot necessarily feed ; while the well-known 
insectivorous plants (see DionazA, SuN-DEw) capture animals and frequently digest them. 
Vast numbers of animals are destitute of the power of locomotion, so that, for instance, 
corals were unhesitatingly referred to the vegetable kingdom until about a century ago ; 
while diatoms and many embryonic alge and fungi, which possess marked powers of 
locomotion, would thus require to be ranked as animals. Locomotion is generally effected 
by appropriate organs, which are very different in the different classes of animals, as 
legs, wings, fins, suckers, cilia, etc,, sometimes by muscular dilatations and contractions, 


I.—16 


476 


Animal. 


In the higher animals, it is connected with a special system of bones and muscles, which 
becomes less and less prominent as we descend in the scale, and at last disappears. 

Nutrition is effected by swallowing and digesting organic matter by means of a 
mouth, stomach, and intestinal canal. A part of the food—the chyle, namely, which 
results from digestion—is taken up by a system of vessels into the body of the animal, 
and thrown into the blood, into which, under the action of the air in the lungs or gills, 
it is converted; the other part is excreted by a second orifice, except in some of the 
lowest forms where the mouth forms the exit. For keeping up a circulation of the 
blood, which must be brought to all parts of the body for the purpose of nourishment, 
there is provided a system of blood-vessels and, in the higher classes, a heart. See 
CrrcuLATion. Nutrition may take place also by absorption from the external sur- 
face; but this is not considerable except, perhaps, among the lowest classes of ani- 
mals. The substances that serve for the nutrition of an animal are either vegetable or 
animal, and the mouth and other organs are adapted accordingly. The number of om- 
nivorous animals is small, and among these man has the greatest latitude of choice. 

Propagation or reproduction takes place in a great variety of ways; among the 
lowest forms, by division, gemmation or budding, and cell-germs; among the more per- 
fect, by generation between two individuals of different sex. Of the two sexes, the 
male is generally distinguished by superior size and strength, more brilliant coloring, 
larger appendages, and often stronger voice. Besides male and female, there are among 
some animals (bees and ants) neuters. In some of the lower kinds, the individuals are 
hermaphrodite. See REPRODUCTION. 

All animals develop gradually, and most of them go through one or more changes of 
form or metamorphoses. This is most marked among insects which go through the four 
stages of egg, larva, pupa, and perfect insect. The class of reptiles with naked skins 
also go through changes, though less striking. In the higher animals, these transitions 
through a series of forms take place in the ovum, or before birth. In some cases the 
embryo comes to maturity after the exclusion of the ovum (birds and amphibia); in 
others (mammalia), within the body of the mother: animals of the last kind are called 
viviparous. The reproduction of some intestinal worms is peculiar; the egg of the 
mother-animal produces a sexless creature—a nurse—the eggs laid by which reproduce 
the original animal. A somewhat similar peculiarity is observed in some insects, as 
aphides. See APHIS. 

The life of animals is dependent on many conditions. Among these rank warmth, 
atmospheric air, and moisture, along with sufficient nourishment. Light also is essen- 
tial to many, though most of the colorless animals of the lower classes can dispense 
with it. With regard to outward pressure, the limits are wide, as is seen in the condor 
soaring to a height of 20,000 ft., and the whale descending to a depth of 1000 ft. below 
the surface of the sea. But individual animals are confined to much narrower limits; 
often to one circumscribed range of climate, one species of food, one medium. To go 
beyond those limits, though it does not always occasion death, yet gives rise to various 
degrees of degeneracy, from which even man with all his powers of adaptation is not 
exempt. 

Most animals give more or less strong indications of mind: in those high in the 
scale, this mental life rises to intellect capable of cultivation, while in the lower classes 
it appears as instinct confined to a few operations. For communicating with the outer 
world, vertebrated animals are provided with a nervous system in connection with a 
central brain—a cerebral nervous system; the ganglionic nervous system of the lower 
animals seems to serve this purpose less and less as we descend in the scale. The impres- 
sions from without are received immediately by the organs of sense, which become 
more numerous and complex the higher the animal stands in the scale; among the 
highest, five senses are usually distinguished, which are variously developed in different 
species—in none so harmoniously as in man. 

Nocturnal sleep, being the means of gathering strength for the activity of the waking 
hours, stands in intimate relation to that activity, and therefore is wanting in beings 
low in the scale. Winter sleep, or hibernation (q.v.), serves many animals instead of 
migration, to enable them to outlive the cold and hunger of winter. Analogous is the 
summer sleep of serpents and crocodiles, which lie buried in the dry mud during the 
summer droughts of the tropics. 

Of the other vital manifestations of animals may be mentioned the faculty of giving 
hght (glow-worm, medusze), and that of developing eiectricity, both possessed only by a 
few; also voice, belonging almost exclusively to vertebrate animals, and of them chiefly 
to the warm-blooded. 

A very remarkable peculiarity occurs in some of the lowest kinds of animals, in 
what may be termed a composite life; individuals which separately manifest many of 
the powers of life being united in part of their frame, many of them together into one 
living mass. Of this, examples are numerous among the zoophytes (q.v.), some of 
which have already been noticed in the article ALCYONTUM. 

Apart from the transforming and modifying influence of man, the animals and 
plants of a district—its fawna and flora—give it life and character. To man himself, 
animals stand in a variety of relations of the highest importance. Some are directly 
useful to him for labor, food, the chase, etc.; others hurtful, as destroyers of vegeta- 


a 


477 Animal, 


tion, as beasts of prey, as vermin, or by their poisons.—The number of known species 
of animals amounts at present to about 180,000. To describe and classify these on 
scientific principles, is the object of zoology (q.v.). 


ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. The object of researches into the chemical nature of animal 
substances is twofold: First, to classify the proximate or immediate component ingre- 
dients of the animal body, study their properties, their mutual relations and metamor- 
phoses, and the ultimate elements of which they are composed; second, to investigate 
the processes that go on during the elaboration and assimilation of new materials, and 
the wearing out and excretion of old—processes that, taken together, constitute nutri- 
tion, or the vegetative side of animal life. Without a pretty complete knowledge of the 
first part, no successful researches can be made in the second; and it is chiefly owing te 
the great progress that has been made within the last thirty years in the knowledge of 
the chemical properties of the animal compounds containing nitrogen that we owe the 
recent advance in our knowledge of the chemical processes of life. That advance is not 
the less decided that we are still far from a complete understanding of them. The 
general laws of chemistry are now traced into the province of organic nature much 
further than formerly, and the abrupt partition between the two is removed. It is still 
acknowledged that these laws operate differently within the sphere of organic life, from 
what they do without; but instead of resting contented with saying, that owing to the 
vital force this could not be otherwise, the aim is now to trace the why and wherefore of 
this modified action as far as possible. 

In the animal body tw» classes of substances may be distinguished: those that 
properly compose the body, and those that are on the way either into it or out of it. 
The former, or actual components of the body, are, again, of two kinds: 1. Substances 
that compose the actual tissues of the organs, and in which the vital functions seem 
properly to inhere; the substances, namely, of muscle, of nerve, of brain, of membranes, 
sinews, and the organic part of the bones. All these agree in consisting chiefly of carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with usually minute proportions of sulphur and phos- 
phorus. But in respect of their mode of composition, they fall into two classes—those 
that yield gelatine on boiling, and those that do not. To the former belong the sub- 
stance of the cartilages, bones, sinews, and skin; to the latter the fibrin of the muscles 
and of the blood corpuscles, the albumen of the nerves and blood, the caseine of milk, 
etc. These last are the so-called compounds of proteine (q.v.). In the living tissues all 
these matters are combined with about 90 per cent of water. 2. Besides the above, 
which are the real animalized or vital substances, the animal body contains substances 
which are merely deposited in the cells and interstices of the former for imparting color, 
solidity, elasticity, etc. Of this kind are fat, the earthy matter of the bones, pigment, 
etc. Whether the minute quantities of common salt and of phosphates that are found 
in all parts of animals essentially belong to the constitution of the substance they are 
associated with, is not yet made out, but it is extremely probable they do; at all events 
they play a very important part. 

The substances that are on their way into and out of the body form on the one band 
the contents of the digestive organs, and on the other those of the organs of excretion. 
The vascular system forms the means of communication between both and the substance 
of the body, and the blood is the carrier of all that enters that substance or leaves it. In 
the digestive organs, accordingly, we find, along with the unaltered materials of the 
food, the various products of their digestion, and at last the useless refuse, not absorb- 
able by the vascular system, and the various fluids—some acid, some alkaline—added to 
the food to effect its digestion, such as the saliva, gastric juice, and bile. 

The matters prepared in the digestive organs for being taken up into the blood, either 
enter the venous system directly, or get there by first going through the lymphatic sys- 
tem. This last contains a fluid which is chemically very like the blood, but colorless— 
the chyle, namely. This fluid and the blood contain the so-called proteine compounds 
derived from the food, partly in solution, and partly solid in the blood corpuscles. 
Arterial blood contains, besides, all those salts and other substances that must be sup- 
plied for the nourishment of the various organs. The venous system, again, which brings 
back the blood from the different parts to the central organs, is laden with all the mat- 
ters that are no longer of use, and must therefore be carried to the chief excretory organs— 
the skin, liver, and kidneys. The dark color of venous blood indicates that its compo- 
nents have undergone a change. But all blood that is on its way both to and from the 
parts of the body, before it can impart nourishment,-must pass through the lungs, an 
organ in which it is brought into extensive contact with atmospheric air, and undergoes 
a process of oxidation, producing the following palpable results: The disappearance of 
a portion of the inhaled oxygen, and the substitution of water and carbonic acid in its 
place; the transformation of the dark venous blood and of the chyle into red arterial 
blood; lastly, the development of heat. Breathing, then, contributes to nutrition by 
making the blood fit for that purpose; it is an excretory process, inasmuch as it burns 
out useless matters and separates them in the form of gases; and at the same time it pro- 
duces heat, without which life could not go on. 

Sweat, urine, bile, and emanations from the skin and lungs, centain only products of 
the decomposition of effete animal substances; many of these products are highly interest- 


478 


Animal, 


ing in a chemical point of view, especially urea, uric acid, and bile. It is clear, then, 
that comparative investigation of the blood in its different states, of the excretions and 
secretions, can alone give any knowledge of the condition of the vegetative side of the 
organism; and, accordingly, this kind of investigation has in recent times become of 
the highest importance for pathology and diagnosis. See Liebig’s famous work on A. C., 
translated by Gregory, and the excellent Lehrbuch der Physiologischen Chemie (3d ed., 
Leip. 1854), by Lehmann. 
ANIMAL FLOWER. See ActinrA, and ANEMONE (SEA). 


ANIMAL HEAT is that generated in animal bodies by certain of the changes con- 
stantly taking place within them. A certain amount of heat is necessary to the proper 
performance of the functions of the body, and any material increase or decrease of it 
from the healthy standard endangers life. The air and other objects surrounding the 
body being in almost all cases colder than it, are constantly stealing part of its warmth, 
but within the system there are processes incessantly going on which produce more heat. 
When the heat thus generated is not dissipated fast enough, so that the body tends to 
become warmer than the due degree, the accumulation finds vent in perspiration, the 
evaporation of which carries off the excess. The power of producing heat is in relation 
to the climate in which the animal is accustomed to live. It is weaker in warm climates 
than in cold, and consequently, when an animal is removed from a warm to a cold 
climate, it frequently pines and dies. In most fish and reptiles, commonly termed 
‘‘ cold-blooded animals,” the temperature differs but little from that of the water or air in 
which they live; the same is the case with hibernating animals during the latter part of 
their torpid condition. 

Man has the power, to a greater degree than other warm-blooded animals, of adapting 
himself to changes of surrounding temperature. His average standard of heat is about 
98.4° F., varying with circumstances, being slightly higher after exercise or a hearty 
meal, and at noonday than at midnight. It also varies in diseased conditions of the body, 
rising to 106° in a fever, and falling as low as 77° in cholera. But if the body be in a 
healthy condition, the standard of heat is maintained, even when the person is exposed 
to intense heat, as in the case of men attending furnaces; one can for a short time be 
exposed to 350° of heat without materially raising the temperature of his own body, 
although he will lose weight by the copious perspiration necessary for the evaporation. 

Throughout the animal kingdom the power of generating heat bears a close relation 
to the activity or sluggishness of the animal. Thus, many birds, which are perpetually 
in action, have the highest temperature (100°-112°); and the swallow and quick-flighted 
birds, higher than the fowls which keep to the ground. The higher the standard of A. 
H. the less able is the animal to bear a reduction of its temperature; if that of a bird or 
mammal be reduced 80°, the vital changes become slower, more languid, and death 
ensues. Fish and frogs, on the other hand, may be inclosed in ice and yet survive. 

The sources of animal heat in the living body are the chemical and physical changes 
continually taking place. The chemical changes are those occurring in respiration, 
digestion, nutrition, secretion, and muscular and nervous action. It has been shown 
experimentally that when those functions are performed there is an increase of tempera- 
ture. Heat is, no doubt, also produced by any movements causing friction. The ulti- 
mate sources of heat are (1) the energy locked up in the food consumed; and (2) in the 
oxygen inhaled in respiration. The food, in the processes of digestion, is split up into 
its constituent parts; these are absorbed, and may become parts of the textures and fluids 
of the body for a time; and these textures, in the performance of their functions, disin- 
tegrate, become redissolved, and are then eliminated by various channels from the body: 
all of these processes generate heat. On the other hand, the oxygen of the air, by intu- 
ing, in the process of respiration, with the carbon or hydrogen of certain of the tissues 
or of the food, produces carbonic acid and water, and thus also heat is generated. If 
we estimated the potential energy of the food consumed and of the oxygen inhaled in 
respiration as so much heat, and also estimated, as near accuracy as possible, the amount 
of heat produced in the various processes above referred to, it would be found that this 
latter amount of heat would be less than that derivable from the food and oxygen. This 
deficiency is accounted for by the work done by the body, partly as internal mechanical 
work, such as the movements of heart and lungs, etc., and partly as external mechanical 
work, such as the movements of the body in the performance of the daily activities of 
life. This view of A. H., which is now universally adopted, was first put forward by 
J. R. Mayer, of Heilbronn, in 1842-1845, and numerous applications of it have since 
been made to many physiological and pathological phenomena. 


ANIMAL MAGNETISM or Mesmerism is a supposed influence or emanation by 
means of which one person can act upon another, producing wonderful effects upon his 
body, and controlling his actions and thoughts. It was fancied to have some analogy 
to the magnetism of the loadstone, and hence its name. The term has been used to 
group together a multitude of manifestations deemed of a wonderful kind, and which 
have given rise to anamount of delusion and credulity hardly exemplified on any other 
subject. Electro-biology, Odylism, table-turning, spirit-rapping, table-talking, spiritual- 
ism, have been classed as only modifications of the same phenomena. The art of 
inducing the magnetic state, as practiced by its discoverer, Mesmer, involved the use of 


479 Animal, 


apparatus—the baquet or magnetic tub, iron rods, etc.; but the more common means 
have been passes made by the hands of the magnetizer from the head of the ‘‘ subject” 
or patient downward, or simply making him fix his eyes on the operator. He then gen- 
erally feels a creeping sensation stealing over the surface, and shortly falls into the mes- 
meric sleep—a state more or less resembling somnambulism. About one person in ten 
is found capable of being thus affected, to a greater or less extent. While in this state, 
the functions of the body are liable to be much affected; the pulsations of the heart and 
the respiration are quickened or retarded, and the secretions altered, and that chiefly 
at the will of the operator; at his direction, the limbs are made rigid, or become endowed 
with unnatural strength; one liquid tastes as any other, and is hot or cold, sweet or bit- 
ter, as the subject is told; in short, every thought, sensation, and movement of the sub- 
ject obeys the behest of the mesmerizer. According to the mesmeric theory, the nervous 
energy of the operator has overpowered that of the subject, as a powerful magnet does 
a weak one, and the two are in rapport, as it is termed. In some cases the mesmeric 
trance assumes the form of clairvoyance. See SOMNAMBULISM. 

It has been clearly established, however, that the notion of a force of any kind what- 
ever proceeding in such cases from a person or from a magnetizing apparatus, is a delu- 
sion. The effects, whatever they are, must have their cause somewhere else. Where 
it is to be looked for was indicated, though not followed up, as early as 1785, in the 
report of the commissioners, one of whom was Franklin, appointed by the king of France 
to examine the pretensions of Mesmer. They report that ‘‘on blindfolding those who 
seemed to be most susceptible to the influence (of this agent), all its ordinary effects were 
produced when nothing was done to them but when they imagined they were magnet- 
ized, while none of its effects were produced when they were really magnetized, but 
imagined nothing was done; that when brought under a magnetized tree (one of Mesmer’s 
modes of operating), nothing happened if the subjects of the experiment thought they 
were at a distance from the tree, while they were immediately thrown into convulsions 
if they believed they were near the tree, although really at a distance from it; and that, 
consequently, the effects actually produced were produced purely by the imagination.” 

But this part of the science of human nature—the reflex action of the mental upon 
the physical—had not then been sufficiently studied, and is not now widely enough 
known to render the conclusion of the reporters a satisfactory explanation of the phenom- 
ena; and the fallacies of mesmerism, though subjected since to many similar exposures 
(Dr. Falkoner of Bath, e.g., annihilated the patent metallic tractors of Perkin, by making 
wooden ones exactly like them, which produced exactly the same effects), have constantly 
revived in some shape or other. One chief cause of the inveteracy of the delusion is, 
that the opponents of mesmerism do not distinguish between denying the theory of the 
mesmerists and the facts which that theory pretends to explain, and have been too ready 
to ascribe the whole to delusion and fraud. It thus happens that the most skeptical often 
become all of a sudden the most credulous. Finding that things do actually happen 
which they cannot explain, and had been accustomed to denounce as impostures, they 
rush to the other extreme, and embrace not only the facts but the theory, and call this, 
too, believing the evidence of their senses. Now, the reality of the greater part of the 
manifestations appealed to by the mesmerist must be admitted, though we deny his 
explanation of them; and even where their reality must be denied, it does not follow 
that the mesmerist is not sincere in believing them; there is only greater room than in 
any other case for suspecting that he has deceived himself. 

The first to give a really scientific direction to the investigation of appearances of this 
class was Mr. Braid, a surgeon in Manchester (see Hypnotism), who detaches them alto- 
gether from the semblance of power exerted by one individual over another, or by 
metallic disks or magnets, and traces the whole to the brain of the subject, acted on by 
suggestion, a principle long known to psychologists, though never made so prominent as 
it ought to be. The subject is ably handled in a paper in the Quarterly Review for Sept., 
1853 (said to be by Dr. Carpenter). The reviewer traces the operation of this principle 
through the most ordinary actions, which no one thinks wonderful, up to the most 
miraculous of the so-called ‘‘ spiritual” manifestations. 

Ideas become associated in our minds by habit or otherwise, and one being awakened 
brings on another, thus forming a train of thought; this is ¢xternal suggestion. But im- 
pressions from without originate and modify these trains, constituting external suggestion. 
While awake and in a normal condition, the wll interferes with and directs these trains 
of thought, selecting some ideas to be dwelt upon, and comparing them with others and 
with present impressions. A comparative inactivity of this selecting and comparing 
faculty, leaving the flow of ideas to its spontaneous activity, produces the state of mind 
called reverte or abstraction. Jn dreaming and somnambulism, the will and judgment 
seem completely suspended; and under its internal suggestions the mind becomes a mere 
automaton, while external suggestions, if they act at all, act as upon a machine. These 
are well-known facts of the human constitution, and independent of mesmerism, though 
their bearing upon it is obvious. 

Another fact of like bearing is the effect of concentrated attention on any object of 
thought in intensifying the impression received. This may proceed so far, in morbid 
states of the nervous system, that an idea or revived sensation assumes the vividness of 
a present impression, and overpowers the evidence of the senses. Ideas thus become 


Animalcule, 
Animals, 450 


dominant, overriding the impressions of the outer world, and carrying themselves out 
into action independently of the will, and even without the consciousness of the individual. 
These dominant ideas play a greater part in human actions and beliefs than most are 
aware of. ‘‘Expectant attention” acts powerfully on the bodily organs, and often makes 
the individual see and hear what he expects to see and hear, and, without his conscious- 
ness, moves his muscles to bring it about. These, too, are recognized facts in the science of 
physiology and psychology (see Carpenter’s /Zwman Physiology and Dr. Holland’s Chap- 
ters on Mental Physiology). 

These principles enable us to bring together and explain a whole class of phenomena, 
reverie, dreaming, somnambulism, the inspiration of the Delphic priestess, religious 
ecstasies, the physical excitement attendant on ‘‘ revivals” and ‘‘camp-meetings,” belief 
in witchcraft, possession, and mania, individual and epidemic. And it is now held that 
the manifestations of mesmerism, electro-biology, etc., belong to the same class, and are 
to be accounted for in the same way. 

The mesmeric state is produced by a steady gaze at some fixed object. There is no 
peculiar virtue in the eyes of the mesmerist or in a metallic disk, for a spot on the wall 
will produce the effect. The thing requisite is a monotonous and sustained concentra- 
tion of the subject’s will, producing weariness and vacancy of mind; and this resembles 
the condition that induces reverie and sleep, and leaves the mind open to any suggestion, 
and at the command of any idea that may be made to possesshim. Butthat heis governed 
by fis own tdeas, and not by the will of the mesmerizer, is clear. No wish of the mes- 
merizer, or of any other person, was ever known to affect the ‘‘ sulject” until it was conveyed 
to him by voice or otherwise; while an idea suggested by putting his body in a certain 
posture, or by an accidental touch, has the same effect as a command. If heseems more 
subject to the will of the mesmerizer than of any one else, it is because he was previously 
impressed with that idea, and is therefore more awake to his suggestions. It is thus that 
the operator is enabled to play upon him as an instrument—to make him taste, feel, 
think, and act, and lose and recover memory, the power over his limbs, or even his own 
identity, as the operator dictates. We must content ourselves with thus indicating the 
principle of explanation, leaving to the reader to apply it in detail. See MEsMERISM. 

The manifestations connected with table-turning, such of them as are genuine, are 
explained by the operation of expectant attention. A number of individuals sit round a 
table with their hands resting upon it, having the idea in their minds that it will or may 
move, the direction of the expected movement being also agreed upon. Accordingly, if 
none of the party are very skeptical, it generally does move after a time, all declaring, 
and in perfect good faith, that they did not press. And yet it has been proved, by a con- 
trivance of Faraday, that there always is pressure, though without the will or conscious- 
ness of the performers; and this is only what is to be looked for from the involuntary 
effects of a dominant idea. This explanation does not suffice for many of the wonders 
related by believers to have happened. But all such are to be received with suspicion, 

In spirit-rapping, a ‘‘medium” puts, somehow, the questioner into communication 
with any departed spirit he may wish to consult, and the answer is given by raps, sup- 
posed to be made by the spirit. The questioner runs a pencil over the letters of the 
alphabet, and the raps are given as the pencil comes to the successive letters forming the 
words of the answer. Many of the ‘‘media” in this species of ‘‘ spiritual” manifestation 
have been proved to be impostors, though it is not necessary to suppose that they are so 
in all cases; they may be imposing on themselves, as witches did of old. There is no 
doubt, however, that the wonderful revelations they sometimes made of things known 
only to the questioner, arose from involuntary indications made by the latter—by his 
pausing, without knowing it, at the letters of the expected answer. A variation on the 
mode of communicating with the world of spirits, consists in putting the questions to a 
table, which is manipulated, as in table-turning, and gives its answers by rapping with 
one of its feet, or by rocking, as may be agreed upon. The agency of the expectant 
ideas of the performers in these cases is apparent in their own narratives. Would it not 
otherwise be strange that spirits should reveal heaven to Robert Owen as organized on 
his own social theory, while a Protestant clergyman finds the world of spirits pervaded 
by a horror of the pope (Rev. E. Gillson, Tadle-talking), and to pious Scotch Presby- 
terians every revelation regarding it is completely in accordance with Calvinistic theology. 

Such are the views of those who, in regard to this matter, may be denominated the 
‘‘ rationalist” party. But there is a large class of intelligent persons who hold the expla- 
nations above given to be insufficient. After making every allowance for deception, 
whether intentional or unintentional, they find many undoubted facts remaining which 
are quite beyond the scope of suggestion, dominant ideas, or any other of the usually 
received theories, physical or psychological. Phenomena of the character in question 
are, therefore, still the subject of earnest investigation in Great Britain and America. 
The reports of the English society for psychical research (first vol. 1880), have dissipated 
much of the mystery formerly attending slate-writing and other so-called ‘‘ manifesta- 
tions.” In answer to some of the statements in the article SprrIruaLisM, it may be said 
that, according to Moncure D. Conway, the medium with whom Crookes conducted his 
experiments was afterwards convicted of fraud. The most damaging adverse testimony 
is that of the noted Fox sisters themselves, given publicly in New York, Oct. 21, 1888 
that their career has been a series of deceptions, and that the world-renowned “raps” 
were made by movements of the joint of the big toe. 


Animalecule, 
481 Anivialal ‘3 


ANIMAL'CULE, a term etymologically applicable to any very small animal, and limited 
fn. actual use to those which are microscopical. Animalcules exist in prodigious numbers, 
and of many different kinds, their size being such that multitudes of them find ample 
space for all the movements of an active life within a single drop of water; and they 
abound almost wherever there is moisture, at least wherever organic matter is present. 
The monas crepusculus of Ehrenberg is only 1-2000 part of a line, or 1-24,000 part of 
an inch in diameter. ‘‘'Take any drop of water from the stagnant pools around us,” says 
prof. Rymer Jones, ‘‘ from our rivers, from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and 
place it under the microscope; you will find therein countless living beings moving in 
all directions with considerable swiftness, apparently gifted with sagacity, for they 
readily elude eachother in the active dance they keep up. .... Increase the power of 
your glasses, and you will soon perceive, inhabiting the same drop, other animals, com- 
pared to which the former were elephantine in their dimensions, equally vivacious and 
equally gifted. Exhaust the art of the optician, strain your eyes to the utmost, until the 
aching sense refuses to perceive the little quivering movement that indicates the présence 
of life, and you will find that you have not exhausted nature in the descending scale.” 
Animals belonging to different classes are, however, microscopical, and the term A. is 
either applied to them all with reference to their mere size, or it isrestricted to those which 
received from Miller, with whom the scientific study and classification of them may be 
said to have begun, the name of animalcula infusoria, and which are by Cuvier made 
the fifth and last class, under the name énfusoria, of his fourth great division of the ani- 
mal kingdom, radiata. See InrusorraA. The name 7nfusoria, indeed, etymologically 
considered, is not more appropriate than animalcula, perhaps not quite so much so, as 
only a small proportion of the animals of this class are actually found in infusions, but 
it continues to be generally employed by zoologists. Attempts have been made to classify 
them according to their structure, and to assign them their proper places accordingly in 
the general arrangement of the animal kingdom; and one part of them have been formed 
into a class under the name rotatoria (q.v.), regarded as probably belonging to the articu 
Jated division ; another part, formed into a class called polygastrica, consisting of the sim- 
pler kinds, have been in like manner somewhat doubtfully referred to the radiated division. 
Agassiz unhesitatingly describes the class ¢nfusorta as ‘‘an unnatural combination of the 
most heterogeneous beings.” He regards many as locomotive alge ; and of those which 
are true animals, he expresses the opinion that many are merely the chrysalis states of 
other animals. There still remain, however, many kinds which are perfect animals. 
For type, see illus., INVERTEBRATES, vol. VIII. 

Among the most remarkable discoveries of modern science must be reckoned that of 
Jossil animaicules, in such abundance as to form the principal part of extensive strata. 
This discovery was made by Ehrenberg, who found the polierschiefer (polishing-slate or 
tripoli) of Bilin to be almost entirely composed of the silicious shields of a minute fossil 
A., the length of one of which is about 34, of a line, so that about 23 millions of ani- 
malcules must have gone to form a cubic line, and 41,000 millions to form a cubic inch 
of the rock. Ehrenberg succeeded in detecting the formation of similar strata in deposits 
of mud at the bottom of lakes and marshes, the mud swarming with living animalcules, 
probably in their turn to be fossilized. The dergmehl or mountain meal of Sweden 
and other parts of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of food, is entirely 
composed of the remains of animalcules; not merely, however, of their silicious shields, 
for it contains a considerable percentage of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer 
waters impregnated with iron, and their death gives rise to an ocherous substance, in 
which iron is the principal ingredient. 


ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. England has the honor of first making this a distinct sub- 
ject of public attention by the formation of societies for its prevention, and by legisla- 
tive enactments making it punishable. The movement has now extended into France 
and Germany. 

Benevolence to A. is aresult and a proof of extending civilization. It is the carrying 
out to its just limits the principle of sympathy, which first appears when the savage 
ceases to think exclusively of himself and learns to identify his tribe with himself. Itis 
this priaciple of sympathy, only carried further, that, under Christianity, unites all the 
tribes and races of men in one family. And it only requires cultivation of the faculty 
of sympathy generally, and the direction of the attention to what the lower animals have 
in common with man—sensibility, namely, to pain—to make any one feel that needlessly 
to inflict that pain is to sin against his own nature, and therefore acrime. This ought 
to be a special object of attention in the training of children. Besides the cruelty to 
beasts of burden and domestic animals arising from cupidity, many, especially children, 
torture creatures from thoughtlessness and ignorance. ‘This, therefore, is one of the 
many instances where instruction of the heed may be made to mend the heart. It 
deserves to be remarked that the mere extinction of life does not necessarily constitute 
cruelty. There is often more cruelty in prolonging the life of an animal than in taking 
it away. Itis the infliction of needless pain or restraint that is the essence of cruelty to 
animals, * 

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO (England). This is an offense against the English law, and 
has frequently of late formed the subject of legislation, the chief act of parliament, the 


Animale. 489 


12 and 18 Vict. c. 92 (passed in 1849), being that which at present regulates the law of Eng- 
land on the subject. By this statute it is provided that if any person shall cruelly beat, 
ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture any horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, 
steer, calf, mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, gcat, dog, cat, or any other domestic ani- 
mal, he shali forfeit a sum not exceeding £5 for every such offense, recoverable before a 
justice of the peace in a summary way; andif by any such conduct he shall injure the 
animal, or any person or property, a further sum not exceeding £10 to the owner or per- 
son injured. The actsalso inflict penalties in the case of conveying cattle by railway 
without water-supply, etc., causing unnecessary pain or suffering; and also in the case 
of bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like, and makes a variety of humane provisions for 
the regulation of the business of slaughtering horses and other cattle not intended for 
butcher’s meat. 

Formerly, in Scotland, this offense was punishable at common law—that is, according 
to the Scotch legal principle—common law as distinguished from statute law—and so 
late as the year 1826, a man was convicted there of affixing a stob, or prickle armed with 
iron nails, to the tail of a pony, by which the animal was wounded in the hind-legs; and 
punished with two months’ imprisonment. But the Scotch law at that time did not 
view such conduct so much as an act of cruelty to the animal injured, as of ‘‘ malicious 
mischief,” as it was called, and, in fact, regarded such treatment of animals as simply an 
offense against property. An act of parliament, however, passed in the year 1850, puts 
the law on this subject in Scotland on the same footing as it is in England. The act 
referred to contains provisions similar to those enacted by the 12 and 13 Vict. for Eng- 
land; andin both acts it is declared that the word ‘‘ animal” shall be taken to mean 
‘any horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, 
pig, sow, goat, dog, cat, or any other domestic animal. 

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO (America). There are societies for the prevention of cruelty 
to animals in 33 of the 44 United States. The first society was chartered by the legislature 
of New York in 1866, chiefly through the efforts of Henry Bergh (q.v.), who was its presi- 
dent for 22 years. Itsname indicates its purpose. Up to the close of 1885 it had secured 
prosecution in 12,046 cases, and had humanely destroyed over 19,000 working horses that 
were disabled past recovery. The society met with much opposition until a decision of 
the highest court affirmed its powers. There are societies in Canada, New Brunswick, 
Cuba, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic. See BeRcu, HENRY. 


ANIMALS, WORSHIP OF. The practice of worshiping animals, as well as certain 
plants and stones, prevailed among many of the nations of antiquity, and is still common 
among barbarous tribes. That animals should be held sacred and receive worship, need 
excite no surprise when we bear in mind the origin of polytheistic worship generally. 
They are manifestations of power; mysterious, too, because actuated by impulses differ- 
ing from those of man; and often, by their greater acuteness of sense and more unerring 
instincts, seeming to possess supernatural knowledge. Besides this general ground, vari- 
ous animals have been associated with the gods as emblems and in other ways. But a 
more important source of the superstitious regard bestowed on animals is the belief that 
gods, and spirits in general, often take the form of animals, either temporarily or as a 

ermanent abode. The doctrine of the transmigration of souls is not confined to India. 

indred notions, though not perhaps reduced to system and formally enunciated, are all 
but universal; they seem as indigenous in the heart of Africa as on the banks of the 
Ganges. It was as a manifestation of the soul of Osiris—originally, like all the other 
Egyptian deities, a sun-god—that the sacred bull Apis was worshiped in ancient Egypt. 
When the Spaniards first visited the coasts of South America, they found a ludicrous 
kind of animal-worship practiced by the natives on the coast of Cumana (Venezuela). 
‘‘ They held the toad to be, as they said, ‘the lord of the waters,’ and therefore they were 
very compassionate with it, and dreaded by any accident to kill a toad; though, as has 
been found the case with other idolaters, they were ready, in times of difficulty, to com- 
pel a favorable hearing from their pretended deities, for they were known to keep these 
toads with care under an earthen vessel, and to whip them with little switches when 
there was a scarcity of provisions and a want of rain. Another superstition worthy of 
note was that when they hunted down any game, before killing it they were wont to 
open its mouth and introduce some drops of maize-wine, in order that its soul, which 
they judged to be the same as that of men, might give notice to the rest of its species of 
the good entertainment which it had met with, and thus lead them to think that if they 
came too, they would participate in this kindly treatment.”— Helps. 


ANIME, a resin exuding from the trunk of the hymenea courbaril, a large tree of the 
natural order leguminose, sub-order cesalpinee, a native of New Spain and Brazil. It 
somewhat resembles copal, but is more easily soluble in alcohol.—The name A., or gum 
A., is, however, also given in Britain to a resin called in India copal, the produce of 
vateria indica, a tree of the natural order dipteracew ; whilst the copal of Madagascar is 
produced by hymenea verrucosa, and that of Brazil in great part by several species of 
dl a tree of which genus is also regarded as the probable source of the copal of 

exico. 


ANIMISM, a term formerly applied in biology to denote the theory that the soul, 
anima, is the vital principle, the cause of the normal phenomena of life and of the abnor- 


4 8 3 | Animals, 


Anjou. 


mal phenomena of disease. It is now current in the wider anthropological sense, as 
including ‘‘the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings.” The absence of 
any other suitable word is thought to render this application indispensable, and may be 
conceded to render it allowable; for ‘‘ spiritualism,” though occasionally used in a gen- 
eral sense, has become associated with a particular modern development of animistic 
doctrine; ‘‘anthropomorphism,” though less objectionable, is inadequate; while ‘‘the- 
ology” cannot be extended to include the lower forms of the doctrine of spiritual beings, 
and indeed many of its higher developments, except by a departure from ordinary usage. 
An animistic philosophy, explaining the more strange or striking of the phenomena of 
nature by the hypothesis of direct spiritual agency, is universally prevalent among 
savage races; and there seems tenable ground for the inference that it must have been 
the philosophy earliest developed among prehistoric societies of mankind. It is mani- 
festly the development of that earliest analogical reasoning which imagines external 
objects to be conscious and animated with life essentially like our own; it is the expres- 
sion and application of the first general theory of natural causes, rude and inadequate, 
yet marvelously self-consistent and serviceable; and its history appears to be primarily 
‘that of a dominant and pervading philosophy, applied to explain all the phenomena of 
nature and life, save only those ordinary sequences which the uncivilized man regards as 
needing no explanation; afterwards, in the progress of culture, its history is that of a 
system of thought modified and restricted by the increase of positive knowledge, and 
surviving in either greatly refined or greatly enfeebled forms. A. is one of those terms 
which should be used not without cautious limitation of its range. In our ignorance of 
‘the nature of the sow/ in brutes or in men, the philosophy of the soul may easily extend 
itself unduly, involving on one side matter, and on the other side spirit in statements 
‘whose indeterminateness will render them unsatisfactory. A.,as denoting the doctrine 
of the soul, has no claim to decide scientific principles pertaining to either the purely 
spiritual or the purely material realm. See Tylor’s Primitive Culture (London, 1871). 


ANIONS. See ANODE: ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 


AN'ISE, Pimpinella anisum, an annual plant of the natural order wmbellifere. The 
genus pimpinella has compound umbels, usually without involucres. Two species are 
natives of Britain; they are commonly known by the name of burnet saxifrage, and 
have no properties of importance. A. is anative of Egypt. It is an annual plant; the 
stem is 1} to 2 ft. high, dividing into several slender branches; the lower leaves roundish- 
heart-shaped, divided into three lobes, and deeply cut; those of the stem pinnate, with 
wedge-shaped leaflets. The umbels are large and loose, with yellowish-white flowers. 
It is much cultivated in Egypt, Syria, Malta, and Spain, and even in Germany, especially 
in the district around Erfurt, where a large quantity of the seed is annually produced. 
Attempts were made, more than 200 years ago, to cultivate it in England; but the sum- 
mers are seldom warm enough to bring it to perfection. It is occasionally sown in gar- 
dens for a garnish or for seasoning. <A.-seed (aniseed) is used as a condiment and in the 
preparation of liquors ; also in medicine as a stimulant stomachic, to relieve flatulence, 
etc., particularly in infants; and it has been used in pulmonary affections. It has an 
aromatic, agreeable smell, and a warm, sweetish taste. It contains a volatile oil called 
oil of A., which is nearly colorless, has the odor and taste of the seed, and is employed 
for similar purposes. One hundred weight of seed yields about 2 Ibs. of oil, which 
is obtained by distillation ; but at Erfurt the oil is made from the stems and leaves. A... 
water—water flavored with the oil, and sugared—is much used in Italy as a cooling 
drink. See illus., FLowrers, vol. VI. 

Star ANISE, or CHINESE ANISE, is the fruit of dlicitwm anisatum, a small tree of the 
natural order magnoliacee. See Iuuicrum. It receives its name from the star-like form 
of the fruit, which consists of a number (6 to 12) of hard, woody, one-seeded carpels. 
The tree has evergreen leaves, somewhat hike those of the common laurel. The whole 
plant is carminative, and is used by the Chinese as a stomachic and as a spice in their 
cookery. The qualities of the fruit so much resemble those of the common anise, that 
it may be used instead of it, and by distillation it yields an oil which is very generally 
substituted for oil of anise, and is imported into Europe in considerable quantity to be 
used instead of it. Star aniseed is also imported, chiefly from China and Singapore. 

ANJER’, or ANJIER’, a seaport of Java, on the straits of Sunda, 60 m. w. of Batavia, 
It was the landing place for passengers and mails for Batavia, but was destroyed by a 
volcanic eruption in 1883, and the port was removed toa point 10 miles distant from 
the old site. 


AN’JOU, a former province in the n.w. of France, of about 3080 sq.m. in extent, now 
forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and small parts of the departments of Indre- 
et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe. Its capital was Angers. The ancient inhabitants of A. 
were the Andegavt, who long and resolutely resisted the Roman arms.—The male line of 
the counts of A., who took their name from it, having become extinct in 1060, their title 
and possessions passed by the female line to the powerful house of Gatinais; and from 
one of this family, Godfrey, count of A., sprung the Platagenets. He conquered the 

eater part of Normandy; assumed the title of duke; and in 1127, married Matilda, the 
aughter of Henry I. of England, and widow of the emperor Henry V. Through her, 
his son inherited the English throne, which he ascended in 1154 as Henry Il. A. now 
became one of the possessions of the kings of England; but in 1204, the French acquired 


Ankarstrom. 4 8 4 


Anna. 


it by fortune of war; and it was bestowed as a fief upon Philip, the son of Louis VIIL., 
and afterwards upon his brother Charles, who became the founder of that house of A. 
which gave kings to Naples, Sicily, and Hungary. Charles II. of Naples gave A. to his 
daughter Margaret on her marriage with Charles of Valois, the son of Philip IV. Her 
son ascended the throne of France as Philip VI. in 1328. King John, in 1360, made A. 
a duchy, and gave it to his son Louis, and he succeeding to the crown of Naples, it 
remained a possession of the kings of Naples till the overthrow of that dynasty, when 
René IL., the last of his family, was deprived of it by Louis XI., who permanently 
annexed it to the French crown in 1484. Since that time, it has merely given an honor- 
ary title to princes of the royal family. The last who bore it was the grandson of Louis 
XIV., who became Philip V. of Spain. 


ANKARSTROM’, Jonn JAcops, the assassin of Gustavus IIT., king of Sweden, b. in 1761, 
the son of a lieutenant-colonel. He came very early to court, in the capacity of a page, 
and next entered the army; but having obtained the rank of captain, left it in 1783; mar- 
ried and settled in the country. He was a man of violent feelings and rough manners, 
and much opposed to the measures taken by the king for curtailing the power of the 
senate and of the nobles. Implicated in certain intrigues in the island of Gothland, he 
was accused of treason, but released for want of positive evidence. His hatred to the 
king was increased by the harsh usage he met with in the course of his trial. In 1790, 
he went to Stockholm, and together with Gen. Pechlin, counts Horn and Ribbing, and 
others, planned the assassination of the king. A. begged that the execution of the deed 
might be left to him; but Horn and Ribbing disputing the point, they drew lots, and the 
lot fellupon A. In 1792, the king convoked the diet at Gefle, and the conspirators hoped . 
upon that occasion to carry out their purpose; but being thwarted in this, they had to 
wait till the 15th of Mar., when Gustavus was to attend a bal masqué, during which A. 
shot at and mortally wounded him. He was instantly apprehended, and at once con- 
fessed his crime, stoutly denying, however, that he had an accomplice. On the 29th of 
April, he was condemned to death, publicly flogged for three successive days, and then 
beheaded. He went to the scaffold with perfect composure, rejoicing to his last moment 
in the success of his crime. 


ANKER, a liquid measure once much used in north Europe, now only in Denmark and 
Norway. It varies in capacity; at Copenhagen it contains 9.88 U.S. gallons; at Ham- 
burg, 9.54; at Bremen, 9.57; at Lubec, 9.89; at Amsterdam, 10.22; at Berlin, old measure 
12.45; new, 9.07 gallons. 


AN’KLAM, or ANcLAM, a t. of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, 44 m. n.w. 
from Stettin, on the right bank of the Peene, and 4 m. from its mouth in the Kleine Haff. 
The river is navigable to A., which carries on a considerable commerce, and has long 
been a place of commercial importance, having been admitted into the Hanseatic League 
in 1519. It has manufactures of linens and woolens; it has also several breweries, soap- 
works, and tanneries, and ship-building is actively prosecuted. During the middle ages, 
A. suffered more than almost any other town from fire and pestilence; and in the wars of 
the 17th and 18th ¢c., it was again and again besieged and sacked. On the close of the 
seven years’ war, in 1762, its fortifications were happily dismantled. It is still, however, 
surrounded by an old wall with three gates. It contains many interesting specimens of 
the Hanseatic or north German architecture, very like the Flemish. Pop. ’90, 12,'784. 


ANKO'BAR, the capital of the kingdom of Shoa, in Abyssinia, is built 8198 ft. above 
the sea-level, on the ascent of the table-land, in lat. 9° 34’ n., long. 39° 35’ e. The higher 
portion of the t. is fortified in a very primitive way, by means of a palisade constructed 
of stakes, with intertwisted branches of trees. The royal palace, unlike the most of the 
buildings, which are chiefly of wood, is built of stone and mortar, although the roof is 
thatched. The vegetation around the place is extremely rich, and the air is both cool 
and pure, so that A. is a very agreeable residence, and is consequently favored with tha 
presence of the court during a portion of the year. Pop. 7,000. 


ANK'WITZ, Nicouas, Count, d. 1794; a Polish politician, ambassador to Copen: 
hagen, and deputy from Cracow in the diet. In the diet which was forced to the par- 
tition of the kingdom he was deputed to sign the treaty with Russia, and immediately 
afterwards a large salary was conferred on him by Russia, with the appointment of presi- 
dent of the council. Soon after the beginning of the Kosciusko revolution he was con- 
victed of treason, and hanged. 

ANKYLO'SIS (Gr. ankulésis, bending or crooking; ankuleé, stiff-joint) is a term used in 
surgery to imply a stiffness in any joint. It is usually the result of disease, which, 
having destroyed the articular cartilages, leaves two bony surfaces opposed to each other. 
The reparative powers of nature cause a union to take place by means of granulationg 
between them. This bond of union may become osseous, so as to render the joint per. 
fectly rigid, or it may continue membranous, allowing of a certain amount of motion. 
Some joints, especially the elbow, are very apt to become ankylosed; and in the knee or 
hip-joints, this osseous A. is reckoned the most favorable termination to disease, as the 
limb can then afford a rigid support for the trunk. Joints, stiff through a membranous 
A., may be forcibly bent, and the bond of union ruptured, so as to restore mobility, or 
allow of their being placed in a convenient position, <A, of the joints between the ribs 


Ank trom 
485 Anns, see 


and the vertebrae is common in advanced age; and there are some cases on record of 
universal A. of all the joints. A case occurred in 1716 of a child only twenty-three 
months old with all its joints thus stiffened; and there are in various museums speck 
mens of adult bodies in this condition. 


ANNA (annoe), An East Indian coin having a value of a sixteenth of a rupee, or 
about 14d. sterling, or about 3 cents of United States money. It is money of account 
only. In Bengal accounts are kept in pice, 12 to an anna, and 16 annas to the rupee. 
Under Queen Victoria, coins of the value of 2 annas (silver), worth 2)d., as well as a 
4+ anna have been issued. 


ANNA, Sarnt, according to tradition, was the daughter of Mathan, priest of Bethle- 
hem, and the wife of St. Joachim. After 21 years of barrenness, she is said to have given 
birth to the Virgin Mary, the mother of the Savior. Nothing positive is known regard- 
ing her life; her name does not occur in the Scriptures, nor even in the writings of the 
fathers during the first three centuries. The first who mentions her is St. Epiphanius, in 
the 4th c. ; but towards the 8th, she wasall but universally invoked. Her body was believed 
to have been transferred from Palestine to Constantinople in 710 A.p.; and her head to 
Chartres, by Louis de Blois, about 1210 a.p. The inhabitants of Duren (duchy of Juliers, 
Germany) also pretend to have a head of St. A.; anda third is believed to be in possession 
of the church at Ursitz, in the diocese of Wiirzburg, although numerous other churches 
claim to be equally favored. The Roman Catholic church has a festival in her honor on 
the 26th of July; the Greek, on the 9th of Dec. In Austria, Bavaria, and other Catholic 
countries, this festival is one of great importance. In honor of St. A., a fraternity, called 
the fraternity of St. A., was instituted in the 18th c. After the reformation, it was 
organized anew by the Jesuits; and in modern times has manifested some vitality in 
Bavaria and Catholic Switzerland. 


AN NABERG, a t. of the kingdom of Saxony, in the district of Zwickau, on the right 
bank of the Sehm, 18 m.s. from Chemnitz. It is situated 1800 ft. above the level of 
the sea, in a mining district; the surrounding hills containing mines of silver, tin, cobalt, 
and iron. It has extensive manufactures of lace and of silk ribbons. The ribbon man- 
ufacture was introduced here by Protestant refugees from Belgium, who fled from the 
persecution carried on by the duke of Alva. Pop. ’90, 14,960. 


ANNA CARLOV’NA, 1718-46, regent of Russia during the minority of her son Ivan, 
was the daughter of Charles Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg, and of Catharine, sister of 
the Russian empress, Anna Ivanovna (q. v.) In 1739 she married Anthony Ulric, duke 
of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. Her son, Ivan, b. Aug. 20, 1740, was nominated by the 
empress Anna Ivanovna as her successor. This was done at the instigation of Biron 
(q.v.), the empress’s favorite, whose object was to secure the regency for himself; and the 
empress, on her death-bed, actually appointed him regent, but he continued in power 
only fora short time. Shed. on Oct. 28, 1740, and his overthrow took place on the 18th 
of Nov. in the same year. A. C. now proclaimed herself grand-duchess and regent of 
Russia; but she showed no capacity for managing the affairs of a great country, spent 
her time in indolent enjoyments, and resigned herself very much to the guidance of one 
of the ladies of her court, Julia von Mengden. A conspiracy was formed by a party 
desirous of raising to the throne Elizabeth, daughter of Peterthe Great and of Catharine, 
and this was accomplished on Dec. 6, 1741. The infant Ivan was sent to the castle of 
Schliisselburg, where he was afterwards murdered; Anna and her husband were con- 
demned to imprisonment for life, and conveyed to Cholmogory, a t. upon an island in 
the Dwina, near the White sea. Here she bore two children, and d. in childbed in 1746, 
Her husband remained a prisoner for 89 years, and d. in 1780. 


ANNA COMNE'NA, a learned Byzantine princess, author of one of the most valuable 
works to be found in the collection of the Byzantine historians, was the daughter of the 
emperor Alexius I. (Comnenus), and was b. on Dec. 1, 1088. She received the best edu- 
cation that Constantinople could give, and early displayed a fondness for literary pur- . 
suits; but was also habituated from her childhood to the intrigues of the court; and dur- 
ing the last illness of her father, she entered into a scheme, which her mother, the 
empress Irene, also favored, to induce him to disinherit his eldest surviving son, John, 
and to bestow the diadem on her. Failing in this, she framed a conspiracy against the 
life of her brother (1118); and when her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius, a Byzantine 
nobleman, either from timidity or virtuous principle; refused to join in it, she passion- 
ately lamented that she had not been born a man, and upbraided him as having the soul 
of a woman. Her brother spared her life, but punished her by confiscation of her prop- 
erty, which, however, he soon after generously restored. Disappointed and ashamed, 
she withdrew from the court, and sought enjoyment in literature. On the death of her 
husband (1137), she retired into a convent, where she d. in 1148. Her life of her father, 
entitled Anne Comnene Alexiados libri 19, is full of professions of careful inquiry and a 
supreme regard for truth, but ‘‘the perpetual strain of panegyric and apology awakens 
our jealousy.” The style is characterized by an elaborate affectation of rhetoric. The 
best edition is that of Schopen (2 vols.. 1839). See Oster’s A. Comnena (1868-71). 


Anna. 486 


Anne. 


ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Russia, was b. on the 8th of Feb., 1698, and was the 
second daughter of Ivan, the elder brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 
to the Duke of Courland, the last of his race, who d. in the following year; and she 
obtained the duchy of Courland for her favorite, Biron, a Courlander of low birth. The 
throne of Russia was offered to her by the supreme council on the death of Peter IT. in 
1730, on conditions which greatly limited the power of the monarchy, but which she 
soon broke. Her elevation to it was very much owing to the intrigues of the chancellor 
Ostermann, who had had the charge of her education, but who was disappointed in find- 
ing her not grateful and tractable, as he expected. For three years, however, her rule 
was mild, humane, and equitable. The army was reformed, greater liberty was allowed 
to the landed gentry, government debts were paid up, and the poll-tax for the serfs less- 
ened; but her paramour, Biron, having determined to govern the nation as well as the 
empress, a sudden and deplorable change ensued. This man, a blood-thirsty and avari- 
cious wretch, established something like a reign of terror through the land. He is said 
to have banished not less than 20,000 persons to Siberia; numbers‘were knouted, had 
their tongues cut out, or were broken alive on the wheel. Eleven thousand perished in 
this way. Prince Basil Dolgoruki, and others of his family, suffered the ignominy of 
the scaffold. At length the health of the empress gave way. She d. on Oct. 28, 1740, 
a left the throne to her grand-nephew, Ivan, with Biron as regent. See Russia and © 

TRON. 


ANNALS, These were at first books which contained a record, in chronological 
order, of the principal events occurring in one or more years. The name is derived from 
the oldest historical documents of the Romans, the Annales Pontificum, or Annales 
Mazximi, the duty of drawing up which devolved upon the Pontifex Maximus ; but these 
were all destroyed by the Gauls at the sack of Rome, some hundreds of years before the 
time of Christ. After the second Punic war, A. similar’ to the former ones were com- 
posed, not, however, by the priests, but by educated members of the Roman laity, such 
as Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, etc. At a still later period, the term was applied 
to any historical work that followed the order of time in its narrations, separating them 
off into single years—as, for instance, the Annals of Tacitus. 


ANNAM’. See ANAM. 


ANNAMABOE’, a small seaport t., protected by a strong British fort, on the gold 
coast of Africa, in lat. 5° 5’ n., long. 1° 5’ w., 10 m. e. of Cape Coast Castle. In 1807, 
the inhabitants took part with the Fantees against the Ashantees, in consequence of 
which the t. was attacked by an overwhelming force of the latter, and most of the 
inhabitants were slain. It is the seat of some trade and was once a great slave port. 
It is a good landing place for vessels. Pop. between 4000 and 5000. 


ANNAN, a seaport, and royal and parliamentary burgh, in the co. of Dumfries, on 
the river of the same name, near its entrance into the Solway firth. It is neat and 
well built; among the chief industries are tanning and bacon-curing. The river, which 
affords excellent salmon-fishing, is spanned by a bridge of three arches, and is navigable 
to within half a mile of the t. for vessels of 250 tons, while considerably larger vessels 
can enter the mouth of the river, half a mile below. ‘There is regular communication 
by steamers with Liverpool and Whitehaven; and the Glasgow and Southwestern and 
Caledonian railways connect the town with Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Carlisle. The 
burgh unites with Dumfries, etc., in returning one member to parliament. Pop. in ’91, 
4858. 

ANNANDALE. See DUMFRIESSHIRE. 


ANNAP’OLIS, a co. in w. Nova Scotia, on the bay of Fundy; 1700 sq. m.; pop. 
91, 19,852. The surface is varied, but generally rough, and well adapted to fruit culture. 
Agriculture is the main business, and dairy products are exported. ‘There are also valua- 
ble deposits of iron ore. Capital, Annapolis, formerly Port Royal. 


ANNAP’OLIS, a seaport of Nova Scotia, in lat. 44°40’ n. Pop. about 3000. It stands 
on ariver of the same name that runs into the bay of Fundy. Its harbor is excellent, 
though somewhat difficult of access. A. is the oldest European settlement to the n. 
of the gulf of Mexico, having been established in 1604 by the French as the capital of 
their province of Acadia, under the name of Port Royal. Acadia having been con- 
quered by the English in 1710, and ceded by the French in 1713, Port Royal changed its 
name in honor of Queen Anne, continuing to be the seat of government till, in 1750, 
it was superseded by the newly founded city of Halifax on the outside coast of the 
peninsula — the new capital, with its better position and superior haven, having diverted 
most of the trade of the place. Since then, A. has rather decayed than otherwise; and 
it would have done so more decidedly, had not its river been navigable for boats during 
nearly the whole of its course of 70 miles. 


ANNAP’OLIS. The capital of Maryland, on thes. bank of the Severn River, about 2 
m. from its entrance into the Chesapeake Bay, 30 m. from Baltimore, and about 40 m. 
by railroad from Washington, D. C. It is the terminus of the Annapolis, Washington, 
and Baltimore railroad, which connects with the Washington branch of the Baltimore 
and Ohio railroad. It contains the governor’s house, a fine state-house, churches, 
banking facilities, the U. S. Naval Academy (q. v.), St. John’s College, founded in 1789, 


487 Anne. 


a house of the Redemptionists, and a convent, some fine statues, periodicals, gas, water 
and electric light plants and many oyster-packing establishments. Pop. 1890, 7604. 


ANN ARBOR, city and co. seat of Washtenaw co., Mich., on the Huron River, and 
the Michigan Central, and the Ann Arbor railways; 28 m. w. of Detroit and 246 n. e. 
from Chicago. It was settled in 1824 and incorporated as a city in 1851. It is the seat 
of the University of Michigan. (See MicnuigAn, UNIVERSITY OF.) The city has 
churches, banks, a high-school building, several large hotels, breweries, and manu- 
factures agricultural implements, furniture, ete. It has street electric railways, gas and 
electric light works, and many fine residences. Daily, weekly and monthly periodicals 
are published here. A boulevard passes along the north side of the river, commanding 
a picturesque view of the valley and the city. Pop. 1890, 9431. 


a voartvie or ONARR, in Norse mythology, the husband of night, and father of Jord 
he earth). 


AN'NATES, or Frrst FRuivs, in the ecclesiastical law of England, means the value 
of every spiritual living for a whole year (hence the name from the Latin word annus, a 
year), which the pope, claiming the disposition of every spiritual benefice within Chris- 
tendom, reserved out of every living. This impost was at first only levied from persons 
appointed to bishoprics; but it was afterwards extended to the inferior clergy. The 
value of these A. was calculated according to a rate made under the direction of pope 
Innocent IV. (1253 a.p.), but which was afterwards increased by pope Nicholas III. 
(1292 a.p.). The valuation of pope Nicholas is still preserved in the exchequer. This 
papal exaction was abolished by the act 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, and by an act passed in 
the following year of the same reign (26 Henry VIII. c. 3) the right to A. or first 
fruits was annexed to the crown. The various statutes subsequently passed on this 
subject have all been consolidated by an act (the 1 Vict. c. 20) regulating the collection 
of the moneys so levied. See First Fruits, QUEEN ANNE’s Bounty. 


ANNATTO. See ARNOTTO. 


ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and the last British sovereign of the house 
of Stuart, was b. at Twickenham, near London, on 6th Feb., 1665. She was the second 
daughter of James II. of England, and VII. of Scotland (who at the time of her birth 
was duke of York), by his first wife, Anne Hyde, the daughter of the famous Claren- 
don. When she was about seven years of age, her mother died; and her father soon 
after professed himself a member of the church of Rome; but he permitted his daughters 
to be educated in the principles of the church of England, to which A. always retained 
an ardent if not avery enlightened attachment—seldom manifesting, in the whole course 
of her life, so much resolution and independence of mind as in her resistance to the 
attempts of her father, after his accession to the throne, to induce her to join the 
church of Rome, accompanied, as these were, with the offer that she should be preferred 
in the succession to her sister Mary. 'To advance his own popularity, her father gave 
her in marriage, in 1683, to Prince George of Denmark, brother of Christian V., an indolent 
and good-natured man, who concerned himself little about public affairs, and was endowed 
with no capacity for taking part in them. A.’s own weakness of character and that of 
her husband gave opportunity to lady Churchill, afterwards duchess of Marlborough, 
her early playfellow, to acquire an influence over her which, during many years, was 
almost supreme and absolute. During the reign of her father, A. lived in retirement, 
taking no part in politics. On the landing of the prince of Orange, she seems at first to 
have hesitated, and even to have been inclined to adhere to the cause of her father, whose 
favorite daughter she was; but lord Churchill had made up his mind to an opposite 
course, and his wife induced the princess to adopt it. She consented to the act by which 
the throne was secured to the prince of Orange in the event of his surviving her sister 
Mary; but quarreled with her sister about questions of etiquette, and was afterwards 
drawn into intrigues in which the Churchills were engaged, for the restoration of her 
father, or to secure the succession of the throne to his son. She even entered into a 
secret correspondence with her father. She was herself childless when, on the death of 
William III., on 8th Mar., 1702, she succeeded to the throne. She bore, indeed, 17 
children; but only one, the duke of Gloucester, survived infancy, and he d. in 1700, at 
the age of 11. The influence of Marlborough and his wife was most powerfully felt in 
all public affairs during the greater part of her reign. The strife of parties was extremely 
violent, and political complications were increased by the queen’s anxiety to secure the 
succession for her brother. In so far as she had any political principles, they were 
opposed to that constitutional liberty of which her own occupancy of the throne was a sort 
of symbol, and favorable to absolute government and the assertion of royal prerogative 
according to the traditions of her family. These principles, and her family attachment, 
tended to alienate her from the Marlboroughs, whose policy, from the time of her acces- 
sion, had become adverse to Jacobitism, and who now, along with Godolphin, were at 
the head of the whig party. The duchess also offended the queen by presuming too 
boldly and haughtily upon the power which she had so long possessed. <A. found a new 
favorite in Mrs. Masham, a relation of the duchess, whom she herself had introduced 
into the royal household. To Mrs. Masham’s influence the change of government in 
1710 was in a great measure owing, when the whigs were cast out, and the tories came 
into office, Harley (afterwards earl of Oxford) and St. John (lord Bolingbroke) becoming 


Annealing. 
ee 488 


_ the leaders of the ministry. But, although concurring more or less in the queen’s design 
~ to secure the succession of the throne to her brother, the new ministers had quarrels 
. among themselves which prevented its successful prosecution, and it oozed out sufficiently 
to alarm the nation, and to alienate many of their political supporters. A dispute 
between Oxford and Mrs. Masham, carried on for hours in the queen’s presence, and 
which terminated in her demanding his instant resignation, seems to have brought on the 
attack of apoplexy of which she died, 1st Aug., 1714. The elector of Hanover 
succeeded her as George 1.—The public events of her reign belong to the history of 
Britain; but the union of England and Scotland, in 1707, may be mentioned in its 
personal relation to herself, as she was the last sovereign who reigned over these as 
separate kingdoms, and the first sovereign styled of Great Britain—Queen A. was of 
middle size, and comely, though not beautiful. She was virtuous, conscientious, and 
affectionate, more worthy of esteem as a woman than of admiration asa queen. Her 
reign is often mentioned as a period rendered illustrious by some of the greatest names, 
both in literature and science, which her country has ever produced; but literature and 
science owed little to her active encouragement. See Burton’s Reign of Queen A. (1880). 


ANNEALING is the process of tempering resorted to in the manufacture of glass and 
the preparation of several of the metals, whereby these substances acquire a hardness 
combined with tenacity which renders them much stronger, and consequently more 
durable. In the making of glass vessels by the glass-blower, they are of course quickly 
reduced in temperature whilst the fused glass is being modeled into the desired shape. 
The atoms of the glass thus rapidly compelled to assume a position do not seem to be 
properly and firmly arranged together, and the vessel is very liable to be broken, either 
by a slight but smart blow, or a sudden increase or decrease in temperature. This brittle- 
ness is very observable in the lacryme@ vitree, or glass tears, known as Prince Rupert's 
drops, obtained by allowing molten glass to fall into water, when the glass forms pear- 
shaped drops, which are so brittle that if they be scratched with a file or the end be 
broken off, the whole bursts asunder and falls down into a fine powder of glass. The 
same brittleness is exhibited in Bologna jars, or vials, which are small and very thick 
in the glass; and yet, if a minute angular fragment of any hard substance be dropped 
into the jar, the latter flies to pieces. 

In the A. of glass vessels, they are arranged in iron trays, and placed in a long oven, 
where they are gradually raised in temperature to near their fusing-point, by the trays 
being drawn along to the hottest part of the oven; and thereafter, the trays, with their 
contents, are very slowly drawn into a cooler and cooler part, till they become cold. 
The A. operation generally takes 12 hours for small articles such as wine-glasses; 
but days, and even a week or two, are required to anneal completely large vessels. 
Many articles of glass, such as tubes for steam-gauges, lamp-glasses, etc., are annealed 
by being immersed in cold water, which is very gradually raised to its boiling-point, and 
thereafter cooled. 

The metals are often subjected to the process of A. When medals are repeatedly struck 
by the die-stamper, the gold or other metal, by the concussion, becomes brittle, and _re- 
quires to be now and again heated and annealed. In wire-drawing, also, the metal be- 
comes so hard and brittle that it requires A. to prevent its breaking into short lengths. 
Boiler-plates, which have been drawn out by rollmg, require to be annealed before they 
are riveted together. The brazier, in hammering out copper and brass vessels, must 
stop now and again, and anneal the metal. Articles of tin, lead, and zinc can be an- 
nealed in boiling water. The tempering of steel is just a process of A. The steel is 
placed in an oil-bath, or surrounded bya metallic mixture which has a low fusing-point; 
and according to the temperature to which it is subjected, a steel with various degrees 
of softness and strength is obtained. Parke’s table of metallic mixtures capable of being 
used in the tempering or A. of instruments made from steel, is as follows: 


ALLOY. 

Fusing- 

Lead Tin. point ° F 
| ONT st2) 1. Raper ee aie ROLL As WRT a sas Let 7 parts 4 parts 420° 
Razorad 3-70 yaien ce ees See ee a ee aie Nt r ey 442 
Penknives’. ics: rccoe te poe aN ie one ae 84. ** ee 450 
past 1ST IOL) « cetdeetacieacise: wicak siete: Lass Aint $F 470 
DCISSOrSs, “ShGAre- Casae tea eee ee vee aed ew eae 14.655 Arg. S$ 490 
AXes. plane ITONnG jnee tate ast chy ee in ee Oe thes Ba a’ 590 
Table-knives us. crease aa acca «acer setae 5) We ay a 530 
Watch-springs }swordsuscieataidye cates aves 48 < Ar fF 550 
Large springs, (aligers seen ce eee nee £00. ns! 46a 558 


The theory of A. is very imperfectly understood. A certain rearrangement of the 
atoms of the glass or metal no doubt takes place, and an absorption of heat occurs. It 
is possible that as the crystalline structure is indicative of brittleness, and the fibrous 
texture characteristic of strength, that the passage of glass or metal from a brittle to a 
non-brittle material may be due to the development of a fibrous structure, where a crys- 
talline one was originally present. 


489 ergs 2 


ANNE ARUNDEL, a co. in Maryland ; 400 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 84,094, inclu. colored. 
It is watered by the South and Severn rivers. The surface is hilly and the soil fertile, 
_sipenbaaaie wheat, corn, tobacco, etc. Co. seat, Annapolis, which is also the capital of 
the state. 


ANNECY, a t. of the dep. of Haute Savoie, France, at the n.w. extremity of the lake 
of Annecy, and 21 m. s. from Geneva. The lake of Annecy is 1426 ft. above the 
sea, and is surrounded by magnificent mountain scenery. It is about 9 m. long and 2 m. 
broad. Its waters flow by the Ficran to the Rhone. In the 12th c. A. was called 
Anneciacum novum, to distinguish it from old A., Anneciacum vetus, which occupied the 
slopes of a neighboring hill, and was a place of some consequence in the times of the 
Romans. In the earlier part of the middle ages, A. belonged to the counts of Geneva, 
and on the extinction of that house, it passed to the house of Savoy, in whose possession 
it remained, except for a brief period under the French empire, until the transference of 
Savoy to France in 1860. It has manufactures of linens, cotton-yarn, paper, straw goods, 
iron, and steel-wares. Its linen bleachfields have subsisted since 1650. The town is 
clean, and has an air of respectable antiquity. The shops in many of the streets are 
under arcades. The most remarkable buildings are the chateau, once the residence of 
the family of Genevois-Nemours, the old bishop’s palace, the cathedral, and the modern 
church of St. Francis, the latter of which boasts of possessing the relics of St. Francis 
of Sales and La Mere Chantal. Pop, ’91, 11,947. 


ANNEL'IDA, or ANNEL'IDEs (from Lat. annulus, a ring), a small class of articulated 
animals, mostly included by Linneus in his class vermes. They have a more or less 
elongated body, which is always composed of numerous rings. The first of these rings 
assumes, in most of them, the characters of a head, but in some there is no proper head. 
They have no articulated limbs, but most of them are provided with bristles and hairs, 
often in numerous bundles, which are of use to them in locomotion; some, which 
want these, are furnished with suckers at the extremities, and employ them for this pur- 
pose; some remain fixed in one place. Their bodies are always soft, and without 
external or internal skeleton; but some of them form for themselves a calcareous cover- 
ing by exudation, others form coverings partly by exudation and partly by agglutina- 
tion. Their blood is generally red, but not from red corpuscles, as in the vertebrate 
animals; sometimes it is greenish or yellowish. Their nervous system is simple. Many 
of them have eyes, and many have tentacula. Most of them live in water, and of these 
the greater part inhabit the sea, Those which live in water breathe by gills, which are 
variously formed and placed; some which are terrestrial, as earthworms, have, instead 
,of gills, numerous small respiratory sacs. They are all hermaphrodite; most of them, 
however, requiring mutual fecundation, and most of them are oviparous. They feed in 
general upon other animals, and some of them live by sucking blood. They are now 
divided into four orders: 1. Dorsibranchiata, having gill-tufts disposed regularly along 
the body, and composed of animals of comparatively active habits; 2. Tudzcole, having 
gill-tufts near the head, and provided with shelly or other coverings; 3. Terricola, 
destitute of all external appendages except minute bristles, and breathing by respiratory 
sacs; 4. Suctoria, destitute even of bristles, and provided with suckers. 


ANNE OF AUSTRIA, daughter of Philip II. of Spain, was b. in 1601, and in 1615 
became the wife of Louis XIII. of France. The marriage was so far from being a happy 
one, that the royal pair lived for 23 years in a state of virtual separation—a result due 
chiefly to the influence of Cardinal Richelieu, whose fixed determination to humble the 
house of Austria, led him to spare no means for alienating the affection of Louis from his 
queen, by representing her as ever involved in the most dangerous conspiracies against 
his authority. The naturally grave and phlegmatic disposition of the queen was not 
calculated to counteract the hostile influence of the great minister. On the death of the 
king in 1648, A. became queen-regent, and evinced her discernment by choosing as her 
minister Cardinal Mazarin, by whose able management the young king (Louis XIV.) came, 
on attaining his majority, into possession of a throne firmly established on the ruins of 
contending parties. The character of A. had much influence in molding that of her 
son. She displayed the same cold and haughty temper, combined with the power to 
charm by a condescending grace, the same love of pomp and power, and the same skill 
in the choice of able instruments, thus compensating for the want of genuine personal 
greatness. She died in 1666. Twocurious personal peculiarities of this queen are men- 
tioned by biographers—her antipathy to roses, so strong that while passionately fond of 
flowers and perfumes, she could not endure even the picture of a rose; and the extra- 
ordinary delicacy of her skin, which made Mazarin remark, that ‘‘if her majesty were 
eondemned to the infernal regions, her hell would be to sleep in brown hollands.” 


ANNE OF BRITTANY, Queen of France, 1476-1514; daughter and heiress of 
Francis II., duke of Brittany. She received that duchy as her dowry on marrying 
Charles VIII., Dec. 6, 1491, Brittany then becoming incorporated with France. She 
had been affianced to Maximilian of Austria, but Louis XI., her guardian, forbade the 
marriage, and thus assured the aggrandizement of his kingdom and family. After her 
hasband’s death she married his successor, Louis XII., over whom she had great influ- 
ence, and she administered the kingdom with ability during his campaigns in Italy. 

ANNE OF CLEVES, 1515-57 ; fourth wife of Henry VIII. of England, daughter of 
John, duke of Cleves. Henry wedded her reluctantly to make friends among the Prot- 
estant German princes, Jan. 6, 1540 ; but he divorced her in July of that year. 


A k . 
AeAIEe, 490 


ANNEKE JANS. See Bocarpvus, EVERARDUS. 

ANNESLEY, ArrHur. See ANGLESEA, Earl of. 

ANNEXATION, the acquisition of territory previously independent or in the 
possession of another power, may take place by treaty or otherwise with or with- 
out the consent of the inhabitants of the annexed district. There has been a 
marked reaction in this century toward the absorption of minor states by the larger 
nations, first exemplified by the United States in the annexation of Florida and 
Louisiana, and later of Texas and California and Alaska. Further illustrations 
of this tendency are afforded as far back as 1815 by the Vienna Congress, which 
ceded Venice to Austria, a large part of Saxony to Prussia, Genoa to Sardinia, 
Norway to Sweden. In each of these latter cases the cession was made without refer- 
ence to the wishes of the inhabitants of the ceded territory ; and in Germany, after the 
successful war with Austria in 1866, several states were annexed to Prussia and their 
autonomy extinguished against the will of a part of the population. 

An instance of voluntary annexation is afforded in the incorporation of certain 
Italian provinces in 1859 by Piedmont. Here the annexed territory lost its former 
governmental structure and was merged in the other ; while in the case of Prussia the 
states annexed retained in large measure their previous form. Mere cession of a terri- 
tory does not nullify the existing laws, until otherwise ordained ; and until possession 
is taken, the prior authorities retain their police functions, although, technically speak- 
ing, sovereignty ceases upon completion of cession. 

Full sovereignty over the ceded territory does not pass until delivery, after which 
the relation of the inhabitants to their former sovereign is dissolved, but not their rela- 
tions to each other. Titles to property are not affected by cession. 


ANNIE LAURIE, Scottish song written in the 18th century, by a Mr. Douglas, of 
England, to Annic, daughter of Sir Robert Laurie, of the Maxwelton family. It was 
set to music by Lady Jane Scott. 


ANNIHILATIONISM, the theory of the utter extinction of man’s being, both bodily 
and spiritual, either at death or at some later period. Little was heard of the doctrine 
untilin the 18th century, when Taylor, of Norwich, England, McKnight, and a few others 
wrote upon it. Among later supporters perhaps archbishop Whately may be counted; 
for in his View of the Scripture Revelations Concerning a Future State, he says that in the 
passages in which ‘‘ death,” ‘‘ destruction,” ‘‘eternal death,” are spoken of, the words 
may be taken as signifying literal death, real destruction, the utter end of things; that 
‘‘unquenchable fire’ may mean a fire that quite consumes what it feeds upon, and the 
‘‘worm that dieth not” may be that which entirely devours its prey. In the United 
States, the question was revived about 25 years ago by St@ Sermons on the Question, are 
the Wicked Immortal, by George Storrs. Just before these appeared, Dr. McCulloch, in 
his Analytical Investigations concerning the Scripture, maintained that after the final decis- 
sons at the judgment the wicked will be utterly destroyed by the visitation of God in 
wrath. Hudson, in Debt and Grace, as Related to the Doctrine of a Future State, denies 
that the natural immortality of the soul is ever expressed or even implied in the Bible; 
on the contrary, life and immortality are brought to the redeemed alone; all others being 
not only naturally mortal, soul and body, at death, but, after that mortal suspension of 
positive existence, all are raised at the final resurrection and cast into the lake of fire at 
the second death. He denies that endless conscious suffering is ever affirmed to be the 
nature of future penalty, but affirms that the penalty consists in privation, and that in 
the perpetuity of this privation consists the eternity of future punishment. The scrip- 
ture terms, from which eternal misery is usually understood, such terms as ‘‘ condemna- 
tion,” ‘‘ destruction,” ‘‘ perdition,” ‘‘ damnation,” etc., he thinks express the painful and 
penal consignment of the entire nature to disorganization and to the complete non-exist- 
ence from which it originally came. Mr. Landis replies to Hudson, in his treatise On the 
Immortality of the Soul and the Final Condition of the Wicked, and many other writers have 
discussed the subject, especially in religious reviews and magazines. 

It is significant that those who hold to this theory of late prefer to use instead of A. 
the term ‘‘conditional immortality.” Three considerations may be noted as bearing on 
this subject: 1. The theory of man’s tripartite nature, body, soul, and spirit, may be so 
held as to admit as possible a literal destruction (i.e. de-structuralization) of man, an utter 
and final disorganization, wherein body and soul, as forming man’s organized existence, 
might cease to be, while the spirit, or the inmost essence of his being, might remain for- 
ever disembodied and disorganized; and thence might fitly be spoken of as “‘ cast out 
into the outer darkness” and swallowed up in ‘‘ the bottomless pit.” 2. To establish the 
doctrine of entire extinction of a being like a man, existing in various departments, 
whether two or three, it is necessary that the origin of his complex being be understood. 
Was he created out of nothing, or out of something previously existing, or out of God as 
a child out of parents? 3. The theory of A. requires that the word ‘‘ death” in the Bible, 
and in science, be taken to mean, when literally used, extinction of being. Thus the 
question arises whether the Bible gives ‘‘death” any meaning beyond destruction of the 
organism; and whether science can assure us that death in any case is more than disso- 
lution of the organism, or destruction, i.e. de-structuralization. In the lack of affirma- 
tive answer on these points from either science or revelation, it would be found difficult 
to prove the theory of A., were it true. Thus the term A. is philosophically unfortunate. 


49] Anneke, 


Annuity. 


AN’NISTON, a city in Calhoun co., Ala., on the Louisville and Nashville and Southern 
railroads, 103 miles w. of Atlanta. It is the centre of a remarkably rich coal, iron 
and agricultural region, and is beautifully situated on the slope of Blue Mountain. It 
has iron foundries and furnaces, and manufactures cordage, cotton gins, pipe, railway 
cars, ice, lime, spokes, hubs, etc. It is the seat of a college for women, the Noble 
Institute for girls, the Noble High School for boys (both named from Samuel Noble, the 
founder of the city), good public schools and Barber Memorial Institute for colored 
girls, It enjoys good banking facilities and has an excellent system of waterworks, 
Pop. ’90, 9998. 


ANNOBON, or ANNABON, an island in the gulf of Guinea, about 14° s. of the equator, 
and belonging to Spain. Its basaltic, trachytic, and volcanic mountains render A. pic- 
turesque. It has an area of over 6 sq.m. 


ANNONAY (anc. Annoneuwm or Annoniacum), at. of the dep. of Ardéche, France, at 
the junction of the Deaume with the Cance, which unite in the center of the t., 87 m. s, 
from Lyon. Itis an active and prosperous manufacturing town, the chief manufacture 
being that of paper, of which 800,000 reams are produced annually. There are also 
manufactures of glove-leather, mostly from kid skins, and of silk and cotton twist, and 
woolen cloth. The paper-mills of A. were established by the father of the celebrated 
aéronauts, Montgolfier (q.v.), who were born here, and to whom there is a monument in 
the Grande Place. The situation of the town is picturesque and remarkable; the houses 
are placed among rocks, and some of the streets are very steep. A large quantity of silk 
is produced in the neighborhood. Pop. ’91, 17,626. 


AN’NUAL, in botany, a term employed to denote that the duration of the life of a 
plant is limited to a single year; within which the germination of the seed, all the func- 
tions of vegetation, the ripening of new seed, and the death of the plant, are included. 
The whole duration of life in the plants thus designated is indeed generally much less 
than a year, and in temperate and cold climates, falls within the brief period of the 
summer months. They as well as the plants generally called biennial, produce flowers 
and fruit only once. Some species are generally A., and others generally biennial; but 
whether an individual plant is A. or biennial, often depends upon the accidental circum- 
stance of the season at which the seed germinates, and may therefore be artificially deter- 
mined by the time of sowing. Peculiar circumstances also sometimes convert A. into 
biennial, or even perennial plants; and those which are mere annuals in one climate, are 
perennial, or even shrubby, in another, of which the castor-oil plant affords a notable 
example. Most kinds of corn are the produce of A. grasses; some of which, however, 
as wheat, in certain circumstances, prove of longer duration. 


ANNUALS, a ciass of handsomely illustrated collections of prose and verse, imitating 
the gift-books of the Germans, and intended for Christmas, New Year’s, and birthday 
presents. The first, The Forget-me-not, was published in London in 1823 and was 
followed by the Literary Souvenir ; the Keepsake, edited by Lady Wortley and subse- 
quently by the countess of Blessington; the Book of Beauty ; the Musical Bijou ; 
the Comic Annual started by Thomas Hood, and others, and in the United States by 
the Gift, and the Token, to mention a few of the many. Large sums were spent on 
these publications and large profits were realized, but while many authors of distinction 
were induced to contribute to them, the articles, asa rule, were of an inferior and highly 
sentimental nature and after 1840 the demand forannuals declined. The Forget-me-not, 
had an unparalleled life of twenty-two years; but the Book of Beauty and the Keepsake, 
survived it, the last-named ceasing to exist in 1856. 


ANNUITY, from the Latin annus, a year, isa sum of money paid annually. The 
term, in its full meaning, expresses an obligation on one party to pay, and a right in 
another to receive the amount. The different kinds of annuities that may exist are 
as various as the conditions and fancies of those concerned in them; and it is impos- 
posible to define them all. An A. may be for the life of any person, however long that 
may be, becoming extinguished only by his death. It may be perpetual, so that as each 
enjoyer of it dies, his heirs may succeed to it. It may be on the life of the survivor 
of any number of persons—for instance, a father may leave to his five daughters an A. of 
£500 a year from his estate, to be enjoyed by the latest survivor, so that while the five 
are alive, they have £100 each; after the first death among them, the lapsed share is dis- 
tributed among the survivors, giving them £125 each; and so on, the last survivor 
enjoying the whole £500. On the other hand, each might have a separate A. terminat 
ing at her death; and again, instead of either of these simple arrangements, there might 
be, and often is, a more complex adjustment, giving the survivors on each death a cer- 
tain proportion only of the deceased’s A. An A. may begin immediately, and stop on a 
contingency, such as the death of a person to whom the annuitant is heir. It may be 
“deferred,” so as to begin to be payable only after the lapse of so many years; and then 
it may either be payable absolutely in perpetuity, or for a given number of years, or it 
may be payable to an annuitant only for the remaining years of his life. 

It will thus be seen that there is infinite variety in the nature of annuities, and conse- 
quently, in the calculations regarding them., The fixed elements of such calculations, 


let, 
pres ea 492 


independently of this variety, are in themselves double, being vital statistics, and the 
profit or interest of money. As to the former, they can only apply, of course, to the 
adjustment of annuities on a large scale. if a person should sell a single A.—that is to 
say, engage for asum down to pay a certain person an A. for life—no study of vital sta- 
tistics could make his bargain other than a chance; and though he went on the most 
approved tables, it might occur either that the annuitant dies immediately, leaving the 
whole purchase-money as his profit, or that the annuitant lives to extreme old age, and 
renders him a great loser by the bargain. But on a large, and especially on a national 
scale, the rate of mortality and the value of life may be so nicely rendered in statis- 
tics, that a market may be opened for the purchase and sale of annuities at their 
exact value—that is to say, at such a rate that the sum paid in from time to time by 
persons purchasing annuities, shall just serve to pay each annuitant’s annual claim. 
Such vital statistics, however, can only be obtained through a very accurate and long- 
continued registration of births, deaths, and marriages (q.v.); and it is known that the 
government having adjusted the price of annuities by the celebrated Northampton 
tables, contracted a losing bargain with their annuitants as a body, and, without being 
conscious of it until afterwards, sacrificed a considerable amount of public money. 

The second element, besides vital statistics, in the calculation of annuities, is the profit 
or interest of money. If this did not require to be considered, an A. of $1 a year for 
10 years would just cost $10. But while paying the A., the person who has engaged for 
it is drawing the interest of the money. If he sold an A. of $1 a year for 10 years for 
$10, he would be drawing the interest of $10 for the first year, $9 for the second, and so 
on; and the annuitant’s bargain would be to a like extent disadvantageous. As the 
interest of money may be various, so may this element of the calculation of an A.; and 
to calculate it with reference to future indefinite variations, is of course impossible. It 
will be seen at once that when the variety of kinds of A. have to be adjusted to differ- 
ent rates of profit, an immense field is opened for calculation. It is, in fact, a province 
of algebraic science in which several men have achieved reputations. 

The interest, as it is termed, of the national debt is virtually a multitude of perpetual 
annuities. In a country where there is so much superabundant wealth, there is so vast 
an amount of capital for which people only want interest, that although the lenders of 
the money are not repaid by the government, yet when any one has invested in the 
funds, if he wants his money back, he is sure to find a person to take his place at some- 
thing near to the price paid by him. This would not be the case were the quantity of 
these annuities in the market disproportioned to the number desiring to invest in them, 
and hence it is that when there is depression of trade, and money wanted to meet obliga- 
tions, the funds fall. The government have the largest field of operation, and therefore 
it is natural to infer that their annuities are more closely adjusted to their actual value 
than those of insurance companies and other parties dealing in annuities can be. It 
may be mentioned, however, that, for the encouragement of the working classes to save 
and provide for old age and contingencies, the English government, through the banks, 
grants annuities on terms advantageous to the purchasers—that is, at less than their 
market value (see SAVINGS-BANKS), 


AN'NULET (Lat. annulus, correctly anulus, a ring), a term in architecture for a small 
fillet or band which frequently surrounds a column, etc. The A. is several times 
repeated in the molding which surmounts the shaft of a doric pillar, and is placed 
immediately under the ovolo of the capital.—A., a ring, a charge in heraldry of frequent 
occurrence. 


ANNUNCIA'DA. 1. The religious order of the heavenly annunciation, or of the 
nuns of the annunciation of Mary, was instituted by Victoria Fornare at Genoa in 
1682, after the rule of St. Augustine. All the convents of the order in France, Ger- 
many, and the Netherlands have disappeared since the French revolution. Some still 
exist in Italy. 2. Another order of the annunciation, or of nuns of Mary’s announce- 
ment or the ten virtues, was endowed by John of Valois at Bourges in 1501, after its 
separation from Louis XII. In 1514, it was placed under the authority of the Fran- 
ciscans. This order, which extended to fifty convents for the reception of poor gentle- 
women, was broken up at the revolution. 8. Theorder of knights of the annunciation 
in Savoy, ordine suprema dell” annunciata, known originally as the order of the neck- 
chain or collar, was institued in 1860 by Amadeus VI., duke of Savoy. It received 
statutes from Amadeus VIII. in 1409; was renewed in 1518 under the name of the holy 
annunciation; and in 1720 was raised by Victor Amadeus to be the first order of the 
kingdom of Savoy. The king is always grand master. The knights, who, since 1720, 
are not limited in number, must be of high rank, and already admitted to the orders of 
' §t. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. They compose only one class. The decoration is a 
gold medal, on which is represented the annunciation, surrounded by love-knots. It is 
usually worn suspended by a simple gold chain; but the proper collar or chain of the 
order is composed alternately of love-knots and roses, On the roses are engraved the 
letters F. E. R. T., which some interpret Mortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, in allusion to the 
defense of Rhodes by Amadeus I., and which others hold to signify Frappes, entres, 
rompes tous. Since 1680, the knights wear on the left breast a star embroidered in gold. 
The four supreme officers of the order—the chancellor (always a bishop or archbishop), 
the secretary (usually the minister of foreign affairs), the almoner (usually the king’s 


A ; 
49 3 Anomalies 


first almoner), and the treasurer—wear the decoration round the neck, suspended bya 
sky-blue ribbon, accompanied by a star on the left breast, For details of costumes, etc., 
see Burke’s Book of Orders of Knighthood, p. 250, et seq. 

_ ANNUNCIATION, Tox. The announcement by the angel to the Virgin Mary of the 
jncarnation of Christ (Luke i., 26-88). The festival of the A. is kept on the 25th of 
Mar., which was for along period the beginning of the legal year in England. The 
earliest allusion to this feast is in a canon of the council of Toledo, 656 A.D. Chrysostom 
calls it *‘ the root of all festivals.” With a view to natural fitness, the framers of the 
church calendar placed the festival of Christ’s nativity nine months after the A. 

ANO'BIUM. See BorER and DEATH-waATcs. 


ANODE [Gr. ana, upwards, and (h)odos, a way], a term introduced into the science 
of electro-chemical decomposition (electrolysis) by Dr. Faraday to designate the positive 
pole, or that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body, undergoing decom- 
position (electrolyte). The negative pole, or that surface by which the current leaves 
the electrolyte, is called in the same nomenclature the cathode [kata, downwards, and 
(h)jodos|. Hlectrode is the general term applied to either of these. The elements of 
electrolytes are called zons (én, going). Such as go tothe A. receive the name of anions, 
and those passing to the cathode, cations. Thus, in the decomposition of water by the 
passage into it of a galvanic current through two platinum plates, the water is the 
electrolyte; the platinum plate connected with the copper end of the battery is the A.; 
and the one connected with the zinc end, the cathode. The oxygen and hydrogen 
which are disengaged are the zon , the oxygen separating at the A. is the anion; and the 
hydrogen at the cathode, the cation. Anions and cations are more generally known 
under the name of electro-negative and electro-positive substances; but as these terms 
are considered by Dr. Faraday to imply certain supposed attractions for the positive or 
negative pole, the other terms have been employed by him to describe simply the part 
the substances play in electrical decomposition. See GALVANISM, HLECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 


AN'ODYNE (Gr. a, privative, and odyné, pain), a medicine given to assuage pain. 
Properly, the term is applied to medicines, such as opium, which act on the nervous 
system, so as to decrease sensibility and induce sleep. See HyPNorics, 


ANOINTING. See CurismM, CORONATION, EXTREME UNCTION. 


ANOKA, a co. in e. Minnesota on the Mississippi river, 430 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 9884. 
Agricultural products and lumber are the staples. Co. seat, Anoka. 


ANO'LIS, a genus of saurian reptiles or lizards, native of tropical America, having 
teeth on the palate of the mouth as well as on the maxillary bones. They are remark- 
able for the power of inflating the skin of the throat, and for rapid changes of color of 
the inflated skin. They are entirely inoffensive, living on insects; are easily alarmed, 
and very rapid in their movements. There are several species, most of them bright 
green in color, varied with black. 


ANOMALISTS AND ANALOGISTS. Proclus (q.v.) of Constantinople in the fifth 
century A.D. in his commentaries on the Alcibiades I., Timeus, Republic, and Cratylus 
of Plato sets forth two opposing theories on which the ancient students of language 
divided. ‘These theories are alluded to by Aulus Gellius (q.v.), when he tells us that 
Publius Aigidius had argued most cleverly that words are not arbitrary signs of-things, 
but are made because of some natural inherent connection with the thing signified. 
Gellius states also that this question was one often discussed by philosophers. The 
point at issue is briefly this, Did words arise phuset, natura, naturally, or thesez, by 
convention. To this question two answers were returned by two opposing schools 
called the Anomalists and the Analogists. The Analogists held that words have in 
themselves an abstract and absolute rightness and suitability to the things described by 
them, whereas the Anomalists maintained that names are purely accidental and arbi- 
trary signs of our conceptions. It is the conflict between realism and nominalism on 
philological ground. Proclus says that Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Epicurus, and Lucre- 
tius (and we may add Aigidius) were Analogists, while Democritus and Diodonus of 
Megara were Anomalists. Democritus is said to have advanced four arguments to show 
that language is the product of arbitrary convention. Theseare: First, the argument of 
homonymy, based on the fact that the same word may have several distinct and different 
meanings, as the Greek word Aleis may mean either a key or the collar-bone ; secondly, 
the same object may have different names ; thirdly, there is an entire absence of anal- 
ogy in many words; fourthly, proper names have often been changed, showing that 
they do not correspond to any internal trait or characteristic. The Analogists were 
capable of equally crude arguments, as we see from Gellius x., 4. He tells us that 
Aigidius, in support of his doctrine that words are not conventional, argued that when 
a Roman said aos (you), he pushed forward his lips and sent out his breath toward 
those with whom he was talking, moving his features also in a way corresponding to 
the meaning of the word. Plato is said to have been an Analogist, and the Cratylus is 
cited in proof. In this work Socrates, indeed, seems to support this view, but how far 
he embodies Plato’s opinions it is difficult to assert. The Cratylus is a satire on the 
etymological conceptions of. the Sophists, Plato perhaps wished to point out that 


li ° 
ferme 494 


language has both a natural and a conventional element. Language may be defined as 
a gesture of the tongue, partly imitative, partly symbolical. Imitation is the principle 
lying close to its origin ; the development was largely conventional. See Steinthal, 
Philologie, Geschichte, und Psychologie; Mervoyer, Sur l’ Association des Idées ; Farrar, 
Chapters on Language, and the authors therein cited. 


ANOMALIS'TIC YEAR is the interval that elapses between two successive passages of 
the earth through its perihelion, or point of nearest approach to the sun. If the earth’s 
orbit had a fixed position in space, this period 
would correspond with that of a sidereal revolu- 
tion, or the time the earth takes after leaving any 
point of the heavens to return to it again; but the 
disturbing influence of the other planets causes 
the perihelion to advance slowly (11.8 annually) 
in the direction of the earth’s motion; so that the 
A. Y. is longer (4 minutes 39 seconds) than the 
sidereal. This will be better understood from 
the accompanying diagram, in which A'BB' repre- 
sents the elliptical orbit of the earth; S, the sun; 
A, the perihelion; and AB, the longer axis. When 
the earth, after leaving A, comes back to it again, 
after having completed a sidereal revolution, it Elliptical Orbit. 
finds the longer axis AB, and with it the whole 
ellipse, advanced to A'B’, and it has still to describe an arc of 11"-8 before it reaches 
its second perihelion A’. The length of the A. Y. is 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 49 
seconds. It receives its name from the anomaly (q.V.). 


ANOM’ALY (Gr. anomalia, irregularity), the angle measured at the sun between a 
planet in any point of its orbit and the last perihelion. In the figure in the preceding 
article, if P. be a planet, A’BB' its orbit, S. the sun, and A. the perihelion, the angle 
ASP is the A. It is so called because it was in it that the first irregularities of 
planetary motion were discovered. The A. was formerly measured from the 
aphelion, the opposite point of the ellipse; but from the fact that the aphelia of most of 
the comets lie beyond the range of observation, the perihelion is now taken as the point 
of departure for all planetary bodies. 


ANONA. See CUSTARD-APPLE. 


ANONA'CEZ, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, of which the 
type is the genus anona. They are trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, generally 
entire leaves, destitute of stipules; flowers usually green or brown, axillary, solitary, or 
two or three together; the calyx of 3 to 4 persistent sepals; the corolla of 6 hypogynous 
leathery petals, in two rows. The stamens are generally numerous; the filaments short; 
the anthers adherent, turned outwards, and with a large 4-cornered connective. See 
Sramens. The carpels are usually numerous, separate or cohering; the styles short; the 
stigmas simple; the ovules inverted. The fruit consists of distinct or united carpels, 
sometimes succulent; the seeds attached to the suture; their external covering brittle; the 
embryo minute, in the base of the hard albumen.—There are about 300 known species, 
mostly natives of tropical countries. They are generally aromatic and fragrant in all 
their parts, and some species are employed medicinally; the dry fruit of zylopia aromat- 
tea is commonly used as pepper by the African negroes, and was formerly imported 
into Europe as ETHIOPIAN PEPPER or GUINEA PEPPER. The flowers of some species 
are of exquisite fragrance; others yield delicious fruits. See CUSTARD-APPLE and 
CHERIMOYER. 


ANONYMOUS (Gr., nameless), a term applied to a book the author of which does not 
give his name; when an assumed name is given, the term PsEuDONyMowUs is used. Works 
of this class constitute one of the greatest difficulties of bibliography. French literature 
Pees anexcellent Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes (2d ed., 4 vols.; 

ar., 1822-25) by Barbier, embracing the titles of about 24,000 works, with the names 
of those who are known or assumed to be the authors. The best work in English is 
Cushing’s Anonyms and Pseudonyms (1888). 

In this country, political articles are always A., as is also most of the periodical 
criticism ; but on the other side of the channel, this practice is far from common. It is 
generally admitted that anonymity secures the independence of the critic, and enables 
him to write with greater freedom, vigor, and power ; but it is true that he often abuses 
his advantage, and gratifies, under the veil of the A., the worst passions of his nature. 
Perhaps the most intolerable abuse of anonymity is the anonymous letter. The miseries, 
anxieties, and terrors which this cowardly method of assailing people has occasioned, 
must excite against it the indignation and abhorrence of all honorable-minded men. So 
possible are abuses of anonymity, that one of the popes (Paul II.), even punished all 
anonymous writers, on the ground that the suppression of their names was contrary to 
pe bailey. Charles IX., of France, enacted a similar prohibition, as did Louis 

., in 1626. 


ANOPLOTHE’RIUM (from the Greek a, privative ; (A)oplon, armor; and therion, a 
beast), a genus of extinct pachydermatous quadrupeds (see PACHYDERMATA), established 
by Cuvier from bones occurring in great abundance in the gypsum strata of the upper 


Anomalistic, 
495 Anquetil. 


eocene (q.v.) formation, near Paris. They are found also in the same formation in the 
isle of Wight and elsewhere. The teeth differ from those of all other pachydermata, 
extinct or recent. There are six incisors, two canines, eight preemolars, and six molars 
in each jaw—the dental formula thus agreeing with that of the fossil genus palwotherium 
(q.v.); but the teeth are arranged in a continuous series without intervening vacancies— 
a circumstance very remarkable, as it does not occur in any existing quadruped, but now 
appears in man alone. The molars of the upper jaw are quadrangular, those of the 
lower marked with a double or triple crescent of enamel, which forms prominent ridges. 
In some respects the teeth resemble those of the rwminantia (q.v.), or ruminating quad- 
rupeds, between which and the pachydermata the A. has been thought to form aconnect- 
ing link; but in some of the species originally included in this genus, and which are 
now sometimes ranked along with it under the name anoplotheroids, the teeth exhibit 
peculiarities which have led to the supposition that their food may not have been 
exclusively vegetable. The snout is not much elongated, and it is evident that there 
was no proboscis. The feet are terminated by two toes, as in the ruminantia; but they 
have always separate metacarpal and metatarsal bones, not a single canon bone. A con- 
siderable number of species of A. and of anoplotheroids have been determined, differing 
in size from that of a small ass to that of a hare, or even of a guinea-pig; so that the 
smallest species must have been smaller than any hoofed quadruped now existing, or any 
known to have ever existed. They differ also considerably in general appearance, some 
having had comparatively long limbs and a,light and graceful form, whilst some were 
firmly built and heavy. Their habits may be supposed to have differed accordingly. 
The true anoplotheria were probably very similar in habits to tapirs. The powerful 
flattened tails of some are supposed to indicate an adaptation for aquatic life; others have 
smaller supplemental toes, besides the two hoofs. They form the genera dichodon, 
dichobuné, xiphodon, and microtherium. 


ANOPLURA (Gk., unprovided with a tail). An entomological term applied to the 
order of insects unprovided with a tail, e.g., the louse. 


ANOPSHEHR. See ANUPSHAHBR. 


ANOPSIA (GE., lack of sight). A term used in anatomy of the congenital lack of 
sight, or to a monstrosity in which the eye is lacking. The English form, anopsy, is 
also current. 


ANOREXIA (Gk., without desire). A lack of appetite. Also given in the more Eng- 
lish form, anoreay. 


ANORTHITE (GE., an, neg., orthé sc. gonia, right angle, not in a right angle), a species 
of mineral of the feldspar family, occurring in small glassy crystals. It derives its name 
from its cleavage. 


ANOSMIA (Gk., a, neg., osmé, smell), a medical term, denoting a loss of the sense of 
smell. ‘Then it arises from a disease of the mucous membrane (called the pituitary, or 
Schnevdervcan membrane) which lines the nose and its cavities ; it is called organic anos- 
mia; when anosmia arises from no manifest cause, it is termed atonic. 


ANOUKIS, or Anaxka, the “clasper” or ‘‘embracer ;” an Egyptian goddess, per- 
sonifying the lower world or hemisphere. She is represented with a red crown ; while 
Sati, who personifies the upper world, has a white crown. <A. seems to have been 
analogous to the Greek Hestia, or Vesta. No statues of A. have been discovered. 


ANOURA (GK., without a tail). A zoological term applied to such amphibians as have 
no tail. Such are the frog, the toad, etc. 


ANQUETIL, Louis Prerre, 1723-1808 ; a French historian ; director of the academy 
of Rheims, and author of a history of that city. In 1759, he was prior of the abbey dela 
Roe, in Anjou, and soon afterwards director of the college of Senlis; later still, prior of 
Chateau-Renaud, near Montarges, which he exchanged for the curacy of La Villette, 
near Paris. In the reign of terror he was imprisoned in St. Lazare. He was an early 
member of the national institute, and employed in the department of foreign affairs. He 
left many historical works, for the most part crude and faulty in style. 


ANQUETIL'-DUPERRON’, ABRAHAM HYACINTHE, an oriental scholar, was b. at Paris, 
Dec. 7, 1731. He commenced the study of theology in his native city, and afterwards 
prosecuted it at Auxerre and Amersfort. But his love of oriental languages drew him 
back to Paris, where he was assisted by the Abbé Sallier, overseer of the manuscripts in 
the royal library. As he now possessed a tolerable knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, 
and Persian, he enlisted as a private soldier for India in 1754, to gratify his passion for 
learning; but Malesherbes and the Abbé Barthélemy rescued him from this degradation, 
and enabled him, through the royal munificence, to proceed independently. After his 
arrival in India, he traversed a great part of the peninsula, but finally fixed his residence 
ai Surat, where there was a colony of Puarsees, or fire-worshipers, with whose priests he 


Ansaloni. 496 


Anspach. 


soon became so intimate, that they not only instructed him in the doctrines of Zoroaster, 
but also gave him some of their sage’s books, written in Zend, in Pehlvi, and in Sanscrit. 
In 1762, he returned to Europe, having collected one hundred manuscripts, along with 
other curiosities. The Abbé Barthélemy now obtained for him a situation in the bibli- 
othéque royale, and in 1763 he was elected a member of the académie des belles-lettres. 
In 1771, he published his Zend-avesta, in 8 vols., which contained the results of his 
researches. It consists of a literal translation of the Vendidad, as well as other sacred 
books of the Parsees, preceded by a narrative of his travels. This work created a great 
sensation when it first appeared. Until then, our only knowledge of the doctrines of the 
ancient Persians had been obtained from Greek and Roman sources, hostile Mohamme- 
dans, and eastern nations of a later origin. But A. now presented to the investigation of 
Europeans the original records of these doctrines, or, at least, records of incontestable 
authority. Unfortunately, his zeal far surpassed his patienceand sagacity. He had not 
a sufficient mastery over the languages from which he translated. His translations are, 
consequently, anything but accurate. Since A. wrote, great advances have been made 
in oriental scholarship, and his labors are now in a great measure superseded. Among 
his other works we may mention his Legislation Orientale, 1778; Recherches Historiques 
et Géographiques sur ?Inde, 1786; La Dignité du Commerce et de ?état du Commércant, 
1789; L’Inde en Rapport avec 0 Hurope, 1790; Oupnek’hat (a selection from the theological 
portion of the Vedas), 1804. Hed. at Paris, 17th Jan., 1805. 


ANSALO'NI, GriorDANoO, a Sicilian Dominican missionary, who died under torture, 
Nov. 1, 1634, in Nagasaki, Japan, whither he had gone from the Philippine islands, after 
learning the Japanese language ina hospital at Manila. He labored two years as a 
priest before he was discovered. Another priest and 69 converts suffered death with 
him. 

AN'SARIES, or Awnsa’RIANs, called also Nossairians, an Arab sect living in the 
mountains between the n. part of Lebanon and Antioch; found also in Antioch and 
other towns and villages of the coast. Little is known of their origin or history. They 
endeavor to conceal their doctrines from strangers, and of their own people none but 
male adults are admitted to the secrets. But it is evident that their tenets are a mixture 
of paganism and Mohammedanism, with some faint suggestions from Christianity. 
Their founder, Nossair, who lived about 890, taught that God appeared eleven times in 
human form, to Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, and others; that he always 
encountered opposition, whereupon he returned to heaven, wrapped himself in a blue 
mantle, and resorted to the sun, which is therefore an object of their worship. They 
are said, by some writers, to look for a messiah who will be the twelfth person of human 
form in whom God will appear. Other accounts are that they hold to seven manifesta- 
tions of the supreme deity, of which Ali is the only one to be adored. They believe in 
migration of souls, which for the faithful will be a progress from pure to more pure 
until they become stars; but sinners will be transformed into Jews, Christians, donkeys, 
dogs, and hogs. They practice circumcision and ablution, and pray in the open air 
three times a day. Promiscuous intercourse of the sexes is practiced on certain festivals, 
and their religious rites are believed to be vilc. Though their religion inculcates benev- 
olence, honesty, and patience, they are thievish and superstitious, yet hospitable. Each 
community is governed by a mokaddem, who is almost entirely independent. It is said 
that the most numerous of the three sects into which the A. are divided worship a 
beautiful young woman, who is elected goddess once in three years. Their number 
is estimated at 75,000. They are said to believe in a divine unity in three persons, 
the last two being created. The first, the supreme deity, is Manna or ‘‘meaning,’’ 
the second Ism or ‘‘name,’’ the third Bab or ‘‘dove.’’ There is also a system of 
hierarchies wonderful for number; there are 14,000 ‘‘ near ones,’’ 15,000 ‘* cherubim,’’ 
16,000 ‘* spirituals,’’ 17,000 ‘‘saints,’’? 18,000 ‘‘ hermits,’’ 19,000 ‘‘listeners,’’ and 20,000 
‘*followers,’’ besides prophets, apostles, and heroes. ‘They profess to receive, among 
other sacred books, the Old and New Testaments, and the Koran. 


ANSBACH. See ANSPACH. 


AN SCHUTZ, Karn, 1813-79; royal musical director in Coblentz, and director in 
Nuremberg, Amsterdam, London, and New York, founding in the latter city the Ger- 
man opera, in 1862. 


ANSE DE PANIER, a French term for arches which are the result of elliptical 
curves in section; an elegant form for bridge arches. " 


AN'SELM of Canterbury, a scholastic philosopher, was b. at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 
1033. He led at first a dissipated life; and, like Abelard, wandered through France, 
after the fashion of the scholars of those days, disputing wherever he could find an 
adversary. Attracted by the reputation of Lanfranc, he went, in 1060, to study at the 
monastery of Bec, in Normandy. Three yearsafter, he became prior, and in 1078, abbot 
of this monastery, the most famous school of the 11th century. Lanfranc, who in the 
meantime had gone to England, and became archbishop of Canterbury, d. in 1089: and 
the diocese remained four years without a successor, till, in 10938, A. was appointed. 
He was distinguished both as a churchman and a philosopher. His numerous embroil 


497 ANICLAAe 


ments with William Rufus and Henry I., and the unbending spirit which he displayed 
in these, even when subjected to banishment, indicate the vigor and resoluteness of 
his character, as much as his writings exhibit the depth and acuteness of his intellect. 
In 1720, Clement XI. expressly placed him in the list of church authorities. A. was 
a second Augustine, superior to all his contemporaries in sagacity and dialectical skill, 
and equal to the most eminent in virtue and piety. Embracing, without question, the 
doctrines of the church, mostly as stated by Augustine, and holding that belief must 
precede knowledge, and must be implicit and undoubting, he yet felt the necessity of 
a religious philosophy, urged the duty of proceeding from belief to knowledge, and 
sought to reduce the truths of religion into the form of a connected series of reason- 
ings. It was for this purpose he wrote his Monologium sive Exemplum Meditandi de 
Ratione Fidet. In his Proslogium, otherwise entitled Fides querens Intellectum (faith 
seeking intellect), he strove to demonstrate the existence of God from the conception 
of a perfect being. ‘This ontological proof, however, has never been held satisfactory. 
His writings, Cur Deus Homo, and De Concordia Prescientie et Predestinationis, made an 
epoch in Christian philosophy. A. may justly be reckoned the earliest of the schoolmen, 
although Alexander of Hales (q.v.) was the first who completely systematized in the 
scholastic manner the doctrines of the Catholic church. He d. 2ist April,1109, and was 
buried at Canterbury. The day of his death is observed in the Roman Catholic church. See 
Rémusat’s Anselme (1858), Church’s A. (1870), and Rule’s Life and Times of Ansel (1883). 


ANSER. See ANAS and Goose. 


ANS'GAR, or ANSCHA’RIUS, pinlee the apostle of the north, on account of his labors 
to introduce Christianity into Denmark, Sweden, and northern Germany, was b. in 
Picardy about the year 801 a.p. Under the patronage of Louis le Débonnaire, he went, 
with his colleague Audibert, to preach the doctrines of Christianity among the heathen 
Northmen of Schleswig, where he suffered many versecutions; but had nevertheless such 
success that, in 832, the pope established an archbishopric in Hamburg, and A. was 
appointed the first archbishop. Here he passed through many difficulties, having to 
save his life by flight in 845, when the Northmen and Danes under Eric I. plundered 
Hamburg. He afterwards made several missionary tours in Denmark and Sweden, 
and d. Feb. 3, 864, at Bremen, where a church was named after him. The Roman 
Catholic church has canonized him. 


ANSON, a co. in s. North Carolina, on the Rocky and Yadkin rivers ; 460 sq.m. ; 
pop. 90, 20,027, inclu. colored. It has an undulating surface and productive soil; 
agriculture is the chief industry. Co. seat, Wadesborough. 


AN’SON, GrorGE, Lorp, Admiral, b. on 23d April, 1697, at Shugborough, in Staf- 
fordshire. From an early period he manifested a predilection for a sea-life. In 1716 
he served as second lieutenant under Norris; next under Byng in 1718, against the Span- 
iards; and was made a captain in 1723. In 17389, when war with Spain broke out, he 
was recalled from the Carolina station, on which he had been placed since 1724, and 
received the command of the fleet in the South sea, with instructions to inflict what- 
ever injury he could on the Spanish commerce and colonies, and sailed from England 
in Sept., 1740. The preparations for this cruise had been made in the most slovenly 
manner. Both vessels and stores were bad, and the sailors were old Chelsea pensioners; 
yet A., in spite of these disadvantages, achieved a brilliant reputation by the heroism, 
prudence, diligence, and humanity he displayed. After his little fleet of seven ‘vessels 
had been scattered by a storm, in doubling cape Horn, he landed at Juan Fernandez, 
where he was soon joined by three of his ships, which arrived in a dismantled condition. 
While he remained on this island, he exhibited his native tenderness of character by 
the assiduity with which he cared for the sick. Under these disadvantages, he made 
several prizes, including a Spanish galleon from Acapulco, with a cargo worth £400,000. 
After this he returned to England; and arrived at Spithead, June 15, 1744, having cir- 
cumnavigated the globe in three years and nine months. His perilous cruise greatly 
extended the knowledge of navigation and geography. As a reward for his services, 
A. was made rear-admiral of the blue (1744); and in 1747, having defeated the French 
Admiral Janquiére, at cape Finisterre, he was made baron of Soberton ; and four years 
later, first lord of the admiralty. In 1761 he was made admiral of the fleet. He d. 
June 6, 1762. 

ANSONIA, a city in New Haven co., Conn., on the Naugatuck river, 11 m. w. of New 
Haven, and on the Naugatuck and Berkshire divisions of the New York, New Haven, 
and Hartford, and the New Haven railroad; also connected with Derby and Birmingham 
by an electric railroad. Ansonia, which was set off from Derby in 1889, and chartered 
as a city in 1893, has churches, a public library, banks, and important industries, espe- 
cially machine shops, clock factories, electrical works, and manufactories of articles in 
brass and copper, etc. Pop. 1880, 3855; 1890, 10,342. 

AN’SPACH, or, more properly, ANSBACH, a. t. of Bavaria, the capital of the circle of 
Middle Franconia (Mittel-Franken), on the Rezat, 25 m. s. w. from Niirnberg. It has 
manufactures of cotton and half-silken fabrics, tobacco, earthenware, playing-cards, 
cutlery, and white lead; also a considerable trade in wool, flax, and corn. The situ- 


Anspach. 49 8 


Ant. 


ion is pleasant, but there are no remarkable buildings, except the deserted palace of 
ri £6tniee margraves of A., surrounded by gardens, and the church of St. Gunibert, 
said to occupy the site of a church erected in the 8th c., around which the t. grew. 
The margraves of A. were a branch of the family of Hohenzollern. The last of them 
sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia; and in 1806, Napoleon I. transferred A. to Bavaria. 


Pop. ’90, 14,200. 

ANS'PACH, EvizABETH BERKELEY, Margravine of, 1750-1828 ; daughter of Augustus, 
earl of Berkeley, and wire of the earl of Craven, who d. in 1791, after which she married 
the margrave of Anspach. She was highly accomplished, and of singular versatility, 
writing and performing dramas, and composing many biographical memoirs. 

ANSTED, Davip THomas, an English physician, b. 1814; educated at Cambridge, 
and professor of geology at King’s college, London, and at the college of civil engineers 
at Putney. For many years he was engaged on works illustrating the application of 
geology to engineering and mining. Hed. 1880. He was noted as a consulting engineer. 
Besides geological works Dr. A. published Scenery, Sedence, and Art, The Channel Islands, 
Correlation of the Natural History Sciences, The Lonian Islands, and Physical Geography. 


ANSTEY, F. (T. ANstey Gururigz) an English barrister who came rapidly into prom- 
inence as an author in 1882-84. In 1882 he published the tale, Vice Versa, which met 
with great success. Its plot dealt with the old idea of a change of identity between 
father and son, but his original way of working out the idea won a reputation for its 
author. Soon after, The Giant’s Robe appeared, and was also very well received. Since 
then he has written Zhe Tinted Venus, The Black Poodle, The Pariah, and Tourmailin’s 
Time Cheques (1891). 

ANSTEY, CuorisToPHER, 1724-1805, an English poet ; educated at Eton and designed 
for the church, but failing to get his degree, he returned to private life. He entered the 
army, and sat in parliament. Among A.’s works are the New Bath Guide, the Hlection 
Ball, and some others now forgotten. 


AN'STRUTHER (Easter and WESTER), two contiguous royal burghs of Fifeshire, 9 
m.s. of St. Andrews, with which, along with Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem, 
they join in returning a member to parliament. Fishing, fish-curing, and tanning are 
the chief occupations. East A. is the birthplace of Dr. Chalmers, Tennant the poet, and 
Goodsir the anatomist. Pop. of both burghs, and Kilrenny, about 4500, 


ANT, Formica, a Linnean genus of hymenopterous insects, now divided into several 
genera, which form a family called formicide. The English name is contracted from 
emmet, still also occasionally used. Another old English name, not now in frequent use, 
is pesmire. The species are numerous, and are generally distributed over temperate and 
tropical regions. Their habits and instincts are extremely interesting, and have attracted 
attention from remote ages. 

Ants are small insects, but of extraordinary muscular strength. They carry loads of 
ten or twelve times their own weight, and display great activity. They have a triangu- 
lar head; the antennez are geniculate; the jaws strong; the ligula or lower lip small, 
rounded, vaulted or spoon-like; the thorax compressed at the sides; the abdomen nearly 
oval, the pedicle which joins it to the thorax forming in some kinds a single and in some 
a double scale or knot. They live in societies, often very large, which consist, as in bees, 
of males, females, and neuters. The neuters are females with imperfect ovaries, trans- 
formed at an early stage of their existence, and are distinguished into two classes, workers 
and soldiers, the former constituting the greater portion of each society, the latter some- 
what differing from them in larger size and larger and more powerful head. ‘The ordi- 
nary work of the society is performed by the workers: the principal part in warfare, 
defensive or offensive, is taken by the soldiers. The males and females constitute but a 
small portion of each community. They have delicate glistening wings; but the neuters 
have no wings, and the thorax is smaller and more compressed. The males are smaller 
than the females, and the workers are rather smaller than the males. The females and 
neuters of some kinds (genera ponera, myrmica, atta, and cryptocerus) are armed with 
stings; other kinds (formica and polyergus) have no sting, but have the power of ejecting 
a peculiar volatile acid, Formic Acrb (q.v.), from a small sac in the abdomen; by this 
means effectually repelling many adversaries, to which the pungent fumes are intolerable. 
Small animals are soon killed by the vapor of an ant-hill; and a dog has been known to 
retire yelling from the effect upon his eyes, either of the vapor, or of a discharge of the 
fluid itself. It is said that when those ants that are unprovided with a sting make use 
of their mandibles to inflict a bite, they curve round their abdomen, so as to be ready 
immediately to squirt this acid into the wound. 

The winged ants mostly appear in autumn, and perish before the commencement of 
the cold weather; a few surviving to found new colonies and perpetuate the race. The 
neuters pass the winter in large numbers in a torpid state, and resume their activity on 
the return of spring. ‘The nests of ants, after midsummer, are usually found to con- 
tain winged males and females mixed with the wingless neuters, which, however, 
restrain them, and particularly the females, from making their escape into the air, until 
the pairing season, when they ascend into it in immense swarms, thosc from many 
ant-hills sometimes uniting their myriads, rising with incredible velocity in distinct 


Anspach, 
49 9 Ait 


columns, and soaring to a great height. ‘‘ Each column looks like a kind of slender 
net-work, and has a tremulous undulating motion. The noise emitted by myriads and 
myriads of these creatures does not exceed the hum of a single wasp. The slightest 
zephyr disperses them.” They occasionally, however, make their appearance in such 
prodigious numbers that the air is obscured by them.—The pairing of ants is supposed 
to take place in the air. Some of the females which escape destruction by their enemies, 
or by the elements, found new colonies, in which at first they perform the work usually 
assigned to neuters. Some, however, are seized by the neuters of ant-hills near which 
they fall, and there is even reason to think that these go out to search for them; they are 
stripped of their wings, and forcibly conducted to the habitation, the number of whose 
inhabitants is to be increased by their multitudinous progeny. They are fed and treated 
with apparent respect, like the queen-bee among bees; but a society of ants, unlike one 
of bees, often contains numerous females, each thus treated and equally employed in the 
important work of laying eggs. Unlike the queen-bees, also, they are invariably denuded 
of their wings; nor is this always done by the neuters, to prevent their escape, but the 
female ant, after fecundation, has been seen to denude herself of her own wings, as now 
superfluous appendages. 

The eggs of ants are so small as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. The mother 
drops them at random in her progress through the nest; but the workers, of whom some 
are always in attendance on her, immediately seize them, moisten them with their 
tongue, and lay them in heaps in particular apartments of the nest. They continue to 
watch them, and to remove them from one quarter of the nest to another, apparently in 
order that they may always enjoy a suitable temperature, and perhaps in order to avoid 
any excess of moisture. Inafew days the young larve are produced; and these require 
the unremitting care of the workers, which feed them, disgorging into their mouths, for 
this purpose, a viscid substance, supposed to be the ordinary food of the species, pre- 
pared for their use by a sort of half digestion. They are also extremely careful to keep 
the young brood clean, by constant application of their tongue and mandibles; and a 
great amount of labor is daily expended upon them in conveying them from the inner 
apartments of the nest towards the surface after sunrise, when the weather is fine, and 
back again before sunset, or when the weather becomes cold, or there is a prospect of 
rain. The same care is extended to the pupe. The larve and pupe are the white 
objects which the workers are seen hastily seizing and carrying off to places of safety, 
when an ant’s nest is broken open; and the resemblance of which, particularly of the 
pupze, to grains of barley, is supposed to have contributed to the general belief, that 
ants amass stores of corn for winter food. The larve have no organs of locomotion. 
The pup are enveloped in delicate silken cocoons, and unlike those of other insects, 
require assistance to extricate themselves from them when they have attained their per- 
fect state, This assistance also is afforded by the workers. 

The whole supplies of food for the inmates of the nest are brought to it by the 
workers. The food of some kinds is exclusively or chiefly animal; that of others, 
vegetable. The provisions carried to their nests by the ants of Britain and other countries 
in which the winter is cold are apparently not intended for winter, when the creatures 
are entirely torpid, but only for present use; and few, if any of the species, feed on 
grain or seeds. But Colonel Sykes discovered at Poonah a species of ants (atta providens), 
which not only store up provisions, but of which the stores consist of the seeds of a 
species of millet; and Mr. Moggridge has recently determined by careful observation 
that large stores of grain and seeds are laid up by some of the ants of the south of 
Europe, especially atta barbara and atta structor. M’Cook gives a most graphic account 
of the harvesting habits of the agricultural ant of Texas. The grain and other seeds 
stored up by ants seem, in some way not yet known, to be deprived of the power of ger- 
mination. The ant has long been a sort of proverbial type, not only of industry, but of 
provident care for the future. Some ants, however, collect and carry to their nests sub- 
stances which are not intended for food, but for the construction of the nest, and par- 
ticularly for closing its apertures in cold or wet weather. 

The vegetable substance which ants seem chiefly to use as food is sugar; and to this, 
wherever it is to be found, they seem to be guided by a very acute sense of smell. 
Honey-dew, the saccharine excretion of the aphides (see APuis), is a favorite food of 
many species; and with this are connected some of their most extraordinary instincts; 
for not only do they climb the plants on which the aphides abound, that they may obtain 
this food, but they have been seen to wait beside them for new drops, and even to touch 
them with their antenne, in order to cause the drops to flow, patting the abdomen of the 
aphis on each side alternately and rapidly; the ant, after the drop has been obtained, 
passing on to another aphis. The whole process has been likened to the milking of 
cattle. Even more wonderful things are asserted on this subject, as that particular ants 
seem to regard particular aphides as their own property, and are ready to fight in defense 
of their right to them—that, to secure them for themselves, they convey them from one 
place to another—and that the aphis radicum, which derives its nutriment from the roote 
of grass and other plants, is actually kept in large numbers in the nest of the yellow ant 
(formica flava), in order that there may be always at hand a copious supply of food, these 
aphides and their eggs sharing the solicitude of the ants equally with their own eggs and 
young. Things so wonderful are ascertained beyond dispute in regard to the instincts of 


Antacids. 500 


Antagonist. 


ants, that even such statements as these must not be hastily rejected as incredible, and 
certainly they express the beliefs of scientific observers. See Honry ANT, 

Ants which feed upon ,animal food render important service in clearing away every 
vestige of the flesh of dead animals, and so preventing corruption; and very beautiful 
skeletons of small animals have been obtained by burying the animal for a short time in 
an ant-hill. But ants also attack living animals: insects of comparatively large size 
fall a prey to them, and in tropical countries, birds, reptiles, and small quadrupeds are 
sometimes devoured by their vast swarms, which strip the bones of the animal perfectly 
clean with wonderful rapidity. Domestic animals, at least when sick, are not safe fram 
them, and man himself regards them with dread. About 100 years ago, vast num- 
bers of a particular kind of ant (/ saccharivora) appeared in the island of Grenada. 
This species makes its nest under the roots of plants, and the sugar-canes were so 
weakened and injured in consequence, that the plantations became nearly unproductive. 
‘‘They descended from the hills like torrents, and the plantations, as well as every path 
and road for miles, were filled with them. Rats, mice, and reptiles of every kind became 
an easy prey to them; and even the birds, which they attacked whenever they lighted on 
the ground in search of food, were so harassed, as to be at length unable to resist them. 
Streams of water opposed only a temporary obstacle to their progress; the foremost 
rushing blindly on certain death, and fresh armies instantly following, till a bank was 
formed of the carcasses of those which were drowned, sufficient to dam up the waters, 
and allow the main body to pass over in safety below. Even fire was tried without 
effect. When it was lighted to arrest their route, they rushed into the blaze in such 
myriads as to extinguish it.” A reward of $100,000 was offered in vain for an effectual 
means of destroying them; but in 1780 a hurricane which tore up the canes, and exposed 
their habitations to a deluge of rain, freed the island from this plague. 

The habitations of ants are very curiously constructed, displaying great ingenuity, 
although with great diversity in the different species. The greater number of species 
form their habitations in the ground. ‘These rise above the surface in the form of a 
dome ; hence the name ant-Aills commonly given them. The largest ant-hills formed by 
any northern species are those of the large red or horse ants (formica rufa), which are 
sometimes as big as a small haycock; but travelers in South America describe ant-hills 
of 15 or 20 ft. in height. The nest of / rufa is outwardly of rude appearance—a con- 
fused heap of such portable materials as were within reach; but within, it contains 
numerous small apartments, of different sizes, arranged in separate stories, some deep 
in the earth, some above its surface, and communicating with each other by means of 
galleries. Use is made of the earth excavated from below to mix with other materials 
in the construction of the upper parts of the fabric. Many species of ants, sometimes 
called mason ants, construct habitations by a still more elaborate masonry, making use, 
for this purpose, of soft clay, which they spread and mold by means of their mandi- 
bles and feet, appearing all the while to examine their work by their antenne. The par- 
tition-walls of the galleries and apartments of the formica brunnea are about half a line 
thick, and about 4 in. high; the roofs are somewhat arched, and pillars are fre- 
quent in this marvelous architecture. M. Huber saw a working-ant of another spe- 
cles (/ fusca), without assistance, make and cover in a gallery which was 2 or 3 
in. long, and of which the interior was rendered perfectly concave. ‘There are 
other species, sometimes called carpenter ants, which make their habitations in the 
trunks of old trees, gnawing the wood into apartments and galleries, with floors and 
partitions as thin as card. Svrmica flava forms its partition-walls of asort of papier- 
miuché of saw-dust, earth, and spider’s web. F. smaragdina, an East Indian species, 
forms its nest of a thin silk-like tissue. / béspinosa, in Cayenne, makes a felt of the 
down which envelops the seeds of the bombux criba. An Kast Indian species, myrmica 
kirbti, forms a globular nest of a congeries of tile-like damine of cow-dung, the inte- 
rior exhibiting an assemblage of apartments and galleries. Some Australian ants form 
their nests of the leaves of trees glued together, after being first brought into the 
proper position by the united strength of multitudes. 

Of the ants which form their nests in the ground, some, instead of constructing 
ant-hills, seek the protection of stones, roots of trees, etc. This is the case with some 
of the British species, and also with the sugar-ant of the West Indies, already men- 
tioned. 

Many interesting anecdotes are on record illustrative of the instincts of ants, and of 
the sagacity which they seem to possess. They appear also to have some power of 
communicating with each other, in which it has been supposed that the antenne are 
chiefly employed. Some such power might be supposed to be necessary, if we could 
venture to reason from analogy upon such a subject, not only to their architectural and 
other ordinary operations, in which many must take part, systematically and conjointly, 
but also in their predatory and warlike excursions; for these also some of the species 
have. If, during the predatory excursions of the atta cephalotes (a South American 
species), an intervening space occurs which they cannot cross, some of the creatures 
link themselves together—as monkeys, in like circumstances, have been known to do— 
forming a bridge over which the main body passes. Ants are, in general, both courage- 
ous and pugnacious. Many battles take place among them, both between individuals 
and large parties; and after a battle, combatants may be found locked in each other’s 


Antacids. 
501 Antagonist 


arms, as having died together in the struggle. More extraordinary than anything of 
this kind, however, is the fact, sufficiently ascertained, that some species of ants go on 
regular forays to carry off the larvee and pup: of certain other species, which they carry 
to their own habitations to rear and employ them as slaves in the work which might be 
regarded as properly belonging to workers of their own race—a fact to which no other 
at all analogous has yet presented itself in natural history. The species known thus to 
make and keep slaves are polyergus rufescens and formica sanguinea, both sometimes 
called amazon ants. It has been noted as a curious circumstance, that the kidnappers 
are red or pale-colored ants, and the slaves jet black. The kidnapping excursions take 
place only at a particular period of the year, when the nests of the black ants contain 
the neuter brood. The army of red ants (P. rufescens) marches forth, the vanguard, 
which consists of 8 or 10 only, continually changing; and on their arriving at the nest 
of the negro ants, a desperate conflict ensues, which ends in the defeat of the negroes; 
and thereupon the red ants, with their powerful mandibles, tear open the now unde- 
fended ant-hill, enter it, and emerge, carrying the pup in their mouths, with which 
they return in perfect order to their own nest. The pup are there treated with great 
care, and spend their lives among the red. ants, excavating passages, collecting food, 
carrying larve, etc., as if this had been their original destination. ‘The amazon ants are - 
not natives of Britain, although plentiful in some parts of Europe. 

Formic acid has been employed as a stimulant in gout and paralysis, and is sometimes 
exhibited in continental practice by means of ant-baths, which are prepared by boiling 
crushed ants, or whole ant-hills, and immersing the diseased limb in the steam. 

TERMITES (q.V.), Of WHITE ANTS, are very different from the true ants; belonging to 
the order neuroptera. See Aputs; Lubbock’s Ants, Bees and Wasps (1882); White’s 
Ants and Their Ways; M’Cook’s The Agricultural Ant of Texas (1880); Bates, A 
Naturalist on the Amazon. 


ANT—or Anti. A Greek prefix found in many English words, denoting opposition, 


ANTAC'IDS are medicines which correct abnormal acidity of the stomach and intes- 
tinal canal by directly combining with the free acid that may be present. Their action 
is obviously merely temporary, as, unless combined with other medicines, they do not 
correct the morbid condition which causes the undue acidity; and their too prolonged 
use must be carefully avoided, since, at all events, some of these medicines, as the 
alkalies and their carbonates, are lable to induce a state of general anzemia, morbid 
deposits in the urine, and a series of symptoms not unlike those of scurvy. Antacids 
are best given in association with vegetable tonics; and for the reasons already stated, 
their administration must be carefully watched, and should be occasionally omitted. 
Dr. Neligan makes the following excellent remarks on the particular remedy to be 
employed for special forms of acidity: ‘‘ When the acid exists in the stomach in the 
gaseous state, ammonia or its carbonates should be preferred, as, in consequence of 
their volatility, a gaseous acid which would elude the action of the fixed alkalies, may 
be neutralized by them. If the acidity be present in the lower bowel, as in the cecum 
or colon, magnesia or lime ought to be administered, as being less likely than the other 
antacids to be neutralized or absorbed before it reaches that portion of the intestinal 
canal. When the acid exists in the urinary organs, the alkalies will be found best 
adapted, as they have a tendency to act more directly on the kidneys; and when it is 
lithic (or uric) acid which preponderates in the urine, the preparations of lithia or potash 
should bé preferred to those of soda, as the salts formed by the two former with the 
acid in question are much more soluble than those formed with the latter. In persons 
of acorpulent habit of body, potash is to be preferred to ammonia or soda when the use 
of an alkali is indicated. And, finally, ammonia and its preparations are best adapted 
for the old and debilitated, as also for those of enfeebled constitution.” The antacids 
include solutions of ammonia, lime (commonly known as lime-water), potash, and soda, 
various carbonates of these substances, magnesia and its carbonates, and the carbonate 
and citrate of lithia. 


ANT. See PILASTER. 


ANTE 'US, in fable, a giant in Lybia, son of Poseidon (Neptune) and Ge (the 
earth). He compelled all strangers passing through the country to wrestle with him, 
but when he was thrown he received fresh strength from contact with his mother earth, 
and proved invincible. With the skulls of those whom he had slain, he built a temple to 
his father. Hercules discovered the secret of his renewal of strength, lifted him from 
the earth, and strangled him This struggle is a favorite subject in ancient sculpture. 


ANTAGONIST MUSCLES. Every muscle is opposed in its action by another muscle, 
or elastic ligament; e.g., in the arm the triceps extensor is opposed by the biceps 
flexor and brachialis anticus; the diaphragm, whose action aids in expanding the chest, 
is opposed by the external abdominal muscles. The diastole of the heart in vertebrates 
is best explained by elasticity, as it exerts very little power. The predominance of 
power in antagonist groups of muscles determine the position of different parts of the 
body when at rest, the naturally bent positions of the fingers during sleep showing the 
pret ae power of the flexors. The natural balance of muscles is sometimes disturbed 


y disease. 


Antalcidas. 
AL atNnaee 502 


ANTAL 'CIDAS, a Spartan politician, who made himself conspicuous in a very perilous 
crisis of the history of his nation by the skillful character of his policy. Some time after 
the Peloponnesian war, it seemed as if Athens were destined to regain the supremacy she 
had lost. The Greek states rallied round her; while Conon, an able and vigilant Athe- 
nian admiral, and his ally, Pharnabazus, the Persian, were everywhere victorious in their 
naval encounters with the Spartan fleet. It became necessary, therefore, that communi- 
cations should be entered into with the Persian king, from whom the confederate Greeks 
drew their chief resources. A. was chosen ambassador to Tiribazus, satrap of Western 
Asia. On hearing this, the Athenians grew alarmed, and sent Conon to frustrate the 
schemes of the former; but Tiribazus took A.’s part, and the result was, that Conon was 
thrown into prison, and A. secretly received money to enable Sparta to continue the 
war. At first, Artaxerxes, the Persian monarch, was dissatisfied with the conduct of his 
satrap, recalled him, and put Struthas, a friend of Athens, in his place; but through a 
complication of circumstances, which it is unnecessary to mention, A. was subsequently 
completely successful in securing the goodwill of Artaxerxes. He was now appointed 
admiral of the Spartan fleet, and assisted by Tiribazus, Ariobarzanes, etc., swept the seas 
until Athens became desirous of peace. For various reasons, so was Argos and Sparta 
’ herself. Tiribazus therefore assembled deputies from the Greek states, and, in the 
name of his master Artaxerxes, read the famous declaration or treaty of peace, to which 
all the members present agreed, and which is known in history under the name of ‘‘ the 
peace of Antalcidas,” as being the result of the latter’s able diplomacy. Its three 
great points were as follows: 1. That all the Greek towns on the mainland of Asia 
Minor, together with the islands Clazomene and Cyprus, should remain under the pro- 
tection of the Persian king. 2. That all other Greek towns, large and small, should be 
independent; but that the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros should belong to 
Athens. 3. That war should be declared against whatever state refused to accept 
these points. After this peace, the history of A. becomes doubtful and obscure. He 
seems to have lost favor with the Persians, and Plutarch even leads us to suppose that, 
sickened by misfortune and the loss of reputation, he voluntarily starved himself to 
death; but this story is not credited by scholars, both on account of its intrinsic improb- 
ability and its apparent disagreement with the statements of other writers. 


ANTANACLA'SIS, in rhetorie a figure in which a word is repeated in a sense dif- 
ferent from its first use, to give additional force to the expression; as the remark of 
Benjamin Franklin when he was about to sign the declaration of American independ- 
ence: ‘‘we must all hang together, or we shall assuredly all hang separately.” 


ANTANANARIVO’, or TANANARTVO, the capiial city of Madagascar, and seat of the 
government. Population with suburbs about 100,000. It is situated on a hill, in an undu- 
lating district, at an elevation of 7000 ft. above the level of the sea. It is exposed to 
fearful hail and thunder storms. The approach to it from Tamatave, the chief seaport, 
is extremely tedious and difficult, owing to the want of roads. It is, in spite of this, the 
seat of considerable trade and industry. The royal palace occupies the summit of the 
hill; adjoining are the dwellings of the chief officers of government; and below these, 
covering the slope of the hill, and built on terraces, are the houses of the other inhabi- 


tants, constructed almost entirely of wood. ‘The people exhibit a considerable aptitude ’ 


for civilized usages; and, thanks to missionary enterprise, considerable progress has. 
been made towards the adoption of European habits. Trouble between the natives and 
the French, who had established a virtual protectorate over the island, led to a French 
military expedition in 1895. French forces occupied the city, and forced the queen to 
sign a treaty recognizing the French protectorate. 


ANTAPHRODISIACS. See ANAPHRODISIACS. 


AN'TAR, or ANTARA, a celebrated Arab chief of the 6th c., one of the seven poets of 
Arabia, whose prize poems, embroidered in golden characters on a silken ground, were 
hung up onthe gate of the Caaba, and thence called moallakat—1.e., the suspended. In 
the poem of his that has descended to our day, he paints his warlike deeds, and his love 
for Abla. His courage and heroism during a 40 years’ warfare between two Arab 
tribes, and his constancy in love, were long dear to the memory of his countrymen, and 
appear to have formed the groundwork of the voluminous romance called Antar, com- 
monly ascribed to Asmai, and reduced to writing as early as the days of the calif Haroun 
al raschid, in the 8th century This work, which has come down to us ina later and 
much corrupted form, gives an attractive and faithful picture of Bedouin life, and is rich 
in epic interest, although too monotonous to satisfy the taste of the European reader. In 
the east, however, it still supplies the favorite themes of the professional story-tellers 
who haunt the coffee-houses. A poetical translation of it into English was made by 
Terric Hamilton in 1820. 

ANTARCTIC CURRENT, a drift, traceable first along the shores‘of Victoria land 
in the southern region of perpetual frost, which carries ice and cold water along the 
western coast of South America. It is much like the gulf stream, only the latter warms 
the cold n.w. of Europe, while the former cools the tropic heats of western South America. 


ANTARCTIC LANDS, the unexplored space beyond 70° s. lat., comprising an area 
of about 4,700,000 sq. miles. The latest information and speculations about this region, 


a), 
“i 


Antalcidas. 
503 Ant-catcher. 


laid before the British association, favor the supposition that there is no continuous 
Antarctic continent, but a congeries of low continental lands and islands connected by 
bridges of ice which form part of the solid ice cap covering the whole to the height of 
about 1400 ft. The region is intersected by continental chains, like the range between 
55° and 95°, which includes Peter the great island, Alexandra land, Graham land, 
Adelaide island, and Louis Philippe land; also by at least one volcanic range, discovered 
by Ross in 1841, which stretches from Balleny islands to lat. 78° s., and reaches a height 
of 15,000 ft. The A. lands are surrounded by a fringe of ice, which extends in a per- 
pendicular cliff of an average height of 230 ft., outside of which ice extends seaward in 
winter 20 ft. thick or more, and in summer this floe gives place to pack ice and drifting 
bergs. It is reasoned that the uniform height of the ice does not exceed 4400 ft., because 
any addition increases the pressure and lowers the mass which is melted away at the 
bottom by the internal heat of the earth. See PoLAR EXPEDITIONS, 


ANTARCTIC OCEAN, the sea round the south pole, as the Arctic ocean is the searound 
the north pole. It is otherwise called the Southern ocean, comprising all the sea to the 
south of the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific oceans. In this view, the A. O.’s 
northern limit may be conveniently divided into three straight lines—the first between 
cape Horn in South America and cape Agulhas in Africa; the second, between cape 
Agulhas and the southern extremity of the Auckland islands as an appendage of New 
Zealand; and the third, between the southern extremity of the Auckland islands and 
cape Horn. ‘This appears to form the true boundary of the polar regions of the southern 
hemisphere. The most northerly isles which it incloses are New Georgia, at the mouth 
of the Atlantic, and Kerguelen’s land, at the mouth of the Indian ocean. The latter 
tells its own story in its other title of ‘‘ The Land of Desolation;’ and the former pre- 
sented to Cook, even in the middle of summer, perpendicular cliffs of ice, and valleys 
covered with everlasting snow. 

It is usual, indeed, to define the A. O. and the corresponding ocean to the north, as 
being contained each within its own polar circle. But with regard to both oceans alike, 
this definition appears to be inadmissible. It is only at two points—the head of the 
Pacific and the head of the Atlantic—that the Arctic sea can possibly reach the Arctic 
circle at all; while, in point of fact, it overlaps it at Behring’s strait by nearly a degree, 
and falls several degrees short of it between the northern half of Norway and the s.e. 
shore of Greenland. The A. O., again, is nowhere practically limited by the definition 
in question: not a single voyager hesitates to use the expression long before he arrives 
at lat. 66° 80’ s.; nor yet is a single authority consistent in the use of the arbitrary 
nomenclature. 

The A. O. has been explored, more or less satisfactorily, by various navigators, as far 
as 79° s. With a few exceptions, however, little of it isaccurately known, the difficulties 
and dangers of its navigation rendering thorough and continuous investigation almost 
impracticable. 'The names that will recur in their proper places are New Georgia, Ker- 
guelen’s land, Sandwich land, New South Shetlands, New Orkneys, Enderby’s land, 
Graham’s land, Balleny, Sabrina, and Victoria land. See an account of a voyage in 
Antarctic regions in Geographical Journal, IT. (1893), p. 429. - 

Taken as a whole, these lands bear a very small proportion to the extent of an ocean 
which embraces half the latitudes and all the longitudes of the southern hemisphere, 
exceeding its kindred sea to the north, as a glance at the map will show, by nearly half 
of Asia and North America, and the whole of Europe. Such of these lands as are really 
accessible at all times have been more or less valuable in connection with the whale and 
sea fisheries. The features of the A. O. itself may be briefly stated to be constant fogs, 
baffling currents, innumerable icebergs, and magnificent manifestations of the aurora 
australis. On the coast of Victorialand beyond the parallel of 70°, two mountains have 
been observed to be of a height altogether unequaled in such a latitude, — mt. Terror, of 
10,000 ft., and mt. Erebus, of 12,400 ft. The latter is a volcano, being, it is apprehended, 
the only phenomenon of the kind in either of the frigid zones. 

Of the two circumpolar oceans, the southerly one has excited much less interest than 
the northerly. In 1895-7, however, there was a marked revival of interest in Antarctic 
exploration. Learned societies in Germany and Great Britain were active in the matter, 
and in 1897 the British Admiralty agreed to man and fit out an expedition. In the 
same year De Gerlache planned to set out from Antwerp in the summer, and a similar 
expedition was proposed by Borchgrevink, a Norwegian. See PoLAR EXPEDITIONS. 


ANTA’RES, a red star, thought by the ancients to resemble Mars. It is a double 
star, and the most conspicuous object in the constellation Scorpio. A. is often of use to 
navigators in finding longitude. 


ANT-BEAR. See ANT-EATER. 


ANT-CATCHER and ANT-THRUSH, names given to birds of tropical and sub-tropical 
countries, which feed chiefly upon ants. They are closely allied to the thrushes (see 
THRUsH), and are included with them in the family turdidw or merulide of recent orni- 
thologists. They are distinguished by a straight sub-cylindrical strong bill, hooked at 
the tip, slender legs, and very short tails. They form the genus myothe'ra of Illiger, now 
subdivided into several genera, one of which, pitta, contains the bréves of Buffon—birds 
of brilliant plumage, natives of the south-eastern parts of Asia and the Malayan archi- 
pelago. The true ant-catchers are mostly American, are of comparatively sober plu- 


AD t- t Ys. 
a atelopes 504 


mage, live among the huge ant-hills, seldom fly, and_ are remarkable for their sonorous 
voices, the power of which in some species is extraordinary. The largest species, known 
as the king of the ant-catchers (grallaria rex), is about the size of a quail. Its legs are 


remarkably long. 


ANT-EATER, Myrmeco'phaga, a genus of South American quadrupeds belonging to 
the natural order edentata. The species are few. They are perfectly toothless, their food 
being insects, and particularly ants, which they procure in great numbers by thrusting 
among them a very long cylindrical tongue, covered with a viscid saliva, and then 
retracting it into the mouth. The head is remarkably elongated, with a slender muzzle, 
and a small mouth. The tongue is doubled up in the mouth when not in use for catch- 
ing prey. The ears and eyes are very small. The toes differ in number in the different 
species, but are united as far as the base of the claws, which are very large and strong, 
adapted to tearing up the habitations of ants. The great A,-E. (M/Z. judata), a native of 
the warm parts of South America, and called in Demerara the A.-bear, is about 44 ft. in 
length from the snout to the origin of the tail, which is more than 2 ft. long, and is cov- 
ered with very long hair. The body is also covered with long hair, particularly along 
the neck and back. There are 4 claws on each of the fore-feet, and 5 on the hind ones. 
The A.-E. spends much of its time in sleep, the long snout concealed in the fur of the 
breast, the hind and fore claws locked together, and the bushy tail thrown over all, as 
if for a shade from the sun. It is very unsocial in its habits, and is regarded as a very 
stupid animal. It has great strength in its fore-legs and claws, and is said to hug like 
the bear, so as to crush an enemy to death. The female produces one young one at a 
birth, and carries it about for some time on her back.—Another species, the tamandua 
{M. tamandua), having the same number of claws, has a less elongated snout, compara- 
tively short hair, and.a prehensile tail, is scarcely so large asa cat, and climbs trees in 
quest of its insect food.—The little or two-toed A.-E. (M. didactyla) differs from these 
species not only in the number of its toes, but in other anatomical characters.—Closely 
allied to this genus in structure and habits is the genus manis, containing the PANGOLINS 
of Africa and India; but instead of hair, the body is covered with strong horny 
scales. See Pangotry.—The name A.-E. is given at the cape of Good Hope to the 
orycteropus capensis, the aard-vark or earth-hog of the Dutch colonists, a quad- 
ruped of about the same size with the great A.-E. of America, belonging to the 
same natural order, and resembling it also in its elongated muzzle and extensile tongue, 
which it employs in the same way, but provided with grinding teeth and flat claws 
adapted for burrowing. It burrows with extraordinary facility, and it is in this way that 
it seeks to secure its safety when assailed. It has very short hair, and little of it. The 
ears are moderately long. It is a nocturnal animal, and very timid.—The echidne of 
New Holland are sometimes called porcupine ant-eaters, from their food and their simi- 
larity to the true ant-eaters in their sharp muzzle and extensile tongue; but they differ 
much in some parts of their structure. See EcHIDNA. See adjoining illus., fig. 18. 


ANTECE'DENT, a term in logic, grammar, and mathematics. Thus we call a propo- 
sition in logic from which another is deduced, or a general principle which serves as the 
base and support of some particular proposition, the A. In grammar, the A. is the word 
which precedes the relative—as, for example, ‘‘ The man who dies for his country should 
be held in honor.” Here ‘‘man” is the A. In mathematics, we speak of the A. of a 
ratio—i.e., the first of two terms which compose the ratio. Thus, in the ratio of 4 to 3, 
4 isthe A. The word is also used in the plural in a peculiar sense. ‘‘ We know very 
little of his antecedents” —i.e., of his previous character or conduct. 


ANTEDILU'VIAN is the word used to denote whatever existed before the flood. The 
A. ages are those which elapsed before the fiood, and, in theological language, the A. 
religion means the religion of the patriarchs from Adam to Noah. In geology, the ‘‘A. 
period ” has no reference to the deluge recorded in the Mosaic narrative, but only to the 
final transformation of the earth by means of water. 


ad ANTELOPE, a co. in n. e. Nebraska; 864 sq. m.; population, ’90, 10,899. Co. seat, 
eligh. 


ANTELOPE, Antilope, a genus of mammalia belonging to the order of ruminantia 
(q.v.), and to the hollow-horned section of that order—in which the horns consist of an 
elastic sheath surrounding a bony process of the skull, and are permanent, not annually 
renewed. The antelopes have the bony nucleus of the horns solid, not occupied, as in 
those of goats, sheep, and oxen, to a considerable extent, with cells communicating with 
the frontal sinuses. They are also distinguished from the allied genus of goats by having 
the chin beardless, and from them and sheep by the horns not being longitudinally angled 
or ridged. The horns of antelopes are, however, very generally annulated, or surrounded 
with thickened rings. The body is slender and deer-like, the feet small and elegant, the 
tail short and tufted, the hair generally short, and the color often lively. Some species, 
however, have comparatively long hair; and afew which inhabit cold mountainous 
regions are clothed with wool intermixed with longer and coarser hair, particularly the 
chamois (q.v.) of the Alps, Caucasus, etc.; the Rocky mountain goat of North Amer- 
ica; and the chiru (q.v.) of the Himalayas. Many species have infra-orbital sinuses 
or tear-pits like deer (q.v.). The females of many species, as of deer, are destitute 


LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


% 


2 
J 
eee Seago 


iy) Nf 
\ thie 
Se A 
ual 


2. Chamois. 3. Eland. 4. Ammonites amaltheus. 5. Apteryx 


ANTELOPES, ETC.—I. Gnu. 
11. Anchovy. 12. Adder. 13. Brown wood-ant (female). 14. Ag 


of cayman. 


+ 


Kl te 
LY 


v 


fy 
y yy 
Ye Yh 


5. Ammonites Jason. 7. Razor-billed auk. 8. Yellow ants. 9. Albatross. 10, Head 
i. 15. Bison. 16. Admiral butterfly. 17. Gazelle. 18. Great ant-eater. 


‘LIBRARY «oh e) 2 ci 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
»)OURBANA 2 (in oan 


5 0 5 Ant-eater, 


Antelope. 


of horns; and if they alone came under observation, it would be difficult to say to which 
genus they belonged. The size is very various; the guevei or pigmy A. of Africa (A. 
pygmced) is only 8 to 9 in. high at the shoulders, whilst the largest species measure 5 or 
6 feet. Almost all the species of antelopes are peaceable, timid animals, and are distin- 
guished by their agility and fleetness. Most of them are gregarious. Some inhabit plains; 
others are found only in the most inaccessible mountainous regions; whilst others dwell 
in jungles and deep forests. North America possesses two or three species, which depart 
considerably, as does also the chamois of Europe, from the typical character of the 
genus. Europe produces only the chamois and the saiga (A. saga), the colus of Strabo, 
which inhabits the southern plains of Poland and Russia. Asia has a greater number of 
Species; but they are most numerous in Africa, and particularly in south Africa. The 
known species amount to more than eighty, which are arranged in sections or groups 
according to the peculiarities of the horns and other characters, but a satisfactory classi- 
‘fication of them is difficult. Some naturalists make a family of antilopew, and subdivide 
it into genera, but they are not separated by sufficiently marked characters. The flesh 
of all antelopes is used as food; hence they are much objects of the chase. They furnish 
also great part of the subsistence of beasts of prey in Africa, where some of the species 
exist in such numbers that, particularly when severe drought occurs in the regions which 
they ordinarily inhabit, dense and multitudinous herds occasionally appear in the interior 
of Cape Colony, to the terrible devastation of the crops. Even the saigas of the Tatarian 
plains congregate in herds of many thousands in the end of autumn. 

The name A. is sometimes more particularly restricted to a species also known as 
the common or Indian A., and as the sasin. It is a native of India and the eastern parts 
of Asia, and is a beautiful animal, about 23 ft. high at the shoulder, with erect, diverg- 
ing horns, bent in a spiral of two or three turns. The hair is uniformly short, except 
that, asin many other species of A., there are small tufts of bristles on the knees. It 
inhabits open plains, and the herds*txercise great watchfulness. Its fleetness is such 
that greyhounds chase it in vain; and it can easily bound over an inclosure of 11 ft. in 
height, or over a distance of 10 or 12 yards. The flesh is held in small esteem, and the 
animal is less than many of its congeners an object of the chase.—The saiga is a much 
less graceful animal; its horns are short, and, as in many of this genus, curved first out- 
wards and then inwards, so that the whole outline formed by them resembles that of a 
lyre. They are used by the Russians and Chinese for the manufacture of many articles 
of domestic economy; and it is chiefly for their sake and that of the skin that the saiga 
is hunted, the flesh having a disagreeable taste, which is ascribed to the saline and aro- 
matic plants of the steppes. The dzeren (A. guttwrosa), sometimes called the Chinese A., 
and known among the Chinese by a name which signifies the yellow goat, is an inhabi- 
tant of the arid deserts of central Asia, the flesh of which is highly esteemed, and which 
is therefore a chief object of the chase in these regions. It derives its specific name from 
a large movable goitre-like protuberance on the throat of the old males, produced by a 
dilatation of the larynx.—The addax, or Nubian A. (A. addaz), which was known to 
the ancients, and is mentioned by Pliny, has horns very similar to those of the Indian 
A., but is a larger animal, less graceful, with a slight mane on the neck, a tuft of long 
hair on the forehead, and large broad hoofs, adapted for treading on fine and loose sands. 
It inhabits the deserts of central Africa, and, contrary to the usual habits of the genus, 
is said not to be gregarious, but to live in pairs. The chikara and some other Indian 
species are distinguished by two additional rudimentary horns in front of the ordinary 
horns, and immediately over the orbits. The chikara inhabits thick forests and jungles. 
Like the addax, it lives in pairs; as do also the stein-boc of south Africa, an ex- 
tremely graceful species ; and the kleene-boc of the same country. (A. perpusiila), a 
beautiful and active little creature, with very small horns. The kleene-boc is of a mild 
and gentle disposition, and extremely capable of domestication. The gazelle (q.v.) of 
north Africa (A. dorcas), one of the species known to the ancients, is very frequently 
domesticated; and from its gracefulness of form, its gentleness of manners, and its bright 
black eyes, has afforded to the Arabian poets one of their most favorite objects of com- 
parison. The south African spring-boc (q.v.) is another very beautiful species, and is 
frequently domesticated by the colonists at the cape of Good Hope. Among the numer- 
ous species which that country produces may be mentioned ,also the blauw-boc (4A, 
leucopheus); the riet-boc (A. arundinaceus); and the Caffrarian oryx (q.v.), (A. ory2), 
which somewhat resembles, but is quite distinct from, the oryx of the ancients (A 
leucoryx or A. gazella), also called the algazel, a native of the countries on both sides 
of the Red sea. Still more worthy of notice among the south African species, but in 
some measure departing from the strict A. type, is the eland (q.v.), the largest of all 
the antelopes—an animal.which may yet probably be found very valuable in domestica- 
tion. The koodoo (q.v.) is another noble species allied to the eland. The nyl-ghau 
(q.v.) of India, and the gnu (q.v.) of south Africa, are also among the largest antelopes, 
but depart still further from the generic type, particularly the latter, so that a separate 
genus (catoblepas) has been constituted for it, having better claims to be recognized than 
the other genera into which it has been proposed that the antelopes should be divided. 
Less different from the ordinary type, but still with a marked approach to a bovine 
appearance, are the bubalus (q.v.) of the ancients, a native of the north of Africa, the 
Arabic name of which signifies wild ox, and the kaama (q.v.) or harte-beest of the 


Antenne, 506 


Anthology. 


cape of Good Hope, which is nearly allied to it. The prong-horn (q.v.) and the Rocky 
mountain goat are the best known North American species ; and both are found only in 
the western parts of the continent. It has been proposed to introduce the latter, as a 
wool-bearing animal, into the highlands of Scotland. 


ANTEN'N24, in zoology, jointed filaments with which the heads of insects, crustacea, 
and myriapoda are furnished, and which are evidently very delicate organs of touch. 
They are therefore sometimes called feelers. The name A. is derived from ante, before. 
The A. are placed on the anterior or superior part of the head; the animals appear to 
feel their way with them, and to them is ascribed the bee’s power of working in the 
dark. Some suppose that they are also organs of hearing, and by means of them it 
would appear that many insects, as bees and ants, have the power of communicating 
with one another. ‘They possess great flexibility, but differ very much in the number of 
joints which they contain (amounting sometimes even to 100), in the relative length and 
thickness of their joints, and also in their form, being filiform or thread-like, clavate or 
club-shaped, feathered, etc., in endiess varicty. 

ANTE'NOR, the wise Trojan who advised his fellow-citizens to send Helen back to 
her husband. His friendliness to the Greeks became complete treason when the city 
was taken and his house was spared by the victors. Legends differ about him; one is 
Mee he built a city on the site of Troy; others make him the founder of various cities in 

taly. 

ANTEQUE’RA (the <Anticaria of the Romans), an important t. in the province of 
Malaga, Spain, is situated in a fertile plain, 45 m. w. of Granada. Pop. about 27,000. 
A., like all the other cities of south Spain, was for a while in the hands of the Moors; 
but in 1410 it was retaken by the regent Fernando, who is hence called £7 Infante de A. 
When the French took the place, during the Peninsular war, they converted a curious 
old mosque —a relic of Moorish sway —into a storehouse, and on their departure 
carried off with them the magnificent Moorish araory. 

ANTHE’DON, a town of ancient Greece situated at the foot of Mt. Messapion on the 
strait of Eubcea. The references to -it in ancient writings were sufficiently exact to 
enable Colonel Leake, the author of T7’ravels in Northern Greece to identify the site. Later, 
on March 5, 1889, work on the site was begun by J. C. Rolfe, of Harvard University, 
and resulted in the discovery of the remains of a public building, presumably an agora. 
Further excavations were undertaken in a small hill just outside the old city walls and 
architectural remains were found pointing to the existence of a shrine of Dionysos on 
that spot. A number of inscriptions were also found, valuable for the light they throw 
on the local peculiarities of the Boeotian dialect. 


ANTHE'LIA (Gr. anti, opposite, and helios, the sun; Ger. Gegensonnen) are luminous 
rings, seen by an observer on a cloud or fog which lies opposite to the sun. They occur 
chiefly in alpine regions and in the polar seas, and are only seen when sunshine and 
cloud, or fog, occur at the same time. They appear in the following way: When, from 
an elevated position—as the mast of a ship, or the ridge of a hill—the shadow of an 
observer is projected by the sun on a cloud or fog, he sees the head encircled by a glory 
or luminous ring, diminishing in brightness as it leaves the head as a center. When the 
sun shines brightly, and the fog is dense, as many as four concentric rings of this nature 
are seen by the observer round the shadow of his head, having their common center in 
the point where a line from the sun through the eye of the observer meets the fog. 
When the phenomenon assumes this form, the rings are more or less colored—the colors 
of the two inner rings being generally brilliant, those of the third more faint, while those 
of the fourth are scarcely perceptible. This last has an angular radius of about 40°, and 
is very seldom seen. It bears frequently the name of the circle of Ulloa or the white 
rainbow. A phenomenon substantially similar to the A. occurs when, the sun being 
near the horizon, the observer sees an aureola surrounding the shadow of his head cast 
upon grass or corn moistened with dew. The occurrence of A. is generally attributed to 
the diffraction (q.v.) of light. 

ANTHELMIN'TICS, medicines for destroying or expelling intestinal parasites ; those 
which destroy are vermicides; those which expel, vermifuges. Among articles for the 
purpose are senna, pink-root, santonin, oil of turpentine, oil of fern, and pumpkin and 
pomegranate seeds. See ASCARIS; WORMS, 


ANTHEM (Gr. anti, in return, phone, voice; a piece sung in alternate parts), a species 
of musical composition introduced into the service of the English church after the refor- 
mation, and appointed to be sung daily, at morning and evening service, after the third 
collect. The words of the A. are taken from the psalms, or other suitable parts of the 
scriptures, and the music is either for solo, soli, or chorus, or a mixture of all three. As 
a specimen of English music, it can only be heard to perfection in cathedral service. In 
its erigin, musical construction, and use, it is similar to the motet of the Roman church. 
which name has been retained by the Lutheran church. See Morert; also ANTIPHONY. 


ANTHEMIS. See CHAMOMILE. 


ANTHE’MIUS, a Greek architect and mathematician, son of Stephanus, a physician, 
and one of five brothers, eminent as physicians, lawyers, and grammarians. It is sup- 
posed that A. anticipated Buffon in using burning glasses, and some say he knew the 
force of steam. He was eminent as an architect, and produced in 532, under the pat- 
ronage of Justinian, the plans for the great church of St. Sophia, in Constantinople— 
plans which display great knowledge and great ignorance. D. about 534 A. D. 


Ant . 
507 Anthology. 


ANTHE MIUS, or ANTHEMIUs PROcoPrIuS, a Roman emperor who reigned from 467 
tu 472. He was son-in-law of the emperor Marcian, and had been a favorite general of 
Leo, emperor of the east. His son-in-law, Ricimer, became A.’s enemy, proclaimed 
Olybrius emperor, and took Rome, putting A. to death. 

ANTHER. See STAMENS., 

ANTHERID'IUM, the name given by some botanists to an organ in cryptogamous 
plants which they suppose to be analogous in its functions to the stamen or male organ 
of fructification in phanerogamous plants. Antheridia are variously situated on the sur- 
face of plants or within their tissue. Sometimes they are simple cells; sometimes they 
are composed of a number of cells, containing a mucilaginous fluid, and peculiar small 
bodies called phytozoa (q.v.), which at a certain period exhibit active movements like 
those of animalcules. The antheridia finally discharge their contents through an open- 
ing; and it is supposed by some that their contact with another class of organs, to which 
the name pistillidium (q.v.) has been given, is essential to the production of spores, 
the seeds of cryptogamous plants. But these names are to be regarded as at best only 
provisional, and these views as far from being sufficiently established. 


ANTHOL’OGY (Gr. flower-collection) is the title usually given to a book consisting of 
an unconnected series of choice thoughts, whether in prose or verse, but generally in the 
latter. Of the collections of this kind made in ancient times, which consisted mostly of 
epigrammatic poems, the best known are the 

Greek Anthologies.—The first Greek A. was compiled by Meleager of Gadara, in Syria, 
about 60 B.c. Besides this, there were three or four others belonging to periods consid- 
erably subsequent to the birth of Christ; but all these earlier anthologies are lost. What 
we now possess are two later collections, one by Constantine Cephalas in the 10th c., who 
borrowed largely from one of the earlier anthologies; and another by Maximus Planudes, 
a monk of Constantinople in the 14th c., who, by his tasteless selectidn from the A. of 
Cephalas, rather spoiled than increased the already existing store. The A. of Planudes 
was first issued in print at Florence in 1494 by a learned Greek, John Lascaris, and for 
a long time was the only one known. It went through successive editions, and received 
various improvements. The latest edition (with the Latin version of Grotius, a master- 
piece of latinity and rapid execution) was commenced by Bosch in 1795, and finished by 
Lennep in 1822. Meanwhile, Claude Salmasius had discovered in the Heidelberg library 
(1606) the only extant manuscript of the older and richer A. of Constantine Cephalas, 
which he compared with that of Planudes, copying out the poems not found in the lat- 
ter. During the Thirty Years’ war, the Heidelberg manuscript wasecarried to Rome; 
but in 1797, after the peace of Tolentino, the French contrived to secure possession of 
it, and brought it to Paris. In 1816 it was returned to Heidelberg. After the important 
discovery of Salmasius, the work was often mentioned by the name of the Palatinate 
manuscript, or the Vaticano-Palatinate. Portions of it were published by Jensius, Leich, 
Reiske, and Klotz. The entire collection, augmented by fragments of the older poets, 
and by epigrams found on monuments and in other works, was edited by Brunck at 
Strasburg in 1776, under the title Analecta Veterum Poétarum Gracorum (Selections from 
the Old Greek Poets), and later by Jacob, under the title of Anthologia Graca, sive Poéta- 
rum Grecorum Lusus ex Recensione Brunckii (Greek A., or Fugitive Pieces of the Greek 
Poets, from the corrected Text of Brunck), 1794-1814, at Leipsic. Since then, it has been 
published variously, in whole or part. It is impossible not to admire these gems. No- 
where is there to be found a richer variety of poetic life, greater delicacy of sentiment, 
% more joyous serenity, a greater abundance of wise, true, humane thoughts, than sparkle 
in the pages of the Greek A. To the poet, it presents the most graceful images and 
the most exquisite conceptions; to the philosopher, maxims adorned with all the graces 
of style; to the historian, monumental inscriptions; to the philologist, the most varied 
iorms of an imperishable language; to all, a charming revelation of antiquity. 

Latin Anthologies. —In 1578, Scaliger published at Leyden, in imitation of the Greek 
A., a Latin A., under the title Catalecta Veterum Poétarum (Gatherings from the Old 
Poets), and Pitthéus one at Paris, 1590. A larger collection was issued at Amsterdam 
(1759 and 1778) by Peter Burmann the younger, under the title Anthologia Veterum. Latin- 
orum Epigrammatum et Poématum (A. of Old Latin Epigrams and Poems), a more correct 
und better arranged edition of which was published by Riese (1869-70). 

Asiatic literature is extremely rich in anthologies, which consist sometimes of extracts 
from the best poets, arranged according to the subject, and sometimes of “beauties” of 
their best poets, with biographical notices, which are either placed in chronological 
order, or according to the countries in which the authors lived. 

1. Arabic Anthologies.—Abu-Temam published selections from the old Arabic songs 
previous to the time of Mohammed, arranged them in ten books, and named the entire 
collection after the first book, which consisted of war-songs, Hamdsa. Another famous 
A. is the Divan of the Hudhailites (an Arabic tribe), an edition of which was published 
by Kosegarten. Abu’l-Faraj of Ispahan (died 966) gathered together in his Kitdd al- 
aghani (Book of Songs), all the ancient Arabic songs down to the first centuries of the 
califate. It was published by Kosegarten in 1840. Abu’l-Faraj accompanied the work 
with a minute commentary, which makes it one of the most interesting of the old Arabic 
literature. But the richest and most complete A. of the later Arabic poesy is Yatimat 


I.—17 


Anthon. 5 ¢) 8 


Anthracite. 


al-dahr (the Pearl of the World), by Taalebi, in which the writers ar* arranged according 
to the provinces in which they lived. It has been continued and enlarged since the 
period of the original compiler. Besides these and similar national anthologies, collec- 
tions have been made in almost every province where the Arabic culture and speech 
prevailed. Such, for example, are the numerous Arabico-Spanish ones, though these 
are but little known. 

2. Persian Anthologies.—In the Persian literature, the best known works of this sort 
are Taskarat al Shuara (Lives of the Poets), by Daulet Shah (died 1495), the contents of 
which are to be found almost entire in Hammer’s work on Persian belles-lettres (Vienna, 
1818), and Atesh Kedah (the Fire Temple), by Haje-Lutf-Ali-Beg, who lived about 1770. 
Both works give biographical notices of the Persian poets: the first, in chronological 
order; the second, in topographical order, with specimens from their works. An A. of 
the best Persian poetry, arranged according to the subjects, is given in the Medshua al 
Shuara (a Collection of Poets). 

3. Tatar Anthologies.—Of the poets who have written in the Tatar—i.e., the East 
Turkish or Tshagatai dialect—we possess a collection comprising 441 biographies, with 
specimens of their poetry: Madshalis alnasais (Charming Company), by Mir-Alischir 
(died 1500), and the Lives of the Tatar Poets, by Sadiki, extending down to the 17th 
century. 

4. Turkish Anthologies.—The number of anthologies in the West Turkish, or, as it is 
generally called, the Turkish language, is very numerous. The most famous are—Hesht 
Behesht (the Eight Paradises), by Sehi of Adrianople (died 1548); Taskarat al Shuara 
(Lives of the Poets), by Latifi (died 1582), and, under the same title, a similar work of 
Ashik Tshelebi (died 1571); and the great collection, Suddat al-ashaar (the Blossoms of 
Poetry), by Kassade (died 1621). ‘The substance of these anthologies is to be found 
in Hammer’s /istory of West Turkish Poetry (Pesth, 1836). 

5. Indian Anthologies.—The literature of the Mohammedan population of Hindustan, 
which is a mere copy of Persian literature, has also several anthologies. The most 
important are—Gulzart Ibrahim, by Ali Ibrahim, containing biographical notices of 300 
Hindustani poets, with specimens of their writings; the collection called Diwani Lihan, 
by Beni-Narayan; Guldastat Nishat (Garland of Pleasure), by Manu Lal (Calcutta, 1836), 
and Guldastat Ndzninén, by Kerim-ed-din (Calcutta, 1845). The substance of these 
works is to be found in Garcin de Tassy’s Histoire de la Littérature Hindui et Hindustani 
(Paris, 1889-1847), which, under the title of Tabakati Shuardi Hindi, was translated into 
Hindustani by Kerim-ed-din (Delhi, 1848). In the pure Hindi, we have a rich collection 
of songs, the Ragé Sagar, by Krishnaénanda (Calcutta, 1845). 

6. Sanscrit Anthologies.—The Sanscrit literature is not so rich in anthologies as the 
other oriental literatures. If we do not consider the Vedic hymns, and the collections 
of poems which bear the general title Sataka (a Century), anthological in the proper 
sense, there is only one work of this kind known—viz., the Paddhati, by Sarngadhara, 
towards the close of the 14th c., in which are gathered together 6000 detached strophes 
of the most famous epic, lyric, and dramatic poets of India, arranged under certain 
heads. 

7. Chinese Anthologies.—F rom the earliest ages, the Chinese had the custom of sending, 
along with the yearly tribute to the emperor, copies of such songs as had acquired popu- 
larity. Confucius selected from a great number of these 311 of the most beautiful. 
These are preserved under the name Shi-king (Book of Songs), one of the canonical books 
of the Chinese. This is the oldest A.in the world. A Latin version, by Lacharme, was 
published at Stuttgart, 1830; a German one, by Rickert, at Altona, 1833. Besides this, 
there is Tchao-ming-wen-siouen, a Collection of the finest poems of the time of the Liang 
dynasty (502-556 A.D.), and also Thang-shi, poems of the time of the Thang dynasty 
(618-914 A.D.). 


ANTHON, CHARLES, LL.D., a well-known editor of classics, was b. in the city of 
New York in1797. At the age of 14, he entered Columbia college, where he pursued 
his studies with ardor and success for 4 years. Having been originally intended for 
the law, he now passed through a preliminary practical instruction in his brother’s office, 
and in 1819 was admitted to the bar of the supreme court of the state of New York. His 
time, however, was chiefly devoted to classical literature, for which he soon began to 
acquire a high reputation; and in 1820, when only 23 years of age, he was appointed 
adjunct-professor of languages in Columbia college, which office he held for 15 years. 
He now commenced that series of classical publications which has done so much to make 
available for popular purposes the erudite researches of European scholars. His first 
work was anew edition of Lempriere’s Classical Dictionary, which was almost imme- 
diately reissued in England. In 1830 appeared his larger edition of Horace, quite a 
novelty in its way, on account of the superabundant English notes which accompanied 
the text. In 1838, he issued a smailer edition, for the use of schools and colleges. 
Virgil, Cesar, and other ancient writers have been illustrated in the same attractive 
manner. A.’s editions of the classics have acquired an extensive popularity; but scholars 
are disposed to regard them with a kind of learned aversion, both because of the temp- 
tations they present to the school-boy to overlook the difficulties of a knotty passage, and 
of the superfluous and often unimportant matter which is dignified with the title of 

commentary” or ‘‘notes.” It cannot be doubted, however, that these works have given 
a healthy stimulus to the rudimentary study of the ancient authors. In 1831, A. received 


509 ports 


Anthracite, 


the degree of Lu.p. from his Alma Mater. In 1835, he succeeded Prof. Moore in the 
chair of languages. A. likewise published large works on ancient geography, Greek 
and Roman antiquities, mythology, literature, etc. Hed. July 29, 1867. 


ANTHONY, ADRIAN VARICK Strout, b. New York, 1885; engraver. His profes- 
sional life has been spent chiefly in New York and Boston in the employ of the leading 
publishing houses. Among the books the illustrations of which he engraved are Snow 
Bound, The Skeleton in Armor, and The Lady of the Lake. 


ANTHONY, Henry B., an American statesman, b. R. I., 1815; a graduate of Brown 
university, 1833 ; became editor of the Providence Journal, 1838, which position he held 
more than 20 years; in 1849 was elected governor of Rhode Island ; re-elected in 1850 ; 
and declined further nomination for the office. He was elected U. S. senator in 1858 ; 
re-elected in 1864, ’70, °76 ; was chosen president pro tempore of the senate in 1869, and 
again in 1871. Hed. 1884. 


ANTHONY, Susan BROWNELL, b. Mass., 1820; one of the principal leaders of the 
*‘woman’s rights” movement ; daughter of a Quaker. She was a teacher in New York 
for 15 years, and was long distinguished for zeal and eloquence in the anti-slavery 
cause. She is still an eloquent advocate of total abstinence and woman-suffrage. 


ANTHONY, Saint. See Antony, Sr. 
ANTHOXANT’HUM. See VERNAL GRASS. 


AN'THRACENE, or PARANAPHTHALINE (CoH ss (CH)s, a solid hydrocarbon accom- 
panying naphthalene in the last stages of the distillation of coal tar. It has acquired 
great importance as the material from which alizarine is manufactured. A ton of A. 
can be obtained by the distillation of about 2000 tons of coal, besides the A. contained in 
the pitch. Pure A. occurs in bluish white foliated crystals, having a violet fluorescence. 
A. melts at 213° C. and boils above 360° C. ; it sublimes more or less readily at tempera- 
tures between these two. It is soluble in boiling alcohol, and in light naphthas, from 
which it crystallizes out on cooling. Heated slightly with fuming sulphuric acid, it dis- 
solves gradually, giving a greenish solution of sulphanthracene acid. A. subjected to 
oxidation yields anthraquinone (CsH4)2(CO)2. A. has been made artificially from toluole 
and from benzole. See ALIZARINE. 


AN'THRACITE (Gr. anthraz, a coal), a mineral substance of the nature of coal, but 
consisting of carbon with a minimum amount of hydrogen. It is of a black color, con- 
choidal fracture, and imperfectly metallic lustre (hence called glance-coal). It burns 
slowly, and without flame, and hence is sometimes called dlind-coal. Its vegetable 
origin cannot be doubted. Where strata of common coal have been broken through by 
trap dikes, the coal next the trap is found to be A., with a gradual transition into the 
ordinary state; hence geologists look upon A.as natural coke (q.v.), formed by heat or 
other process from ordinary coal. A.is used as fuel like coke. It is apphed in many 
places to the burning of lime and bricks, the reduction of iron, etc. It occurs exten- 
sively in Ireland, and in some of the coal-fields of England, Scotland, and the continent 
of Europe; but on the largest scale in the United States. 

The anthracite, or hard coal, mined in America comes chiefly from about 470 sq.m. in 
eastern Pennsylvania, where three parallel deposits occur in the counties of Dauphin, 
Schuylkill, Carbon, Northumberland, Columbia, and Luzerne. A. was found very early 
in the valley of Wyoming, and was used by smiths as early as 1768-69. In 1776, A. from 
near Wilkesbarre was floated down the Susquehanna to Carlisle, and was used in the 
government arsenal. A. was discovered at the Lehigh end of the Schuylkill coal-field 
by Philip Ginter, a hunter, in 1791, and a quarry was opened the same year. In 1803, 
100 tons were brought from Summit hill to Philadelphia, and were sold to the city 
government for use in the pumping works, but the engineers did not know how to 
burn it, and it was broken up to gravel the walks in the yards. In 1414, two ark-loads 
were sold at the falls of the Schuylkill at $21 per ton. A morniig was wasted in 
futile attempts to burn this coal, and at noon the workmen and their employer, dis- 
couraged at their illluck, shut up the furnace and went to dinner. On their return 
they were astonished to find a roaring fire, the furnace doors red-hot, and the furnace 
itself in danger of melting. From that day dates the successful use of A, in America. 

A. is the purest form of natural carbon, except the diamond. The carbon varies 
from 95 per cent in specimens picked from the best veins, to 80 or 85 per cent. Coal con 
taining less than 80 per cent of carbon is not classed as anthracite. The volatile matter 
present is water, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; the ash contains oxide of iron, iron 
pyrites, silica, alumina, lime, etc. Pennsylvania anthracites have usually 86 to 94 per 
cent of carbon, 14 to 7 per cent of volatile matter, and 14 to 7 per cent of ash; the 
density varies from 1.4 to 1.63. A. was derived from bituminous coal by heat acting 
under great pressure, and probably caused by pressure in the geological changes which 
threw the anthracite regions, as in eastern Pennsylvania, into great mountain waves. 
The heat drove off all volatile matters which it would develop from the bituminous 
coal, and left the more stable material behind as a natural coke, differing from artifi- 
cial coke only in its superior density. The loss of vegetable matter by decomposition 
in the formation of bituminous coal is estimated at about three fifths of the material, 


Anth : 
Autheppotare. 510 


and in the production of A, at about three fourths; the added compression leaves the 
resulting bulk about one fifth or one eighth the original mass. It follows, then, that 
to produce a vein of A. 30 ft. thick, 240 ft. of vegetable matter must have existed. The 
coal deposits, as found in the A. formation near Pottsville in the Schuylkill valley, 
include 15 groups, with 30 beds or veins more than 2 ft. thick, and 20 seams less than 
2ft. The thickest, or mammoth vein, is a single bed from 20 to 70 ft. thick, in some 
places divided into 3 layers by seams of slate. About four fifths of the present pro 
duction of A. comes from this vein. The aggregate thickness of the coal veins at this 
point is 118 ft., of which 80 ft. may be profitably mined. See Coat. The distribution 
of anthracite coal to 1895 is shown in the following table: 


SHIPMENTS OF PENNSYLVANIA ANTHRACITE COAL SINCE 1820. 


SCHUYLKILL REGION. LEHIGH REGION. Wromine REGION. 
YEARS. ——_———q§—| | gj gK ie me— Total. 
Long tons. | Per ct. | Long tons. | Per ct. | Long tons. |Per ct. 


From 1820 to 1859, inclusive...| 44,049,622 | 52.54 | 17,755,009 | 21.18 | 22,031,210 | 26.28 | 83,835,841 
From 1860 to 1869, inclusive...| 44,769,022 | 41.80 | 20,035,073 | 18.71 | 42,288,823 | 39.49 | 107,092,918 
From 1870 to 1879, inclusive...| 68,237,040 | 34.87 | 35,683,152 | 18.23 | 91,794,184 | 46.90 | 195,714,376 
From 1880 to 1889, inclusive. ..| 96,428,369 | 30.56 | 55,016,850 | 17.44 | 164,077,794 | 52.00 | 315,523,013 
From 1890 to 1895, inclusive...| 75,030,569 | 30.12 | 39,893,353 | 15.28 | 134,266,019 | 54.60 | 249,189,896 


DISTRIBUTION OF ANTHRACITE COAL FOR 1894 AND 1895. 


R. R. Company. Shipments 1894. Shipments 1895. 

Philadelphia \@iReading i. ici arm ectne s ever eircetars inicis Uomo epieicteia sls 8,286,518 9,905,059 
Lehigh Valley. naucm eee ecee oe Salat ht ae ee ne hete ce wie ees 6,423,914 7,360,454 
New. Jersey Centrale v..c ss ccws et anseusceena sire eret tam teraes 4,846,909 5,388,194 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western. .......0:ccccccccscccsceccccatees 5,997,585 6,129,260 
Delaware & Hudson: sin". vce os Ce ase coe ier seen 3,994,251 4,347,843 
Pennaylvatia BR; Roe ys ctcane ta capee eins heb aad aoe eae ee ge nee ee 4,726,875 5,025,645 
Perinaylvania Coal’ Co.4<o..0 focdens ve Oh tee be eee hee ee neers 1,705,317 1,746,832 
Brio: Ru. Rag asics ciitee ce oh Mad eu ceeette tk. Side ake Ean EE Ee Me Cee 1,668,065 1,820,038 
Newsy ork, Ontario & Westerns... dane sees len corti as ales es unre 1,370,049 1,424,407 
New York, Susquehanna’ & Western. o.oo cscs sas creep se ssueeres 740,903 ~ 1,492,244 
Coxe Bross tl? COs das facets cee teisicts eerie tietoeiolatelaveichate rae sie sietaamtarerane tet 1,630,813 1,905,784 

ME'OUAIS << cin Scteleve:sieie ols’ Sielelsi< > ciete bitte Oia eriaterevere eaeielore cela wie eicieicnrietas 41,391,199 46,545,760 


See GEOLOGY. 


ANTHRAX (Greek). A name now generally given to a widely distributed and very 
destructive disease which takes the form of malignant boils, or carbuncles. It is most 
common among cattle and sheep, although it is also very destructive to horses and 
camels, while rabbits, hares and rats are readily affected. Besides its practical impor- 
tance, it has a special theoretical interest, because it was the first infectious disease 
proved to be due to the presence of microscopic vegetable organisms, and because it has 
been more fully studied than any other analagous disease. See GERM THEORY OF 
DISEASE ; BACTERIUM, 


ANTHROPOGRAPHY. See ANTHROPOMETRY. 


ANTHROPOL’ATRY (Gr.), a term signifying, according to its derivation, the worship 
of man, and always employed in reproach. Thus, the early Christians accused the 
heathens of A., because, in their mythology, men were represented as exalted among the 
gods, although an apotheosis (q.v.) was in these cases alleged by their worshipers ; and 
the heathens retorted the charge because of the worship of Christ ; the reply to which 
was the assertion of his divinity. But the term is chiefly known in ecclesiastical history 
in connection with the employment of it by the Apollinarians (q.v.) against the orthodox 
Christians of the 4th and 5th c., with reference to the doctrine of the perfect human 
nature of Christ. See APOLLINARIS. 


ANTHROPOLOGY is the ‘science of man,” or natural history of mankind; in 
the general classification of knowledge, the highest section of zoology, or the science of 
animals, which is itself the highest section of biology, or the science of living beings. 
To A. contribute the sciences of anatomy, physiology, ethics, sociology, prehistoric 
archeology ; although each of these branches of investigation pursues its own subject, 
having no further contact with A. than when its research concerns man. It is the office 
of A. to collect and set forth, as completely as possible, the synopsis of man’s physicac 


Anthrax, 
511 mativopolony: 


and mental nature, and the theory of his course of life and action from his first appear- 
ance on the planet. Looking at man’s place in nature, we see that the higher apes come 
nearest to him in bodily formation, and here it is the office of zoology to point out 
resemblances and differences, and to ascertain relations. ‘‘At this point,” says prof. 
Owen, in a paper on the bony structure of apes, ‘‘every deviation from the human 
structure indicates with precision its real peculiarities, and we then possess the true 
means of appreciating those modifications by which a material organism is especially 
adapted to become the seat and instrument of a rational and responsible soul.” Huxley, 
in comparing man with other orders of mammalia, decides—‘‘ There would remain then 
but one order for comparison, that of the apes, and the question for discussion would 
narrow itself to this: Is man so different from any of these apes that he must form an 
order by himself? Or does he differ less from them than they differ from one another, 
and hence must he take his place in the same order with them?” Here the reference 
plainly limits itself to the human body. Huxley compares man with the gorilla, which 
is on the whole the most man-like of all the apes. The gorilla has a smaller brain-case, 
larger trunk, shorter legs, and longer arms than man. The differences in the skulls are 
remarkably apparent. In the gorilla the face, formed largely by the massive jaw-bones, 
predominates over the brain-case; in man these proportions are reversed. In man the 
skull is set evenly on the spine, the spinal cord being just behind the center of the base 
of the skull; but in the gorilla, which usually goes on all-fours, the skull is inclined 
forward and the spinal cord is further back. In man the surface of the skull is nearly 
smooth, the ridges of the brow having but slight projection, while in the gorilla these 
ridges are enormous. The capacity of the largest gorilla skull yet measured was but 
344 cubic in.; that of the smallest human cranium is almost 63 in. The gorilla’s 
large facial bones and great projection of jaws give its face a brutal expression, and its 
teeth differ from man’s in size and in the number of fangs. The gorilla’s arm is one 
sixth longer than its spine; man’s is one fifth shorter. The legs differ not so much, but 
the hands and feet of the gorilla are longer thanin man. The vertebral column and the 
narrow pelvis differ from those of man; the thumb is much shorter and the hand clum- 
sier than man’s. But a radical difference is in the amount of brain, that of the gorilla 
being 20 0z., while in man it is seldom less than 82. Prof. Huxley, restoring in 
principle the classification of Linnzeus, would include man in the order of primates, and 
divide that order into seven families: 1, anthropini, consisting of man only; 2, catarhini, 
or old world apes; 8, platyrhini, including all new world apes except the marmoset; 4, 
arctopithecint, or marmosets; 5, lemwriniz, or lemurs; 6, chetromyini, or bats; and 7, galeo- 
pithecint, or flying lemurs. 

In fixing man’s place in nature on physiological grounds, much greater difficulty is 
met. ‘There is here an enormous gulf between the most brute-like of men and the most 
man-like of apes; a chasm not to be accounted for by minor structural differences. The . 
bold investigations and speculations of science have not yet been able to eradicate the ~ 
opinion, deeply rooted in modern as in ancient thought, that only a distinctively human 
element can account for the wide severance between man and the highest animal below 
him. Mere mechanical differences do not explain the divergence. Anape with a man’s 
hand and voice would still have to rise through a long structural growth to be indeed a 
man. ‘The greater amount of brain in man comes nearer to explain the difference; but even 
that fails. In some of the senses man is quite inferior; he cannot equal the eagle in sight, 
the dog in scent, nor one of a dozen animals in hearing; though in the senses of tasting 
and feeling he may be superior to any of them. We must conclude that it is by superi- 
ority in quality, as well as in quantity, of brain, and, because of that superiority, by the 
possession of a highly organized language, that man has the power of co-ordinating the 
impressions of his senses, which enables him to understand the world in which he lives, 
and, by understanding, to use, resist, and rule it. This power of using what his senses 
reveal to him is clearly expressed by man in his language. He shares with beasts and 
birds the power to express feelings by emotional cries; the parrot approaches him in 
utterance; and by association of ideas, some of the lower animals understand to a certain 
extent what he says. But the abstract power of using words, in themselves meaningless, 
as symbols by which to convey complex intellectual processes—in which mental con- 
ceptions are suggested, compounded, combined, and even analyzed, and new ones 
created—is a faculty scarcely to be traced in any other animal than man. 

That this power is a function of the brain has been fully proved in diseases of that 
organ, such as aphasia. This may stand among the best evidences that the brain is the 
principal, if not the sole, organ of mind. But animals of lower grade share with man in 
varying degree in many of the high attributes. Sudden terror affects man and beast 
alike; in both the muscles tremble, the breast palpitates, the sphincters are relaxed, and 
the hair stands up. Memory in some of its ranges is very strong in some animals, espe- 
cially in elephants and dogs. Reasoning power is shown when the monkey breaks an 
egg softly and picks away the shell cautiously so as to preserve the entire contents. 
Monkeys also use mechanical defenses, throwing sticks and stones, and nuts from trees, 
at their enemies; and the wonderful mechanical instinct shown in nest-building by birds 
and insects must not be forgotten, yet man rises above all this, and remains the only 
creature who is not subject to nature, but has knowledge and power to control and regulate 
his actions, and to keep in harmony with nature, not by a change of body but by 


Anthropology. a) 12 


an advance of mind. The lower instincts which tend mainly to self-preservation are 
weaker in man than in many other animals, while philosophy, seeking knowledge for its 
own sake; morality, manifested in the sense of truth, the right, and virtue, and religion, 
the belief in, and communion with, some spiritual being above man, are human charac- 
teristics, of which the lower animals show at most but the faintest traces. Yet the 
tracing of physical and even intellectual continuity between the lower animals and man 
need not lead the anthropologist to lower the rank of man in the scale of nature. 

Modern materialists are content to regard the intellectual functions of the brain and 
the nervous system as all there is to be considered in a psychological comparison of man 
with lower animals. They hold that man is a machine—wonderfully complex, to be 
sure, yet only a machine, provided with energy by force from without—which mechani- 
cally performs the acts for which it was constructed, such as eating, moving, feeling, 
and thinking. But their views are strongly opposed by those who combine spiritualism 
and materialism in the doctrine of a composite nature in man; animal as to the body, and 
in some degree as to the mind, or, as some term it, the soul; spiritual as to the soul or, 
_as some prefer to call it, the spirit. Dr. Prichard sustains the time-honored doctrine 
which refers the mental faculties to the operation of the soul. Mivart, the comparative 
anatomist, says: ‘‘ Man, according to the old scholastic definition, is a ‘rational animal,’ 
and his animality is distinct in nature from his rationality, though inseparably joined dur- 
ing life in one comm yn personality. Man’s animal body must have had a different source 
from that of the spiritual soul which informs it, owing to the distinctness of the two 
orders to which those two existences severally belong.” In this view not life only but 
thought also is a function of the animal system, in which man excels all other animals as 
to the perfection of organization; but beyond this, man embodies an immaterial and dis- 
tinctively spiritual principle which no lower creature possesses, and which makes the 
resemblance of the ape to him merely superficial. It is not our business to decide upon 
these conflicting doctrines, each of which has the support of many names high in science 
and philosophy. 

Concerning the origin of man, opinion is divided between the two great schools of 
biology—that of creation and that of.evolution. The old doctrine of the contempora- 
neous appearance on earth of all animals was long ago set aside by the researches of 
geology, and it is admitted that the animal kingdom, past and present, includes a vast 
series of successive forms, appearing and disappearing in the lapse of ages. Our sub- 
ject requires us to ascertain what formative relation subsists among these species and 
genera—the last link of the argument reaching to the relation between man and the 
lower creatures preceding him in time. Agassiz admits that there is a manifest prog- 
ress in the succession of beings, an increasing similarity between the living fauna, 
and among vertebrates especially an increasing resemblance to man. But among the 
causes of this succession of types he does not include parental descent: ‘‘the link by 
which they are connected is of a higher and immaterial nature, and their connection is 
to be sought in the view of the Creator himself,” whose ultimate aim, to which all crea- 
tion and progress was made auxiliary, was to introduce man as the crown of his work. 
This is the ‘‘ creationist view.” But the evolutionist maintains that successive species of 
animals, though never so diverse in appearance, are really connected by parental descent, 
having become modified in the course of successive generations. Lamarck says ‘‘ man 
is co-descendant with other species of some ancient, lower, and extinct form.” Darwin’s 
conclusion that man is the descendant from some animal of the s¢miax (monkey) stock is 
well known, though his qualification that ‘‘we must not fall into the error of supposing 
that the early progenitor of the whole sémian stock, including man, was identical 
with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or monkey,” is not so widely recog- 
nized. The problem of the origin of man cannot be properly discussed apart from the 
full problem of the origin of species (see Species). The likeness between man and other 
animals which both schools try to account for; the explanation of any interval with 
apparent want of intermediate forms, which seem to the creationists so absolutely a 
separation between species; the evidence of useless rudimentary organs, such as in man the 
external shell of the ear, and the muscles which enable some men to move their ears 
(which rudimentary parts the evolutionists hold to be explainable only as relics of an 
earlier specific condition)—these, which are the chief points in the argument on the origin 
of man, belong to general biology. The theory of evolution tends towards the supposi- 
tion of ordinary causes (such as natural selection) producing modification in species; the 
theory of creation has recourse to acts of supernatural intervention. A middle course 
is suggested by Mivart: that man’s body belongs to natural evolution; his soul to super- 
natural creation. But this compromise, though it seems to be gaining adherents, thus 
far fails to satisfy either school. There is no question, however, that evolution, as a 
distinct theory, apart from all supposed connection with materialism, is securing the 
assent of scientists. We waitto see whether the discovery of intermediate forms will 
go on till it produce a disbelief in any real separation between neighboring species, and 
especially whether geology can furnish traces of the hypothetical animal which wag 
man’s nearest ancestor, while not yet man. 

_ Coming to look into the antiquity of man, we remember that it is only a few years 
since English-speaking people very generally accepted the chronology of Archbishop 
Usher, and agreed, without investigation and almost without question, that the earth 


RIVERS] 
513 Anthropology. 


and all that it contains was created 4004 years before the advent of Christ. That and 
a!] other known systems of chronology, as fixing the date of the earth’s origin, have been 
entirely overthrown by geological and astronomical facts; and even as fixing the date of 
man’s origin they have been with great force called in question, and by many investi- 
gators positively rejected. These last assert that it is useless to speculate as to years or 
even ages in order to fix dates. The asserted discovery of human bones and articles 
manufactured by men in strata holding the remains of the fossil species of elephant, 
thinoceros, etc., would, unless disproved, inevitably lead to the inference that man 
existed during the life-period of those animals. Further evidence has been found that 
seems to take man back to the quaternary or drift period; and such evidences are gen- 
erally accepted by geologists as carrying back the existence of man at least into the 
period of the post-glacial drift, in what is now called the quaternary period, indicating 
an antiquity at the very least of tens of thousands of years. The 20 centuries of Eng- 
lish and French history are counted but as a mere fraction of the time that has elapsed 
since the stone implements of prehistoric tribes were buried under beds of gravel and 
sand by the rivers now known as the Thames and the Somme. If we consider the geo- 
logical formation of such valleys as those in which these rivers flow, and estimate from 
present data the time required for the rivers to dig such valleys, it follows that the drift 
beds and the men whose works they inclose must have had existence at a period so 
remote that any comparison with the received chronology of years and centuries is 
impossible, and the attempt to fix'dates would be absurd. For the present we must be 
content to begin with ‘‘ Once on atime.” Still, certain inferences have been drawn that 
may be noted. A boring of 90 ft. in the Nile valley, reached pottery and burnt brick, 
showing that man in a fairly civilized state dwelt there so long ago that, at the rate of 
deposit by the river, it must have been several thousands of years. The lake dwellings 
of Switzerland—huts in number amounting to villages, built on piles in the water at 
some distance from the shore for safety against attack—indicate very remote antiquity; 
and the same may be said of the Danish remains of fire-places, or kitchen refuse heaps. 
Extant chronicles must also be noted. ‘The oldest written records are hieroglyphic 
inscriptions, and the oldest can be hardly less, and may probably be much more, than 
3000 years earlier than the Christian era. It is certain that more than 4000 years ago the 
Egyptian nation occupied a high plane in industrial, social, and political culture. The 
inscribed bricks of temples in Chaldea are of a date earlier than 2000 B.c., and Chinese 
Civilization can be certainly traced back to a period anterior to 2000 B.c. Until recently 
it was the common opinion that the early state of society was one of comparatively high 
culture; but now the opinion is paramount that whatever may have been the earliest 
atate, all recorded human civilization has been gradually developed from a state of bar- 
barism. This hypothesis makes it necessary, it is claimed, to add 4000 to 5000 years to 
the earliest dates for Egyptian, Babylonian, and Chinese civilizations as generally traced. 
It is claimed, also, that much further time should be allowed during which the knowl- 
edge, arts, and institutions of these countries attained the level at which we fix their 
earliest dates. ‘This view is thought to be strongly corroborated by philology. Hebrew 
and Arabic are closely related languages, neither of them being the parent of the other, 
but both the offspring of some earlier tongue. Therefore, when the Hebrew records have 
taken back to the most ancient admissable date the existence of the Hebrew lan- 
guage, this date must have been long preceded by that of the extinct parent language of 
the whole Semitic family; while this again may be considered to be the descendant of 
languages slowly shaping themselves through ages into this peculiar type. The evidence 
of the Aryan, or Indo-European, family of tongues is advanced as still more striking. 
‘he Hindoos, Medes, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Kelts, and Slavs make their 
appearance at dates more or less remote, as nations separate in language as in history, 
Nevertheless, it is now generally believed that in some high antiquity, before these 
nations were divided from the parent stock and distributed over Asia and Europe by the 
Aryan dispersion, a single barbaric people stood as physical and political representative 
of the nascent Aryan race, speaking an Aryan language, now perhaps extinct, from 
which, by aseries of modifications not to be estimated as possible in any brief period, 
there arose languages which have been mutually unintelligible since the dawn of history, 
and between which only an age of advanced philology could trace the fundamental rela- 
tionship. Combining these considerations, we find the basis claimed for the hypothesis 
that the furthest date to which writing, or rock inscriptions, or language, extends, is to 
be regarded as but the earliest distinctly visible point of the historic period, beyond 
which stretches back the unknown series of prehistoric ages. Advocates of the old 
chronology, while calling attention to the fact that many of these assertions are as yet 
hypotheses awaiting proof—and that some of the most important of them can be sub- 
stantiated only on an ascertainment that present rates of geological formation and lin- 
guistic construction exactly decide the rate of progress under perhaps extremely diverse 
conditions in an unknown past—are yet not unready to concede that the old chronology 
must be regarded as uncertain in its starting-point, as well as indefinite in its terms, and 
as leaving gaps which are to be filled by an increasing knowledge. They demand, how- 
ever, that these deficiencies be left unfilled until the undeniable facts are in hand for 
that purpose; and that till then, no merely probable hypothesis be accepted as of final 
authority. It should be observed that the Bible is not, as is commonly supposed, 


) | rl 


| Anthropometry. 
Anthropomorphism. d14 


responsible for Archbishop Usher’s chronology. That system is, of many possible sys 
tems equally accordant with the Bible, the one which has gained the widest acceptance. 

In classifying the races of mankind, a number of systems have prevailed. The color 
of the skin is the first striking difference in showing race, and this distinction is found 
in ancient Egyptian portraits, and writers, ancient and modern, speak of white, yellow, 
and black races. The structure and arrangement of the hair is a better indication of 
race than the tint of the skin. Stature is an uncertain guide, for there are short and tall 
men in all races; still, an average rate of stature may indicate descent, and it is note 
worthy that people of Keltic origin in Great Britain are shorter than those of Teutonic 
descent (see ANTHROPOMETRY). ‘The conformation of the skull has been used also, and 
careful measurements of form and capacity have been made; but shapes of the skull 
vary so greatly even in the same tribe, as to render this method of determining race practi- 
eally worthless. The features, or general contour of the face, being at once apparent to the 
eye, are much used by scientific observers to determine race. Some of the most notable 
features, in contrast with European types, are seen in the oblique eyes of the Chinese, 
the pointed Arab chin, the Kirghis snub nose, the fleshy lips of the negro, and the broad 
ears of the Kalmuk. In Europe and America the Hebrews are distinguished by their 
peculiar features, and some physiognomists will undertake to select almost any nationality 
by mere examination of faces. The adaptation of a people to its climate forms a definite 
race-character, and typical instances of the relation of race-constitutions to particular 
fliseases are seen in the liability of Europeans in the West Indies to yellow fever, from 
Which, as has been thought, though scarcely proved, negroes are commonly exempt. 
Even the vermin infecting different races of men have been classified. Physical 
capabilities of races differ widely; but as the same is true of individuals of all races, such 
differences can hardly be used for race-classification. 'Two strongly marked mental con- 
trasts are found in the shy and impassive Malay and the sociable and demonstrative 
Papuan. Classifications by race have been numerous, but all more or less imperfect, and 
some worthless. Blumenbach’s “‘ five races ” is a widely known classification: Caucasian, 
Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. Pickering made 11 races, Bory de St. 
Vincent 15, and Desmoulins 16; but no modern naturalist would accept any of these 
classifications. On the whole, probably Huxley’s scheme more nearly than any other 
approaches to a classification that may be accepted in definition of the principal varieties 
of mankind, regarded from a zoological point of view. He makes four types: 1. The 
Australoid ; chocolate-brown skin, dark brown or black eyes, black hair, narrow skull, 
brow-ridge strikingly developed, projecting jaw, coarse lips, and broad nose. This type 
is best represented by native Australians, and the coolies of southern India. 2. The WVegroid; 
chiefly the negroes of Africa; with dark brown to brown-black skin, eyes of like hue, hair 
usually black, crisp, and wooly: skull narrow, but orbital ridges not prominent, jaws 
projecting, nasal bones depressed, and thick lips. 3. The Mongoloid ; prevailing over 
the area east from Lapland to Siam; of short build, yellowish-brown skin, black and 
straight hair, black eyes, broad skuil, brow-ridges usually not prominent, small flat nose, 
or eyes set obliquely. 4. The Xanthochroi, or fair whites; skin almost colorless, blue or 
gray eyes, hair from straw color to chestnut, and skull large though variable in size. To 
these four general divisions he adds Melanochroi ; much like the fair whites, but of 
smaller stature and darker shade of hair, eyes, and skin—such as the Kelts, the people 
of southern Europe, the Greeks and Arabs. 

On the origin of races there has long been, and still continues, an earnest discussion. 
On one hand, it isclaimed by monogenists that all men descended from a single pair; on 
the other, it is contended by polygenists that there were many primary species of separate 
origin. The monogenists rest upon the Bible, and point to Adam and Eve; the polyg- 
enists, while arguing from science, with equal confidence, show biblical passages from 
which they infer the existence of contemporaneous non-Adamite races; and even political 
science was called in to support the idea of more than one original race, when the 
institution of slavery in the United States was defended on the assumption that the 
negroes were a different race, inferior to the whites or the Indians. We do not enter 
into even a statement of the many variations of the human type, but observe that the 
general tendency of the evolution theory is against constituting separate species where 
the differences are moderate enough to be accounted as due to variations from a single 
type; while it is not inconsistent with evolution to claim that several distinct simious 
species may have culminated in several races of men. Still the drift of the evolution 
theory is towards unity of origin. Darwin says: ‘‘ When naturalists observe a close 
agreement in numerous small habits, tastes, and dispositions, between two or more domestie 
races, or between nearly allied natural forms, they use the fact as an argument that all 
are descended from a common progenitor, who was thus endowed; and consequently 
that all should be classed under the same species. The same argument may be applied 
with much force to the races cf man.” The experience of the last few years vountenances 
Mr. Darwin’s prophecy, that before long the dispute between those who hold that all 
men came from one pair and those who hold to diverse originals, will die a silent and 
unnoticed death. 

See Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1870) ; Tylor, Primitive Culture (1871), and An- 
thropology (1881) ; Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvilker, 6 vols. (1859-71) ; 
and the Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques.(1882 foll.). 


Anthropometry, 
515 Anthropomorphism, 


_ ANTHROPOM'ETRY (the measurement of man), of late years much attended to 
by anthropologists, foremost among whom is Dr. A. Weisbach, chief physician to the 
Austro-Hungarian hospital in Constantinople. His measurements refer to 19 different 
peoples and more than 200 individuals from all parts of the earth, and take cognizance 
of the pulse, the length of the body, the circumference of the head, the height and length 
of the nose, as well as the comparison of the length of the arm and bones with each 
other. Thus, for example, the number of pulse-beats per minute varies within wide 
limits; the Congo negroes, 62, and, next to them, the Hottentots and Roumanians, 64, 
have the slowest pulses. Then follow the Zingani, 69; Magyars and Kafirs, 70; north 
Slavs, 72; Siamese, 74; Sundanese and Sandwich islanders, 78; Jews, Javanese, and 
Bugis, 77; Amboinese and Japanese, 78; and lastly, the Chinese, 79. The quickest pulses 
belong to the Tagals, 80; the Madurese and Nikobars, 84. As to height, the smallest 
among the peoples measured are the Hottentots, 1286 millimeters; this is far below any 
other people, as the next, the Tagals, are 1562. Then follow the Japanese, 1569; 
the Amboinese, 1594; Jews, 1599; Zingani, 1609; Australians, 1617; Siamese, 1622; 
Madurese, 1628; south Chinese, 1680; Nikobars, 1631; Roumanians, 1643; Sundanese; 
1646; Javanese, 1657; Magyars, 1658; Bugis, 1661; north Slavs, 1674; norvh Chinese, 
1675; and Congo negroes, 1676. The longest measurements, however, are found among 
the Sandwich islanders and Kanaks, 1700 millimeters; Kafirs, 1758; and the Maoris 
of New Zealand, 1757. To compare these with European peoples as to stature, we find 
that that of the English and Irish is 1690 millimeters; the Scotch, 1708; Swedes, 1700; 
Norwegians, 1728; Danes, 1685; Germans, 1680; French, 1667; Italians, 1668; and, last- 
ly, Spaniards and Portuguese, 1658. The greatest circumference of the head is found 
among the Patagonians, 614 millimeters, and Maoris, 600. Following these are the Katfir, 
575; Nikobars, 567; north Slavs, 554; Congo negroes, south Chinese, and Kanaks, 553; 
Tagals, Sundanese, and Roumanians, 552; Japanese, 550; Bugis and Jews, 545; Amboi- 
nese, 544; Javanese, 542; Hottentots, 540; and, lastly, the Zingani and Siamese, 529. 
Stature and circumference of head generally stand to each other in opposite relations; 
although there are exceptions, as in the case of the Siamese with small stature and small 
head, and the Patagonians with great height and large heads. The breadth of the root 
of the nose is found greatesfamong the Patagonians, 41 millimeters; less among the Congo 
negroes, 86; Australians, Maoris, and south Chinese, 85; Sundanese, Amboinese, Bugis, 
Nikobars, Tagals, and Kanaks, 34; north Chinese, Kafirs, north Slavs, Roumanians, 
Magyars, and Zingani, 33; Jews, Japanese, Siamese, Javanese, and Hottentots, 82. 
The Jews and Patagonians excel in length of nose, 71 millimeters. Following these are 
the Kanaks, 54; Roumanians, 53; north Slavs and Maoris, 52; Tagals, 51; Japanese and 
north Chinese, 50; Siamese, Magyars, Zingani, Madurese, 49; Amboinese, 48; Nikobars, 
47; Sundanese, Javanese, south Chinese, Kafirs, 46; Hottentots, 44; Congo negroes, 42; 
Bugis, 41; and Australians, 80. The breadth of the nostrils gives quite another arrange- 
ment. Here we find the Australians excel, 52 millimeters; then come Congo negroes, 
48; Kafirs and Patagonians, 44; Tagals, 42; Nikobars, 41; Hottentots and Sundanese, 40; 
Malay races, 39; south Chinese, 87; north Chinese, 36; Japanese, north Slavs, Rouma- 
nians, Zingani, 35; Magyars and Jews, 34. With regard to the bust, it is found that the 
North American Indians and the Polynesians excel all others in size. Next to them 
come the north, middle, and east Europeans; after them come the west Europeans, 
negroes, and after them the south Europeans, who are followed by the east Asiatics and 
Malays. Among European peoples, in respect of race, we find the narrowest chests 
among the Semites, followed in order by. Romany, Kelts, Fins, Zingari, Germans, and 
Slavs. Since 1882 anthropometry has been used in the administration of the criminal 
law, in accordance with the system of Alphonse Bertillon of Paris, which is intended to 
afford a positive means of identifying any person who has been once examined accord- 
ing to anthropometric rules. Measurements for this purpose include height, length and 
width of head, length of the middle and little fingefs, forearm, foot, and length and 
breadth of the region of the ear. All marks and scars, the color of the hair and eyes, 
and the phalanges and articulations of the fingers are noted. In the measurement of 
over 130,000 persons by the Paris police, it was found that in no two cases did the meas- 
urements agree. In June, 1891, Mr. Francis Galton, in a paper in Nature, showed that 
one of the surest anthropometric tests was derived from impressions of the inked forefinger. 
See Anthropometrie Militatre in Journal de la Société de Statistique de Paris (Nov., 1896). 


ANTHROPOMOR’PHISM (from the Gr. anthropos, man, and morphé, a form), the 
application, in a figurative way, to God, of terms which properly relate to human beings. 
Thus, in the holy Scriptures, we read of the eye, the ear, the arm, the hand of God, and 
of his remembering, forgetting, etc. This A. appears to arise of necessity from our 
incapacity of forming conceptions of things spiritual, or finding any terms in which to 
express them, except by analogies derived from things cognizable by our senses, so that 
even the language of adoration is borrowed from the familiar things of this world. It 
must be evident, however, that A., employed in an unguarded manner, or too grossly 
understood, might lead to most serious error; and a tendency has manifested itself at 
various times in the history of the Christian church to ascribe to the Divine Being a 
form and parts like those of men. Thus, the Audeans (see AupDa&uSs), a Syrian 
monastic sect which sprang up in the 4th c., were accused, and, it would seem, justly, 
of holding that God was possessed of a human shape, and that, when the Bible said that 
“God created man in his own image,’ the words are to be. understood of this shap¢ 


i 
; | 
i | 


VIChSvint 
Anthropophagi. 
Agticcdin. 516 


literally. The same error was at a later period ascribed to the Waldenses, but there is 
no evidence of the justice of the accusation. A tendency to A. may indeed be regarded 
as always existing, and so requiring to be guarded against in the mind of every man; 
but the instances have been rare and isolated, although they have from time to time 
occurred, in which anthropomorphite views have been fully adopted and openly expressed 
among Christians. The error of the anthropomorphites has, however, found countenance 
from the speculations of philosophers. Hobbes, Forster, and Priestley ascribed to the 
Divine Being a sort of subtle body. Fichte, on the other hand, rejected the very 
doctrine of the personality of the Divine Being as anthropomorphic, and represented 
God as the moral order of the universe ; and Schelling, Hegel, Feuerbach, and Schleier- 
macher substituted for the objective personality of God a subjective consciousness of 
God in the human soul.—The term anthropopathism is sometimes employed to denote 
the ascription to God of human affections and passions, although A., in its most general 
sense, includes this. The language of Scripture, in the many instances of this kind, 
must be interpreted according to the same general principles which are applicable in 
those of A. strictly so called, with the same discrimination of the figurative from the 
literal, and the same constant recognition of the absolute spirituality and unchangeable- 
ness of God; yet so that important truths conveyed by means of such language, and 
which it is probable could only be conveyed to us by such language, in accordance with 
our mental constitution, may not be rejected or obscured. And here, it must be con- 
fessed, there is greater difficulty than with regard to A. strictly so called. 


ANTHROPOPH’AGI. See CANNIBAL. 
AN'THUS and ANTHIDE. See Prrrrt. 
ANTHYL’'LIS. See KipnNry VETCH. 
ANTI'ARIS and ANTJAR. See UPAs. 


ANTIBES (anciently Antipolis), a fortified seaport in the department of the Alpes 
Maritimes, in the s.e. of Provence, France, lat. 48° 34’ n., long. 7° 8’ e. Pop. ’91, 7401, 
It stands on the e. side of a small neck of land called La-Garoupe, lying w. from the 
mouth of the Var, in a fertile district. The harbor is only serviceable, however, for 
small craft. It is a military station of the third rank, possesses a naval school, and has 
considerable trade in olives, dried fruits, salt fish, oil, etc. 'The anchovies prepared at 
A. are held in high estimation. The environs of the t. are beautifully adorned with 
gardens, vineyards, and orchards. 

A.is avery old place, having been founded by a colony of Greeks from Massilia 
(Marseilles), of which it was a dependency. In the time of Augustus it was elevated to 
the rank of an Italian city, and must have attained a high degree of prosperity, if we are 
to judge from the ruins that still exist. After the wreck of the old Roman empire, A. 
suffered the fate of all classic cities in that region, becoming subject to successive tribes 
of barbarians from the north. In the 9th c., it was destroyed by the Saracens; in the 
16th c., it was fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV.; during the Austrian war of succes- 
sion, it sustained a siege of three months (1746); and, in recent times, gained some 
notoriety from having closed its gates against Napoleon on his return from Elba. 


AN'TICHLORE is the name given to commercial sulphite of soda by paper-makers. 
When the rags are reduced to a pulp, they are bleached by chloride of lime (bleaching- 
powder), which thoroughly soaks the pulp, and is very difficult to wash out. The traces 
of chlorine thus left in the pulp pass into the manufactured paper and tend to bleach 
the writing-ink which may be traced thereon. To free the pulp from the residue of the 
chlorine, some sulphite of soda is employed, and hence the name A., which literally 
signifies ‘‘against (anti) chlorine.” 


ANTICHRIST (from Gr. anti, against, and Christos, Christ). The general notion of A., 
as a power opposing itself to the yeign of the Messiah, may be traced back beyond the 
Christian era. Its origin is perhaps to be found in the prophecy of Ezekiel concerning 
the doom of Gog and Magog. In accordance with the old saying, ‘“When need is 
sorest, help is nearest,” the Jews conceived that, immediately previous to the Messiah’s 
reign, national adversity must be experienced in an extreme degree, and that an agent 
of Satan would appear, who must be overcome before prosperity could be restored. This 
was A. The idea is adopted in the New Testament, although the term A. occurs in no 
place of Scripture, except in the first and second epistles of John. From such passages 
as the prophecies of the Savior, Matt. xxiv. and Mark xiii., it has been inferred by some 
that probably the great truth which this conception was intended to shadow forth was 
similar to that illustrated in the life of ‘‘the man of sorrows”’—that only through tribu- 
lation and strife could the reign of the Messiah be established; that Christ’s kingdom, 
like Christ himself, could be made perfect only through suffering. And with this the 
language of John in his epistles, and of Paul in passages which seem to embody the 
same idea, is supposed to accord. Nor is it regarded as a fatal objection to this 
opinion, that in the Apocalypse the antichristian power or element is associated with the 
great heathen capital Rome, symbolically designated Babylon. 

But this opinion neither has been nor is generally prevalent. The idea of A. early 
became associated with that of the millennium (q.v.), retaining a form very similar to 
that which it had among the Jews before the advent of the Messiah; and popular opinion 


L | 


Anthro hagi 
5 1 i Anti-char ¥ 


has always sought to find for it some actual and definite embodiment. In the 5thc., a 
popular delusion prevailed, founded on the passage in the Apocalypse, xvii. 8, that. Nero 
was not dead, and would return in the character of A. Since the 16th c., the prevalent 
opinion among Protestants has been that A. is the Roman Catholic church; an idea 
entertained even at an earlier period, as, for instance, by Ludwig of Bavaria, regarding 
pope John XXII., by Occam, Wickliffe, and his pupil Cobham, and the Bohemian 
reformer Janow, and which seems to have prevailed to a considerable extent among the 
Hussites and other opponents of Rome. This opinion has, of course, been strenuously 
opposed by Roman Catholic writers, as by Bossuet, who, in his comments on the 
Apocalypse, ably advocates the opinion that pagan Rome was A. The opinions of 
Roman Catholics, however, are much divided upon this subject, many of them main- 
taining that A. is yet to come and ‘‘to raise the last persecution,” as ‘‘no one has yet 
appeared to whom we can apply the character which the infallible word of God declares 
shall be that of the real A.” —Heenan’s Catechism of the Christian Religion. 

The opinion prevalent among Protestants depends upon the identification of A. with 
the mystical Babylon of the Apocalypse, and with other symbolic representations in that 
book, of a power opposed to the cause of Christ, and also with the ‘‘ wicked” one, the 
‘man of sin,” and ‘‘son of perdition,” in 2d Thess. ii. Thus it is maintained that a 
definite embodiment of the idea of A. is to be sought in history, and that this is to be 
found in the church of Rome or in the papal power. And Protestants refer to the 
gradual growth and development of the errors which they regard as culminating in the 
church of Rome, as accordant with the declaration of Paul in 2d Thess. ii., that ‘‘ the 
mystery of iniquity doth already work,” and with that of John, ‘‘ Even now are there 
many antichrists.” 

There have been, however, among Protestants eminent opponents of this opinion, 
among whom may be named Grotius. His own opinion was singular, that Caligula, the 
Roman emperor, was A. In the Greek church, the term A. has been understood as 
especially applicable to Mohammed, or to the dominion of the Turks and Saracens. 
Almost every great or striking event—the arrival of the year 1000; the beginning of the 
crusades; the ‘‘ black death” and other plagues in the 14th c.; the career of Napoleon 
in 1805; and even the political movements of 1848 and 1849—has suggested new inter- 
pretations of the passages of Scripture regarding A. See REVELATION oF Sr. JOHN. 


ANTICLIMAX, in rhetoric, an abrupt declension by a writer or speaker from the 

dignity to which his idea has attained : as in the lines, 
““The king of France, with twenty thousand men, 
Marched up the hill—and then marched down again.” 

It is intentionally employed in ridicule or satire. Sometimes it partakes of the nature 
of antithesis ; as, ‘‘ Die ; and endow a college, or a cat.”’ 

ANTICLI'NAL AXIS, a geological term denoting an imaginary plane of division 
between those portions of a stratum which dip in opposite directions downwards from o 
ridge lying between them. 


ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, the name adopted ‘y an association which concentrated 
the efforts of the free-trade party in Britain, and enabled them to carry the repeal of the 
corn-laws, and establish in practice the principle of free-trade. The results thus accom- 
plished will have to be considered under other heads, as CoRN-LAWS, FREE-TRADE, etc. 
This statement is limited to a brief account of the league itself, and its method of 
working. Associations to obtain the repeal of the corn-laws existed in several places 
before the embodiment of the league—one especially was founded in London in 18384, 
In 1838, Mr. Cobden and others took the opportunity of the periodical assemblages of 
the Manchester chamber of commerce for exposing the deleterious influence of the 
restrictive commercial policy on the manufactures and trade of the country. The friends 
of free-trade, at the same time, occasionally met in Manchester to discuss and promul- 
gate their views; but it was in the beginning of 1839 that the strength of the party was 
first drawn to a focus by the appointment of delegates from the manufacturing districts 
to proceed to London, and press their principles on the legislature. Mr. Charles Villiers, 
afterwards president of the board of trade, undertook the leadership of their cause in the 
house of commons, of which Mr. Cobden, who subsequently served it so effectively, was 
not thena member. On the 19th of Feb., Mr. Villiers moved that the house resolve 
itself into a committee of inquiry on the corn-laws; and again, on the 12th of Mar., he 
moved that certain manufacturers be heard by counsel at the bar of the house against the 
corn-laws, as injurious to their private interest. The former motion was rejected by 342 
to 195; the latter, by 361 to 172. Immediately on the return of the delegates from their 
ansuccessful effort, the league was formed. Its constitution dates from the 20th Mar., 
1839, when resolutions were adopted, at a meeting in Manchester, for ‘‘the formation of 
a permanent union, to be called ‘the anti-corn-law league,’ composed of all the towns 
and districts represented in the delegation, and as many others as might be induced to 
form anti-corn-law associations, and to join the league. 

““Delegates from the different local associations to meet for business from time to 
time at the principal towns represented. 


& 


) 1a { » 
Anticosti. 
| Antigua. 5 1 8 


‘‘With the view to secure unity of action, the central office of the league shall be 
established in Manchester, to which body shall be intrusted, among other duties, those 
of engaging and recommending competent lecturers, the obtaining the co-operation of 
the public press, and the establishing and conducting of a stamped circular, for the 
purpose of keeping a constant correspondence with the local associations.” 

It was resolved that, in addition to the funds which local associations might provide 
for their own district purposes, £5000 should be put at the disposal of the central body, 
and that every person, or collection of persons, contributing £50, should have one vote 
in its deliberations. The league collected and distributed large sums of money. Just 
before its principles became triumphant in the free-trade legislation of 1846, it demanded 
a quarter of a million, which would have been supplied had it been necessary. 

It is of the greatest moment that the cause of the success of the league should not be 
misunderstood: it triumphed not by possessing money, but by teaching scientific truth. It 
was a great organization for educating the country in political economy. The leading 
principles of this science were so little known when the league began, and had been so effec- 
tually promulgated before its end, that a majority of the parliament who, in 1841, had been 
elected for the support of protection, were converted to free-trade, the conversion including 
the prime-minister, Sir Robert Peel. The key note to the literature of the league was struck 
by the beautiful logical exposition of free-trade in Gen. Thompson’s Catechism ef the Corn- 
laws, which, with other tracts, was profusely dispersed over the country, while a iarge staff 
of lecturers aided in the task of education. Thinking to serve their cause in the same 
manner, the protectionist party, at a meeting held in the duke of Somerset’s house, on 
17th Feb., 1844, founded ‘‘the agricultural protection society of Great Britain.” This 
body had inexhaustible wealth at command, but in reality its exertions only helped to 
further the cause of free-trade, by promoting discussion, and prompting people to work 
out the question for themselves. See FREE TRADE: TARIFF. 


ANTICOS'TI, an island in the gulf of St. Lawrence, with light-houses at different parts 
of the coast, between lat. 49° and 50° n.; and long. 61° 40’ and 64° 30’ w. It is 
estimated to contain 2500 sq.m. Neither to the settler nor to the mariner is A. of any 
value. It is destitute of harbors, the n: shore being mountainous, and the s. low and 
beset by shoals; while, to increase the danger, the neighboring currents are said to be 
capricious. The climate is severe; while the surface is an alternation of rocks and 
swamps. The principal inhabitants are the keepers of the light-houses. Pop. ’91, 253. 
The island is surrounded by considerable salmon, trout, cod, and herring fisheries. Itisa 
valuable resort for seal and bear hunting. The most extensive peat deposits in the 
dominion are found in A. Marl also exists in most of the small lakes and ponds along 
the coast. 


ANTIC'YRA, a city of Phocis on the Corinthian gulf. The people were expelled by 
Philip of Macedon, and subsequently it fell under the Romans. ‘The site is yet discern- 
ible, and is known as Aspra Spitia,or the white houses.—Another A. was a city of Thes- 
saly, famous for producing hellebore, which was deemed a cure for madness. 


ANTIDOTE (Gr., given against), a counter-poison. See Poisons. 


ANTI£E TAM, Barrie oF, Sept. 17, 1562 ; one of the most important conflicts in the 
late civil war in the United States, 1861-65. ‘The name is taken from a small but 
deep river in Maryland, emptying into the Potomac, 6 m, above Harper’s Ferry. The 
battle was the result of an attempt of the confederates to capture the city of Washington, 
in the expectation that Maryland would then join their cause and insure final victory. 
The federal army was commanded by Gen. George B. McClellan, and the confederates 
by Gen. Robert E. Lee. On the 4th, 5th, and 6th of Sept., the confederates crossed 
the Potomac near Leesburg, and occupied Frederick and the country along the Monoc- 
acy. McClellan threw a part of his army between them and the fords of the Potomac, 
forcing Lee to leave Frederick on the 12th, the latter marching towards Hagerstown. 
On the 10th ‘‘ Stonewall” Jackson, the confederate general, had moved by forced marches 
towards Harper’s Ferry, which important position, with 12,000 men, surrendered to him on 
the 15th. Meanwhile the federal army followed Lee towards the north, and on the 14th 
took Crampton’s Gap and the heights of South Mountain, forcing Lee to retreat over the 
Antietam to Sharpsburg. On the 16th the federals under Gen. Hooker gained advan- 
tage in a sharp engagement, and on the 17th the real battle was begun by Hooker, who 
drove back the left wing of the confederates under Jackson, while Gen. Burnside engaged 
their right wing. The battle raged around a cornfield surrounded by woods, to which 
Hooker had driven the enemy. The federal troops were twice repulsed, but gained the 
position on the third attack. Hooker was wounded, and the command fell to gen. 
Sumner. Meanwhile on the extreme left Burnside had twice unsuccessfully tried to 
cross the A., but at 8 p.m. drove the enemy until a range of hills occupied by batteries 
checked him. At 4o’clock he was ordered to take the position at any cost, and took 
the first battery. But the arrival of Gen. A. P. Hill’s division strengthened the confed- 
erates, and Burnside reported that he could not hold his position if not assisted by 
McClellan with the federal reserve. McClellan did not heed this demand, and the. 
federals were driven back to the bridge, which the confederates declined to attack. 
When darkness ended the contest, the federals had gained advantages at most points, 
but not a decided success, In the morning Lee asked and was granted a truce to bury: 


519 Ob aisle 


the dead, and while this was going on he retreated to the right bank of the Potomac, 
without serious resistance. he federal force numbered 87,164, and that on the other 
side is variously stated from 40,000 to 90,000. The federal losses were 2010 killed and 
10,459 wounded; the confederate losses have never been ascertained, though some of 
their writers put 9000 as the total. The result was to put the confederates on the defen- 
sive, and to hasten the emancipation proclamation, then contemplated by President 
Lincoln. 


ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the name given under the administration of Washington to the 
party opposed to any centralizing tendency in the interpretation of the Federal Constitu- 
tion. Its first great leader was Thomas Jefferson (q.v.), and it soon received the name 
Republican Party, then Democratic-Republican Party, and finally Democratic Party. 
See REPUBLICAN ; UNITED STATES; PARTY NAMES, 


ANTIG'ONE, a character of the heroic age of Greece, daughter of Gidipus by his own 
mother Jocasta, was sister to Eteocles, Polynices, and Ismene. She accompanied her 
father in his exile into Colonus in Attica, and after his death returned to Thebes. 
Eteocles, the king, had banished his brother Polynices, who, coming back with an army, 
engaged him in single combat. Both fell, and Creon, who after their death had become 
tyrant of Thebes, issued an edict forbidding their interment. A. alone dared to disobey. 
She buried Polynices, and was in consequence seized by the monster, who shut her up, 
either in the same tomb with her brother, or in a subterraneous cave, where she perished. 
This sentence threw Heemon, son of Creon, who was betrothed to A., into such despair 
that he destroyed himself. A., as the ideal of feminine duty and filial devotion, has been 
immortalized by Sophocles in his dramasof Gdipus at Colonus and Antigone.—A., daughter 
of Eurytion, and wife of Peleus, who hanged herself upon hearing a false report of her 
husband’s marriage to Sterope, daughter of Acastus.—A., daughter or Laomedon, and 
sister of Priam, who, having offended Juno by comparing her own beauty to that of 
the goddess, had her hair turned into snakes, which so tormented her, that the gods, 
in compassion, changed her into a stork. 


ANTIGO'NISH, a co. in n.e. Nova Scotia; 500 sq.m.; pop. ’91, 16,117. Coal is one 
of the chief products. The capital of the same name. 


ANTIGONUS. Of the numerous persons who bore this name, the most celebrated was 
the son of Philip of Elymiotis, and one of the generals of Alexander the Great. In the 
division of the empire which followed the death of his master, A. received the provinces 
of Phrygia-Major, Lycia, and Pamphylia. Being accused of disobedience by Perdiccas, 
who wished to gain possession of all the territories left by Alexander, A. entered into 
alliance with Craterus, Antipater, and Ptolemeus, and declared war against Perdiccas 
in 821 B.c. Inthe same year, Perdiccas was assassinated by his own soldiers; but A. 
carried on the war against Eumenes, to whom Perdiccas had given rule over Paph- 
lagonia and Cappadocia. Eumenes, and afterwards Seleucus, who reigned in Syria, 
were deposed by A., whose ambition and cupidity now knew no bounds. He seized 
the treasures of Alexander kept at Ecbatana and Susa, which he refused to share with 
his allies, Ptolemzeus, Cassander (son of Antipater), and Lysimachus. All the other 
Sena now allied themselves against him, and a long series of contests took place in 

yria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor and Greece, which ended with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia 
(801 B.c.), when A. was slain, in his 81st year. 


ANTIG'ONUS GONA'TAS wasthe son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia,and 
grandson of the great Antigonus, On his father’s death, B.c. 283, various claimants for the 
throne appeared, and much confusion ensued, the result of which was that the royal power 
fell into the hands of Ptolemzeus Ceraunus, who, however, soon after perished in a battle 
with the Gauls, when A. G. at length became ruler of the country (277 B.c.), and gov- 
erned precariously in that age of intrigue, dissimulation, and violence for 33 years. He 
was twice expelled from his dominions by a hostile force from Epirus, but found refuge 
and ee in the Peloponnesus. The close of his career was comparatively peaceful. 
He d. in 248 B.c. 


ANTI'GUA, a West India island, the most important of the Leeward islands (see 
ANTILLES), and the residence of the governor-in-chief of the British portion of the group. 
It liesin w. long., between 61° 44’ and 61° 58’; and in n. lat., between 17° 2’ and 17° 13’. 
Its area was estimated, in 1891, at 69,120 acres, of which nearly all were under 
cultivation. In the same year, the population of Antigua with Barbuda and 
Redonda was 36,819. It was first settled in 1632, having till then remained, in fact, 
uninhabited on account of the great scarcity of fresh water. Ithas twice suffered severely 
from earthquakes—in 1689 and 1848; while of hurricanes also, the other heavy scourge 
of the group, A. has had its full share. Numerous islets, rocks, and shoals border the 
shore, so that, generally speaking, access is difficult and dangerous. ButSt. John’s, the 
chief t., stands at the head of a safe and capacious bay, which unfortunately, however, 
does not admit large vessels. English Harbor is, on the whole, amore commodious port, 
and has been selected as the station of the royal mail steam-packets. It is said to be 
capable of receiving the largest ships in the British navy. 

A.is chiefly of tertiary formation. The s. and w. show grauwacke, porphyry, trap, 
breccia, amygdaloid, and basaltic greenstone; the ”. ande, exhibit calcareous marl and 


Antil a. 
Antimony. 520 


coarse sandstone, interspersed with blocks of limestone; while the interior presents argil- 
laceous strata and irregular beds of coarse flint. 

Besides provisions, generally almost sufficient for its own consumption, A. produces 
large quantities of sugar, molasses, and rum, In this respect, the emancipation of 
the slaves appears to have been rather beneficial than otherwise. In 1893, the total 
tonnage of vessels which entered and cleared A. was 480,060. The value of imports 
was, in the year 1893, £178,931; of exports, about £199,870. Sugar is the main 
article of export, but there is also a considerable foreign trade in molasses, rum and 
pineapples. 

In connection generally with the emancipation of the slaves, of whom, immediately 
previous to the abolition of slavery, A. had about 30,000, it seems to have occupied a 
prominently creditable position. Immediately after the passing of the imperial statute 
on the subject, the local legislature, rejecting the intermediate and probationary state of 
apprenticeship, proclaimed unqualified freedom from 1st Aug., 1834—a bold measure, 
which proved to be as judicious as it was humane. 


ANTILEGOM'ENA, a name given by the early Christian writers to those books of 
the New Testament which, though sometimes read in the churches, were not for a time 
admitted to be genuine or received into the canon of Scripture. They were : epistle to 
the Hebrews, epistle of James, second epistle of Peter, second and third epistles of 
John, epistle of Jude, and the book of the revelation of John. 

ANTI-LIB’ANUS, or ANnTI-LEBANON, a mountain ridge in Palestine and Syria, 
about 90 m. long, running n.e. and s.w. nearly parallel with the Lebanon ridge, from 
which it is separated by the valley of Coelo-Syria. Mt. Hermon is the highest peak, 9000 
or 10,000 ft., on whose sides rises the river Jordan. The A-L. is lower than the Libanus 
range, and less continuous. 


ANTIL'LES, a term used to designate generally the whole of the West India islands, 
except the Bahamas. Generally speaking, they stretch eastward from the gulf of Mexico 
to about the meridian of the gulf of Paria; then southward to the gulf of Paria itself; 
and lastly, westward to the gulf of Maracaybo. Primarily, however, they are regarded 
not as three sections, but as two—the greater A., to the n. and w.; and the lesser, to the 
e. andthe s. This distinction, which obviously involves considerations of position as 
well as of magnitude, will be found to indicate also a difference of organic structure. 

The greater A., reckoning from the w., are: Cuba (Spanish), Jamaica (British), Hayti 
(independent), and Porto Rico (Spanish), They extend in w. long. from 84° 58’ to 
65° 40’, and in n. lat. from 23° 9’ to 17° 40’—the higher of these two parallels being only 
21', or about 25 m., within the tropic of Cancer. On the lowest estimate, the area is 
said to amount to 70,000 sq.m. The greater A. appear to be of primitive formation, pre- 
senting lofty granitic mountains. In Jamaica, however, there are many hills of calcareous 
origin. 

The lesser A. may be divided into two chains—the eastern, trending round from the 
eastward of Porto Rico to the gulf of Paria; and the southern, stretching away in a 
direction nearly parallel with that of the greater A., along the coast of Venezuela as far 
as the gulf of Maracaybo. By the Spaniards, followed by some other nations, the latter 
chain is termed the Leeward islands, and the former the Windward islands. In English 
and French phraseology, however, the Leeward islands are all those to the n. of 15° 
n. lat., and the Windward islands all those s. of that parallel. 

In the latter sense of the name, the Leeward islands, reckoning from the n., come 
in pretty nearly the following order: Virgin islands (Danish and British), Anegada 
(British), Anguilla (British), St Martin (French and Dutch), St. Croix (Danish), Saba 
(Dutch), St. Bartholomew (French), St. Eustatius (Dutch), Barbuda (British), St. Christo- 
pher’s (British), Nevis (British), Antigua (British), Montserrat (British), Deseada (French), 
Guadaloupe (French), Marie Galante (French), Dominica (British). They extend in w. 
long. from 65° 380’, at the w. extremity of the Virgin isles, to 61° 23’, at the e. extremity 
of Dominica; and in n. lat. from 18° 48’, at the n. extremity of Anegada, to 15° 10, 
at the s. extremity of Dominica. The area is about 5000 sq.m. 

The Windward islands, reckoning from n. to s., and then from e. to w., may be given 
as follows: Martinique (French), St. Lucia (British), Barbadoes (British), St. Vincent 
(British), Grenadines (British), Grenada (British), Tobago (British), Trinidad (British). 
Testigos (Venezuelan), Margarita (Venezuelan), Tortuga (Venezuelan), Blanquilla (Vene- 
zuelan), Buen Ayre (Dutch), Curacoa (Dutch), Aruba_(Dutch). They extend in w. long. 
from 59° 20’, at the e. of Barbadoes, to 70° 11’, at the w. of Aruba; and in n. lat. from 
11°, at the s. of Margarita, to 14° 55’, at the n. of Martinique. Their entire area cannot 
exceed 1500 sq.m. The Windward islands, in the Spanish sense of the term, are other- 
wise called the Caribbees; and hence the sea which they cut off from the open Atlantic is 
ealled the Caribbean sea (q.v.). : 

The lesser A., as a whole, appear to be chiefly of coral formation, or of volcanic 
origin. Many of them contain extinct craters; and, though not destitute of harbors, 
their coasts are rendered in a great measure inaccessible by reason of reefs. 

The A. generally—but perhaps the lesser more so than the greater—are subject to 


Antilegomena 
52 1 Antimony. 


hurricanes and earthquakes. Their principal productions are sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, 
etc. The individual islands will be found noticed in detail in their respective places. 

The name A. is generally supposed to have been given by mistake to the West Indian 
islands. Before the discovery of America by Columbus, a tradition existed that far to 
the w. of the Azores there lay a land called Antilla, whose position was vaguely indi- 
cated in the maps of the early cosmographers. Only eight months after Columbus’s return 
we find one Peter Martyr writing that the islands which the great navigator had touched 
upon must be the Antillse; and it is certain that Cuba and Hayti were known as such 
before a single link in the Caribbean chain was discovered. 


ANTILOPE. See ANTELOPE. 


ANTI-MASONS, the name of a political party in New York and other states, organ- 
ized in 1827-28. It was the result of a remarkable excitement over the fate of 
William Morgan, a tailor of Batavia, N. Y., who was said to be about to publish, or 
betray, the secrets of the masonic order, of which he was a member. He disappeared 
suddenly, and his fate has never been satisfactorily explained. There wasa search, and he 
was traced to the Niagara river, near which it was discovered that he had been temporarily 
in prison. The opponents of freemasonry declared that he had been murdered, and 
sunk in the river or lake. Legal inquiries followed, but proved nothing. At or 
about that time the governor of the state was a mason of the most advanced degrees, and 
probably a majority of all public officers were members of the order, A wild excite- 
ment grew up in western New York, and the anti-masonic party was formed, casting 
33,000 votes in 1828, about 70,000 in 1829, and 128,000 in 1830, though many in the latter 
year were anti-Jackson men, without reference to masonry. In 1882, the party nominated 
William Wirt for president, but carried only one state, Vermont. In 1835, through a 
democratic split, they elected the governor of Pennsylvania. After this the party fell as 
rapidly as it rose, and has not since made any conspicuous figure in politics. A great 
majority of the anti-masons became members of the whig party. 


AN'TIMONY—symb. Sd (Lat. Stidiwm) equiv. 120—is a brittle metal of a flaky, crys- 
talline texture and a bluish-white color. It is readily reduced to powder by ordinary 
pulverization ; heated to 797° F. (425° C.), it fuses, and thereafter being allowed to cool, it 
solidifies in rhombohedral crystals, which are isomorphous with those of arsenic. Heated 
in a retort, where the oxygen of the air is excluded, as in an atmosphere of hydrogen, 
A. volatilizes as the vapor of the pure metal. When raised in temperature in contact 
with the air, it burns with a white light—combining with the oxygen of the atmosphere. 
and forming copious white fumes of the teroxide of A., or ‘‘ flowers of A.” The metal 
is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, but may be used, in conjunction with bismuth, 
in the construction of thermo-electric piles. Exposed to the air at ordinary temperatures, 
A. does not tarnish or rust; and this property, combined with the hardness of the metal 
and of its compounds, renders A. of essential service in the useful arts, in the construc- 
tion of alloys, such as britannia metal, type metal, and'plate pewter. It is likewise 
employed in the preparation of the large concave mirrors used in astronomical observa- 
tions; and in the casting of bells, to make them harder and whiter, and to give them a 
clearer and stronger sound. 

The principal natural sources of A. are—gray or crude A. of commerce, which 1s the 
impure tersulphuret of A. (Sb2S3) ; and native A., in which it occurs in the metallic state 
associated with silver, iron, and other metals. The extraction of A. from its ores is 
mainly carried on at Linz in Germany, where the sulphide of A. is found extensively, 
and in Great Britain, which receives its supply of ore from Singapore and Borneo, com- 
monly as ballast. The process consists in heating the crude ore, covered with charcoal, 
on the bed of a furnace, when the sulphide of A. fuses, leaving unmelted the earthy 
impurities; and thereafter the liquid is drawn off into iron molds, where it solidifies into 
cakes or loaves. The latter are reduced to coarse powder, placed on the bed of a rever- 
beratory furnace, and heated with access of ordinary air containing oxygen, when the 
sulphur passes away as gaseous sulphurous acid SOs, leaving behind the A. as the ter- 
oxide SbeO;. The roasted mass is now mixed with one sixth of its weight of powdered 
charcoal, the whole moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda, and raised to bright 
redness in crucibles, when the metal A. trickles to the bottom, and the impurities are 
left above in the spent flux or scoria, which is known in the arts by the name of 
crocus of A. 

The compounds of A. are numerous : with oxygen it forms (1) the terovide of A., or 
white A.ore, Sb2Os, which enters into the composition of tartar emetic ; (2) antiémonious 
acid, SbeO4, Which forms one of the components of Dr. James’s powders; (8) antimonte 
acid, Sb20s, a very insolub!e compound, obtained by acting upon the metal with concen- 
trated nitric acid. With sulphur, A. forms the tersulphide, SbaSs, already referred to as 
a natural ore of the metal, and which, when roasted at a temperature sufficient to fuse it, 
passes into the mixed teroxide and tersulphide of A. known commercially as the glass of 

A native oxysulphide, of a pretty red color, is called ved A. ore. When the ordinary 
sulphide of A. is boiled with potash, or the carbonate of potash, it dissolves, and there- 
after, on boiling, deposits a reddish-brown substance known as mineral kermes. The 
liquid from which the deposit has fallen, if treated with hydrochloric acii, throws down 
an orange precipitate of golden suiphide of A. 


rsh 522 


There is also a chloride of A., SbCls, prepared by heating sulphide of A. and hydro. 
chloric acid together, and which has the common name of butter of A. It is generally 
obtained as an oily liquid, of the consistence of melted butter, and of a golden yellow 
color. Mixed with olive oil, it is used by gunmakers as bronzing salt, to impart a yellow 
color to gun-barrels. 

The various compounds of A. are used as medicinal agents, both in human and veterinary 
practice, especially the tartar emetic, a double tartrate of antimony and potash (KSbOT),.H;0, 
which is the active ingredient in antimonial wine, sherry constituting the bulk of the com- 
pound. Cases have occurred where tartar emetic has been used criminally as a poison. 


ANTINO’MIANISM (Gr. anti, against, and nomos, law), the doctrine or opinion that 
Christians are freed from obligation to keep the law of God. It is generally regarded 
by the advocates of the doctrine of justification by faith, as a monstrous abuse and per- 
version of that doctrine, upon which it usually professes to be based. From several 
passages of the New Testament, as Rom. vi., and 2 Pet. ii. 18, 19, it would seem that a 
tendency to A. had manifested itself even in the apostolic age; and many of the Gnostic 
sects were really antinomian, as were probably also some of the heretical sects of the 
middle ages; but the term was first used at the time of the Reformation, when it was. 
applied by Luther to the opinions advocated by John Agricola. Agricola had adopted 
the principles of the reformation; but in 1527 he found fault with Melancthon for 
recommending the use of the law, and particularly of the ten commandments, in order 
to produce conviction and repentance, which he deemed inconsistent with the gospel. 
Ten years after, he maintained in a disputation at Wittenberg, that as men are justified 
simply by the gospel, the law is in no way necessary for justification, or for sanctifica- 
tion. The ‘‘ Antinomian Controversy” of this time, in which Luther took a very active 
part, terminated in 1540 in a retractation by Agricola; but views more extreme than 
his were afterwards advocated by some of the English sectaries of the period of the 
commonwealth; and, without being formally professed by a distinct sect, A. has been 
from time to time reproduced with various modifications. It ought, however, to be 
borne in mind that the term A. has no reference to the conduct, but only to the opinions 
of men; so that men who practically disregard and violate the known law of God, are 
not therefore antinomians; and it is. certain enough that men really holding opinions 
more or less antinomian, have in many cases been men of moral life. It is also to be 
observed that the term A. has been applied to opinions differing very much from each 
other. In its most extreme sense it denotes the rejection of the moral law as no longer 
binding upon Christians; and a power or privilege is asserted for the saints to do what 
they please without prejudice to their sanctity; it being maintained that to them nothing 
is sinful; and this is represented as the perfection of Christian liberty. But besides this 
extreme A., than which nothing can be more repugnant to Christianity, there is also 
sometimes designated by this term the opinion of those who refuse to seek or to see in 
the Bible any positive laws binding upon Christians, and regard them as left to the 
guidance of gospel principles and the constraint of Christian love; an opinion which, 
whatever may be thought of its tendency, is certainly not to be deemed of the same 
character with the other. Probably, the A. that does not arise out of adislike of morality, 
usually originates in mistaken notions of Christian liberty, or in confusion of views as to 
the relation between the moral law and the Jewish law of ceremonial ordinances. 


AN’TINOMY, the word used by Kant to mark the inevitable conflict or contradic- 
tion into which, in his view, the speculative reason falls with itself when it seeks to 
conceive the complex of external phenomena, or nature, asa world or cosmos. Literally, 
the word means a conflict or opposition of laws. It is used by Kant both in a generic, 
and in a specific sense; the necessity that lies upon the speculative endeavors of human 
reason taking the form of four special contradictions. For the generic sense Kant also 
has the word Antithetic, each antinomy being set forth in the shape of thesis ard 
antithesis, with corresponding demonstrations, the perfect validity of which, in all 
cases, he positively guarantees. Briefly, his theses are: The world (1) is limited in space 
and time, (2) consists of parts that are simple, (3) includes causality through freedom, (4) 
implies the existence of an absolutely necessary being. Over against these stand the 
antitheses: The world (1) is without limits in space or time, (2) consists of parts always 
composite, (8) includes no causality but that of natural law, (4) implies the existence of 
no absolutely necessary being. Kant overcomes these antinomies by showing that the 
contradiction is not real if critically considered with due discrimination between 
noumena and phenomena. Sir William Hamilton’s view, in his Philosophy of the 
Conditioned, is not the same as Kant’s theory of A., though a connection is traceable 
between the two. See CATEGORIES: KANT. 


ANTIN'0US, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis, in Bithynia. He was page to the 
emperor Hadrian, and the object of his extravagant affection, accompanying him in all 
his travels, but was either drowned accidentally in the river Nile, or as some suppose, 
committed suicide from a loathing of the life he led, in 122 4.p. His memory and the 
grief of the emperor were perpetuated by many statues and bas-reliefs, of which several 
are very beautiful, especially two now in Rome—one found in the baths, and the other 
in the villa of Hadrian. ‘‘In all figures of A.,” says Winckelmann, ‘‘the face has a 
rather melancholy expression; the eyes are large, with fine outlines; the profile is gently 


pce Antinomianism, 
523 Antiochus. 


sloped downwards; and the mouth and chin are especially beautiful.” The city of Besa, 
in the Thebais, near to which A. was drowned, was also rebuilt by Hadrian, and the 
name of Antinodpolis conferred upon it, in memory of his favorite. A. was further 
enrolled amongst the gods, and temples erected to him in Egypt and Greece. See illus., 
ScuLPTuRE, vol. XIII. 


ANTIOCH, the ancient capital cf the Greek kings of Syria, was the most magnificent 
of the 16 cities of that name built by Seleucus Nicator. Its situation was admirably 
chosen. The river Orontes, issuing from the mountains of Lebanon, flows n. as far 
as the 86th parallel of lat., and then s.w. into the Levant, On the left bank of the river, 
after it has taken this last direction, and at a distance of 20 m. from the sea, lay the 
famous city, in the midst of a fertile and beautiful plain, 10 m. long by 5 broad. By 
its harbor, Seleuceia, it had communication with all the maritime cities of the west, 
while it became, on the other hand, an emporium for the merchandise of the east; far 
behind it lay the vast Syrian desert, across which traveled the caravans from Mesopo- 
tamia and Arabia. On the north, the plain of A. is bounded by the mountain-chain of 
Amanus, connected with the south-eastern extremity of Mt. Taurus; and on the s., 
which is more rocky, by the broken declivities of Mount Casius, from which the ancient 
town was distant less than 2 miles. In early times, apart of the city stood upon an 
island, which has now disappeared. The rest was built partly on the plain, and partly 
on the rugged ascent towards Mount Casius. The slopes above the city were covered 
with vineyards, while the banks of the river displayed, as they do even at the present 
day, a gorgeous profusion of eastern fruit-trees. The ancients called it ‘‘A. the beau- 
tiful,” ‘‘the crown of the east,” etc. It was a favorite residence of the Seleucid princes 
and of the wealthy Romans, and was famed throughout the whole world for the abun- 
dance of its conveniences and the splendor of its luxury. It received from Strabo the 
name of Tetrapolis, on account of three new sites having been successively built upon, 
and each surrounded witha wall. Its public edifices were magnificent. The principal 
were—the palace; the senate-house; the temple of Jupiter, burnished with gold; the 
theater, amphitheater, and Czesarium, besides an aqueduct, a public promenade, and 
innumerable baths. At the beginning of the Roman empire, it was as large as Paris, 
and tor many generations after, continued to receive numerous embellishments from the 
emperors. Nor did its glory fade immediately after the founding of Constantinople, for 
though it then ceased to be the first city of the east, it rose into new dignity as a Chris- 
tian city. Tencouncils were heldin it. Churches sprang up exhibiting a new style of 
architecture, which soon became prevalent; and even Constantine himself spent a con- 
siderable time here, adorning it, and strengthening its harbor, Seleuceia. The Antioch- 
enes themselves, however, brought about the ruin of their beautiful city. They were 
famous, above all other people in ancient times, for their biting and scurrilous wit, and 
for their ingenuity in devising nicknames; and when the Persians, under Chosroes, 
invaded Syria in 588 a.D., the Antiochenes could not refrain from jesting at them. The 
Persians took ample revenge by the total destruction of the city, which, however, was 
rebuilt by Justinian. The next important event in its history was its conquest by the 
Saracens in the 7th century. In the 9th c. it was recovered by the Greeks under Nice- 
phorus Phocas, but in 1084 it again fell into the hands of the Mohammedans. The cru- 
saders besieged and took it on the 8d of June, 1098. At the close of the 18th c., the 
sultan of Egypt seized it: since then it has undergone a variety of vicissitudes, and at 
present forms a portion of Syria, in the eyalet of Aleppo. Itsmodern name is Antakieh, 
It exhibits almost no traces of its former grandeur, except the ruins of the walls built by 
Justinian, and of the fortress erected by the crusaders. Its manufactures are few and 
unimportant. In 1872 A. was mostly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. est. 23,600. 

ANTIOCH COLLEGE, at Yellow Springs, Greene co., Ohio, was organized and named 
in a convention of the Christian Denomination held in Marion, Wayne co., N. Y., Oct. 
2, 1850. It claims to be the first college in the world to admit both sexes of all races to 
equal privileges. It is entirely unsectarian and is under 20 trustees, who choose their 
own successors, as a close corporation. Edward Everett Hale, D.D., of Boston, Mass., 
is (1897) the oldest trustee by election. In 1896, the Hon. F. A. Palmer, of New York, 
added to its endowment a chair of Christian Ethics which bears his name. Its presi- 
dents have been Horace Mann, LL.D., 1853-59: Thomas Hill, D.D., 1859-62; Austin 
Craig, D.D. (with leave of absence, J. B. Weston, D.D., acting), 1862-65; Austin Craig, 
D.D. (acting), 1865-66; George W. Hosmer, D.D., 1866-73; Edward Orton, A.M., 1873; 
S. OC. Derby, A.M. (acting), 1873-76; Rev. O. J. Wait, A.M., 1882-83; Daniel A. Long, 
D.D., LL.D., 1883-. 

ANTI'OCHUS, a common Greek name, was borne by 13 kings of Syria, 4 kings 
of Commagene (a small country between the Euphrates and Mt. Taurus), and many other 
persons of note (see Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography). A. Soter, the 
first of the Syrian dynasty, or Seleucide, as they were called from their founder, was the 
son of Seleucus, the general and one of the successors of Alexander. A. was the fruit 
of one of those marriages which Alexander celebrated at Susa between his generals and 
the princesses of -Persia. His mother’s name was Apama. From this fact we gather 
that A. was probabiy born in 324 8.c. For the earlier career of A., see SELEUCUS. On 
the murder of his father in 280 B.c., A. succeeded him in his dominions, but he after: 


Antioquia. 
Antiinotstis: 5 2 4 


wards permitted Antigonus Gonatas to retain possession of Macedonia on his marrying 
Phila, a daughter of Seleucus. A. was much occupied in wars with the Gauls, who 
invaded Asia Minor, and, on one occasion, is said to have gained a victory over them by 
the help of his elephants, from which circumstance he derived the name of Soter 
(savior). He was subsequently killed in a battle with the Gauls (261 B.C.), and was 
succeeded by his son A. Il. This A. is mentioned in the book of Daniel (Xi. 6) as the 
king of the north—the king of the south being Ptolemy, whose daughter, Berenice, A. 
had been compelled tomarry. On the death of Ptolemy, A. recalled his former wife, 
Laodice; but she, in revenge for the insult which she had received, caused A. to be 
murdered, along with Berenice and her son. A. lost the provinces of Parthia and Bactria. 

But the most distinguished of the Seleucid was A. III., surnamed the Great, who 
was the son of Seleucus Callinicus, and grandson of the preceding. In his earlier wars 
with Ptolemy Philopator, A. was generally successful; and though he was defeated in 
a great battle fought near Gaza, he afterwards, by his victory over the Egyptian general, 
Scopas, obtained entire possession of Palestine and Ceele-Syria. In this war he was 
assisted by the Jews, to whom he granted many privileges. Fearing the power of the 
Romans, A. at length concluded a peace with Egypt, betrothed his daughter Cleopatra 
to the young king Ptolemy, and gave her Cele-Syria and Palestine as a dowry. The 
formidable enemy which he thus hoped to escape encountered him at a later period of 
his career. Having conquered Philip of Macedonia, the Romans no longer dreaded a 
war with A., and accordingly sent him an embassy, demanding the surrender of the 

’ Thracian Chersonese, and of the places which he had conquered from Ptolemy, whose 
guardian the Romans had become. In 191 B.c., he was entirely defeated by the consul 
Acilius Glabrio at Thermopyle, and compelled to return to Asia. Having a second 
time tried the fortune of war, he was defeated by Scipio, who had crossed over into 
Asia, and very severe terms were imposed on him. He found so much difficulty in 
raising money to pay the tribute the Romans demanded, that he was led to plunder a 
temple in Elymais, when the people rose against him, and killed him (187 B.c.). The 
fate of A. was foretold in the book of Daniel (xi. 18, 19). 

A. LY. (175-164 B.c.), surnamed Epiphanes, by his tyranny and sacrilege, excited the 
Jews to a successful insurrection under theirleaders Mattathias, Judas Maccabzeus, and 
the other members of that heroic family. The monstrous life cf A. is recorded in the 
books of the Maccabees. The last ofthe Seleucide, A. XIIIJ., surnamed Asiaticus, was 
deprived of his kingdom by Pompey, who reduced Syria to a Roman province (65 B.C.). 


ANTIOQUI'A, one of the United Colombian states, between 8° 9’ and 5° 3’ n., and 
74° 3’ and 76° 13’ w.; 22,3816 sq.m.; pop. ’81, 470,000, of whom about one fifth are white, 
the remainder being mestizos (or white and Indian mixed), mulattoes, and Indians, 
The Andes spread over nearly all the state. The Magdalena river forms the easterr 
boundary, and is navigable for light draft steamers. The river Cauca flows through the 
state. A.is rich in gold mines, has a fertile soil, and is prolific in cattle. Iodine springs 
are common, and useful in preventing goitre, which prevails in some of the states. 
Capital, Medellin. 


ANTIPZDOBAP TIST, a term exactly designating one who objects to child-baptism. 
As such a one, however, is generally known in this country under the name Baptist, see 
BaPTIsT. 


ANTIP’AROS (anciently called Olearos or Oliaros), one of the Cyclades islands, cele- 
brated for a stalactitic cave, is separated from Paros by a narrow strait. It contains 
~ about 400 inhabitants, and forms a part of the eparchy of Naxos. A.is 7 m. in length 
by about 8 in breadth; it is scantily supplied with water, but the flats in the north 
and west are tolerably fertile. Corn and wine are cultivated, but not to any great 
extent. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is fishing. From Kastron, the only 
village in the island, the distance to the celebrated grotto is about an hour and a half’s 
ride. This wonderful cave is not alluded to by any Greek or Roman writer whose 
works are extant, but must have been visited by the curiosity-hunters of antiquity, for, 
in 1806, Colonel Leake deciphered a Hellenic inscription which contained the names of 
those who had descended into it in ancient times. It is situated in the side of a moun- 
tain on the s. coast of the island, which is described as a mass of white marble. The 
.top or entrance of the cave has a striking appearance; but the sloping descent is rather 
dangerous, on account of the cord by which the traveler holds being extremely slippery 
from constant humidity. The bottom once reached, and the grotto entered, there is 
presented to the eye as dazzling a specimen of stalactitic formation as can well be con- 
ceived—the roof, floor, and walls of the various chambers, all glittering with the most 
gorgeous incrustation, though it is said that the smoke of the torches and the constant 
fingering of visitors are sullying the primitive purity of the massive columns. It is 
believed that there are other caves of equal splendor in the vicinity which have not yet 
been discovered. The height of the known cavern is 80 ft.; its length and breadth 
more than 300; but it seems the eye can only take in at once a length of 150 ft., anda 
breadth of 100. The grotto was first made known to the modern world in 1678, by the 
then French ambassador to the Porte, M. de Nointel. 


ANTIPAS. See Herop ANTIPAS. 


fe Antioquia. 
525 Antiphlogistic, 


ANTIP’ATER. Of the many persons who bore this name in antiquity, the most cele- 
brated was one of the generals and confidential friends of king Philip of Macedon. 
When Alexander led his troops into Asia, he left AA—who, along with Parmenion, had 
endeavored to dissuade him from the expedition—as governor of Macedonia. A. dis- 
charged the duties of this office with great ability, suppressing the insurrections in 
Thrace and Sparta; but Olympias, the mother of Alexander, who entertained a dislike 
to A., prevailed on her son to appoint Craterus as regent of Macedonia. Alexander, 
prompted also, it is supposed, by his own jealousy of A., consented, but died before the 
change was carried into effect; and A. was left to share with Craterus the government of 
Alexander’s territories in Europe. The government of Macedonia was assigned to him; 
and soon after he was called upon to defend himself against an alliance of the Grecian 
states. With the assistance of Craterus—on whom he afterwards bestowed his daughter 
Phila in marriage—and to acertain extent of Leonnatus, he succeeded in reducing the 
allies to subjection. Democracy at Athens was abolished, a garrison admitted into 
Munychia, and the leaders of the popular party put to death. When Demosthenes was 
summoned to the presence of A., he took poison, which for some time he had been car- 
rying on his person, and died in the temple of Poseidon (822 B.c.). This war was 
followed by another with Perdiccas, who was also his son-in-law, in which A. was again 
successful. After the murder of Perdiccas in 321 B.c., A. was appointed to the supreme 
regency of the kingdom, and the guardianship of Alexander’s children. He died at an 
advanced age, in B.c. 318 or 319, leaving the regency to Polysperchon, to the exclusion 
of his own son Cassander. 

The others of this name were: I. A., second son of Cassander, king of Macedonia, 
who lived in the 8dc. B.c.—II. A., the father of Herod the Great. He flourished in the 
days of Pompey and Julius Cesar, was a firm friend of the Romans, and about the year 
47 B.C. was appointed procurator of Judea. He was poisoned in 43 B.c. by one whose 
life he had twice saved.—III. A., grandson of the former, and son of Herod the Great by 
his first wife Doris, a worthless prince, who was perpetually conspiring against the life 
of his brothers, until his trial and condemnation at Jerusalem before Qvintilius Varus, 
the Roman governor of Syria. He was executed in prison five days before Herod died, 
and in the same year with the massacre of the innocents at Bethlehem. 

A. was likewise the name of various eminent men in ancient times—physicians, 
philosophers, historians, poets, mathematicians, and grammariaps. 


ANTIPATHY is the term applied to a class of cases in which individuals are disagree- 
ably affected by, or violently dislike, things innocuous or agreeable to the majority of 
mankind. These peculiarities are no doubt sometimes acquired in early life by injudi- 
ciously terrifying children with some object, the mental impression becoming permanent. 
A large class of persons have an A. to animal food, and from childhood refuse to taste it. 
In others, again, the aversion is limited to one kind of meat, as veal or pork; others are 
averse to eggs or milk. Nor is this feeling a conscious caprice, which an exertion of the 
will might remove; for it is generally found that contact with the object of the A. is 
resented by the bodily economy, and symptoms of poisoning are rapidly produced. 
Some are affected with these symptoms who have no mental aversion to the article. We 
read of a countess who had a liking for beef-udder, but directly it touched her tips they 
became swollen. ‘There is also the case of a boy, who ‘‘if at any time he ate of an egg, 
his lips would swell, in his face would rise purple and black spots, and he would froth 
at the mouth.” Some medicines affect particular persons dangerously, even when given 
in very minute doses: a single grain of mercury has been known to induce a profuse 
salivation, with destruction of the jaw-bones. On others, medicines have a peculiar 
effect—astringents may purge. Every summer, in this country, persons may be seen 
with the most distressing irritation of the nasal and palpebral mucous membranes, pro- 
duced by the exhalations arsing from the fields during the inflorescence of the hay crop. 
In others, an asthmatic condition is induced by the same cause. The air of some places 
has a similar influence on individuals: one gentleman was always attacked with asthma 
if he slept in the town of Kilkenny, and another rarely escaped a fit of that complaint, if 
he slept anywhere else. 

The most remarkable antipathies are those affecting the special senses. Nearly all 
persons have a loathing at reptiles, but some few faint on seeing a toad or lizard, others 
on seeing insects. ‘‘The duke d’Epernon swooned at sight of a leveret—a hare did not 
produce the same effect. Tycho Brahé fainted at sight of a fox, Henry III. of France 
at that of a cat, and Marshal d’Albert at a pig.”—Millengen. 

Hearing a wet finger drawn on glass, the grinding of knives, or a creaking wheel, is 
sufficient to produce fainting in some. Smelling musk or ambergris throws some into 
convulsions; and we have seen how articles of food affect others—often, no doubt, owing 
to perverted taste. The towch of anything unusually smooth has the same effect some- 
times. Zimmerman records the case of a lady who was thus affected by the feeling of 
silk, satin, or the velvety skin of a peach.—This subject is also noticed under Iprosyn- 
CRASY. 


ANTIPHLOGIS'TIC (Gr. anti, against, and phlego, I burn), a term applied to remedies, 
and also to regimen, that are opposed to inflammation; such as blood-letting, purgatives, 
low diet, etc. See ANTIPYRINE ; FEBRIFUGE; FEVER. 


Antipl - 
Antipyrine. 526 


AN'TIPHON, the earliest of the 10 Attic oratoys in the Alexandrine canon, was the 
son of Sophilus the Sophist, and b. at Rhamnus in Attica 480 B.c. In his youth, the 
reputation of Gorgias, the most showy and insincere of all the Greek rhetoricians, was at 
its height. A. soon became convinced of the worthlessness of that oratory which the 
fashion of the time so highly valued, and resolved to introduce a new and better kind. 
He labored to make his arguments clear, solid, and convincing, so that it might be im- 
possible for the judges who listened to the speeches he wrote to refuse their assent to his 
propositions. His success was unmistakable. Although he never made a public appear- 
ance as a pleader in the courts of justice, but contented himself with writing speeches 
for others to deliver, he acquired great influence, which he did not fail to exert for the 
furtherance of his political principles. 'To him must be attributed the overthrow of the 
Athenian democracy (411 B.c.), and the establishment of the oligarchical government of 
the Four Hundred; for although Pisander figured prominently before the people in this 
revolution, the whole affair, according to Thucydides—one of A.’s pupils in oratory, and 
a man admirably fitted to judge of such a point—was secretly planned by him. The oli- 
garchical government did not prosper. Dissensions quickly broke out among the Four 
Hundred, and six months after, Alcibiades, the brilliant demagogue, was recalled. A. 
was brought to trial for treason, in having attempted to negotiate peace with Sparta. 
He is said to have made a noble defence of himself. Thucydides affirms that an abler 
was never made by any man in a Similar position. It was his first and last oration. He 
was condemned to death; his property was confiscated, his house razed to the ground, 
his remains forbidden interment in Attica, and his children forever declared incapable 
of enjoying civic privileges. Of the 60 orations of A. which the ancients possessed, only 
15 have come down to us. Three of these are written for others, and are greatly admired 
for their clearness, purity, and vigor of expression; the remaining 12 appear to have been 
intended as specimens of school-rhetoric for his pupils. 


ANTIPH'ONY, a name given by the ancient Greeks to a species of musical accompani- 
ment in the octave, by instruments or voices, in opposition to that executed in unison, 
which they called homophony. A. is also the name of a species of sacred song, sung by 
two parties, each responding to the other; a practice which was cultivated in the early 
ages of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. Many of the psalms of David show that 
antiphonal singing was then in use. Its introduction into the Greek church is ascribed 
to Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, in the 2d c.; and Ambrosius, bishop of Milan, is said to 
have introduced it into the western church, in the 4the. The dividing of the antiph- 
onies into verses, with rules regarding the same, is attributed to pope Ceelestin in 482. 
pope Gregory I., in 590, prepared the first regular antiphonarium (see Durandi Rationale 
Divinorum Officiorum, Mainz, 1469). It was early a custom, which became especially 
common after the 13th c., to date deeds with the beginning words of the A. (dntroitus), 
which in these times served for the day of the month and of the week. The reformed 
Christian churches of Germany and England have still retained a certain degree of 
antiphonal singing. The chanting of the psalms in the English cathedral service is an 
imitation of the ancient antiphony. 


ANTIPHRASIS (Greek) among the ancients denoted the practise of naming words 
after attributes which they do not possess. In the time of Auius Gellius (q.v.), a Roman 
grammarian of the second century, this theory was new, and therefore captivating. For 
example, some derived the word muita (a fine) from the adjective multus (much), and 
said that a fine was called multa, because it did not tend to make one’s property multum. 
As a theory, indeed, antiphrasis is not unscientific nor unphilosophical, for it is based 
on the law of the association of ideas. The formation and variation of words by meta- 
phor are common phenomena of language. Antiphrasis is only the reversal or negative 
application of the same principle. <A certain object suggests a like object, and we call 
it by some modification of the name of its type. Many objects suggest their opposites, 
and @ priort we might suppose that they would receive some modification of the name 
of the contrasted object. The ancient scholars would not admit, however, the truth that 
the theory has very limited application in the sphere of contrast, appearing only in 
various forms of irony or euphemism. For examples, we may cite the fact that the 
Black Sea was called the Pontos Huainos (i.e., the Hospitable Sea), though it was really 
aveinos (inhospitable). So the Furies were known as the Hwmenides (the kindly minded 
ones), whereas their power was feared and dreaded. These examples illustrate the in- 
fluence of euphemism. As an example of irony in antiphrasis, we find the phrase 
Jeddart justice, i.e., hanging first and trying afterwards. 'To sumup, antiphrasis as a 
theory is perfectly tenable, but undoubted instances of its application are few in number. 
This, however, did not deter the ancients from applying the theory to many words in 
whose formation it had no part whatsoever, as in the word muita, cited above from 
Gellius (XI. 1). r 


ANTIP'ODES, a word of Greek origin, signifying, literally, those who have their feet 
over against each other. As applied to geography, the term means the inhabitants of any 
two opposite points of the globe, or, in other words, the dwellers at the opposite extremities 
of any diameter of the earth. From this primary relation, there necessarily arise many sec- 
ondary relations. A. must be on one and the same meridional circle, separated from each 
other by half the circumference. Being on one and the same meridional circle, they 
must differ in long. exactly 180°, with the exception of the poles themselves, as having 


i Antiphon, 
527 Antipyrine 


no longitude at all; and being separated from each other by half the circumference, they 
must be equidistant from the equator in opposite directions. Take Edinburgh, as an 
example, in lat. 55° 57’ n., and long. 3° 11’ w.; its A. must be in lat. 55° 57’ s., and in long. 
183° 11’ w., or rather in 176° 49’ e.—which is merely an undistinguishable spot in the 
Antarctic or Southern ocean. Take, as another example, London, in lat. 51° 30’ n., and 
long. 0° 5’ w. Its A. must be in lat. 51° 30' s., and in long. 180° 5’ w., or rather 179° 55°e, 
—coinciding pretty nearly with a small island to the s.e. of New Zealand. This small 
island, in honor rather of London than of itself, has appropriated the term A. as its own 
‘peculiar name. ; 

, Between A. in general there necessarily exist also other secondary relations. With 
‘reference to the earth’s daily rotation, the noon of the one side must be the midnight of 
the other; while, with regard to its annual revolution, the summer and the autumn of 
the one side must be the winter and the spring of the other. With respect, however, 
to the former contrast, some explanation may be required. This, for instance, being 
Wednesday in London, was last midnight in that city the noon of Tuesday or of Wed- 
nesday at A.island? The answer is, that according to circumstances, it may be held to 
be either the one or the other. In going eastward—tbat is, in meeting the sun—one, 
from day to day, anticipates every noon and every midnight in the proportion of 4 of 
time to 1° of long., or of 12 hours of time to 180° of long. ; so that, on reaching A. island 
from London by the cape of Good Hope, the middle of Tuesday night, by Greenwich 
reckoning, is actually regarded on the spot as the noon of Wednesday. In going west- 
ward, again—that is, in leading, as it were, the sun—one, from day to day, postpones 
every noon and every midnight in the same proportion as above; so that, on reaching A. 
island from London by cape Horn, the middle of Tuesday night, by Greenwich reckon- 
ing, is actually regarded on the spot asthe noon of Tuesday. In fact, navigators in oppo- 
site directions, meeting at any intermediate point whatever of the earth’s circumference, 
always differ in their computation of time by a whole day, or 24 hours. In two cases, 
this has been permanently exemplified: the Spaniards at the Philippines, who have come 
from the e., are aday behind the Portuguese in Macao, who have come from the w.; 
while on the n.w. coast of America, the Russians from the w. were a day in advance of 
the British from the e. 


AN'TIPOPE was a pontiff elected in opposition to one canonically chosen. The first 
antipope is reputed to be Laurentius, elected 398, in opposition to Symmachus. Several 
emperors of Germany set up popes against those whom the Romans had elected without 
consulting them. Othothe great displaced successively two bishops of Rome; and when 
Sylvester, III. had expelled the simoniacal and profligate pope Benedict IX., Conrad IL., 
king of Germany, brought back this worthless pastor, who hastened to sell his dignity 
to Gregory VI. There were now, consequently, three popes, and their number was 
increased to,four by the election of Clement II. in 1046. Shortly after, Alexander IT. 
found a rival in Honorius IJ.; and in 1080 the same unseemly spectacle was witnessed, 
when Henry IV., emperor of Germany, elevated to the papal chair Guibert of Ravenna, 
under the title of Clement III., in opposition to his implacable adversary, Gregory VII. 
But after the death of Gregory, Clement was himself opposed successively by Victor III. 
and Urban II., and at last died at a distance from Rome, having just beheld the exalta- 
tion of Pascal II., as thesuccessor of Urban. During the 12th c., several antipopes flour- 
ished, such as Gregory VIII. and Honorius IIJ. On the death of the latter, France 
began to intermeddle in these disgraceful strifes, and upheld the cause of Innocent II. 
against Anaclet; while the kings of Sicily, on the other hand, more than once set up a 
pontiff of their own against the choice of the emperors. Between 1159 and 13878, there 
were four antipopes; but the most remarkable epoch is ‘‘ the great schism of the west,” 
produced by these disedifying rivalries in 1878—a schism which divided the church for 
50 years. It broke out after the death of Gregory XI., at the election of Urban VI, 
whom the voice of the Roman people, demanding an Italian pope, and not one who should 
fix his pontificate, like several of his predecessors at a distance from Rome, had elevated 
to the papal throne. The French cardinals objected, withdrew to Provence, and elected 
a new pope, under the name of Clement VII., who was recognized by France, Spain, 
Savoy, and Scotland; whilst Italy, Germany, England, and the whole north of Europe, 
supported Urban VI. These two popes excommunicated each other; nor did they even 
fear to compromise their sacred character by the most cruel outrages and the most odious 
insults. The schism continued after their death, when three popes were elected by dif- 
ferent parties, all of whom were deposed by the council of Constance, in 1415, and Caz- 
dinal Colonna elected in their room, under the title of Martin V. The last antipope was 
Clement VIII. With him the schism ceased. These divisions are often alleged as an 
argument against the doctrine of papal infallibility ; but Catholics consistently affirm 
that the privilege of infallibility is only claimed in matters of doctrine, and has no rela- 
tion to questions of fact, such as disputed succession, or canonicity of election. 


ANTIPYRINE. An artificial alkaloid, having the chemical formula C:,; His Nz O. Its 
proper name is demethyl-oxy-chinicin. 

PROPERTIES, PHysICAL AND CHEMICAL.—A white crystalline powder, freely soluble 
in water and alcohol, having a characteristic and unpleasant taste. It should not be 
given with sweet spirits of nitre, as the green precipitate thus formed is an inert com. 
pound of antipyrine. 


Antiquaries. by ok 
Anti-sabbatarians. 528 


PHystoLoGicaL AcTrons.—It diminishes the force and frequency of the heart’s action 
and lowers the arterial tension. It reduces the frequency of respiration and the amount 
of C Oz given off. It diminishes the amount of urine, of urea, and probably of uric acid. 
In consequence of this decrease in the oxidation processes of the body, heat production 
is lessened, and the bodily temperature falls. Frequently this is accompanied by a pro- 
fuse perspiration, which accentuates the fall of temperature. Antipyrine tends to allay 
nervous irritability and to relieve pain. It sometimes forms methzemoglobulin in the 
blood. 

THERAPEUTIC Usss.—1. As an antipyretic. It is prompt, and as a rule very efficient. 
The fall of temperature begins in half an hour, usually, and the lowered temperature 
lasts for a few hours or even aday. The fall is usually through several degrees and 
sometimes below normal. It is generally accompanied by sweating and occasionally 
by signs of heart failure. The dose for adults is 10-20 grains, to be repeated when the 
temperature rises to 103-104° F. 

2. As an analgesic. Here also it is prompt and efficacious. It has proved of great 
value in all varieties of neuralgia, both superficial and visceral; in all forms of headache ; 
in dysmenorrhea and for the relief of labor-pains. It is of course more serviceable 
when these conditions are of functional origin and not organic. 

3. As an antipertodic. Of no value. It reduces the temperature of any one parox- 
ysm, but has no permanent effect on the course of the disease. 

4. Hor rheumatism. It is frequently very useful, resembling in its action salicylic 
acid. It lessens the severity of an attack, but seems to have no influence in diminishing 
the liability to heart complications. 

5. As a nervous sedative, It is worthless in epilepsy and of doubtful utility in 
chorea. In whooping cough it often abates the frequency and severity of the paroxysms, 
but does not seem to shorten the course of the disease. 

6. As a hypnotic. It seems to be of some use in painful or febrile affections. 

si As a hemostatic. It is efficient both locally in powder or solution and also inter- 
nally. 

8. As an antiseptic. It is of some value. It is a good stimulant to indolent ulcers 
when applied in powder. Besides these, it has been used in every condition and lesion 
known to man, and some have improved during its continuance. 

Unusvau Errecrs.—Antipyrine frequently produces untoward symptoms. These 
may be grouped under: 

1. Circulatory. Cyanosis, frequent and feeble heart-action, and dyspnoea, some- 
times amounting to collapse, occur not uncommonly. Serious symptoms have been pro- 
duced by 10 or 15 grains, and even death has been caused. This must be remembered, 
especially in cases where the natural tendency of the disease is toward heart-weakness. 
In these cases it is very advisable to give some stimulant, such as a full dose of brandy 
or whiskey, with the antipyrine. If it has to be given frequently, great care must be 
used, as a cumulative action has been noticed in several cases. 'The dose which is at 
first safe may became poisonous if repeated several times in a day. Individual suscepti- 
bility varies greatly. 

2. Cutaneous. Among the rashes noticed are some which resemble measles, scarla- 
tina, urticaria, erythema, and purpura. These are unpleasant, but not serious. 

3. Nervous. These include various pares thesiz, vesical spasms, cramps, These 
are not usually serious. 

ADMINISTRATION. —It may be given orally in pill or powder or dissolved in water or 
some form of alcohol. The usual initial dose is 10 grains, which may be increased as 
the individual susceptibility is determined. Children take larger doses in proportion than 
adults. The average dose for a child may be considered one grain for each year up to 
ten. For hypodermic use, the drug is best given in 2 or 3 parts of water, to each dose 
of which % grain of cocaine hydrochlorate has been added. This prevents the decided 
pain which is otherwise present. 


AN'TIQUARIES, Society or. Under this name, associations of learned men, estab- 
lished for the exclusive purpose of cultivating the study of antiquities, exist in the prin- 
cipal countries of Europe and in America—at London, Edinburgh, Paris, Rome, Vienna, 
Copenhagen, etc. The London Society of A. received its charter in 1751, but had com- 
menced its meetings as early as 1707 ; minutes began to be kept in 1718. Long previous 
to this, in 1572, an antiquarian society was established by Archbishop Parker and Sir 
Robert Cotton. It was dissolved about 1604 by King James, who regarded the inquiries 
of the A. with suspicion. The present ‘‘society of A. of London” consists of a president, 
a council of 21, and several hundred fellows. It has published a number of valuable 
works, among the most interesting of which isa series of Anglo-Saxon and early English 
literary remains. The Scottish society of A. was founded in 1780. The American Anti- 
quarian Society, founded in 1812, has its headquarters at Worcester, Mass. 


ANTIQUE’. As the term ancients is commonly applied to the Greeks and Romans, 
the word A. is used with reference to their works of art, especially their incomparable 
sculptures. The A. style in works of art is distinguished by critics from the romantic 
or medieval, and also from the modern. The sculpture of the Greeks is characterized 
by freshness, originality, and ideality; and the phases it underwent have their parallels 
in the development of the literature and general culture of that people. In the earliest 


. Antiquaries. 
5 MY 9 Anti-sabbatarians. 


times the statues had a rigid, formal character, and looked more like the idols of bar- 
barous nations than deities in human form; then came stern, Titan-like forms, corre- 
sponding with the Prometheus of A.schylus; next the sculptures of Phidias, Polycletes, 
and Polygnotus—like the characters in the dramas of Sophocles—present to us humanity 
in its purest and noblest ideal forms. Then, as Euripidesin poetry left the old domain of 
destiny, and derived motives and action from ordinary human passions, so statuary 
descended from the ideal to a closer resemblance to the forms of actual life; as we see 
in the works of Praxiteles and Lysippus. Afterwards, when Aristophanes introduced 
comedy, forms of every-day life began to appear in sculpture; and thus a gradual transi- 
tion was made from the art of the Greeks, which was ideal, in the true sense of the 
word, to that of the Romans, which was real, monumental, and portrait-like. The 
Romans were the realists of the ancient world; their indigenous philosophy was of a 
popular kind; their poetry, so far as it was national, was satire; and their works of art 
may be regarded as monuments and portraitures of real life, quite suitable for a nation of 
soldiers, lawyers, angl politicians, but vastly inferior to the ideal beauty displayed in the 
best period of Grecian art. 


ANTIQ’UITIES, See ArncHaZoLoGY. 


ANTI-RENTERS, a political party, which, in the four years between 1843 and 1847, 
made much commotion in that part of the state of New York comprised in the counties 
of Albany, Columbia, Delaware, Greene, and Rensselaer. In these counties land had 
been royally granted in the old colonial times to ‘‘lords of the manor,” who were 
usually called ‘‘patroons.” The tracts of land so granted were enormous in extent, and 
they had made leasesin perpetuity, with the ground-rent payable generally in ‘‘ kind,” in 
corn, grain, skins of animals, and products of the soilorchase. As civilization extended 
and population increased, such a possession of their lands by tenants in this nature of 
feudal possession grew irksome to them. While nominally owning their farms they 
were not the real owners. From complaining, the tenants turned to resisting, and 
especially upon farms which were handed down through families from generation to 
generation, until finally the tenants in those counties which have been named banded 
themselves in associations, in order to attempt to break their leases. Their appeals 
to the law courts were, however, ineffectual. Then the question entered into the 
domain of politics, as it has similarly entered in Ireland and England. Great meetings 
were held in these counties. Agitators who had no particular interest in the anti-rent 
questions, as well as tenants who had the greatest interest, organized and addressed these 
meetings, at which there was more or less ‘‘ sedition” and much rash talking, perhaps 
natural under the circumstances. Sometimes tenants would refuse to pay even a nomi- 
nal rent or to recognize the ‘‘landlordism” in their cases, and then, of course, resort 
would be had to the courts for eviction procedures, to which there would be resist- 
ance. From legal resistance the tenants went on to armed and belligerent resistance. 
They would dress like Indians and disguise their faces with paints, and then seize the 
deputy-sheriffs, who came to serve processes of eviction, and tar and feather them. In 
one or two instances extreme violence was resorted to, and all this resistance led to the 
passage of a statute against men appearing in public in disguise. 

During the summer of 1845 some alarming outrages were committed by ‘‘ Indians” 
of the anti-rent associations in Columbia county, and the law to prevent people appearin 
disguised and armed did not have the effect to prevent the outrages. A deputy-sheri 
was shot at and wounded. Dr. Boughton, one of the most active agents in exciting 
these disturbances, was arrested and brought to trial, but the jury would not agree to 
convict him. Ona second trial, however, Boughton, or ‘‘ Big Thunder,” was convicted 
and sentenced to the state prison. In Delaware and Schoharie counties frequent riots 
occurred, and finally, Aug. 7, Mr. Steel, a deputy-sheriff, while engaged in the discharge 
of his official duties, was attacked by an armed party and murdered in the open day- 
light. Then martial law was proclaimed in the district; several persons were convicted 
and sent to the state prison, and two were sentenced to be hanged. The death penalty 
was afterwards commuted by governor Wright for confinement in the state prison for 
life, and eventually, when the troubles were all ended, they were released. It was two 
or more years later before the disturbances were suppressed; and, when order was 
restored, Gov. Wright recommended for the relief of the tenantry: 1, that distress for 
rent accruing on all leases executed in future should be abolished; 2, taxing the land- 
lord for his income by means of rent; 3, that the duration of the time of all leases to 
be executed should be restricted to 5 or 10 years. Soon afterwards the legislature 
acted upon the first of these recommendations; the landlords entered more or less into 
compositions, and the constitution of 1846 forbade agricultural leases in which were 
reserved rent or service of any kind during a longer term than 12 years, The A,-R. 
quickly merged into the great political parties of the period. 


ANTIRRHI'NUM. See SNAPDRAGON. 


ANTI-SABBATA'RIANS, those who recognize no obligations to observe either the 
Jewish Sabbath, or the Christian Lord’s day, deeming one day as sacred as another, 


Antisana, ‘ 
Antiseptiocs. 5380 


ANTISA'NA, 4 volcanic peak of the Andes, in Ecuador, 35 m. s.e. from Quito ; 19,279 ft. 
high. There have been no eruptions for many years. On the side of A. is lake Mica, 
near which is a hamlet, which is one of the highest inhabited places on the earth, 
variously reckoned at 13,300 to 18,465 ft. above sea-level. 


ANTISCORBU'TICS. See Scurvy. 


ANTI-SEMITIC Party. Anti-Semitic is 4 term applied to a political movement in 
Germany against the Jews, which originated in Berlin in 1879. In many respects a 
remarkable movement, it is in nothing more so than in the character of its leaders. 
Adolphus Stoeckler, preacher at the court of Prussia and the founder of the Christian 
Gocialists, was the first to formulate the popular discontent into a political scheme. 
Others equally celebrated soon associated themselves with him, among them Prof. 
Treitschke of the University of Berlin, publicist, historian, and deputy in the Reichstag 
and Dr. Diihring, author of learned treatises in science, history, and philosophy. 

Through the press, in public speeches and brochure after brochure these men ably 
deplored during the winter of 1879-80 the ‘‘ Jewish invasion of German society.” They 
saw in the Israelites of Germany an active, wealthy, powerful people, absolutely incapable 
of assimilation, “a people within a people,” ‘‘a state within a state,” a constant menace 
to Christian civilization in all its phases—social, economic, political, juridical, and 
religious. ‘‘Let us not be deceived,” said Treitschke, ‘‘ the movement is a strong and 
deep one even in the highest and most cultivated circles, among men furthest re- 
moved from every thought of religious intolerance or national pride. There is now 
but one sentiment in that quarter. The Jews are our curse.” 

In 1880 the Anti-Semites addressed a petition to Bismarck for the ‘‘ deliverance of 
the German people from the Jews, who are becoming masters little by little without 
ever having taken the least part in the national work.” The matter was brought before 
the Reichstag, where a vote was taken in November. It declared itself on the side of 
economic and religious liberty, and therefore against any change in the existing laws. 
This decision has not yet been, nor is it likely soon to be, reversed. 

In Austria and Hungary, whither the agitation quickly traveled, it was attended by 
many disgraceful cruelties, owing to the fact, no doubt, that the Jews are there much 
more numerous and hold mortgages on nearly all the small landed properties. The trial 
of the Jew, Tisza Eszlar, in 1882, charged with murdering a young man in order to use 
his blood for religious rites was the signal for a general outbreak, in the course of which 
Zala-Egerzeg was sacked and many Jews butchered. At the election of 1887 another 
outbreak occurred, and the Jewish quarter of Szerdahely was burned to the ground. 
Again, in 1889, the shops of the Jews were plundered by the mob in Vienna itself, 
where the municipal elections had proved a signal triumph for the Anti-Semites. 

An attempt has been made to create an anti-Semitic sentiment in France. M. 
Edouard Drumont, a French author of some note, published in 1886 a two-volume 
work, La France Juive,.in which he called attention to the dangers threatening society 
from the Jews and urged immediate action against them. It has had little effect. 
France has yet to be persuaded that she has a Jewish question. 


ANTISEP’TICS are substances which arrest the putrefactive changes that dead vege- 
table and animal matter is liable to undergo when exposed to air, warmth, and moisture. 
A. are therefore anti-putrescents; and the term itself indicates the office which the 
members of the class fulfill (anti, against, and séptikos, putrefactive). The theory of 
the action of all A. is, that one or two of the three indispensable conditions of putre- 
faction—viz., 1, a moderate warmth, 2, access to air, and 8, moisture—are arrested or 
neutralized. Thus, in the preservation of fish in stores or during transport by railway, 
they are packed in barrels with ice, which keeps down the temperature; and though 
air and moisture gain admittance, yet the putrefactive processes cannot proceed. The 
same preservative power of cold is observed naturally in the discovery of remains 
of elephants and other animals imbedded in the ice of the polar regions, and which 
doubtless have been locked up there for ages. In a less degree, the influence of cold as 
an autiseptic is observed in the longer time that meat, eggs, and other animal matters 
keep fresh in winter than in summer. 

Again, warmth and moisture may be present, but if the air be excluded, putrefac- 
tion does not goon. The ordinary mode of preparing preserved meats affords the best 
illustration of this point. The substance to be preserved is placed in a tin dish cov- 
ered over, and leaving a very small opening. When the can with its contents is 
heated, the air which fills up the pores of the solids, and is dissolved in the liquids, 
is driven off, and escaping by the aperture in the cover of the dish, leaves the con- 
tents devoid of air. If the opening be now closed with solder, the air is kept from 
returning; and whatever climate the can of preserved meat be sent to, yet so long 
as the tin casing remains good, and refuses to admit the air, so long will the contents 
continue wholesome and palatable. The common plan of preserving eggs by rubbing 
over the shell with tallow or oil, is founded on the principle of filling up the pores 
of the shell, so as to deny the admission of the air. Moisture is likewise necessary 
for the process of putrefaction. Thus, if the contents of an egg be thrown out ona 
plate, and thoroughly dried in an oven, the whole becomes of a hard, horny consist- 
ence, and may be kept in this state for years without exhibiting the slightest symp- 


Antisana. 
531 Antiseptios, 


tom of passing into a putrescent or rotten condition. In the same way meat may be 
kept quite fresh by depriving it of moisture. Eggs dried up in this manner require 
only to be soaked in cold water, and then boiled, when they will present themselves 
in a condition hardly differing in flavor and taste from an ordinary boiled egg. 

The more important chemical A. are—alcohol, wood-spirit, creosote, pitch-oil, 
eoke-oil, sugar, tannic acid, sulphurous acid, common salt, nitre, alum, chloride of zinc, 
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), corrosive sublimate, arsenic. 

The manner in which these A. act is very different.—1. Sulphurous acid acts by com- 
bining with the oxygen, and thereby deoxidizing the substance. 2. Sirup of sugar acts 
by combining with the water of the substance to be preserved. 3. Creosote, tannic 
acid, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, corrosive sublimate, and arsenic, are 
useful in forming compounds with the organic matter, which are not so liable to 
become putrescent as the uncombined organic substance. 4. Alcohol, wood-spirit, 
common salt and nitre, act in a double way, by combining with the water of the putres- 
cible substance, and by combining with the substance itself, so as to form a more durable 
compound, 

Some of the more important uses to which the chemical A. are applied are—1. In the 
preservation of anatomical specimens, where alcohol, and less often, chloride of zinc, are 
the agents; 2. In the curing of herring and other fish, where common salt is generally 
used; 8. In preparing corned or salted meat and tongues, where common salt and nitre 
are jointly employed; and, 4. In the manufacture of size for writing-papers, where the 
paper-maker uses sulphite of soda or antichlore (containing sulphurous acid) to arrest 
the decomposition of the scraps of hides used in the manufacture of size. In the preser- 
vation of timber, A. are also taken advantage of. The wood is placed in a steam-box, 
and the air contained in its pores being replaced by steam, the whole casing is closed 
tight, and allowed to cool, when the steam condenses, and leaves a vacuum in and 
around the block of wood. On the introduction thereafter of one of the A., it finds its 
way into the innermost pores of the timber. Wood thus prepared is less liable to decay 
than ordinary; and the A. seem not only to withdraw water, and form durable com- 
pounds, but to offer a poisonous dose to minute plants and animals which house them- 
selves in the wood. The use of sulphate of copper for this purpose was suggested by 
Bonchardat; of corrosive sublimate, by Kyan (hence the process was called kyanizing); 
and of chloride of zinc, by Sir W. Burnett (hence the term burnetiizing). See also CAR- 
BOLIC ActID, and Condy’s fluid under MANGANESE. 

Another valuable application of antiseptic substances is that which employs them in 
the prevention of infectious diseases. Infectious matter can either be absolutely de- 
stroyed or rendered harmless and inert by processes of antisepticism, i.e., by the use of 
antiseptics or by exposure to a higher degree of heat. Whatever comes from the vicinity 
of a patient suffering from an infectious disorder can be antisepticized by the use of chlo- 
ride of zinc, carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, etc., while the sick-room is treated by 
fumigation with sulphurous acid or chlorine. Care should be taken not to confound de- 
odorizers (q.v.) with disinfectants or antiseptics. See DistnrFECTANTS. The use of odor- 
iferous fumigants, such as ordinary pastilles, lavender, amber, etc., is of no avail at all 
for disinfecting purposes, and is even dangerous, in that it leads one to neglect the warn- 
ing of dangers often given through the presence of the odors that accompany infectious 
matter. 

The application to surgery of the discoveries embodied in the germ theory of disease 
(q.v.), has in large measure revolutionized the methods of surgical treatment. ANTISEPTIG 
SuRGERY or LIsTERIsM, perhaps better called AsrpTic SURGERY, may be regarded as 
established by the distinguished English surgeon, Sir Joseph Lister, since 1877 Professor 
of Clinical Surgery at King’s College Hospital, London, surgeon-extraordinary to the 
queen, and in 18838 made a baronet in recognition of the great value of his discoveries. 
He was among the first to recognize and set forth publicly in his lectures the now uni- 
versally accepted fact that sepszs, or putrefactive process, is the chief danger that meets 
the surgeon in treating wounds, whether surgical or accidental. Hissystem is, in brief, 
the exclusion of the microbes that induce the processes of fermentation, or the eradica- 
tion of those microbes after they have gained access to the wound. This is done by the 
use of germicides, among which the most important are carbolic acid (in solution or in 
the form of a spray), perchloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), iodoform, chlorin- 
water, thymol, boric acid, aqueous solution of bromine, eucalyptus oil, and salicylic 
acid, 

The use of perchloride of mercury was first advocated by Drs. Bergmann and Robert 
Koch (q.v.), who advised its employment in an aqueous solution of 1 to1000. ‘This anti- 
septic is employed in conjunction with carbolic acid (q.v.) to destroy the microbes of 
disease in the immediate vicinity of the wound. All objects near the wound are to be 
kept thoroughly purified and ‘‘ surgically clean,” as are the hands and instruments of 
the operator and his assistants. During the operation, the wound and its neighborhood 
are kept continually moistened with the antiseptic solution. After the operation, the 
closed wound is covered with a layer of oil-silk to prevent irritation from the antiseptic 
dressing. This dressing is of muslinimpregnated with carbolic acid, resin, and paraffine : 
or iodoform gauze may be used. The dressing is often replaced by fine cotton batting 
treated with corrosive sublimate, or some other antiseptic. Thisis fastened by bandages. 
This dressing is usually retained until the discharge from the wound makes itself visible. 


\. 
y 
ties! Yr S 
Anti-slexery 532 


In changing the dressing, the same precautions to avoid sepsis are taken as at the time 
of the original operation. 

Wounds not caused by the surgeon are washed out with a solution of carbolic acid 
(1 to 20) or corrosive sublimate (1 to 500) and are then treated like surgical wounds. 
sepsis can hardly be thoroughly attained after an exposure to putrefactive causes for a 
‘veriod of 36 to 48 hours. In large wounds, when there is apt to be an accumulation 
of discharge, the drainage tube invented by the French surgeon, Chassaignac, is an in- 
dispensable adjunct. This is usually of india-rubber, from } to ? of an inch in diameter, 
and perforated with numerous holes. It is introduced so that one end is on a level with 
the skin and projects above it ; while the other end is in communication with the seat of 
the discharge, which it allows to escape constantly, thus diminishing alike the chemical 
and the mechanical irritation. 

The introduction of antiseptic and aseptic methods into modern surgery has greatly re- 
duced the mortality in hospitals, where formerly pyzemia (q.v.), septiceemia, and gangrene 
were frightfully common. Prof. Volkman, of Halle, was at cne time about to close his 
wards because of the prevalence of these scourges, but having tried the antiseptic treat- 
ment, he found the total mortality of the wards reduced to less than six per cent. The 
other adyantages to be derived from the method of Lister are no less marked, namely, 
the absence of putrid odors, the diminution of pain in the wound, and the averting of the 
fever that formerly followed. See Cheyne, Antiseptic Surgery (1882); Jeannel, Ve?’ 
Infection Purulente ; Gerster, Aseptic and Antiseptic Surgery (1888); a valuable article 
by Dr. Roswell Park, on ‘‘ Antiseptics,” in Wood’s Reference Handbook of the Medicat 
Sciences (1885) ; and the articles BactrER1IuM, MicroBE, Kocu, PAsTEUR. 


ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY, THE AMERICAN, organized in Philadelphia, Dec., 1833, 
by delegates from the few state or city societies in the United States. The first A. 
S. was formally organized in Boston, Jan. 6, 1832, William Lloyd Garrison being the 
leader of the movement. The American A. 8. took the boldest ground in favor of the 
abolition of slavery, and its work was for many years looked upon as fanatical, or at 
least hopelessly impracticable. The presidents were Arthur Tappan, Lindley Coates, 
William Lloyd Garrison, and Wendell Phillips, and among its minor officers and most 
active friends were Beriah Green, John G. Whittier, Oliver Johnson, Lucretia Mott, 
Abby Kelley Foster, Gerrit Smith, Charles C. Burleigh, Samuel J. May, Francis Jack- 
son, and William Jay. For many years the members of the society were denounced by 
almost every press in the country; their meetings were broken up by violence, and 
rewards were offered, in the south, for the assassination of their leaders. But the A. 8S. 
was both zealous and persistent, and many of its earliest members lived to find in the — 
adoption of the 18th amendment to the national constitution, a proper time for its formal 
disbandment, which took place April 9, 1870. See SLAVERY. 


ANTISPASMO’DICS. See SPaAsm. 


ANTIS'THENES, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy, was the son of A., an Athe- 
nian. The date of his birth is not known, but he fought in his youth at Tanagra (426. 
B.C.), and he survived the battle of Leuctra (871 B.c.), and died at Athens at the age of 70. 
After listening to the teaching of Socrates, he gave up the profession of rhetoric, which 
he had followed at first as a disciple of Gorgias, in order to apply himself wholly to the 
study of moral philosophy. He was present at the death of Socrates, and never forgave 
his persecutors. 


ANTIS'TROPHE, a stanza or portion of a poem following the strophe, and respond- 
ing to it. Or when the same word or phrase is used both at the beginning and end of a 
clause or sentence ; as, 


‘*Fare thee well; and if forever, 
Still forever fare thee well.” 


ANTITH’ESIS. See RHETORIC, FIGURES OF. 


ANTI-TRADE WINDS, winds extending from the trade-wind region to a point near the 
poles. These winds are very variable, but their general direction is toward the poles. 
In the northern regions, southwest currents of air prevail, called the South West Antt- 
Trades, whereas in the Southern regions, the prevalent winds are from the Northwest, 
forming the North West Anti-Trades. See Trade-Winds under Winp. The Anti-Trade. 
eee oan so named because they blow in a direction opposite to the course of the 
trade-winds. 


ANTITRINITA’RIAN, one who denies the doctrine of the Trinity. AnA. differs from 
a Unitarian only in this respect, that his objection to the doctrine in question is made on 
philosophical, while that of the latter is made on theological grounds. A Unitarian is 
one who accepts the Bible as inspired, but does not find in it the doctrine of the Trinity; 
an A, is, or may be, a philosophical theist, who denies the inspiration of scripture. 


AN'TIUM, one of the most ancient cities of Latium, stood on the coast 34m. s.s.8. 
from Rome. Being favorably situated for commerce and piracy, it became, under the 
Volscians, into whose hands it had fallen, one of the most powerful enemies of rising 
Rome, until finally subdued (338 B.c.). It became a favorite resort of the wealthy 
Romans, and some of the most famous remains of ancient art have been discovered 
among the ruins of their villas and palaces; such as the Apollo Belvedere, and the Bor- 
ghese Gladiator. It was the birthplace of the emperors Caligula and Nero; and the latter 


s ' Anties] ‘ 
538 Antonello; 


constructed a splendid port by means of two moles enclosing a basin 2 m. in circumfer- 
ence. Remains of the moles still exist, although the basin is mostly filled up with sand. 


ANTIVARI, a seaport of Montenegro, set off from Albania, 1878, by the treaty of 
Berlin. It is about 18 m. n.w. of Scutari; has an excellent harbor not accessible to 
vessels of war. Pop. about 8000. 


ANT-LION, the larva of an insect (myrmeleon formicarium) of the order neuroptera, 
remarkable for its habits, which have been carefully observed by some of the ablest 
naturalists of Europe. It inhabits sandy districts, is not known in Britain, and is more 
common in the south of Europe than in the north. The perfect insect is about an inch 
long, and has a considerable general resemblance to a dragon-fly. The larva is rather 
more than half an inch long; it has a very large abdomen, and a small head, which, 
however, is furnished with two very large incurved mandibles. It has six legs, but is 
incapable of rapid locomotion, and generally moves backwards. It feeds upon the juices of 
insects, particularly of ants, in order to obtain which it excavates with the greatest inge- 
nuity a funnel-shaped hole in sandy ground, and lies in wait at the bottom, all but its 
mandibles buried in the sand. Insects which approach too near to the edge of the hole 
then become its prey, by the loose sand giving way, so that they fall down the steep 
slope. If they do not fall quite to the bottom, but begin to scramble up again, the A. 
throws sand upon them by jerking its head, and so brings them back. It employs its 
head in the same way to eject their bodies from its pit, after their juices have been 
sucked, and casts them to a considerable distance; and by the same means throws away 
the sand in excavating its hole, first plowing it up with its body, and then placing it 
upon its head by means of one of its fore-legs. It always begins by working round the 
circular circumference of its future hole, and gradually narrows and deepens it; turning 
quite round after each time that it works round the hole, so as to employ next time the 
fore-leg of the other side. When it meets with a stone which it cannot remove, it deserts 
the excavation, and begins another. The pit, when completed, is usually about 30 in. 
in diameter by 2 in depth. Some species are common in North America. See illus., 
BEETLES, ETC., vol. II. 


ANTOFAGASTA, a port in the Chilian department of the same name. Founded in 
1870, it increased rapidly in importance owing to the salpetre depositsin the neighborhood 
and to the rich mines of Caracoles with which it is connected by railway. It was taken 
from Bolivia by Chili in 1879. Its population is about 7600. 


ANTOMMAR’CHI, FRANCESCO, a well-known physician and memoir writer, a native 
of Corsica, was born about 1780. He owes his celebrity almost entirely to his 
intimacy with Napoleon Bonaparte during the exile of the latter in St. Helena. In 
1818, he was induced to leave Florence, where he held the office of anatomical dissector 
in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova of Florence, and to become private physician to 
the banished emperor. ‘There was at first little cordiality between the two; but subse- 
quently Bonaparte conceived a high regard for his countryman, and at his death left him 
100,000 francs. In 1821, A. returned to Europe, and in 1826 published at Paris Les 
Derners Moments de Napoleon, a work which has been very extensively read. He now 
became involved in a dispute with the heirs of Mascagni—his old anatomical professor— 
regarding certain anatomical plates which he announced as on the eve of publication. 
The heirs affirmed that A’s. lithographed drawings were mere copies from the plates of 
Mascagni, and the controversy went on briskly for some time, till Paris grew tired of it, 
when it gradually died away and was forgotten. On the breaking out of the Polish 
revolution, A. departed for Warsaw, where he received the appointment of general 
inspector of military hospitals. He soon returned to Paris, where he published a cast 
of Napoleon’s head, which he affirmed to have taken when the emperor was on his death- 
bed. This declaration again involved him in a hot dispute with the phrenologists, who 
were not satisfied with the conformation of the cranium, and therefore cast suspicions— 
some of them apparently not altogether ill founded—on the veracity of A’s. statements. 
Harassed by the attacks of his adversaries, and sick of further controversy, A., about 
1836, resolved to emigrate to America. Hed. at San Antonio, in Cuba, in 1888. 


ANTONEL'LI, Giacomo, a distinguished cardinal, was b. on the 2d of April, 1806, at 
Sonnino, a village situated near the Pontine marshes. His father, a wood-cutter, sent A. 
to be educated at the grand seminary of Rome, where he proved himself one of the clever- 
est students of his time. He gained the favor of the late pope Gregory XVI., whe 
named him a prelato, and gave him some excellent ecclesiastical appointments. In 1841, 
A. became under-secretary of state to the ministry of the interior; in 1844, second treas- 
urer; and in the following year, finance minister of the two apostolic chambers. Pope 
Pius 1X. having mounted the papal throne in 1846, raised A., during the next year, to 
the dignity of cardinal-deacon of St. Agatha alla Suburra. In 1848, A. was president 
and minister of foreign affairs in a liberal cabinet, which framed the famous statuto or 
constitution, proclaimed in 1848, the principal articles of which were so very soon eluded. 
In the ecumenical council, which began its sittings in 1869, A. showed great tact and 
ability in restraining the zeal and impetuosity of his impulsive master. He d. in 1876. 


ANTONEL'LO, of Messina, a painter who holds a prominent position in the history 
of Italian art, was b. probably about 1414, in Sicily. In his day, the paintings of 


Antonides. } 534 


Antoninus. 


Johann van Eyck, of Flanders enjoyed a wide celebrity, and several specimens were 
brought to Naples, where A. saw one of them. Admiring the new style of oil-painting, 
he traveled into Flanders, and learned the secrets of the art from Van Eyck. After- 
wards, he settled in Venice, and was the first Italian who painted in oil-colors, in which 
he gave instructions to many artists. Hed. probably in 1498. His works are now 
rather scarce. One, in the museum at Berlin, bears the date 1445. 


ANTO'NIDES, Hans (Jan Van der Goes), 1647-84; a Dutch poet. He was of hum- 
ble origin, educated at the expense of one of the lords of the admiralty at Amsterdam, 
and received the degree of doctor of physic. He is best known by his poems and a 
tragedy written at the age of 19, called 7razil, or the Conquest of China. His fame was 
fully established by Y-Stroom, an epic on the river Y. 


ANTONI/NUS, Marcus AURELIUS, the son of Annius Verus and Domitia Calvilla, was 
b. at Rome on the 20th of April, 121 a.p. His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. 
On the death of his father, he was-adopted by his grandfather, who spared no pains to 
render him pre-eminent in every art and science. His fine qualities early attracted the 
notice of the emperor Hadrian, who used to term him not Verus, but Verissimus, and who 
conferred high honors on him, even while a child. When only 17 years of age, he was 
adopted, along with Lucius C. Commodus, by Antoninus Pius, the successor of Hadrian, 
and Faustina, the daughter of Pius, was selected for his wife. In the year 140 a.p. he 
was made consul; and from this period to the death of Pius, in 161 a.p., he continued to 
discharge the duties of his various offices with the greatest promptitude and fidelity. 
The relation which subsisted between him and the emperor was of the warmest and most. 
familiar kind. On his accession to the throne he strikingly illustrated the magnanimity 
of his character, by voluntarily sharing the government (which Pius had left in his last 
moments, and the senate offered to him alone) with young Commodus, who henceforth 
bore the name of Lucius Aurelius Verus, and to whom he gave his daughter Lucilla in 
mairiage. ‘Towards the close of 161 a.p., the Parthian war broke out, and Lucius, a 
young man of vigorous bodily habits, was sent to the frontiers of the empire to repel the 
incursions of the barbarians; but intoxicated with the enervating pleasures of the east, 
he obstinately refused to go beyond Antioch, and intrusted the command of the army 
to his lieutenant Cassius, who gained several brilliant victories. Lucius returned to 
Rome (166 A.D.), and enjoyed a triumph to which he had no real claim; for all the great 
achievements of the war were accomplished by his officers, while he was reveling in the 
most extravagant licentiousness. In the meantime, Marcus Aurelius had distinguished 
himself by the prudence and energy with which he administered affairs at home. A 
formidable insurrection had long been preparing in the German provinces; the Britons 
were on the point of revolt, and the Catti waiting for an opportunity to devastate the 
Rhenish provinces. Within Rome itself raged a pestilence, believed to have been brought 
home by the troops of Lucius; frightful inundations and earthquakes had laid large por- 
tions of the city in ruins, destroyed the granaries in which were kept the supplies of corn 
and thus created almost universal distress, which stimulated to an incalculable degree 
the terror which the citizens entertained of their savage enemies. To allay the popular 
perturbation, Marcus resolved to go forth to the war himself. Hecatombs were offered 
to the offended gods, and the Roman legions set out for the north. Marcus and Lucius 
were, for the time, completely successful. The pride of the Marcomanni, and the other 
rebellious tribes inhabiting the country between Illyria and the sources of the Danube 
was humbled, and they were compelled to sue for peace in 168 A.D.; in the year after 
which Lucius died. The contest was renewed in 170 A.D., and may be said to have 
continued with intermission during the whole life of theemperor. Although fond of 
peace, both from natural disposition and philosophic culture, he displayed the sternest 
vigor in suppressing the revolts of the barbarians; but in order to accomplish this, he had 
to enroll amongst his soldiery vast numbers of gladiators and slaves, for his army had 
been thinned by the ravages of the plague. His head-quarters were Pannonia, out of 
which he drove the Marcomanni, whom he subsequently all but annihilated in crossing 
the Danube. The same that befell the Jazyges; but the most famous as well as the 
most extraordinary of all his victories was the miraculous one gained over the Quadi, 
(174 a.D.), and which gave rise to copious discussion amongst Christian historians and 
others. Don Cassius’s account is that the Romans were perishing of thirst in the heat 
of summer, when suddenly the cloudless sky darkened, and abundant showers fell, of 
which the soldiers were taking advantage when the barbarians attacked, and would have 
cut them to pieces, if a storm of hail and fire had not descended on the former. That 
some extraordinary phenomenon occurred is evident, for there isa letter of Aurelius still 
extant in which he commemorates the event; and the emperor was a man incapable of 
uttering a falsehood, not to mention that there was an entire army living to disprove the 
statement if untrue. The effect of this remarkable victory was instantaneously and 
widely felt. The Germanic tribes hurried from all quarters to make their submission 
and obtain clemency; but the practical advantages that might have resulted from it were 
nullified by a new outbreak in the east, occasioned through the infamous treachery of his 
own wife, which demanded his presence; and though suffering from failing health, he 
was obliged to leave Pannonia. Before his departure, however, he learned that the ambi- 
tious governor, Avidius Cassius, who had rebelled against him. and seized the whole of 


ee | 


535 Antonides, 
‘o79) Antoninus, 


Asia Minor, had perished by assassination. The conduct of Marcus Aurelius on hearing 
of his enemy’s death was worthy of the sublime virtue of his character. He lamented 
that the fates had not granted him his fondest wish—to have freely pardoned the man 
who had so basely conspired against his happiness. Like Cesar in similar circumstances, 
but in a more purely humane spirit, he received the head of his murdered adversary with 
quite opposite feelings to what had been anticipated, rejecting the bloody gift with all 
the loathing of a benevolent nature, and even shrinking from the presence of the murder- 
ers. On his arrival in the east, he exhibited the same illustrious magnanimity. He 
burned the papers of Cassius, without reading them, so that he might not be at liberty to 
suspect any as traitors; treated the provinces which had rebelled with extreme gentle- 
ness; disarmed the enmity and dispelled the fears of the nobleswho had openly favored 
his insurgent lieutenant. While pursuing his work of restoring tranquillity, Faustina 
died in an obscure village at the foot of Mt. Taurus; and her husband (and this was per- 
haps the single frailty of his character), though undoubtedly conscious of her glaring 
profligacy and infidelity, paid the most lavish honors to her memory. 

On his way home, he visited lower Egypt and Greece, displaying everywhere the 
noblest solicitude for the welfare of his vast empire, and drawing forth from his subjects, 
who were astonished at his goodness, sentiments of the profoundest admiration and regard. 
At Athens, which this imperial pagan philosopher must have venerated as a pious Jew 
did the city of Jerusalem, he showed a catholicity of intellect worthy of his great heart, 
by founding chairs of philosophy for each of the four chief sects—Platonic, Stoic, Peri- 
patetic, and Epicurean. No man ever labored more earnestly to make that heathen faith 
which he loved so well, and that heathen philosophy which he believed in so truly, a 
vital and dominant reality. Towards the close of the year 176 A.D., he reached Italy, 
and celebrated his merciful and bloodless triumph on the 23d of Dec. In the succeeding 
autumn, he departed for Germany, where fresh disturbances had broken out among the 
restless and volatile barbarians. He was again successful in several sanguinary engage- 
ments; but his originally weak constitution, shattered by perpetual anxiety and fatigue, 
at length sunk, and he d. either at Vienna or at Sirmium, on the 17th of Mar., 180 a.p., 
after a reign of twenty years. 

Marcus Aurelius A. was the flower of the stoical philosophy. It seems almost inexe 
plicable that so harsh and crabbed a system should have produced as pure and gentle an 
example of humanity as the records of heathen—we had almost said, Christian history, 
can show. Perhaps, as a modern philosophic theologian suggests, it was because stoicism 
was the most solid and practical of the philosophic theories, and the one which most 
earnestly opposed itself to the rapidly increasing licentiousness of the time, that the 
chaste heart of the youth was drawn towards it. At twelve years of age, he avowed 
himself a follower of Zeno, Epictetus, etc. Stoics were his teachers—Diognotus, Apol- 
lonius, and Junius Rusticus; and he himself is to be considered one of the most thoughtful 
teachers of the school.’ Oratory he studied under Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto. 
His love of learning was insatiable. Even after he had attained to the highest dignity of 
the state, he did not disdain to attend the school of Sextus of Cheeronea. Men of letters 
were his most intimate friends, and received the highest honors both when alive and 
dead. His range of studies was extensive, embracing morals, metaphysics, mathematics, 
jurisprudence, music, poetry, and painting. Nor must we forget that these were culti- 
vated not merely in the spring-time of his life, when enthusiasm was strong, and experi- 
ence had not saddened his thoughts, and when study was his only labor, but during the 
tumults of perpetual war, and the distraction necessarily arising from the government of 
so vast an empire. The man who loved peace with his whole soul, died without behold- 
ing it, and yet the everlasting presence of war never tempted him to sink into a mere 
warrior. He maintained uncorrupted to the end of his noble life his philosophic and 
philanthropic aspirations. After his decease, which was felt to be a national calamity, 
every Roman citizen, and many others in distant portions of the empire, procured an 
image or statue of him, which more than a hundred years after was still found among 
their household gods. He became almost an object of worship, and was believed to 
appear in dreams, like the saints of subsequent Christian ages. 

There is one feature in his character, however, which it would be dishonest to pass 
over—his hostility, namely, to Christianity. He was a persecutor of the new religion, 
and, it is clearly demonstrated, was cognizant, to a certain extent at least, of the atroci. 
ties perpetrated upon its followers. Numerous explanations have been offered of his 
conduct in this matter. The most popular one is that he for once allowed himself to be 
led away by evil counselors; but a deeper reason is to.be found in that very earnestness 
with which he clung to the old heathen faith of hisancestors. He believed it to be true, 
and to be the parent of those philosophies which had sprung up out of the same soil: he 
saw that a new religion, the character of which had been assiduously, though perhaps 
unconsciously, misrepresented to him, both as an immoral superstition and a mysterious 
political conspiracy, was secretly spreading throughout the empire, and that it would 
hold no commerce with the older religion, but condemned it, generally in the strongest 
terms. It was, therefore, comparatively easy, even for so humane a ruler, to imagine it 
his duty to extirpate this unnaturally hostile sect. Mr. John Stuart Mill finds in this 
tragical error of the great emperor a most striking warning against the danger of inter- 
fering with the liberty of thought. What he says is so completely in harmony with the 


Antoninus. 
Antonius. 5 3 6 


above conception of the motives of Marcus Aurelius, and is in itself so eloquent, that no 
apology is required in quoting the passage: ‘‘If ever any one possessed of power had 
grounds for thinking himself the best and most enlightened among his contemporaries, 
it was the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Absolute monarch of the whole civilized world, he 
preserved through life not only the most unblemished justice, but, what was less to be 
expected from his stoical breeding, the tenderest heart. The few failings which are 
attributed to him were all on the side of indulgence; while his writings, the highest 
ethical product of the ancient mind, differ scarcely perceptibly, if they differ at all, from 
the most characteristic teachings of Christ. This man, a better Christian, in all but the 
dogmatic sense of the word, than almost any of the ostensibly Christian sovereigns who 
have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. Placed at the summit of all the previous 
attainments of humanity, with an open, unfettered intellect, and a character which led 
him, of himself, to embody in his moral writings the Christian ideal, he yet failed to see 
that Christianity was to be a good and not an evil to the world, with his duties to which 
he was so deeply penetrated. Existing society he knew to be in a deplorable state. But 
such as it was, he saw, or thought he saw, that it was held together, and prevented from 
being worse, by belief and reverence of the received divinities. Asa ruler of mankind, 
he deemed it his duty not to suffer society to fall in pieces, and saw not how, if its 
existing ties were removed, any others could be formed which could again knit it 
together. The new religion aimed openly at dissolving these ties: unless, therefore, it 
was his duty to adopt that religion, it seemed to be his duty to put it down. Inasmuch, 
then, as the theology of Christianity did not appear to him true, or of divine origin— 
inasmuch as this strange history of a crucified God was not credible to him, anda 
system which purported to rest entirely upon a foundation to him so wholly unbeliev- 
able could not be foreseen by him to be that renovating agency which, after all abate- 
ments, it has in fact proved to be—the gentlest and most amiable of philosophers and 
rulers, under a solemn sense of duty, authorized the persecution of Christianity. 'To my 
mind, this is one of the most tragical facts in all history. It is a bitter thought, how 
different a thing the Christianity of the world might have been, if the Christian faith 
had been adopted as the religion of the empire, under the auspices of Marcus Aurelius, 
instead of those of Constantine. But it would be equally unjust to him, and false to truth, 
to deny, that no one plea which can be urged for punishing anti-Christian teaching, was 
wanting to Marcus Aurelius for punishing, as he did, the propagation of Christianity. No 
Christian more firmly believes that atheism is false, and tends to the dissolution of 
society, than Marcus Aurelius believed the same things of Christianity ; he who, of all men 
then living, might have been thought the most capable of appreciating it. Unless any 
one who approves of punishment for the promulgation of opinions, flatters himself that 
he is a wiser and better man than Marcus Aurelius—more deeply versed in the wisdom of 
his time—more elevated in his intellect above it—more earnest in his search for truth, or 
more single-minded in his devotion to it when found—let him abstain from that assump- 
tion of the joint infallibility of himself and the multitude, which the great A. made with 
so unfortunate a result.” See Renan’s Mare Auréle (1882). 


ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Trrus AuRE'LIvs Futvus, a Roman emperor (138-161 a.D.), was 
b. in the reign of Domitian (86 4.p.). The family of A. was originally from Nemausus, 
now Nimes, in Gaul. A. inherited great wealth, and early gave proof of excellent quali- 
ties. In 120, he was made consul; afterwards was sent by Hadrian as proconsul into 
Asia, where the wisdom and gentleness of his rule won for him a higher reputation than 
had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors. By his wife Faustina he had four children, 
of whom three died, leaving a daughter, Faustina, afterwards wife of Marcus Aurelius. 
In 138, he was adopted by the emperor Hadrian, in consequence of merit alone, and came 
to the throne in the same year. The reign of A. was proverbially peaceful and happy. 
In his private character, he was simple, temperate, and benevolent; while in public 
affairs he acted as the father of his people. ‘The persecution of Christians, which was 
continued during his reign, was partly stayed by his mild measures. He was little 
engaged in war, excepting in Britain, where he extended the power of Rome, and built 
a wall between the Forth and the Clyde, as a defense against invasions by the predatory 
inhabitants of the north; but he was frequently employed in arbitration and general 
counsel on the affairs of foreign states. ‘‘ Happy the nation which has no history.” The 
reign of A. illustrates this saying, for by the justice, wisdom, kindliness, and courtesy 
of the emperor, his vast empire was preserved from the crimes, conspiracies, insurrec- 
tions, and bloodshed, the recording of which formed the largest part of the historian’s 
work in the dark centuries of the Roman empire. It is said that only one senator was 
impeached during A.’s lifetime. Literature received great encouragement; the laws 
were improved; commerce extended; the means of communication were facilitated by the 
repair of roads, bridges, etc.; new sanitary regulations were introduced; and a taste for 
architecture fostered in the citizens. The epithet Prus was conferred on him on 
account of his conduct in defending the memory of his predecessor Hadrian against 
certain dishonoring measures brought forward by the senate. A.d.in 161 4.p. The 
column raised to his memory by his adopted son and successor, Marcus Aurelius Antoni- 
nus (q.v.), was discovered in 1709, and now exists only in fragments. The so-called 
pillar of Antoninus, now in the Piazza Colonna at Rome, is that raised by the senate in 
honor of Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the Marcomanni. 


Antoninus, 
5 3 7 Anton ina 


ANTONI'NUS, ITINERARY. OF, Antonini Itinerarium, a valuable geographical work, 
containing the names of all the places and stations on the principal and cross roads of 
the Roman empire, with their distances from each other in Roman miles. Jt has been 
usually attributed to the emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus, whence its name. The testi- 
mony, however, of the Greek geographer Aithicus, author of the Oosmographia, assures 
us that a general survey of the Roman empire was commenced 44 B.c., in the consulship 
of Julius Cesar and M. Antonius, and completed in the reign of Augustus, when the 
results of the survey received the sanction of the state. These results, it is with some 
probability inferred, are embodied in this Itinerary, which, it is further supposed, 
received additions and amendments in the time of the Antonines. Subsequent improve- 
ments were made down to the reign of Diocletian. The best editions are those of Wes- 
seling (Amst., 4to, 1735) and Parthey (Berl., 1848). 


ANTONINUS, WALL oF, Antonini vailwm, a barrier erected between the firths of 
Forth and Clyde by the Romans, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, to restrain the encroach- 
ments of the native tribes. A fragment of a Roman pillar, which was at one time in 
the university of Edinburgh, fixes the date of its erection as 140 a.p. The superin- . 
tendence of the work is generally attributed to the imperial legate Lollius Urbicus. Its 
length was about 27 English m.—the eastern termination being, according to two dif- 
erent suppositions, at Carriden, or at Kinniel, on the Forth; the western, at old Kilpat- 
rick, or at Dunglass Castle, on the Clyde, The work consisted of a ditch about 20 ft. 
deep and 40 wide, a rampart of earth and stone about 20 ft. high and 24 ft. thick at the 
base, and on the inner or s. side of the rampart a paved military road. It was pro- 
tected by a chain of nineteen forts, with watch-towers between. The line of the wall 
may still be traced to a considerable extent. The most perfect fragments are at Elf 
hill, on the moor of Bonnieside, about a mile and a half from Castlecary; within the 
park of Callander house, near Falkirk; and on the slopes at Inveravon, not far from the 
railway station at Polmont. It iscommonly designated Graham’s Dike—a name given 
also to more than one ancient ditch and rampart in England. See Severus, WALL oF. 
For best accounts of the wall of Antonine see Roy’s Military Antiquities of the Romans in 
North Britain (1798) and Stuart’s Caledonia Romana (2d ed., 1852). 


ANTO'NIO, Nicouas, 1617-84 ; a Spanish bibliographer and critic. In 1659, Philip 
IV. made him his general agent at the court of Rome, where he remained 20 years, and 
employed most of his time on his great work, which was a complete list of Spanish 
authors and a catalogue of their writings. He published part of it in 1672 under the 
title New Spanish Library, and in 1686 the Old Library appeared. About 1677, he 
was fiscal for the royal council in Madrid. His Bibliotheca Hispana is considered by 
some critics the best work on Spanish literature. He also wrote a critique on fabulous 
histories. 


ANTO’'NIUS, Marcus, b. 148, killed 87 B.c.; commonly called ‘‘ the orator;” one of 
the most eloquent of Roman lawyers and speakers. He was the grandfather of Mark 
Antony, the triumvir. In 103 he obtained the government of Cilicia, with the title of 
propretor, and in 99 became consul. He favored the aristocratic party, and was an 
adherent of Sulla in the civil war against Marius, by whose order he was assassinated. 
In the judgment of Cicero, Marcus A. and L. Crassus were the first Roman orators who 
equaled the great speakers of Greece. | 


ANTO'NIUS, Marcus (Marx Antony), the Roman triumvir, b. in 83 B.c., a descend- 
ant of one of the oldest patrician families, was the son of the pretor M. Antonius 
Creticus, and, on the side of his mother Julia, was related to Julius Cesar. His youth 
was wasted in dissipation, and finding himself pressed by numerous impatient creditors, 
he escaped to Greece in 58 B.c., where, for a short time, he listened to the teaching of 
Athenian philosophers and orators, His studies here were soon interrupted by the pro- 
consul Gabinius, who appointed him as leader of his cavalry. In the campaign against 
Aristobulus in Palestine, and in Egypt, A. distinguished himself by his courage and 
activity, and ingratiated himself with the soldiers. After assisting Cesar in Gaul, he 
went to Rome in 50 B.c., to advance the interests of the former, who stood in great 
danger from the hostility of the oligarchical party, and was appointed an augur, and 
chosen one of the tribunes of the people. In the following year, on account of his 
adherence to the party of Cesar, he was expelled from the curia, and fled to Ceesar, who 
made use of this event as a pretext for his war against Pompey. At the outbreak of 
this war, A. received the appointment of commander-in-chief in Italy. In the battle of 
Pharsalia, he commanded the left wing of Cesar’s army. In 47, he was made master of 
the horse by Cesar, who left him to govern Italy during his absence in Africa. Antony, 
as usual, disgraced himself; got perpetually drunk; divorced his wife, and married an 
actress, with whom he paraded offensively through the chief towns of the peninsula. In 
44 z.c., he married Fulvia, the widow of Clodius; was made consul, and vainl 
endeavored to prevail on the Romans to recognize Cesar as emperor. After the assasst- 
nation of Cesar, he played the part so well described by Shakespeare; and by his 
funeral oration, and the well-timed display of Cxsar’s bloody robe, so wrought on the 
passions of the people, that the conspirators were compelled to escape from Rome, leav- 
ing the successful orator for a while in possession of almost absolute power. Next, we 
find A. occupied in disputes and reconciliations with Octavianus (Cesar’s heir), besieg- 


Antonius. 5 
Antraigues. oe 0 38 


ing Mutina, and then denounced by Cicero as an enemy of the state. In 43 B.c., his 
troops were defeated at the battle of Mutina, when he escaped beyond the Alps; visited 
the camp of Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul; and gained the favor of the army, of 
which he took command. Plancus and Pollio joined him with their troops; and A., 
who so recently had escaped as a helpless fugitive from Italy, returned to Rome at the 
head of 17 legions and 10,000 cavalry. Octavianus, who had pretended to maintain 
republican principles, now threw off the mask, and held a consultation with A. and 
Lepidus on the island of Reno (or Lavino), near Bologna, when it was determined that 
these triumviri should share the whole Roman world among themselves. To secure 
their spoil, they returned to Rome, and began their course of murder and robbery 
throughout Italy. Among their first victims fell Cicero, the orator, whose eloquence 
they dreaded. According to Appian, not less than 300 senators and 2000 knights fell 
under the power of the triumviri. After making Italy safe for themselves, and raising 
an enormous sum of money to carry on their war abroad, A. and Octavianus led their 
troops into Macedonia against Brutus and Cassius, and defeated the republican forces. 
A. next paid a visit to Athens, and then went into Asia, to arrange his dispute with 
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, whose conduct had offended the triumviri. The queen her- 
self appeared to answer his challenge, and captivated A. by her beauty and address. 
The general who had overeome Brutus and Cassius was now made a prisoner, though 
not of war. He followed Cleopatra into Egypt, and lived with her in idleness and 
luxury, until he was aroused by tidings of the quarrel which had taken place in Italy 
between his own relatives and Octavianus. This dispute gave rise to a short war, which 
came to an end before A. arrived in Italy. A new division of the Roman world now 
took place between the triumviri, and was soon quietly arranged at Brundusium. A. 
took the east, and Octavianus took the west; while the ambition of the feeble Lepidus 
was appeased by his having the whole of Africa for his portion. Even this shadow of 
dominion was taken from him in 36 B.c. Meanwhile A. had confirmed his friendship 
with Octavianus by a marriage with Octavia, his sister. Henow returned to Cleopatra, 
resumed his former voluptuous mode of life, squandered the wealth of Rome in gifts to 
his royal mistress, and became guilty of gross acts of injustice. Octavianus made use 
of these facts to excite the indignation of the Roman people against A., and a war 
between the rivals became unavoidable. A., in his idleness, tried to postpone the trial 
of strength which he saw inevitably approaching, and filled the island of Samos (where 
his troops were quartered) with musicians, jugglers, and buffoons. Meanwhile, at Rome, 
‘che was deposed from the triumvirate, and war was proclaimed against Cleopatra. Each 
party collected its forces, and in the naval engagement which took place (81 B.c.), near 
Actium (q.v.), A. was defeated. His subsequent hope of finding troops still faithful to 
him in Libya was disappointed. He returned to Egypt, where, with Cleopatra, he 
once more forgot political cares and vexations, until his amusements were suddenly 
interrupted by the arrival of Octavianus at Alexandria. A. now roused himself, made 
a charge with hiscavalry, and repelled the enemy; but the advantage was only momen- 
tary. Deserted by the Egyptian fleet, as by his own army, and suspecting that even 
Cleopatra had conspired against him, he went to her palace, from which the queen had 
escaped. Deceived by a false message informing him of the death of Cleopatra, A. com- 
mitted suicide by falling upon his sword, in the year 30 B.c. 


ANTO'NIUS, or ANTONY oF PADUA, SAINT, was b. at Lisbon, Aug. 15, 1195, and, on 
the father’s side, was related to Godfrey of Bouillon. He was first a monk of the 
Augustine order, and in 1221 became one of the most active propagators of the order of 
Franciscans. On his missionary voyage to Africa, being cast on the coast of Italy, he 
preached with great success at Montpellier, Toulouse, Bologna, and Padua, where he d., 
June 18, 1281. The legends of A. of P. are full of absurd fables. Among others, we 
are told that his eloquence as a preacher was so great that even the fish in the sea were 
deeply affected by it! His anniversary falls on June 13. His monument, a fine work 
of statuary, is in the church which bears his name at Padua. 

ANTONOMA'SIA, in rhetoric, the substitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper 
name ; as, ‘‘ the Stagyrite,”’ for Aristotle ; ‘‘ the little corporal,” for Napoleon ; the man 
en horseback,” for Grant, etc. Sometimes the process is reversed ; as, calling a good 
orator a ‘‘ Cicero.” In both cases the figure is akin to metonymy. 


ANTON ULRICH, second son of Duke Ferdinand Albert of Braunschweig- Wolfenbiit- 
tel (till 1735, Braunchweig-Bevern, the title by which the prince was first known in 
Russia), was b. in 1714. When the Russian empress Anna was looking out for an 
alliance for her niece, Anna Carlowna, princess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the influence 
of Austria led her to choose A. U. Accordingly, he came to Russia, in 1733, was 
appointed colonel of a cuirassier regiment, and placed in the receipt of a considerable 
pension. The marriage was, however, long delayed. The princess showed a decided 
distaste for the insignificant character of the bridegroom-elect, and only married him to 
avoid a still more hated union with the son of Biron. The birth of the prince Ivan took 
place in 1740, a year after the marriage. About the same time, the empress falling 
flangerously sick, appointed the infant prince her successor, and Biron regent. After 
her death, A. U. made some feeble attempts to reverse this appointment, which only led 
to the punishment of those supposed to have instigated them, and to his own military 


Antonius. 
5 3 9 Antraigues, 


degradation. Biron’s conduct towards the parents of the infant prince becoming 
unbearably insolent, Anna appealed in despair to Gen. Miinnich, who put a sudden end 
to Biron’s sway, and declared the grand-duchess and her husband regents. After a few 
months, Anna ungratefully overthrew Minnich. After his fall, as little unity pre- 
vailed between the ministers at the helm as between herself and her husband, and the 
government was looked upon as both a foreign and a contemptible one. Then came 
the revolution of the 5th Dec., 1741, which raised Elizabeth Petrovna (q.v.) to the 
throne. A. U. and his consort were exiled, and lived long at Cholmogory, in the gov- 
ernment of Archangel. Three children were born to them in exile. Anna d. in 1746. 
Catharine II. offered A. U. his freedom, but he declined it. Ultimately, he grew blind. 
The exact year of his death is uncertain, but it is supposed to have taken place about 
1780. Catharine offered to his children an asylum in Jutland, where they all died in 
comfortable circumstances. 


ANTONY, Sarnt, surnamed Tue Great, and also ANTONY oF THEBES, the father of 
monachism, was b. about the year 251 a.p., at Koma, near Heraklea, in upper Egypt. 
His parents were both wealthy and pious, and bestowed on him a religious education. 
Having, in obedience to what he believed to be a divine injunction, sold his possessions, 
and distributed the proceeds among the poor, he withdrew into the wilderness, where 
he disciplined himself in all those austerities which have hallowed his memory in the 
Catholic church, and formed the model of the monastic life. When 380 years of age, how- 
ever, desirous of obtaining a deeper repose than his situation afforded, he penetrated 
further into the desert, and took up his abode in an old ruin on the top of a hill, where 
he spent twenty years in the most rigorous seclusion; but, in 3805, he was persuaded to 
leave this retreat by the prayers of numerous anchorites, who wished to live under 
his direction. He now founded the monastery of Faioum, which at first was only a 
group of separate and scattered cells near Memphis and Arsinoé; but which, neverthe- 
less, may be considered the origin of cenobite life. The persecution of the Christians 
by Maximian, in 311 A.p., induced St. A. to leave his cell, and proceed to Alexandria, 
in the hope of obtaining the crown of martyrdom; but, having failed in this, he returned 
to his solitude in the course of a year, which, however, he soon left, and plunged yet © 
deeper into the desert. At length he found a lodgment on a hill, about a day’s journey 
from the Red sea; but his disciples, discovering his retreat, so pressed him with their 
affectionate importunities, that he ventured to accompany them back. After many pious 
exhortations, he once more left them, and soon became the mighty oracle of the whole 
valley of the Nile. In 355, the venerable hermit, then 104 years of age, made a journey 
to Alexandria to dispute with the Arians. He had interviews with Athanasius and 
other distinguished persons; but feeling his end approaching, he retired to his desert 
home, where he d., 356 A.D. 

Athanasius states, in his Life of St. A., that the saint wore only a coarse shirt of 
hair, and never washed his body, which is more credible than the stories he relates of 
his encounters with the devil, or his miracles. His whole conduct indicates the pre- 
dominance of a glowing and yet gloomy fancy, which is the proper condition of 
religious asceticism. Although the father of monachism, St. A. is not the author of 
any monastic ‘‘rules;” those which the monks of the eastern schismatic sects attribute 
to him are the production of St. Basil. He is, perhaps, the most popular saint in the 
Catholic church. Accounts of his life and miracles are given in the Acta Sanctorum of 
the Bollandists, under the date of the 17th Jan., on which day his festival was kept. 


ST. ANTHONY’S CROSS, or the TAu cross, is shaped like the letter T. In heraldry the 
name denotes an ordinary cross consisting of two stripes, one horizontal, the other 
vertical, crossing each other in the centre of the escutcheon. 

Sr. ANTHONY’S Frre.—The Rev. Alban Butler, in his Lives of the Saints, gives the 
following account of the origin of this name: ‘‘In 1089, a pestilential erysipelatous 
distemper, called the sacred fire, swept off great numbers in most provinces of France; 
public prayers and processions were ordered against this scourge. At length, it pleased 
God to grant many miraculous cures of this dreadful distemper to those who implored 
his mercy through the intercession of St. A., especially before his relics; the church [of 
La Motte St. Didier, near Vienne, in Dauphiné] in which they were deposited was 
resorted to by great numbers of pilgrims, and his patronage was implored over the 
whole kingdom against this disease.” The ‘‘ order of canons regular of St. Anthony,” a 
religious fraternity, founded about 1090, for the relief of persons afflicted with the fire 
of St. A., survived in France till 1790. 


ANTRAI'GUES, Emanvet-Lovuts-HENrI DELAUNAY, Count of, a great politician, 
but very ambiguous character, was b. at Vivarais, in the department Ardéche, in 1755, 
and was educated under the Abbé Maury. His superior talents were first displayed in 
his Mémoire sur les Htats générauz, leurs Droits et la Maniér de les convoquer (1788). This 
book, full of daring assertions of liberty, was one of the first sparks of the fire which 
afterwards rose to such height in the French revolution. In 1789, when A. was chosen 
as a deputy, he not only defended the privileges of the hereditary aristocracy, but also 
ranked himself with those who opposed the union of the three estates; while in the dis- 
cussions on the constitution, he maintained that the royal veto was an indispensable part 

I.—18 


ree 540 


of good government. After leaving the assembly, in 1790, he was employed in 
diplomacy at St. Petersburg and Vienna, where he defended the cause of the Bourbons. 
In 1803, he was employed under Alexander of Russia in an embassy to Dresden, where 
he wrote against Bonaparte a brochure, entitled A Fragment of the 18th Book of Polybius, 
discovered on Mount Athos. He afterwards came to England, and acquired great in- 
fluence with Canning. Despite his attachment to the interests of the Bourbons, he 
could never win the confidence of Louis XVIII. In 1812, he was murdered, with his 
wife, at his residence near London, by an Italian servant, who, immediately after the 
act, committed suicide. 


ANTRIM, a co. of Michigan, in the n.w. part of the lower peninsula, on Grand 
Traverse bay; 700 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 10,418. Farming is the main business. Co. seat, 
Bellaire. 


ANTRIM, a maritime co. in the n.e. of Ireland, in the province of Ulster; bounded, 
n., by the Atlantic; w., by the n. part of the river Bann, dividing it from Londonderry, 
and by lough Neagh; s., by Lagan river, separating it from the co. of Down; s.e., by 
Belfast lough; and e. by the Irish channel. It stands third among the Irish counties in 
population, but in extent only ninth. Its greatest length is 56 m.; its greatest breadth, 
20; its extent of sea-coast, 90m. Area, 1164sq.m. About two thirds of this is arable; 
a fourth, barren; and a seventy-fourth in woods. The population in 1851 was 352,- 
264 ; °61, 368,948; ’81, 421,943; 91, 427,968, of whom about one half were Prot- 
estants, chiefly Presbyterians. Off the n. coast lie Rathlin isle and the Skerries ; 
and off the e. coast, the Maiden rocks. The e. coast is hilly; and from Larne 
to Fair Head, parallel mountain-ranges of no great height, and covering a third of the 
county, stretch s.w. into the interior, forming valleys opening seaward, called the glens 
of Antrim. The interior slopes towards lough Neagh. The highest eminences are— 
Trostan, 1810 ft.; and Slievemish, or Slemish, 1782 ft. The principal streams are—the 
Bann, from lough Neagh to the Atlantic; the Main, running parallel to the Bann, but in 
the reverse direction, into lough Neagh; and the Bush, flowing n. into the Atlantic. 
Many peat-bogs occur in the county. Six sevenths of the surface consists of basaltic 
trap, often alternating with red ochre, and overlying hardened chalk, green-sand, new 
red sandstone, and mica-slate. The surface and edges of the trap-field, in some places, 
present basaltic columns of varied outlines. The green-sand and new red sandstone 
crop out on the e. and s.e. borders, and millstone grit occurs in the n.e. Between Bally- 
castle and the mouth of the Bann, the basalt assumes very picturesque forms; and the 
Giants’ causeway is one of the most perfect examples of columnar basalt in the world. 
Fine salt-mines occur at Duncrue and Carrickfergus; and small coal-fields near Bally- 
castle and in the interior. Rich beds of iron ore of fine quality have been recently 
opened in Glenravel, and a large export has been carried on from Cushendall and Carn- 
lough. The soil of A. is mostly light, and the chief crop is oats. The land is very 
much subdivided; and the rearing of flax, and the various branches of the linen, cotton, 
and coarse woolen manufacture, employ a great portion of the people. There are 
important salmon and other fisheries on the coast. In Belfast and the vicinity the 
chief industry is the spinning of cotton and linen yarn, and weaving. The principal 
towns are— Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Ballymoney, Carrickfergus, Larne, and An- 
trim. Antrim co. returns four members to parliament, one for each of the divisions 
(Northern, Southern, Eastern and Middle), besides four members for the borough of 
Belfast. The inhabitants are mostly Presbyterians, the county having been extensively 
colonized from England and Scotland. The original possessors were the O’Neills, who, 
partially dispossessed by John de Courcy, reappeared as chief, on the failure of his line, 
and in 1533 regained the whole country except Carrickfergus and part of the glens — 
held by the Bissets of Glenarm. The forfeiture of Shane O’Neill terminated the 
dominion of his race. 


ANT’WERP (in French, ANveERs), the capital of the province which bears its name. 
and the chief commercial city of Belgium, is situate on the river Scheldt. Pop. ’94, 
256,620. Its chief public institutions are—the Academy of Sciences, Academy of Paint- 
ing and Sculpture, formerly known as the Academy of St. Mark, a medical and surgical 
school, naval arsenal, museum, and zoological gardens. The cathedral, one of the 
noblest gothic structures in Europe, is 500 ft. in length by 240 in breadth, with a roof 
supported by 125 pillars, and a very lofty spire. 'The interior is enriched by the two 
greatest of all the pictures of Rubens, the Elevation of and the Descent from the Cross, 
The church of St. James contains the monument of the Rubens family. The new forti- 
fications, recently erected, render the commercial capital of Belgium one of the most 
strongly fortified places in Europe. The trade and manufactures of A. have recently 
ereatly extended, and the large dock and quay accommodation having been found too 
limited, steps have been taken for making a new quarter of the town, with ample 
harbor-room, on the opposite side of the Scheldt. The manufactures consist chiefly of 
sugar, white-lead, cotton goods, point-lace, linen thread, carpets, gold and silver lace. 
It is still celebrated for its sewing-silk, black silk stuffs, and printer’s ink, as it was in 
former times for its velvets, damasks, and satins. There are also to be mentioned 
ueegeggiesas re ue) the cutting of diamonds and other precious stones, and ship- 

uilding, 


af Sh nid Antrim. 


A. is mentioned as early as the 8th c.; in the 12th and 18th it gave signs of consid- 
erable prosperity, and in 1550 numbered more than 200,000 inhabitants. The union of 
Belgium with Holland in 1815 was very favorable to the commerce and general pros- 
pouty vf A. By the revolution of Aug., 1830, it was linked to the destiny of Belgium. 

hen the revolutionary party gained possession, the commandant, Gen. Chassé, 
retreated to the citadel, and, exasperated by the breach of truce, commenced a bom- 
bardment, which destroyed the arsenal and about thirty houses. In 1832, a French 
army of 50,000 men, under Marshal Gérard, appeared before A., to demand the sur- 
render of the citadel, which Gen. Chassé refused. After the interior of the citadel had 
been reduced to ruins by the French artillery, Gen. Chassé capitulated ; the Flemish 
fortification, and the Forts Burght, Zwindrecht, and Austroweel were surrendered to 
the Belgian troops, and the Dutch troops were taken to France, as hostages for the sur- 
render of the Forts Lillo and Liefkenshoek, according to an article in the negotiation of 
Noy. 15, 1831, which stipulated that the five citadels held by the Dutch troops in Belgium 
should be surrendered. 


ANUBIS, an Egyptian deity, styled Anepu on hieroglyphic monuments, was, accord- 
ing to mythology, the son of Osiris and Nephthys. By the Greeks, he was frequently 
styled Hermes or Hermanubis, combining the Egyptian with the Grecian name. He is 
represented on monuments as having the head of a jackal, with pointed ears and snout, 
which the Greeks freqtiently changed to those of a dog. Sometimes he is seen wearing 
a double crown. A white and yellow cock was sacrificed to him. His office, like that 
of Hermes Psychopompos among the Greeks, was to accompany the ghosts of the 
deceased into Hades (Amenthes), and there to assist Horus in weighing their actions, 
under the inspection of Osiris. As, in the time of the Romans, the Egyptian worship 
had spread beyond Egypt itself, the two conceptions of A. and Hermes were blent 
together, and the dog’s head of the former was found united to the insignia of the latter. 
See illus., EaypT1IAN DEITIES, vol. V. 


ANUPSHAHR’, at. of India, in the British district of Bolundshuhur, n. w. provinces, 
on the right bank of the Ganges, 73 m. e. from Delhi, on the route to Bareilly. The 
channel of the Ganges is here about a mile wide, but only about one-fifth of that space 
is occupied by the stream in the dry season. Pop. 8000. 


A'NUS, THE, ANDITS DisEAsEs. The term anus is applied by anatomists to the lower 
or (in the case of animals) the posterior aperture of the intestinal canal; the rectum 
terminating externally in the anus. With regard to its anatomy, it is sufficient to state 
that it is kept firmly closed on ordinary occasions by the external and internal sphincter 
muscles, the former of which contracts the integument around the opening, and, by its 
attachment to the coccyx behind, and toa tendinous center in front, helps the levator 
ant muscle in supporting the aperture during the expulsive efforts that are made in the 
passage of the feeces or intestinal evacuations; while the latter or ¢nternal sphincter, is an 
aggregation of the circular muscular fibres of the lowest part of the rectum, and acts in 
contracting the extremity of the tube. The main function of the levator ani muscle is 
expressed in its name, it being the antagonist of the diaphragm and other muscles which 
act in the expulsion of the feces. The integument around the anus lies in vena 
plaits, which allow of its stretching without pain during the passage of the feces; an 
the margin is provided with a number of sebaceous glands, which, in some of the lower 
animals, secrete strongly odorous matters. See ANAL GLANDS. Infants are occasionally 
born with an imperforate anus, or congenital closure of the rectum. In the simplest 
form of this affection, the anus is merely closed by thin skin, which soon becomes dis- 
tended with the meconium (q.v.). More complicated cases are those (1) in which the gut 
terminates some distance above the seat of the anus in a blind sac or pouch, (2) where 
the rectum terminates in the bladder, etc. Fortunately, the closure by a layer of skin is 
far the most common form of imperforate anus, and the little patient is at once relieved 
by a very simple surgical operation. If, however, no treatment be adopted, which is too 
often the case, in consequence of a popular delusion that the affection is incurable, the 
abdomen becomes distended and hard, vomiting comes on, the vomited matters soon 
assume a fecal smell, and the infant dies in a few days, either from exhaustion or 
rupture of the intestines. 

Spasm of the sphincter ant is by no means a rare affection; it is characterized by 
violent pain of the anus, with difficulty in passing the feces. On attempting an examl- 
nation, the muscle feels hard, and resists the introduction of the finger. It usually 
occurs in sudden paroxysms, which soon go off; but sometimes it is of a more persistent 
character. Its causes are not clearly known, and although most surgeons regard it as a 
special affection, some consider that the spasm is not a disease in itself, but merely a 
symptom of some slight excoriation or ulceration. Suppositories containing opium or 
belladonna introduced during the period of relaxation, are sometimes of use; and if there 
are ulcers, they must be specially treated. Ulceration occurring as a breach of surface 
at one or more points around the anus, but not extending within the orifice, is by no 
means uncommon in persons who are not attentive to cleanliness, and especially in 
women with vaginal discharges. Strict attention to cleanliness, the patient being 
directed to apply warm water to the parts at least twice daily with a sponge (which after 
each operation should be carefully rinsed out), and one or two applications of the solid 


Anvil. 
Aorta. 5 42 


nitrate of silver, followed by black-wash, will effect a speedy cure. If the ulcer is seated 
partly without the anus and partly within the rectum, the distress is much more severe, 
and the treatment often requires the use of the knife. Misswre of the anus is a term 
applied to an affection consisting in one or more cracks, excoriations, or superficial 
ulcerations, situated between the folds of the skin and mucous membrane at the verge of 
the anus, and only slightly involving the rectum. They give rise to intense pain during 
the passage of the evacuations, and for some hours afterwards to great discomfort, smart- 
ing, and itching. The treatment to be adopted is to endeavor to procure regular and 
somewhat soft evacuations, and to sponge with warm water immediately afterwards, the 
parts being dried with a soft cloth. One or two applications of solid nitrate of silver 
will sometimes cure the disease; and an ointment of oxide of zinc, or one containing 
chloroform, will sometimes serve to allay the irritation and heal the parts —Pruritus ant, 
which simply means intense itching and irritation of this part, is perhaps rather to be 
regarded as a symptom of certain morbid changes rather than as a special disorder; but 
as it isa very common affection, and is productive of much suffering, it must not be 
passed over. It is often associated with an unhealthy state of the intestinal secretions, 
or with simple constipation; with a congested state of the mucous membrane; with a 
disordered condition of the womb; with the presence of thread-worms in the rectum, 
etc.; and it is peculiarly common in persons whose occupations are sedentary. The 
affection is often much aggravated by the patient’s being unable“to refrain from scratch- 
ing the parts, which leads to excoriations, ulcerations, thickening of the skin, etc. The 
symptoms are usually most severe when the sufferer begins to get warm in bed. If the 
affection arise from worms, or a loaded state of the large intestines, enemata and 
purgatives will give immediate relief. If unhealthy excretions exist, attention must be 
paid to the diet, and the occasional administration of a pill containing a grain of calomel 
and four grains of watery extract of aloes, together with the local application of soap 
and water to the parts, will often stop the itching. If there are any cracks or ulcers, 
nitrate of silver must be applied until they heal. To prevent the reappearance of these 
sores, the patient should bathe the parts night and morning with a strong solution of 
alum. An ointment composed of a drachm of calomel and an ounce of lard is strongly 
recommended by Dr. Smith of King’s College Hospital, when other means have failed; 
who also states that the daily introduction of a well-oiled bougie, made of black wax, 
will sometimes succeed in very obstinate cases. The other principal affections of the 
anus are fistula, piles, and prolapsus, which are discussed in special articles. 


ANVIL, an iron block, with a smooth, flat, steel face, on which malleable metals are 
hammered and shaped. A.’s are of all sizes, from the tiny articles used by watchmakers 
to the immense masses for trip-hammer work in great iron foundries. The common A. 
of blacksmiths has a cone or horn at one end, and a socket for a chisel in the other. The 
best A. are made of cast iron, faced with steel, the steel being placed at the bottom of the 
mold and the iron poured upon it. 


ANVILLE, JEAN Baptiste BouRGUIGNON D’, a celebrated French geographer, b. at 
Paris in 1697, d. in 1782. He devoted his whole life to geographical science. Such was 
his natural taste for map-drawing that his first study of the ancient authors induced him 
to publish, at the age of 15, a map of Greece. His rare qualities gained him the friend- 
ship of the Abbé de Songuerue, from whom he received those instructions which were 
the source of that profound and extensive knowledge he subsequently acquired. He read 
the Greek and Latin historians and philosophers, as well as poets, specially noting the 
names and positions of cities and nations. He advanced the science of geography, not 
only by the vast number of maps which he executed, but also by the treatises, full of 
erudition and of historic and critical details, in which he discussed numerous interesting 
questions. The works of A. announced by M. de Maine many years ago, were to have 
been contained in 6 vols., exclusive of the volumes of maps. ‘The principal portion was 
published in 1834 by Levrault. But the death of M. de Maine in 1832 stopped the quarto 
edition near the end of the twelfth volume, to which the map of Africa was however 
wanting, although the text had been added, with notes digested from the most recent 
investigations in that country. <A. has left 211 maps and plans, and 78 memoirs, the 
most of which are inserted in the Recweil des Mémoires de 1 Académie des Inscriptions et 
elles-lettres. His best map is that of ancient Egypt. His Orbis Veteribus Notuws, and 
Orbis Romanus, are also invaluable. The same remark applies to his maps of Gaul, Italy, 
and Greece, both ancient and medieval. His maps of modern countries contain all the 
knowledge attained in his time. His valuable collection of maps was purchased in 1779 
by the French government for the royal library. 


ANWARI, a celebrated Persian poet, who flourished during the 12th c., was b. in the 
province of Khorassan, and educated at the college of Mansur, at Tus. He emerged from 
obscurity in the course of a night. The story goes that the Seljukide sultan, Sanjar, 
happened on one occasion to visit Tus, when the imagination of the youthful poet was so 
excited by the presence of the monarch and his glittering retinue, that he resolved to write 
a poem in his praise. By next morning it was finished, and presented to Sanjar, who 
instantly placed the fortunate youth among his courtiers. A. now began to devote him- 
self to astrology, which was his ruin; for having predicted that in 1185 or 1186 a.p. a 
hurricane would burst over all Asia, overthrow the most solid edifices, and shake the 


5 43 Anvil, 


Aorta, 


very mountains, and nothing of the sort really occurring, but, on the contrary, an entire 
year of remarkably tranquil weather, he fell into disgrace, and had to retire to Balkh, 
where he died in 1200-1201 A.p. 

His poems consist chiefly of lengthy panegyrics and shorter lyrical effusions. The 
latter (ghazels) are characterized by simplicity, ease, and naturalness; but the kasidas, or 
long poems, are disfigured, like many other eastern poems, by glittering imagery and 
historical conceits. His Hlegy on the Captivity of Sanjar taken Prisoner by the Ghurides 
has been translated into English by captain Kirkpatrick in the first volume of Aséatie 
Miscellanies (Calcutta, 1785). 


ANZIN, a t. in the dept. of Nord, France, on the Scheldt, near Valenciennes, in the 
centre of a most valuable coal-mining district. A. has iron foundries, glass-works, brew- 
eries, and distilleries. Pop. 11,400. 


AO'NIA, a district of ancient Greece, in which are Mt. Helicon (the Aonian mount) 
and the fountain Aganippe. In fable, A. was a favorite haunt of the muses, who were 
called ‘‘Aonides.” 


AONLAGANY’, or AouNLAH, at. of India, in the British district of Bareilly, 21 m. 
s.w. from Bareilly, on the route to Allygurh. It has a large bazar. 


A’ORIST, a form of the Greek verb by which an action is expressed as taking place 
in an indefinite (Gr. aoristos) time. The Greek language is especially fertile in the past 
tenses of verbs, having, in addition to the tenses common to other languages—namely, 
the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect—the A., which is peculiarly adapted to the narra- 
tive style of writing. The distinction of first and second A. is purely formal. 


AO’RTA is the great arterial trunk which, rising from the left ventricle of the heart, 
sends its branches ramifying through the whole body. The A. in man is subdivided by 
anatomists into the arch, the thoracic A., and the abdominal A. The arch is a loop 
with the convexity directed upwards, forwards, and to the right side, reaching at its 
highest part to a level with the second piece of the breast-bone, and then descending to 
the left side of the third dorsal vertebra. Five arteries arise from the arch—viz., two 
coronaries, for the supply of the muscular tissue of the heart itself; the innominata; 
and the left carotid and left subclavian arteries. At the commencement of the arch are 
three small swellings or pouches, the aortic sinuses, below 
which are the three semilunar valves or folds of the lining d 
membrane, which prevent regurgitation of the blood back Sie Fie 
into the heart. The thoracic A. extends from the third ~~ j 
dorsal vertebra to the diaphragm, gradually getting into 
the middle line of the spine. The thoracic A. gives off 
the bronchial arteries (two or three) to supply the tissue 
of the lungs; and some small branches (three or four) to 
the cesophagus, and intercostal arteries, to supply the 
walls of the chest (ten on left, and nine on right side). 
The abdominal A. passes from the diaphragm to the 
fourth lumbar vertebra, opposite the lower margin of 
which it divides into the two common iliac trunks. The 
abdominal A. gives off the two phrenic arteries to the 
diaphragm; the cceliac axis, which divides into three large 
branches for the stomach, liver, and spleen; the superior 
mesenteric for the small, and part of the large intestine; 
the renals (two); the swpra-renals (two), one for each 
kidney; the spermatic; the inferior mesenteric, for the 
part of the large intestine not supplied by the superior 
mesenteric; and four or five. lumbar arteries, which sup- 
ply the lower part of the abdominal walls (the loins). 

Where the A. bifurcates, a small artery, the sacra- 
media, or caudal artery, arises, and passes along in the 
middle line; in fish and in animals with large tails, this j Na 
branch is a continuation of the A. - (ppg 

The above is the usual arrangement; but occasionally 
it varies, especially in the number of arteries springing 
from the arch. The structure of the A. will be given 
under ARTERY; and the comparative anatomy under 
CIRCULATION, Aorta: 

During fcetal life, there is a communication between a, ascending arch of aorta; ss, 
the arch of the A. and the pulmonary artery called the ve peant | reds ear: t 4 a teouahe 
ductus artertosus, the canal of which becomes obliterated Bileny Cerethis set Garon 
after birth. It has been calculated that the velocity of — e, lefs subclavian; f, thoracic 
the blood in the ascending part of the arch is 24 in. in cag a teh Pen ip bette hh, phite- 
asecond. The pressure of the blood in the A. of a horse  oronary or gastric: J, splenic: 
has been estimated to be 11 lbs.; and in man’s, 4 lbs. _m, hepatic; n, superior mesen- 
6 ozs. teric; 00, renal arteries; p, in- 

The coats of the A. are very subject to fatty disease — j¢/"7" common iliag; r, middle 
termed atheroma (q.v.), andin advanced lite, to calcare- sacral. 


ryvier Ae 544 


ous degeneration or deposit of earthy particles, which destroys their elasticity. This 
ehange renders them very liable to aneurism (q.v.), which, as may be expected, is gen. 
erally situated at the curves of the A., especially at thearch. Sufferers from this disease 
in the arch or thoracic A., suffer from palpitation within the chest, difficulty of breath- 
ing, occurring in paroxysms and during sleep, and shoots of pain through the chest. 
If the aneurism is on the arch, it generally presses forward, and may completely destroy 
the breast-bone, forming a pulsating tumor, covered only by the skin, or it may press 
up into the neck. If low in the chest, the aneurism may compress the thoracic duct, 
and cause emaciation. In the abdomen, the symptoms are pulsation and pain; but in 
both situations aneurism may exist for a length of time without attracting attention. 

In some cases the A. has been found obliterated, showing that the lower extremities 
can be supplied with blood by the anastomosing branches. 

AOSTA, a district of the province of Turin, in north ttaly, surrounded by the highest 
elevations of the Alps, and watered by the river Dora-baltea. It contains an area of 
1233 sq.m. The dense pine-woods on the hills, the alpine pastures on the slopes, the 
plantations of vines, almonds, olives, figs, and mulberry trees in the valleys, and the 
ores of silver, copper, and iron in the bosom of the mountains, supply occupation and 
means of subsistence to a considerable population; but the land generally is not adapted to 
the growth of corn, though maize, barley, oats, etc., are produced in the lowest portions 
of the valleys. The disease styled cretinism (q. v.) prevails to a lamentable extent, and 
few persons are altogether free from goiter (q. v.). Great numbers of the poorer class 
emigrate during winter into the richer countries in their vicinity, and earn a livelihood 
as chimney-sweepers, masons, and smiths. — Aosta, the principal t., 49 m. n. n. w. of 
Turin has a population of about 7000, and a large trade in cheese, hemp, leather, etc. It 
was in ancient times the chief residence of the Salassi, a brave race of mountaineers, 
with whom Appius Claudius (134 B.c.) had to contend on his way into Gaul. They were 
finally destroyed by Terentius Varro in the time of Augustus. Monuments of the 
Roman times—a well-preserved arch, two gateways, the ruins of an amphitheater, and 
a bridge—still remain. The celebrated baths and mines of St. Didier are in the neigh- 
borhood. St. Bernard, the founder of the famous hospice which bears his name, was 
archdeacon of A.; and Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, was b. here. 


APAC’HES, Indians of Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona; warlike nomads, roam- 
ing over Texas and the Mexican states. ‘They wander and fight on horseback, and are 
usually at enmity with white men, resisting all efforts to Christianize or civilize them. 
Very few ever cultivate the soil, their living being derived chiefly from the chase and 
from robbery. But those in Arizona were placed on a reservation, in 1874. 


APACHE, a northwestern co. of Arizona, formed 1879 from part of Yavapai. Area, 
21,060 sq.m.; pop. ‘90, 4281. Co. seat, St. Johns. 


APA'FI, MicnaeEt I., Prince of Transylvania, was b. in 1632, of an old but decayed 
family. He accompanied Prince George II. in an expedition against the Poles in 1656, 
but was taken prisoner at the irruption of the Tartar hordes under their khan, Mohammed 
Girai. After his rclease, he went and lived for a short time at his paternal estate; but 
in 1661 he was chosen prince of Transylvania, at the instigation or desire of Ali Pasha, 
generalissimo of the Turkish forces under Sultan Mahmoud IV, During the peace con- 
cluded with Austria, he reigred peaceably under the protection of the porte, and 
acquired the towns of Clausenburg and Rathmar. He remained faithful to the Ottoman 
power till the siege of Vienna in 1683. Fortune then changed. The imperial troops 
penetrated into the country; and on the 12th of Aug., 1687, A. made a treaty with the 
emperor at Harkany, by which Transylvania was declared to be freed “‘ forever” from 
Turkish suzerainty, and placed under German protection. At Fogaras, on the Ist of July 
1688, the Transylvanian deputies assembled at the national diet, took the oath of fealty 
to the Hapsburgs as legitimate monarchs of Hungary. Ever since the death of his wife, 
Anna Bornemitza, in 1688, A. had been sorely afflicted both in body and mind, and died 
(April 15, 1690) onthe eve of a fierce retributive war, commenced by his oid allies, the 
Turks, who considered themselves ill used by his desertion of them. His son, Michael 
II., succeeded to the throne and its perils. 'The Turks, under the vizier Cuprigli, over- 
threw the imperial army, and took several places, such as Nissa, Widdin, Semendria, 
Belgrade, etc.; but the intestine troubles of the Ottoman empire hindered them, or 
rather Count Tekeli, the adventurer whom they were helping, from retaining these towns. 
The imperial troops subsequently regained everything; and at length the young Transyl- 
vanian prince was inveigled to Vienna, and cajoled into giving up his dominions to 
Austria in lieu of a pension of 12,000 or 15,000 florins. He died in 1713. 


AP’ANAGE is not an English legal term, but is a technical word in the French law, in 
which system it signifies the assignment or conveyance by the crown of lands and feudal 
rights to the princes of the royal family, that they may be enabled to maintain them- 
selves according to their rank. (See a long article on this subject in Knight’s Political 
Dictionary, which refers to Rotteck and Welcker, Staats-Leaicon, art. by P. A. Pfizer. 
See also Merlin’s Répertoire de Jurisprudence under this head.) The word A., however, 
is sometimes found in Scotch law-books, the Scotch lawyers having most probably 
derived it from France, whose system of laws was so largely imported into Scotland— 
the Court of Session itself having been modeled after the plan of the parliament of 
Paris. Mr. Erskine, in his Principles of the Law of Scotland, book i., tit. 4, sec. 8, says: 


yee Aosta. 
545 Apatite, 


The A., or patrimony of the prince of Scotland, has been long erected into a regality 
jurisdiction, called the principality. It is personal to the king’s eldest son, upon whose 
death or succession it returns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, his own 
chancery, from which his writs issue, and may have his own chamberlain and other 
officers for receiving and managing his revenue;’ and the late prof. Bell, in his 
Principles of the scotch Lao, calls this principality the prince’s ‘perpetual A. and _per- 
sonal provision.” In England, the duchy of Cornwall may be said to be an A. of the 
prince of Wales, in whose person, also, since the junction of the two kingdoms under 
the same crown, now merge the rights of the prince of Scotland. His royal highness, 
in fact, when he goes north, ought strictly to be called, not prince of Wales, but prince 
of Scotland. 

In common parlance in England, the word A. is loosely used to denote any extra- 
territorial jurisdiction or sovereignty by governments or states; and even any dignity or 
right enjoyed by persons of rank. 

APARTMENT HOUSES. See Housrs, APARTMENT. 

APATHIN’, at. of Hungary, in the co. of Bacs, near the left bank of the Danube, 
49 m. s.w. from Theresiopol. It has manufactures of woolen cloth, and a considerable 
trade in hemp, silk, madder, and woad, the products of the vicinity. Pop. 12,800. 


AP’ATITE is the scientific and commercial name applied to a mineral mainly consist- 
ing of phosphate of lime (bone-earth), and which for some years past has been largely 
used in the preparation of manures. It is employed for the same purpose as bones or 
bone-ash—namely, to supply phosphoric acid to the soil. The massive radiated variety 
is sometimes called phosphorite, and when massive, earthy, and impure, it is also known 
as osteolite. Coprolites (q.v.), or phosphatic nodules, are likewise mainly composed of 
phosphate of lime. A. is found as a bedded rock, in compact spheroidal masses, in 
veins and dykes, and as an accessory constituent of rocks. It exists in nearly all geologi- 
cal formations, but is perhaps most abundant in the older metamorphic rocks. Exten- 
sive deposits of A. occur in various parts of the world. From Kragerée in Norway, 
where it occurs associated with granitic rocks, and from Estremadura in Spain, where 
it is found in cretaceous strata, it has been largely sent to England, the total imports of 
these mineral phosphates having in some years reached 5000 tons. There is a bed of A., 
18 in. thick, of Silurian age, at Llanfyllin in North Wales, which has been exten- 
sively worked. A remarkable deposit of a kind of A., or rather rock guano, which has 
been termed ‘‘sombrerite,” was discovered some years ago in the small island of Som- 
brero, situated about 60 m. to the e. of St. Thomas, in the West Indian group. It 
covers a great part of the island, which is about 14m. long. by # of a mile in breadth. 
Mr. A. A. Julien, writing from the spot in 1864, says there ‘‘is a natural division of the 
sombrero guano into two varieties. One of an oolitic structure, of a great variety of 
colors, and containing, in addition to the bone 3CaO,PO; and neutral 2CaO,PO; phos- 
phates of lime, the phosphates of alumina, iron, and magnesia, etc. The other variety, 
generally of a broad concretionary structure, is of a white or yellowish-white color, con- 
taining a little carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, etc., but especially abounds in bone 
phosphate of lime. It is almost certain that the former more nearly resembles the origi- 
ual deposit, and is the older of the two; while the latter is far more uniform in compo- 
sition. ‘The guano is interlaminated with ordinary coral limestone.” It isnow believed 
that this hard or rock guano has been formed by water filtering through ordinary guano, 
into the coral rock adjoining, and turning it more or less completely into phosphate of 
lime, A similar hard guano occurs at Monk’s Island, and one or two others in the 
Caribbean sea. Large quantities have been introduced into Gt. Britain, and still more 
into the United States, under the name of sombrero guano, and are extensively employed 
by the manufacturers of artificial manures, in place of ordinary bone-ash. The general 
treatment to which mineral phosphate is subjected, is to reduce it to powder, and act 
upon the pulverized matter with sulphuric acid, which renders the phosphoric acid in 
the A. soluble in water, and thereby facilitates its introduction into the plant. These 
substances require to be ground to a finer powder, and subjected to a more protracted 
digestion than bones. In the greater number of cases where the A. or sombrero guano 
is treated in this way, it is mixed with other manures, such as peruvian guano, blood, 
or true bones, and thus a complex substance is manufactured, which is much more 
acceptable to the plant than the simple A. or mineral phosphate itself. The great impor- 
tance of mineral phosphate, in an agricultural point of view, arises from the fact that 
no mineral substance possesses more influence over the growth of the edible plants, such 
as wheat, barley, oats, turnips, etc., than phosphoric acid does; any cheap source of 
that substance, therefore, is a great boon. The island of Sombrero contains as much 
phosphatic or bony matter as is present in many millions of oxen, and represents as 
much manure as would be obtained by the employment of. the bones of these cattle. 
The different varieties of A. contain a little fluoride or chloride of calcium, or both, as 
well as phosphate of lime. Of these varieties, besides those already mentioned, there 
are others, as morozite, francolite, and asparagus stone. It occurs both massive and in 
crystals—which are generally small, and are often six-sided prisms, or six-sided tables, 
but some very large ones have been brought from Canada. It occurs in some of the tin 
mines in Cornwall, Saxony, Bohemia, etc., and in rocks of various ages, as mentioned 
above. Itis found of various colors, more or less green, blue or red, sometimes white, 


Ape. 546 


Apenrade. 


and often gray. The proposal to employ it as a manure first excited much interest in 
1856, and began to be enterprisingly carried into effect, with happy results—rocks once 
deemed most barren being thus rendered conducive to the fertility of soils. In Spain, A, 
is used as a building stone. 


APE, a name commonly given to the tailless monkeys. (See BARBARY APR, 
CHIMPANZEE, GIBBON, GORILLA, ORANG-OTANG, etc.) It was originally commensurate 
in signification with monkey, and the terms were indiscriminately used. The origin of 
the word is uncertain. See MONKEY. 

The worship of apes or monkeys has been common among pagan nations from a 
period of remote antiquity, and still prevails very extensively, being practiced in Japan, 
in India, and by some of the African tribes. The source of it is perhaps to be found 
partly in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and partly in the qualities which 
apes have been supposed to possess in a conspicuous degree, and of which they have 
been made symbolic. An A.’s tooth, kept in a temple in Ceylon, was regarded with 
extraordinary veneration, and immense wealth was accumulated through the continual 
offerings of the worshipers; but the temple was plundered, and the tooth carried away 
by the Portuguese in 1554. 


A-PEAK, or A-PEEK, a maritime term signifying the position of an anchor when the 
cable has been drawn so tight as to bring the ship directly over it; the sailors then say 
that ‘‘the anchor is a-peak.” 


AP'ELDORN, a beautiful village in the Netherlands province of Gelderland, is situated 
about 17m. n. from Arnheim, on a canal which joins the river Grift, a branch of the 
Yssel, by which, and the public roads from Arnheim and Utrecht to Deventer and 
Zutphen, and by railway, it has much traffic. The Loo, a hunting-lodge of the king, is 
in the neighborhood. The principal industries are agriculture, making paper, grinding 
corn, founding copper, manufacturing blankets and coarse woolen cloth, etc. Pop. of 
A. (ist Jan., ’90), 19,190. 


APEL'LES, the most celebrated painter in ancient times, was the son of Pythias, and 
was probably, in accordance with the statement of Suidas, born at Colophon, on the 
Ionian coast of Asia Minor; though Pliny and Ovid call him a Coan, and Strabo and 
Lucian an Ephesian. This, however, may simply refer to the fact that he was made a 
burgess of that town. He flourished in the latter part of the 4th c. B.c.; received his 
first instruction in art in the Ionian school of Ephesus, then studied under Pamphilus 
of Amphipolis, and latterly at Sicyon, under Melanthius, and thus he united the fine 
coloring of the Ionian with the accurate drawing of the Sicyonic school. During the 
time of Philip, A. visited Macedon, where he became the intimate friend of Alexander 
the great. Itwas probably at the Macedonian court that the best days of A. were spent. 
Pliny relates that on one occasion when Alexander visited A. in his studio, the king 
exhibited such ignorance of art that A. recommended him to be silent, as the boys who 
were grinding the colors were laughing at him. But the same story is told of Zeuxis and 
Megabyzus. He afterwards visited Rhodes (where he was familiar with Protogenes), 
Cos, Alexandria, and Ephesus. 'The period of his death is not known; but as he prac. 
ticed his art before the death of Philip, and as his visit to Alexandria was after the 
assumption of the regal title by Ptolemy, he probably flourished between 352 and 808 B.c. 
The most celebrated paintings of A. were his Anadyomene, or Venus Rising from the Sea, 
with a shower of silver drops falling round her like a vail of gauze, the Graces, and similar 
subjects; but he cultivated the heroic as well as the graceful style. His ideal portrait of 
Alexander wielding a thunderbolt was highly esteemed, and preserved in the temple 
of Diana at Ephesus. With reference to this painting, Alexander said: ‘‘ There are 
only two Alexanders—the invincible son of Philip, and the inimitable Alexander of A.” 
A. is said to have left an incomplete painting of Venus, to which no other painter would 
presume to give the finishing touches. The disposition of A. was remarkably free from 
envy, and he willingly acknowledged the merits of his contemporaries. Amphion, he 
said, excelled him in grouping, and Asclepiodorus in perspective, but grace was his 
alone. On coming to Rhodes, and finding that the works of Protogenes were not appre- 
ciated by his countrymen, he at once offered him 50 talents for a picture, and spread the 
report that he intended to sell it again as his own. The industry with which he prac- 
ticed drawing was so great as to give rise to the proverb, Nulla dies sine lined. Many 
other anecdotes are related of A. When his pictures were exposed to public view, he 
used to place himself behind a picture, to listen to the criticisms of the common people. 
A cobbler having detected a fault in the shoe of one of his figures, it is stated that A. 
instantly rectified it; but when the cobbler, on the following day, extended his criticism 
to the legs, the painter rushed from his hiding-place, and told the cobbler to stick to 
the shoes, or, in the Latin version, which has become proverbial, “‘ We suitor supra 
crepidam.” 

AP'ENNINES (ital. Appenni'ni; anciently, Lat. Mons Apennnius), a mountain-chain 
extending uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of the Italian peninsula. It lies 
between 87° and 44° 30'n. lat., and 7°40’ and 18° 20’ e. long., and belongs to the system of 
the Alps, from which it branches off at the Col de Tenda, near the sources of the Tanaro. 
From this point, the chain, under the name of the Ligurian A., girdles the gulf of Genoa, 


Ape. 

547 Avourades 
in the immediate vicinity of the sea, and then runs inland to a considerable extent, 
forming the water-shed between the Adriatic and the Mediterranean, but gradually 
approaching the east coast, till, in the highlands of the Abruzzi, it is close upon it; 
after which it takes a south-western direction through Naples, dips under the sea at the 
strait of Messina, and reappears on the northern coast of Sicily. Recent geographers 
divide the A. as follows: 1. The North A., from the Col de Tenda in the Maritime Alps 
to the pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, in the neighborhood of Arezzo, on the eastern border 
ef Tuscany. 2. The Central A., from Arezzo to the valley of Pescara, which flows 
between the two Abruzzi. 3. The South A., from the valley of the Pescara to cape 
Spartivento. 4. The Insular A., or the Sicilian range. The leading feature of the A., 
wherever they approach the coast, is their extraordinarily steep declivities; while in 
middle Italy and the adjoining portions of upper and lower Italy, long terraced plateaus, 
lower ranges, and, finally, extensive coast-plains, mark their gradual descent on the west. 
The general name for these lower ranges is Sub-Apennine; but they have a variety of 
particular designations, such as, the mountains of Carrara and Seravezza, Protomagno 
and Monte Amiata, in Tuscany; the Sabine, Alban, and Volscian mountains, in the 
former papal states; Monte Gargano on the s.e. coast, n. of Manfredonia, etc. The 
main chain of the A. does not send off spurs into the Apulian peninsula, or heel of 
{taly, which, for the most part, is rather level, or only interspersed with detached groups 
of hills. 

The direction of the great chain of the A. is favorable to the formation, on the w. 
side, of important river-basins, such as those of the Arno, the Tiber, the Garigliano, and 
the Volturno; while, on the e. side, we find nothing but small streams, in most cases, 
destitute of affluents, hurrying down to the sea through wild precipitous valleys. In 
northern Italy, the Ligurian A., almost overhanging the gulf of Genoa, can only develop 
on the s. puny streams, while the n. sends down, through the plains of Piedmont, large 
tributaries to the Po. 

The average height of the entire chain of the A. is about 4000 ft., which, however, in 
the n., sinks down to little more than 3500 ft.; and in the mountains of the Abruzzi, 
rises to 7000 feet. Here, in Monte Corno, the highest peak of the range known under 
the name of Gran Sasso d'Italia, they reach an elevation of 10,200 ft., and in Monte 
Velino of 7850 feet. The North A. attain, in Monte Cimone, situated in the s. of Modena, 
a height of 6978 ft.; the South A., in Monte Amara, a height of 9000 ft.; the Insular 
A., if we exclude the isolated peak of Aitna, in Pizzo di Case, a height of 6500 feet. 

The A. are crossed by 18 principal passes: these are, proceeding from n. to s.—1. The 
pass of Savona; 2, of Bocchetta; 3, of Cisa; 4, of Monte Cimone; 5, of Porretta; 6, of 
Pietramala; 7, of Borgo San Sepolcro; 8, of Furlo; 9, of Serravalle; 10, of Aquila; 11, 
of Isernia; 12, of Arcano and Troja; 13, of Potenza. The prevalent stone is a species 
of compact limestone, of a whitish-gray color, belonging to the Jura formation. Resting 
on the limestone is found a more recent formation of sandstone and marl, which is 
especially abundant in the middle region of the Sub-A., contains an extraordinary num- 
ber of petrefactions, and must be reckoned as belonging to the upper division of the 
Parisian limestone. Older formations, however, frequently crop out. Thus, for instance, 
on the water-shed of the North and Central A. there are found transition clay-slate, 
grauwacke-slate, etc. The A., especially the Roman and Neapolitan, are distinguished 
from all other mountain-chains by the rich variety of marbles which they contain. In 
some places the quarries seem inexhaustible. Volcanic rocks are numerous in the middle 
and southern regions, where the agency of fire has caused very wonderful formations, 
as, for instance, the crater-lakes of Albano, Nemi, Vesuvius, Solfatara. 

The principal chain exhibits, for the most part, a dreary and barren appearance; 
it looks like a vast wall, with very few projecting peaks to break the dull monotony of 
the scene, and therefore seldom furnishes any salient points on which the eye of the spec- 
tator can rest with pleasure. Naked, riven, covered with thick débris, the declivities 
seem as if scorched by the southern sun. Only in the Abruzzi, in the sub-A., and 
above all, in the marble mountains of Carrara and Seravezza, do the bold and magnifi- 
cent forms of the Alps reappear. Where the A.—in general so poorly supplied with 
streams—exhibit a trace of Alpine abundance of water, there is no lack of rich pastures 
and dense forests, but usually only thin grass and wild scrubby bushes cover the stony 
slopes. The greater number of the roaring forest brooks, in the deep rocky ravines, dis- 
play, during summer, only a dry bed. Where the mountains dip down to the sea, as at 
the riviera of Genoa, and the gulf of Naples, a rich, peculiarly southern vegetation 
clothes the declivities. Gigantic agaves, Indian figs (cactus opuntia), myrtle-bushes, 
orange-groves, hint in these northern lands of the splendors of the tropics. Up to 
3000 ft. of elevation, cornfields, fruit-bearing chestnuts, and deciduous oaks are found. 
Beyond this, all vegetation often ceases on the steep and stony sides of the mountains; 
but at other times the beech or the fir appears in dense forests. There is no region 
of perpetual snow; but the summits of the Abruzzi and the lofty peaks of Lunigiana, 
are often covered with snow from Oct. far into May, and send their icy breath so 
suddenly down into the mild valleys, that the temperature in a few hours sinks 12° to 
18° F., and a warm spring afternoon is succeeded by a bitter Dec. evening. 


APENRA'DE, a t. in the Prussian province of Slesvig-Holstein, situated at the bottom 
vf a gulf in the Little Belt, has an excellent harbor, and a considerable amount of ship- 


Aperlante 548 


ping. Pop. about 5200. The environs of the t. are beautiful. The first historical men- 
tion made of A. relates to its destruction by the Slaves in 1148 ; and, indeed, its position 
has always laid it open to the casualties of northern war, whether on a large or small 
scale, as has been especially seen since 1848. Near thet. stands the castle of Brundlund, 
built by queen Margaret in 1411, in which the bailiff of the place resides. 


APERIENTS. See LAXATIVES, PURGATIVES. 


APET’ALOUS, a term in botany, applied to flowers or to flowering plants, and signi- 
fying that they are destitute of petals or corolla (q.v.). When both the calyx and 
corolla are wanting, the flower is suid to be achlamydeous (from the Greek chlamys, a 
covering), or naked. The absence of the whorl! of petals sometimes occurs in an excep- 
tional manner in orders or genera ordinarily characterized by its presence. 


_ APHANIP’TERA, or APHANOPTERA, a term applied to an order, sub-order, or 
family of wingless insects, composed of various species of fleas, forming the family 
pulicide, and closely allied to the flies. The common flea may be considered a type. 
Another is the chigoe of South America, an insect whose burrowing in the flesh pro- 
duces troublesome ulcers. * 


APHA'SIA (Gr. a, not, and phasis, speech) is a term adopted by the eminent French 
physician, Trousseau, to denote a remarkable symptom of certain conditions of the ner- 
vous system in which the patient is more or less unable to express his thoughts in 
speech. The disease has been casually noticed by many earlier observers, amongst whom 
Dr. Parry of Bath may be especially noticed; but it was not until within the last 20 years 
that it has received the attention which its great singularity demands. Before receiving 
its present name, it had been termed aphemia (from a, not, and phemi, I speak), and 
alalia (from laleo, I talk). Voisin, in an elaborate memoir on this subject, published in 
1865, observes that it may be due to several causes. It may be congenital or acquired, 
and in the latter case is due to some form of lesion or injury of the anterior lobes of the 
brain. This fact was observed as long ago as 1825 by Bouillaud; but in 1861, during a 
discussion of the anthropological society of Paris, as to whether certain faculties, such 
as language, are or are not localized in special parts of the brain, Broea advanced the 
view, that the faculty of language has its seat not only in the anterior lobes, but in the 
left lobe, and occupies exactly the external left frontal convolution, where the anterior 
lobe meets the middle lobe immediately in front of the fissure of Sylvius. This 
singular conclusion was deduced from only two post-mortem examinations which 
had just occurred at the Bicétre, but a number of previously published cases sup- 
ported it; and Dr. Hughlings Jackson, of the London hospital, ‘‘has seen about seventy 
cases of loss or defect of speech with hemiplegia, and in all but one, the hemiplegia 
was on the right side, indicating disease of the left side of the brain.”—JZaneet, 
Noy. 26, 1864. Moreover in the two cases which during the year last named proved 
fatal in the Edinburgh and Glasgow infirmaries, Dr. Sanders and Dr.Gairdner traced 
the disease to the exact spot described by Broea. It may be caused by wounds, 
tumors of various kinds, including hydatids, or by softening of the left anterior 
lobe, and has occasionally, but very rarely, been found in association with lesions of 
other parts of the cerebrum, and even of the cerebellum and spinal cord. According to 
Voisin, in 146 cases, the left anterior lobe was affected in 140, and the right in only 6 
cases. <A variety of aphasia has been noticed in typhoid fever and in the first stage of 
small-pox; also in certain chronic cachexias or intoxications, as for example, in syphilis 
and chronic alcoholism; and there are cases in which the affection is purely nervous, 
and results from epilepsy, an overtaxed brain, etc. The patients in whom true aphasia 
from disease of the brain occurs, are excellently described by Dr. Gairdner in his essay 
On the Functions of Articulate Speech, etc. (Giasgow, 1866). This description, in a con- 
densed form, is as follows: These patients have been the subject of «some form of dis- 
turbance of the cerebral functions, sometimes with, but sometimes also without a mani- 
fest disturbance of the intellect. It may have been epilepsy or apoplexy, in which latter 
case, as has been already noticed, there is often paralysis, almost invariably on the right 
side of the body. This paralysis may be of any extent of completeness, but in many 
cases the patient has such command over the movements of the tongue and lips, as to 
show that it is not from paralysis his speech is affected. The states of intellect and con- 
sciousness are equally variable, the patient occasionally appearing and behaving as if he 
were in perfect bodily and mental health, except for the aphasia. Moreover, the aphasia 
itself shows itself in the most varied forms. In the more trivial cases, it is little more 
than an aggravation of the common defect of forgetting, or being unable to recall the 
name of a person or thing when wanted. Dr. Gairdner records the case of what he calls 
‘“‘an aphasic,” who could conduct an ordinary conversation pretty well, but who could 
not name the days of the week, and would, for instance, call Monday ‘‘ the first work- 
ing-day,” and who had forgotten, or could not give utterance to his own name. Some- 
times a patient will perfectly articulate such expressions as these: ‘‘ I want ——, I want 
——, Where’s the” , almost always stopping short at the name of the object. Sometimes 
the patient’s vocabulary is limited to one or two common words, as ‘‘ yes” or ‘‘no;” or 
perhaps he utters only one or more unintelligible words, as in the case of one of Trous- 
seau’s patients, who for four months uttered nothing hut ‘ Cowstst” to every possible 


549 Rehowee 


question, unless when in moments of great irritation, and he would then articulate 
** Sacon, sacon’”’—probably an abbreviation fora French oath. Strange to say, certain 
aphasics who can articulate absolutely nothing else, can swear with perfect facility. 
Such exclamations as ‘‘ Oh!” ‘‘ Dear me!” ‘‘God bless my life!” and ‘‘ D—n it!” are often 
the only utterances of these patients. Dr. H. Jackson, in a memoir on aphasia, in the 
first volume of the London Hospital Reports, has made some excellent remarks on this 
peculiarity, which are well worthy of perusal by all who study mental philosophy. He 
ingeniously regards an oath not as a part of language, but as ‘‘a sort of detonating 
comma.” The general reader may also read with advantage the histories of two cases 
recorded by Trousseau, in which Frenchmen of high mental capacity, and well acquainted 
with the disease (one of them an eminent physician in Paris, who had specially studied 
the diseases of the brain; and the other, Prof. Lordat of Montpellier), have passed 
through attacks of aphasia, have recovered, and have described their own cases. 

Aphasia may be either temporary or persistent; in the former case, being due to loss 
of nervous energy, congestion, or some other functional disorder; while in the latter 
case, it is probably associated with disease of structure. 


APHE'LION, that point in the elliptical orbit of a planet which is most remote from 
the sun. The opposite point, or that nearest to the sun, is styled the PERIHELION. At 
the former point, the swiftness of the planet’s motion is least, and begins to increase; at 
the latter, it is greatest, and begins to decrease. This irregularity of motion is most 
remarkable in comets whose orbits deviate most from the circle. The motion of the 
comet of 1680, at its perihelion, was calculated as 137,000 times more rapid than its 
motion in A. See APSIDES, 


A'PHIS, a genus of insects belonging to the order hemiptera, sub-order homoptera— 
the type of a family called aphidis. They are small insects, living by sucking the juices 
of plants, upon which they may be seen congregated in immense numbers, often doing 
serious injury, causing the distortion of leaves, and even the blight and decay of the 
plant. The woolly aphis, or American blight (A. lanigera,; ertosoma mali of Leach), 
is sometimes very injurious to apple-trees, and when once it has found its way into a 
garden or orchard, is very difficult of removal. It is a minute insect, ‘‘covered with a 
long cotton-like wool, transpiring from the pores of its body”—‘‘a cottony excretion”— 
in which it differs from the ordinary aphides, and takes its place in the chinks and 
rugosities of the bark, multiplying rapidly, extracting the sap, causing diseased excres- 
cences; and, ultimately, the destruction of the tree. It was first observed in England in 
1787; but it is uncertain if it was, as has been supposed, accidentally imported from 
America. The hop-fly (A. humuli), and the A. of the turnip and cabbage (A. brassicae), 
have sometimes caused the destruction of entire crops. The price of hops varies from 
one year to another, very much according to the numbers in which ‘‘ the jly” has appeared. 
The potato A. (A. vastator) has been represented as the cause of the potato disease; but 
this opinion has few supporters. The aphides of the rose (A. rose) and of the bean 
(A. faba) are among the most familiarly known. Every one must have observed the 
leaves of trees and shrubs deformed by red convexities. In the hollows of the under 
side of these, aphides have their habitation, and there they find their food; the exhausted 
leaf at last curls up. Most of the species are green; the A. of the bean is black. They 
are generally called plant-lice. They have a proboscis (haustellum), by which they pierce 
and suck plants; and at the extremity of the abdomen, two horn-like processes, from 
which exude frequent small drops of a saccharine fluid called honey-dew, a favorite food 
of ants. It has been seen even to fall in a kind of shower from trees much covered 
with aphides. Mention has been made in the article ANT, of the means which ants take 
to obtain this food. ‘The legs of aphides are long, and they move slowly and awkwardly 
by them. The greater number of them never have wings; it isin the autumn that per- 
fect winged insects generally appear. From the pairing of these result eggs, which pro- 
duce female aphides in the following spring, and successive generations of wingless 
aphides are produced in a viviparous manner without impregnation throughout the 
summer, after which winged aphides again appear. Their increase is restrained not 
only by birds, but by insects which feed on them. <A family of coleopterous insects, to 
which the genus coccinella or lady-bird (q.v.) belongs, has received upon this account the 
name of aphidiphagi, or aphis-eaters. 

APHO'NIA (Gr. a, not, and phoné, voice) is the term used in medicine to signify a 
more or less complete loss of voice. It is altogether distinct from mutism, in which it is 
impossible to form articulate sounds, and in most cases the voice is not entirely gone, 
but only more or less lost or suppressed. The voice is essentially produced (as has been 
proved in the special article on that subject) by three distinct agents —viz., (1) the expi- 
ration of air, (2) the opening of the glottis, and (8) the tension of the vocal cords—and 
hence anything interfering with expiration, or with the functions of the glottis and vocal 
cords, may cause aphonia. Thus, it may result from paralysis of the respiratory muscles, 
from pulmonary emphysema, and sometimes from pneumonia; or it may be caused by 
diseases of the larynx, as chronic laryngitis, cedema of the glottis, polypus, ete.; or 
by pressure on the larynx caused by abscesses, vegetations, and any kind of morbid 
growth; or it may be traced to some functional or organic disturbance of the inferior 
vocal cords. Thus, the muscular fibres which act on these cords may become affected in 
acute laryngitis by extension of the inflammation, or their action may be impeded by the 


Aphorism, 


pressure of false membrane in croup. In typhoid fever, the aphonia which is so com 
monly observed is due to ulceration extending to these structures. Again, in cases of 
lead or phosphorus poisoning, there is aphonia due to fatty degeneration of the muscles. 
Not unfrequently, aphonia may be traced to compression of the recurrent or inferior 
laryngeal nerve, which is the nerve supplying motor power to all the muscles of the 
larynx, with one trifling exception. 

Such pressure is not unfrequently caused by an aneurism, an abscess, tumor, etc. In 
the same way, a wound or contusion of the pneumogastric nerve, or one of the recurrent 
branches, will cause aphonia, or, more commonly, an extremely hoarse modification of the 
voice, in consequence of the laryngeal muscles being paralyzed on one side, and remain- 
ing active on the other. There are cases of direct nervous action being interfered with; 
but there are many cases of what may be termed reflex aphonia, as when the voice is often 
more or less lost in the course of pregnancy when accompanied with convulsions, or in 
consequence of the presence of intestinal worms, or after the rapid suppression of an 
exanthematous rash, or of a long-continued hemorrhagic discharge. Aphonia is, more- 
over, very commonly associated with hysteria. 

When aphonia is not due to irremovable causes, as tumors pressing on the recurrent 
nerve, fatty degeneration of the laryngeal muscles, etc., it generally disappears after a 
longer or shorter interval. It occasionally assumes remarkable intermittent shapes. In 
one instance, the affection came on regularly at the same time of the year for 17 
years, beginning daily at noon, and lasting the remainder of the day, for a period vary- 
ing from 3 to 7 months.» Another case is recorded in which during 14 years, a young 
woman could only speak during two or three hours daily. 

In those cases which are amenable to treatment, emetics, electricity, strychnine, 
leeching, blistering, croton-oil liniment, and internal application of nitrate of silver, 
have been found to be the most useful remedies. 


APH'ORISM, a maxim, or any short and significant saying; such as, ‘‘custom is a 
second nature.” A whole piece or work is sometimes written in the form of a series 
of aphorisms, arranged in due order, and leaving their connection to be traced by the 
reader’s reflection. 


APHRODISIA. A name given to the festivals of Aphrodite (q.v.) in Greece, and 
especially in Cyprus, the chief seat of her worship, and at Cythera, Corinth, Thebes, Elis, 
and Sparta. At these festivals no blood-offerings were made, but only pure fire, incense, 
rae flowers. The name is also given to the mysteries celebrated in honor of Aphrodite 
in Paphos. 


APHRODISIACS, A name generally used in medicine of those drugs that excite erotic 
desire, though the name, strictly used, may also include any psychical or mechanical 
means employed for the same purpose. All drugs that are tonic in their effects and 
which promote the health of the body are indirectly aphrodisiac in their tendency. 
Such are strychnine, iron, quinine, etc. True aphrodisiacs are very rare, and it isin fact 
doubtful if there be any whose use is not injurious if given in effective doses. Such are 
hasheesh (cannabis Indica), cantharides (a violent and dangerous irritant), blatte Ordentalis, 
and damiana, a preparation made from a species of Turnera found in Mexico. Drugs 
which have the contrary effect are called antaphrodisiacs and anaphrodisiacs. Such are 
the bromides, ergot, and camphor. See ANAPHRODISIACS. 


APHRODITOPOLIS. The name of several cities in ancient Egypt under the Greeks, 


APHRODI'TE, the Greek name of Venus, according to various traditions, is derived 
from aphros (foam), in allusion to the old poetical myth which represented the goddess 
as springing from the foam of thesea. (See VENUS and APELLES.) Aphrodisia were fes- 
tivals celebrated in honor of A. in numerous cities of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. 
At Paphos, in this island, was her most ancient temple. Bloodless sacrifices alone were 
imagined to please A., such as flowers, incense, etc. Mysteries of an impure kind 
formed part of the ceremonial of the aphrodisia. Aphrodisia were no doubt held in the 
other places where A. was worshiped, such as Cythera, Sparta, Thebes, Elis, etc. 
though they are not mentioned. At Corinth and Athens, the aphrodisia were celebrated 
principally by prostitutes, There are famous statues of Aphrodite at Paris (usually 
called the Venus di Milo), at Florence (the Venus de’ Medici), and at Rome (the Capito- 
line Venus). Among the Pheenicians, Aphrodite was known as Astarte, and among 
the Assyrians as Istar. Her attendant was Eros (Cupid). See MyTrHoLoey. 


APIA, the principal city in the Samoan Islands, South Pacific ocean. During 
President Grant’s administration, a sort of American protectorate was established over 
the islands, which subsequently gave way in 1886 to German occupation, notwithstand- 
ing poth England and the United States had large interests there. The natives pre- 
ferred American to German protection, and dissensions soon arose between them and 
the German consul. These increased until, in 1888, a kind of civil war began to rage. 
The question of the government of Samoa, as the islands were also called, then be- 
came one requiring diplomatic action. The United States, England, and Germany met 
by their representatives in convention, in Berlin, and a new treaty was signed, June 14, 


Aphori a 
551 haccnieptial 


1889. In the meantime, three American men-of-war, one English, and three German 
were in the harbor. A hurricane suddenly burst over the region, and raged with unex- 
ampled fury. Only the English vessel escaped to sea. Tke others were nearly all 
wrecked, and a loss of 146 lives involved. See Naviaarors’ ISLANDS. 


A'PIARY. See BEE. 


APIC'IUS, Marcus Gasrus, a Roman epicure, who lived in the times of Augustus and 
Tiberius, and was celebrated for his luxurious table and his acquirements in the art of 
cookery. When, by the gratification of his favorite indulgence, he had consumed the 
greater part of his fortune, and had only some $400,000 left, he poisoned himself, in order 
to avoid the misery of plain diet. Two other gourmands—one in the time of Pompey, 
the other in the reign of Trajan—are mentioned under the name Apicius. The Roman 
cookery-book, Cwlit Apicit de Obsoniis et Condimentis sive dere Culinaria (libri decem), 
ascribed to A., belongs to a much later time, inasmuch as it abounds in inaccuracies and 
solecisms. 

A'PION, a Greek grammarian, was born at Oasis, a t. in Libya, but educated in Alex- 
andria, which he affected to consider his birthplace, from a desire of being thought a 
pure Greek. He studied under Apollonius, the son of Archibius, from whom he acquired 
an admiration of Homer, and afterwards went to Rome, where he succeeded Theon as 
teacher of rhetoric. He seems to have been as remarkable for his loquacious vanity 
as for his knowledge. He declared that himself, and every one whom he mentioned, 
would be held in immortal memory, that he was equal to the first philosophers of 
Greece, and that Alexandria should be proud of him. From his bragging, Tiberius used 
to call him cymbalum mundi (the cymbal of the universe. | 

With the exception of one or two fragments, the whole of A.’s numerous writings 
are lost. He composed a work on the text of Homer, partly in the form of a diction- 
ary, which was frequently referred to by subsequent authors; a work on Egypt, which 
contained the far-famed story of Androclus and the Lion, preserved by Aulus Gellius; @ 
work against the Jews; one in praise of Alexander the Great; another on the great 
epicurean Apicius ; histories of various countries, etc, 

A'PIS, the bull worshiped by the ancient Egyptians, who regarded it as a symbol of 
Osiris, the god of the Nile, the husband of Isis, and the great divinity of Egypt. A 
sacred court or yard was set apart for the residence of A. in the temple of Ptah at 
Memphis, where a numerous retinue of priests waited upon him, and sacrifices of red 
oxen were offered to him. His movements, choice of places, and changes of appetite 
were religiousiy regarded as oracles. It was an understood law that A. must not live 
longer than 25 years. When he attained this age, he was secretly put to death, and 
buried by the priests in a sacred well, the popular belief being that he cast himself 
into the water. If, however, he died a natural death, his body was solemnly interred 
in the temple of Serapis at Memphis, and bacchanalian festivals were held to celebrate 
the inauguration of a new bullas A. As soon as a suitable animal was found having 
the required marks—black color with a white square on the brow, the figure of an eagle 
on the back, and a knot in the shape of a cantharus under the tongue—he was led in 
triumphal procession to Nilopolis at the time of the new moon, where he remained forty 
days, waited upon by nude women, and was afterwards conveyed in a splendid vessel 
to Memphis. His theophany, or day of discovery, and his birthday, were celebrated as 
high festivals of seven days’ duration during the rise of the Nile. 


A'PIS, Aprp&. See BEE. 
A’PIUM. See CELERY. 


APLANATIC LENS, an achromatic lens corrected for spherical aberration, so 
that ail rays of light which emanate from one point and pass through the lens, are 
focused at a point. 

APOC’ALYPSE. See REVELATION oF St. JouN. 


APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, alleged prophecies, epistles, etc., of late Jewish 
and early Christian origin, written or compiled in or near the two centuries preceding 
and the two following the birth of Christ. Of the Jewish, the most famous is the 
Book of Enoch, quoted in the epistle of Jude, long lost, but found in Ethiopia and pub-. 
lished in 1821. It gives an account of the fall of the angels, their intercourse with the 
daughters of men, and the birth of giants; Enoch’s troubles in heaven and earth, 
attended by angels who explain the mysteries of the worlds, visible and invisible; 
descriptions of heaven, of the Messiah, of the future of the blessed, and of the con- 
demned ; accounts of the sun, moon, and stars; visions tracing the history of man from 
his origin to the completion of the Messianic kingdom; admonitory discourses; the 
wonders that were shown at Noah’s birth, and Enoch’s reflections about the future of 
the just and the unjust. In all, it is an interesting product of pre-Christian Judaism, 
multifarious, artificial, and rabbinical. The Fourth Book of Esdras, or the Prophecy of 
Hara, consists of a series of visions attributed to that prophet, and relating chiefly to 
the oppression of the Jews. The Book of the Jubilees, or the Little Genesis, is only in part 
apocalyptic. It contains, in the form of revelations to Moses while he was on Mt. Sinai, 
statements relating to future races and times. The work was written about 100 B.c. 
The Life of Adam, the Book of Adam’s Daughters, the Assumption of Moses, the Apocalypse 
of Moses, the Sibyllines, and the Apocalypse of Baruch, complete the list of noteworthy : 
Hebrew works of the kind under consideration. The Sibyllines were doubtless sug- 


Apocalyptic. 552 
Apollinaris, 


gested by the Grecian oracles and books under that name. The Christian A. works are: 
the Apocalypse of Esdras, in which the prophet is anxious about the punishment of the 
wicked, and minutely describes them as tormented; the Apocalypse of Paul, giving a 
description of all that the apostle saw in heaven and hell; the Apocalypse of John, describ- 
ing the future state, resurrection, judgment, punishment, and reward. This work was 
written as late as the 5th or 6th century. The Apocalypse of Peter isa history of events from 
the creation to the second advent of Christ, and is said to have been written by Clement, 
Peter’s disciple. It is a late work, mentioning the crusades. Another late work is the 
Revelations of Bartholomew, in which Peter is made the archbishop of the universe, a fact 
that of itself gives the work a late origin. The Apocalypse of Mary described her descent 
into hell. The Apocalypse of Daniel is of little consequence. The Discussion and Visions 
of Isaiah assumes that the prophet had a vision of the life and crucifixion of Christ, the 
apostasy of the early churches, etc., for which prophecy Isaiah was condemned and died 
amartyr. The book was written about the 2d century. Other books of the kind are the 
Shepherd of Hermas and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Many A. writings, both 
Jewish and Christian, mentioned in ancient works, are otherwise entirely unknown. 


APOCALYP’TIC NUMBER is ‘‘ the mystical number” 666, spoken of in the book of 
Revelation (xiii. 18). As early as the 2d c., the church had found that the name Anti- 
christ was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number; while others 
believed it to express a date. The most probable interpretation is that which was cur- 
rent in the days of Irenzus, and which found the number in the word Lateinos (Latinus). 
The Roman nation—the mightiest pagan power on earth—was the most terrible symbol 
of Antichrist, and the number 666 appears in the Greek characters which spell the name. 
Protestant controversialists formerly used this interpretation, applying the prophecy to 
papal Rome ; but modern criticism leaves the problem unsolved. 


APOCAR’POUS FRUITS, in botany, are those fruits which are the produce of a single 
flower, and are formed of only one carpel, or of a number of carpels remaining free and 
separate from each other. The term is derived from the Greek apo, implying separation, 
and carpos, fruit. ? 


A POCO A POCO (Ital.), in music, by degrees; by little and little. 


APOCRE'NIC ACID is one of the products of the natural decay of wood and other plant 
textures, and is found wherever lignine or woody fiber is decomposing in soils, etc. As 
A. A. is soluble in water, it follows that rain-water falling on and percolating through 
soils containing this substance, becomes impregnated with it; and hence, in many 
natural waters, A. A. is a recognized constituent. A. A. performs an important function 
in the growth of plants, as there is every reason to believe that it forms one of the stages 
through which matter travels from dead plants again into the living vegetable tissue. 


APOC’RYPHA, or ArocRypHAL Writines. The word originally meant secret or 
concealed, and was rendered curreat by the Jews of Alexandria. In the earliest churches, 
it was applied with very different significations to a variety of writings. | Sometimes it 
was given to those whose authorship and original form were unknown; sometimes to 
writings containing a hidden meaning; sometimes to those whose public use was not 
thought advisable. In this last signification, it has been customary, since the time of 
Jerome, to apply the term to a number of writings which the Septuagint had circulated 
amongst the Christians, and which were sometimes considered as an appendage to the 
Old Testament, and sometimes as a portion of it. The Greek church, at the council of 
Laodicea (860 A.p.), excluded them from the canon; the Latin church, on the other 
hand, always highly favored them; and finally the council of Trent (1545-63) placed 
them on an equality with the rest of the Old Testament. The church of England uses 
them in part for edification, but not for the ‘‘establishment of doctrine.” All other 
Protestant churches in England and America reject their use in public worship. But it 
was once customary to bind up the A. between the authorized versions of the Old and 
New Testaments, though this has now ceased, and, as a consequence, this curious, interest- 
ing, and instructive part of Jewish literature isnow known only to scholars. The Old Testa- 
ment A. consists of 14 books: 1. First Esdras (q.v.); 2. Second Esdras (q. v.); 3. Tobit (q.v.); 
4, Judith (q.v.); 5. The parts of Esther not found in Hebrew or Chaldee; 6. The Wisdom 
of Solomon; 7. The Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus (q.v.); 8. Baruch 
(q.v.); 9. The Song of the Three Holy Children; 10. The History of Susanna; 11. The His- 
tory of the Destruction of Bel and the Dragon (q.v.); 12. The Prayer of Manasses, King 
of Judah (see MANASSEH); 13. First Maccabees (q.v.); 14. Second Maccabees (q.v.). The 
precise origin of all of these writings cannot be ascertained. It is enough to state here 
that some bear traces of a Palestinian, others of an Egypto-Alexandrine, and others, 
again, of a Chaldaico-Persian origin or influence. Most, if not all, bear internal evidence 
of having been composed in the Ist and 2d c. B.c. 

The A. of the New Testament may be arranged under three heads. 1. The writings 
comprising the Apocryphal Gospels, which consist of 22 separate documents, 10 in Greek 
and 12 in Latin. They concern themselves with the history of Joseph, and ofthe Virgin 
Mary before the birth of Christ, with the infancy of Christ, and with the history of 
Pilate. The most important of the set are the Protevangelium of James, the Gospel of 
Thomas, and the Acts of Pilate, which are perhaps the origines of all the apocryphal tra- 


Apocalyptic, 
5 D 3 Aporlinaris, 


ditions. That many of the stories found in these were current in the 2d. c., is abundantly 
proved, but we have no evidence that any of the books known as Apocryphal gospels were 
then in existence,or are older than the 4th century. 2. The Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, 
consisting of 18 documents originally written in Greek, but found also ina Latin compila- 
tion probably of the 6th century. ‘They are distinguished from the Apocryphal gospels 
by having less of miracle and more of didactic discourse. The more important of the 
coliection are The Acts of Peter and Paul, The Acts of Barnabas, The Acts of Philip, The Acts 
of Andrew, The Acts of Bartholomew, and The Acts of John. Mt is difficult to ascertain their 
age. Some are probably of earlier date than the Apocryphal gospels, but the original MSS. 
are lost, and we only possess them in late transcripts of the middle ages. 3. The Apoc- 
ryphal Apocalypses, consisting of 7 documents, 4 of which are called apocalypses by 
their authors. There is great and perplexing variety in the MSS. That called The Apoe- 
alypse of Moses relates rather to the Old Testament than to the New; so does The Apoe- 
alypse of Esdras, which is a weak imitation of the fourth book of Esdras. The others 
are The Apocalypse of Paul, The Apocalypse of John, and The Assumption of Mary in three 
forms. These, too, only exist in late MSS. of the middle ages, and it is, of course, not 
quite certain that they are the same in form as the works bearing the same name referred 
to in the writings of the fathers. See Acts, SPURIOUS OR APOCRYPHAL. 


APOCYNA'CER, or Apocy’Na, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, con- 
sisting of trees and shrubs, generally with milky juice, having entire leaves, and no 
stipules. The calyx is usually 5-partite, persistent; the corolla hypogynous, monopeta- 
lous, often with scales in its throat, regular, 5-lobed, twisted in bud. ‘There are five 
stamens, which are inserted on the corolla; the anthers adhere firmly to the stigma, to 
which the pollen ‘s immediately applied; the anthers are 2-celled, and open longitudi- 
nally; the pollen is granular. The ovaries are two, each 1-celled, or one which is 
2-celled; ovules usually numerous; styles 1 or 2; the stigma is contracted in the middle, 
and peculiarly characteristic of the order. The fruit is a follicle or capsule, or drube 
or berry, double or single. The seeds have a fleshy or cartilaginous albumen, or (rarely) 
are ex-albuminous.—There are about 566 known species, chiefly natives of tropical 
countries. The PERIWINKLE (q.v.) is its only representative in the flora of Britain, a 
wanderer, as it were, from the tropics, yet hardy enough for the climate with which it 
has to contend; the OLEANDER (q.v.) and a few others are found in the s. of Europe. 
Many species are poisonous; amongst which is the noted Tanghin (q.v.) or TANGHEENA 
of Madagascar. Some are used in medicine, in India and other countries. A number of 
species yield Caoutchouc (q.v.). The milk of others is bland and wholesome, as the 
Hya Hya or Cow-tree (q.v.) of Demerara. Some are used in dyeing; Wrightia tinctoria 
yields indigo of good quality.—A number yield eatable fruits, as Willughbeta edulis and 
Carissa Carandas in India; Carissa edulis in Arabia, and certain species of Carpodinus, 
called PisHAMIN in Sierra Leone, and Hancornia.—Apocynum cannabinum, Canadian 
hemp, a herbaceous plant about 4 to 5 ft. in height, with unbranched stem, oblong 
leaves, and lateral cymes of whitish bell-shaped flowers, yields a very strong fiber, which 
the Indians of North America employ for making twine, cloth, fishing-nets, etc. 


APODIC'TIC, a logical term signifying a judgment or conclusion which is necessarily 
true; or, in other words, a judgment of which the opposite is impossible. No A. judg- 
ment can be founded on experience, because experience does not supply the idea of an 
absolute necessity. 


AP’'OGEE (Gr. apo, from, and ge, the earth), properly speaking, the greatest distance 
of the earth from any of the heavenly bodies. Its application, however, is restricted to 
the sun and moon, the sun’s A. corresponding to the earth’s aphelion, and the moon’s A. 
being the point of its orbit most remote from the earth. <A. is opposed to peregee. 


APOL'DA, at. of the grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Hisenach, Germany, on the Wer- 
litz, a feeder of the Saale, 8m. n.e. from Weimar. It is a station on the Thuringian rail. 
way, between Weimar and Weissenfels. It isa place of much industrial activity, having 
extensive manufactures of hosiery. Pop. ’90, 20,880. 


APOLLINA’'RIS, the younger, bishop of Laodicea in Syria (362), and one of the warm- 
est opponents of Arianism. Both as a man and a scholar, he was held in the greatest 
reverence; and his writings were extensively read in his own day. His father, A. the 
elder, who was presbyter of Laodicea, was b. at Alexandria, and taught grammar, first 
at Berytus, and afterwards at Laodicea. When Julian prohibited the Christians from 
teaching the classics, the father and son endeavored to supply the loss by converting the 
Scriptures into a body of poetry, rhetoric, and philosophy. The Old Testament was 
selected as the subject for poetical compositions after the manner of Homer, Pindar, and 
the tragedians; whilst the New Testament formed the groundwork of dialogues in imita- 
tion of Plato. It is not ascertained what share the father had in this work, but as he had 
a reputation for poetry, he probably put the Old Testament into Greek verse. But it was 
chiefly as a controversial theologian, and as the founder of a sect, that A. iscelebrated. He 
maintained the doctrine that the logos, or divine nature in Christ, took the place of the 
rational human soul or mind, and that the body of Christ was a spiritualized and glori- 
fied form of humanity. This doctrine was condemned by several synods, especially by 
the council of Constantinople (381), on the ground that it denied the true human nature 
of Christ, The heresy styled Apollinarianism spread itself rapidly in Syria and the 


Hlinaris. 
ree rer 554 


neighboring countries, and, after the death of A., divided itself into two sects—the Vite. 
lians, named after Vitalis, bishop of Antioch; and the Polemeans, who added to the doc- 
trine of A. the assertion that the divine and human natures were so blended as one 
substance in Christ that his body was a proper object of adoration. On this account they 
were accused of sarcolatria (worship of the flesh) and anthropolatria (worship of man), 
and also were styled synousiastot (syn, together, and ousia, substance), because they con- 
fused together the two distinct substances. 


APOLLINARIS WATER, from a spring in the valley of the Ahr, in Rhenish Prussia, 
is used largely as a beverage, alone or mixed with wine, and, to some extent, medic: 
inally as an alkaline remedy.. The following table shows an average of eight analyses 
by Bischof and Mohr : 


Sodium Carbonate, 6.964 grains in a pint. 
Magnesium ‘‘ Disk DLS AG RES Fa Gaaiist? 
Calcium fe 1,900 Dente enete ee east 
Sodium Chloride, 2.748 ‘© ‘ ** « 
‘¢ wi?) Sulphate; vil G48 0 Se eee 
odium Phosphate, 
Potassium Salts, t Traces. 
Iron Oxide, with Alumina, 0.049 grains in a pint. 
Silicic Acid, 3 0.090 Sitar balks 
. «<< § free and semi- 
Carbonic seein 42.81 cub.in. “© 
Sei la Mi vont COMLDLOGC ), ita ice ween ce tie 


APOL'LO (Gr. Apotton). A. may be regarded as the characteristic divinity of the 
Greeks, inasmuch as he was the impersonation of Greek life in its most beautiful and 
natural forms, and the ideal representative of the Grecian nation. His mild worship, 
with its many festivals, accompanied as they were by a cessation from all hostilities; his 
various shrines at sacred places, with their oracles, and the general idea of his character, 
had a wide, powerful, and beneficent influence on social and political life throughout 
the states of Greece. Homer and Hesiod mention that he was the son of Zeus and Leto, 
but neither states where he was born. The Ephesians believed that both he and Diana, 
his sister, were born in a grove near their city. The Tegyreans of Bootia, and the 
inhabitants of Zoster in Attica, also claimed the honor of his birth; while the Egyptians 
seemed to think he properly belonged to them; but the most popular legend was that 
whick made him a native of Delos, one of the Cyclades, where his mother Leto, followed 
by the jealous wrath of Juno over land and sea, at length found rest and shelter, and was 
delivered of him, under the shadow of an olive-tree, at the foot of Mt. Cynthus. To spite 
the queen of heaven, who was far from being a favorite with the other goddesses, these 
hastened to tender their services to the weak and wearied Leto. The young A. was 
much made of. Themis fed him with nectar and ambrosia, the food of the gods, which 
seems to have suddenly excited the conceit of the infant deity, inasmuch as he surprised 
his nurse by starting to his feet, demanding a lyre, and announcing his intention of 
henceforth revealing to mortals the will of Jove. 

In ancient literature A. is described as possessed of many and various powers, all of 
which, however, are seen on closer inspection to be intimately related to each other. He 
is spoken of: 1. The god of retributive justice, who, armed with bow and arrows, sends 
down his glittering shafts upon insolent offenders. In this character he appears in the 
opening of the Lad. 2. As the instructor of bards, and the god of song or minstrelsy, play- 
ing upon the phorminx or seven-stringed lyre, and singing for the diversion of the other 
deities when engaged in feasting. 3. As the god of prophetic inspiration, especially in 
his oracle at Delphi. 4. As the guardian deity of herds and flocks. 5. As the god of 
medicine, who affords help, and wards off evil. In this sense he is represented as the 
father of Asclepius (Aisculapius), the god of the healing art. 6. Asa founder of cities. 
According to Homer, he assisted Neptune in building the walls of Troy. Cyrene, Naxos 
in Sicily, and other cities, venerated A. as their founder. By the later writers, A. was 
identified with Helios, the sun-god, though Homer describes the latter as a distinct deity. 
Several critics, however, have regarded Helios, or the sun-god, as the true original A.— 
an opinion which may be supported by many probabilities. 'The supposition that A. was 
identical with the Egyptian deity Horus was rejected by the learned O. Miller, who gen- 
erally opposed all attempts to deduce Grecian from Egyptian mythology. According to 
Miiller’s theory, A. was a purely Doric deity, whose first residence was in Tempe, and 
who afterwards removed to Delphi, whence the fame of his oracle was spread abroad, 
and made him to be recognized as the national divinity of Greece. The introduction of 
his worship into Attica appears to have been contemporaneous with the immigration of 
the [onians, and that worship would seem to have spread over the Peloponnesus, imme- 
diately after it was conquered by the Dorians. Much controversy has taken place, both 
with reference to the idea which lies at the root of the whole myth of the A. worship, 
and also as to whether this myth had its origin in the north of Greece or in Egypt. Even 
on the supposition that the original conception was derived from the latter source, it was 
to Greek art and philosophy that it owed its development into the ideal of humanity. 
The most celebrated oracles of A. were at Delphi, Abs in Phocis, Ismenior in Thebes, 


4 Apollinaris, 
5o5 Rvolicaiuke 


Delos, Claros, near Colophon, and Patara in Lycia. Among the Romans, the worship 
of A. was practiced as early as 480 B.c., and prevailed especially under the emperors. 
But there can be no doubt that the Romans derived their conceptions of A. entirely from 
the Greeks. It was in honor of A. and his sister Diana that the lwdi seculares were cele- 
brated every hundred years. The attributes of A. are the bow and quiver, the cithara 
and plectrum, the snake, shepherd’s crook, tripod, laurel, raven, etc.; less frequently, 
the grasshopper, cock, hawk, wolf, and olive-tree. In sculpture, he is generally repre- 
sented with a face beautifully oval, high forehead, flowing hair, and slender figure. See 
illus., MyrHouoey, vol. X. 


APOL'LO BELVEDERE, a celebrated statue of antiquity, which has generally been 
regarded as embodying the highest ideal of manly beauty. It is generally supposed to 
represent the ‘‘lord of the unerring bow” in the moment of his victory over the Python, 
but numerous other explanations have been suggested. The figure (upwards of 7 ft. 
in height) is naked, but a cloak fastened round the neck hangs gracefully over the 
extended left arm; the expression of the face is one of calm and godlike triumph, mixed 
with ‘‘ beautiful disdain.” This great work of art was discovered in 1503, amid the 
ruins of the ancient Antium, now Capo d’Anzo, and purchased by pope Julius II., who 
placed it in the Belvedere of the Vatican, whence the name it bears. The date of its 
execution is with probability referred to the reign of Nero, but the name of the artist is 
a matter of mere conjecture. The left hand and the right forearm, wanting in the statue 
as discovered, were restored by G. A. da Montorsoli, a pupil of Michael Angelo. See 
illus., ScULPTURE, vol. XIII. 


APOLLODO’RUS, an Athenian painter who flourished about 408 B.c., and was the pre- 
decessor of Zeuxis. He introduced improved coloring and distribution of light and 
shade.—A., a celebrated architect in the time of the emperor Trajan, by whom he wags 
employed to construct a bridge over the Danube in lower Hungary. His severe censure, 
boldly pronounced on a design for a temple of Venus, which the emperor Hadrian had 
sent to him, caused A. to be sentenced to death in 129 A.p.—A., a Greek grammarian, 
lived about 140 B.c., studied philosophy in Athens, and grammar under Aristarchus; 
wrote a work on mythology, giving an arrangement of old myths from the earliest times’ 
to the historical period; also a geography, a chronicle in iambic verse, and several 
grammatical works. The mythology, which begins with the origin of the gods, probably 
went down as far as the Trojan cycle, but a portion of it has perished. The work is one 
of great value to classical scholars. 


APOLLO'NIA, the name of several ancient cities: 1. In Illyria, on the Aous, founded 
by emigrants from Corinth and Corcyra, commercially prosperous, and toward the end 
oF the Roman empire, a seat of literature and philosophy. 2. In Thracia (afterwards 
Sozopolis, and now Sizeboli), colonized by Milesians, and famous for a statue of Apollo, 
which was removed to Rome. 3. The port of Cyrene (afterwards Sorusa, and now 
Marsa Sousah), which outgrew Cyrene itself, and left evidences of its magnificence in 
the ruins of its public buildings. This A. was the birthplace of Eratosthenes. 


APOLLO'NIUS, the name of several celebrated Greek grammarians and rhetoricians. 
A., surnamed Dyscotxos (or ill-tempered), of Alexandria, lived in the 2d century. Some 
of his grammatical works were edited by Bekker. A. was the first who reduced gram- 
mar to asystem. His reputation was so high, that Priscian calls him grammaticorum 
princeps (the prince of grammarians).—A., son of Archebulus, also of Alexandria, lived 
in the time of Augustus, and was the author of a lexicon of Homeric words.—A.., sur- 
named Molon, was a teacher of rhetoric at Rhodes, and also gave lectures at Rome, 
where he was highly esteemed by Cicero and Cesar.—A. oF PERGA, 240 B.c., is classed 
with Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus, as one of the founders of the mathematical 
sciences. His work on conic sections has been preserved, partly in the original Greek, 
partly in an Arabic translation. A. or Ruopes (or of Alexandria, say some authorities), 
b. 235 B.c., wrote many works on grammar, and an epic poem, entitled the Argonautica, 
marked rather by learning and industry than by poetical genius, though it contains some 
truly artistic passages, such as those exhibiting the growth of Medea’s love. It was 
greatly admired by the Romans, was translated into Latin by Publius Terentius Varro, 
and was imitated, not only in a wholesale manner by Valerius Flaccus, but even by 
Virgil in some passages. Standard edition by Merkel (1854). 


APOLLO’NIUS, or Tyana, in Cappadocia, who lived in the time of Christ, was a 
zealous follower of the doctrines of Pythagoras. He soon collected a considerable num- 
ber of disciples, traveled through a great part of Asia Minor, and endeavored to find his 
way to India, in order to become acquainted with the doctrine of the Brahmins. On 
this journey he stayed for a time in Babylon, was introduced to the Magi, and at last 
reached the court of king Phraortes, in India, who recommended him to Jarchas, the 
principal Brahmin. When A. returned from this pilgrimage, his fame as a wise man 
was greatly increased ; the people regarded him as a worker of miracles and a divine 
being, and princes were glad to entertain him at their courts. He himself seems to have 
claimed insight into futurity, rather than the power of working miracles. From Rome 


Apollonius. . 
Apostate. 5 a) 6 


he was expelled on a charge of having raised a young woman from the dead. After 
extensive travels in Spain, Italy, Greece, and Ethiopia, he was accused of having taken 
part in an insurrection against Domitian; but appeared before the tribunal, and was 
acquitted. Ultimately, he appears to have settled in Ephesus, where he opened a 
Pythagorean school, and continued his teaching until he died, nearly 100 years old. 
His history was written about 100 years after his death by Philostratus (q.v.). It 
contains a mass of absurdities and fables, through which an outline of historical 
facts and the real character of the man are sufficiently discernible. Hierocles, a heathen 
statesman and opponent of Christianity, wrote, in the 38d c., a work on the life and 
doctrines of A., with a view to prove their superiority to the doctrine of Christ. In 
modern times, the notorious English freethinker Blount, and Voltaire in France, have 
renewed the attempt. See Gildersleeve’s Hssays and Studies (1881) ; and Dyer’s Gods in 
Greece (1891). 


APOLLO'NIUS, of Tyre, the hero of a Greek romance, which enjoyed great popularity 
in the middle ages, and was translated into almost all the languages of western Europe. 
In it are related the romantic adventures which befell A.,a Syrian prince, previous to 
his marriage with the daughter of king Alcistrates, of Cyrene. To these are added the 
adventures of his wife, who was parted from him by apparent death, as well as those of 
his daughter Tarsia, who was carried off by pirates, and sold in Mitylene. The poem 
closes with the reunion of the whole family. The original Greek work no longer exists; 
but there are three very early Latin versions, of which one was published by Welser 
(Augsburg, 1595); another is to be found in the Gesta Romanorum; and the third in the 
Pantheon of Gottfried of Viterbo. From this Latin source have proceeded the Span- 
ish version of the 18th c., printed in Sanchez’s Colleccion de Poesias Castellanas (2d 
edition, Paris, 1842), several French versions, in prose and verse, as well as several 
Italian. As early as the 11th c. there was an Anglo-Saxon adaptation of the work, 
and subsequently various English ones appeared. Shakespeare has treated the subject 
in his drama of Pericles, he substantially follows Gower, in his Confessio Amantis, who 
bases his narrative on the Pantheon of Gottfried of Viterbo. Three popular English 
stories, drawn from a French version of this romance, appeared in London in 1510, 1576, 
and 1607; while the Dutch, in 1498, derived theirs from the German. The romance was 
rendered into German, probably from the Gesta Romanorum, by a certain ‘‘ Heinrich 
von der Neuenstadt” (i.e., Vienna), about the year 13800, in the form of along and, as 
yet, unpublished poem. Later, we have a Histori des Kuniges Appolonii, translated from 
Gottfried of Viterbo, and first published at Augsburg in 1476. Simrock, in his Sources 
of Shakespeare, narrates the story as it is given in the Gesta Romanorum. A modern 
Greek translation of the Latin romance, undertaken in 1500 by Gabriel Contianus of 
Crete, and several times reprinted at Venice, must not be confounded with the lost Greek 
priginal. 

APOL'LOS, a learned Jew from Alexandria, who came to Ephesus during the 
absence of St. Paul and preached the doctrine of Christ. At Corinth he taught the Jews 
from their scriptures that Jesus was the Christ. There was a division in the church 
ut Corinth, and one of the parties took his name, but without his authority, for he was 
always friendly with St. Paul and preached the doctrines of the apostles. An uncertain 
tradition makes him bishop of Ceesarea. Luther’s conjecture that A. was the author of 
the epistle to the Hebrews, favored by some scholars of eminence, remains without proof. 


APOL/LYON, used (Rev. ix. 11) to translate the Hebrew Abaddon, which means 
*‘destruction,” and thence, the place of the dead; perhaps nearly equivalent to Hades 
with the Greeks, A.is personified as the angel having dominion over the bottomless 
pit; as a destroying power, appearing in the forms of beasts at the sound of the fifth 
trumpet. In the Pilgrim’s Progress A. is the evil spirit encountering Christian in the 
valley of the shadow of death. 


AP'OLOGUE, a fable, parable, or short story, intended to serve as a pleasant vehicle of 
some moral doctrine. One of the oldest and best apologues or parables is that by Jotham, 
as given in the book of Judges (ix. 7-15). Another celebrated A. is that of the ‘‘limbs _ 
and the body,” related by the patrician Menenius Agrippa. isop’s fables have enjoyed 
a world-wide reputation. Luther held such an opinion of the value of the A. as a 
vehicle of moral truth, that he edited a revised Aisop, for which he wrote a character- 
istic preface. He says: ‘‘ In doing this, I have especially cared for young people, that 
they may receive instruction in a style suitable to their age, which is naturally fond of 
all kinds of fiction; and I have wished to gratify this natural taste without indulging 
anything that is bad.” 

APOL'0GY. The term is now commonly understood as synonymous with an excuse 
for breach of an engagement, etc., but was originally used as the title of any work 
written in defense of certain doctrines, as in the A. of Socrates, ascribed to Plato and 
Xenophon; the A. for the Christians, by Tertullian, and in many other defenses of the 
Christians, written by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilus, Origen, Eusebius, 
Minucius Felix, Arnobius, Lactantius, Augustine, Orosius, and others. The attacks 
parried or retorted in these apologetical works are such as charges of atheism, want of 
philosophical knowledge, anti-social tenets, etc. Both the charges and the refutations 
brought forward serve to give us an insight into the character of the times when these 


Apollonius. 
5 5 7 Apostate. 


works were written. Thus, in the A. by Tertullian, it is curious to find a forma) argu- 
ment employed to refute the assertion that the spread of Christianity was the cause of 
‘‘earthquakes” and other natural phenomena which had occurred in some parts of the 
Roman empire. After the 4th c., when the church was made dominant under the 
Roman emperors, apologetical writings were less called for; but Bartholus Edessenus 
and Raymundus Martinus wrote against the Jews and the Mohammedans. In the 15th 
e., when the revival of learning placed Christianity in apparent opposition to the Platonic 
philosophy, Marsilius Ficinus wrote in defense of revelation; and, some time after the 
reformation, the spread of freethinking and skepticism in England was opposed by a 
variety of apologetical works, chiefly maintaining the points that Christianity is a divine 
revelation, Christ a divine messenger, and his church a divine institution. The defense 
of Christianity on grounds of reason came now to be treated as a distinct branch of 
theology, under the name of Apologetics, Among the numerous apologetic works by 
Protestants, may be mentioned those by Grotius (De Veritate, etc.), Butler (Analogy of 
Religion, Natural and Revealed), Lardner (Credibility of the Gospel History), Leland, 
Addison, Soame Jenyns (/nternal Hvidences of the Christian Religion), Hugh Farmer, 
Bishop Watson (A. for Christianity), Paley (Heidences of Christianity, and Hore Pauline), 
etc. Among Roman Catholic apologetic writers, the most eminent are Pascal, Houte- 
ville, Guenée, Bergier, Mayr, and Chateaubriand. 

Recently, a great number of apologetic works by Neander, Tholuck, and others 
have appeared, in reply to Strauss’s Life of Jesus, and the Vie de Jésus by Joseph Ernest 
Renan. 


APOMORPHIA. See MorpuHia. 


APONEURO’IS is an anatomical term for an expansion of strong fibrous tissue, of 
which there are many examples in the human body. For the sake of convenience, it is 
generally confined to expansions from the tendons of muscles, as the lumbar A. If a 
tendon is very broad and expanded, as that of the external oblique muscle of the 
abdomen, it is said to be aponeurotic. Some muscles, as those on the shoulder-blade, 
are partially covered with a tendinous expansion, to which some of their fibers are 
attached; this is termed the aponeurotic origin of the muscle; it gives the muscle a more 
extensive attachment, without adding materially to weight. Aponeuroses stretch in some 
localities as protections over large arteries; thus, in bleeding from the vein nearest the 
inside of the bend of the elbow, the only structure between it, the lancet, and the 
brachial artery, is an aponeurotic expansion from the biceps tendon into the muscles of 
the fore-arm. 


APOPHTHEGM (Gr., an utterance), a term used to designate any truth or maxim 
sententiously expressed. The oracles of the heathen gods often took this form, as also 
the proverbs, memorable sayings, etc., of the sages of antiquity. In modern times, lord 
Bacon has made a charming collection of apophthegms. 


AP'OPLEXY is a term applied to an engorgement of blood, with or without extrava- 
sation, in or upon any organ, as the brain (cerebral A.), the spinal cord or lungs (pulmonary 
A.). As popularly used, the term denotes vaguely a condition arising from some disturb- 
ance within the head. A. occurs in jits, which may be sudden or come on by degrees, 
They are characterized by loss of sense and motion, speechlessness, and heavy sleep, 
with stertorous respiration and a slow pulse. The fit may last from a few hours to two 
or three days, and passes off, leaving generally more or less paralysis, and recurs at 
intervals of months or years. The age at which A. occurs most commonly is from 50 
to 70, and is comparatively rare before and after these ages. Cerebral A. may arise 
from mere congestion of the blood-vessels of the brain, caused by impeded return of the 
venous blood, as from the military stock pressing on the jugular veins, keeping the head 
long in one position, or turning it quickly. Stout persons, with short necks, are more 
liable to this form of A., though lean persons are also frequently its victims. But, in 
addition to congestion, there may be an escape of the watery portion of the blood from 
the congested vessels, and, this collecting, produces serous A.; or, owing to a diseased 
condition of the arterial walls, the vessels may burst, and A. from cerebral hemorrhage 
be the result; the latter is the most common, and is usually preceded by some softening of 
the brain substance itself. If this bleeding be to any great extent, death results; if only a 
small quantity escapes, it coagulates, 1nd forms a clot, which is absorbed in time. 
Persons with diseased heart and lungs, and pregnant females, are liable to apoplectic 
fits. The attack is generally preceded by vertigo, headache, partial or temporary loss of 
memory, and occasionally double vision. When these warnings occur, medical advice 
should be sought to correct the digestive functions; and, by relieving the oppressed 
brain, ward off the fit. When the latter occurs, the patient’s head should be raised, cold 
applied, and in some cases blood should be withdrawn from the temporal artery or 
external jugular vein. As soon as possible, purgative medicines should be admin- 
istered. For the results of A., see ParAtysis. Tumors within the skull produce 
symptoms of A. 


APOS'TATE literally designates any one who changes his religion, whatever may be 
his motive; but, by custom, the word is always used in an injurious sense, as equivalent 
to renegade, or one who, in changing his creed, is actuated by unworthy motives. In 
carly Christian times, the word was applied to those who abandoned their faith in order 
to escape from persecution; but it was also applied to such as rejected Christianity on 


A Posteriori. 5 
Apostolic. 598 


speculative grounds (the emperor Julian, for instance). After the 5th c., when heathenism 
was declining, many who had no sincere belief in Christianity, yet made profession of 
it, and were baptized: these also were styled apostates. The apostates in times of 
persecution were styled variously Sacrificati, Thurificati, etc., according to the modes in 
which they publicly made known their return to heathenism, by offering sacrifices or 
incense to the gods of Rome. The Roman Catholic church at one period imposed severe 
penalties on apostasy. The apostate was, of course, excommunicated; but sometimes, 
also, his property was confiscated, and he himself banished, or even put to death, It 
has often been of great moment to the fortunes of a nation that a prince has apostatized. 
The most renowned instance in modern history is that of Henry IV. of France. In 
1833 there was published, at Erlangen, A Gallery of Important Persons who, in the 16th, 
17th, and 18th Centuries went over from the Protestant to the Roman Catholic Church. 'he 
term Apostasy is now employed commonly, and often abusively, as a reproach for great 
or sudden changes in political opinions. 


A POSTERIO’RI. See A PRIORI. 


APOS'TLE (Gr. apostolos, sent forth, sent on a mission), any messenger whatever, but 
especially used to denote the twelve disciples whom Jesus sent forth to preach the gospel. 
Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, John (the son of Zebedee), James (his brother), 
Philip, Bartholomew (called also Nathaniel), Thomas, Matthew (surnamed Levi), James 
(the son of Alphzeus), Thaddeus, Simon, and Judas Iscariot. Subsequently Matthias 
was chosen in the room of Judas; and at a still later period the number of the apostles 
was further increased by the calling of Paul to the apostleship. The term is sometimes 
used in the New Testament in its more general signification. Barnabas is styled an A. 
(Acts xiv. 14). Itisa point of controversy between the supporters and opponents of episco- 
pacy, whether or not the term A., as indicating an office, is applied to any except the 
original twelve, Matthias and Paul; it being maintained, on the one hand, that the office 
is perpetuated in bishops; on the other, that it was temporary and belonged exclusively 
to those who were witnesses of the resurrection of Christ, and were employed by him to 
found the Christian church. The apostles were twice commissioned by their Master to 
go forth on their work of evangelization. First, during the third year of his public 
ministry. On this occasion their labors were to be restricted to the Jews, properly so 
called. Not even the Samaritans, though natives of Palestine, were to be the objects of 
their religious solicitude. They were earnestly to seek out the lost sheep of the house of 
Israel. The second time was shortly before the Lord’s ascension, when their sphere of 
labor was indefinitely extended. ‘‘Go, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the 
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” On the day of Pentecost, 
the apostles received miraculous gifts fitting them for their arduous work. And after 
evangelizing for some years in Palestine, they all departed, with the exception of St. 
James, into various quarters of the globe; but the region of their ministry seems to have 
principaliy comprised the civilized provinces and cities of the eastern part of the Roman 
empire—viz., Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece; though probably Peter, and after him. 
Paul, visited Rome. There is no historical foundation for the tradition that the first 
apostles divided the then known world into twelve parts, each taking one of these for 
his special sphere of labor. This figment was very likely originated by two circum- 
stances. 1. That the disciples were commanded to go into all the world and preach the 
gospel; and 2. That the disciples in point of fact had little personal intercourse with 
each other. ‘Their zeal for the propagation of Christianity left them no time to gratify 
their social inclinations. As a consequence, we have very imperfect accounts of their 
lives or manner of death. ? 

The several aposties are usually represented in medieval pictures with special badges 
or attributes: St. Peter, with the keys; St. Paul, with a sword; St. Andrew, with a 
cross; St. James the less, with a fuller’s pole; St. John, with a cup and a winged ser- 
pent flying out of it; St. Bartholomew, with a knife; St. Philip, with a long staff, whose 
upper end is formed into across; St. Thomas, with a lance; St. Matthew, with a hatchet; 
St. Matthias, with a battle-axe; St. James the greater, with a pilgrim’s staff and a gourd- 
bottle; St. Simon, with a saw; and St. Jude, with a club. 


APOS'TLES’ CREED. See CREEDs. 


APOSTLES’ ISLANDS, or THE TWELVE ApostLEs, in lake Superior, near the w. 
end ; belonging to Wisconsin. There are more than twice the number of islands, having 
in all 125,000 acres. On Madeline Island is La Pointe. ‘These islands were occupied 
by the French missions as early as 1658. 


APOSTLES, TEACHING OF THE TWELVE. See TEACHING OF THE TWELVE 
APOSTLES. 


APOSTOL'IC, or APOSTOLICAL, the general term applied to everything derived directly 
from, or bearing the character of the apostles. Either case constitutes apostolicity. The 
Roman Catholic Church declares itself the A. church; the papal chair the A. chair, on 
the ground of an unbroken series of Roman bishops, from the chief apostle, Peter. The 
church of England, in virtue of regular episcopal ordination from the pre-reformation 
church, claims to be A., as do the Protestant Episcopal churches in Scotland and the Unit- 
ed States. Apostolic tradition (see INFALLIBILITY ; RULE OF FaiTH) claims to have been 
handed down from the apostles. In the same special sense, the name of A. council belongs 
to that conclave of the apostles at Jerusalem (Acts xv. 2), about 51 or 52 a.D., occa- 


A Posteriori. 
4) D 9 Apostolic. 


sioned by the disputes raised at Antioch by Judaizing Christians as to the admission of 
uncircumcised Gentiles into the church. Certain congregations or churches, also, which 
were the special scenes of the labors of the apostles, bore for centuries the title of A. 
churches, more especially those of Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome. 
But with the ever-increasing spiritual power of the Romish hierarchy, the name A. came 
to be more and more exclusively applied to Rome, and is retained by her, despite the 
energetic protests of the Protestant churches. Hence the term apostolic see, i.e., the 
see of Rome; apostolic blessing, the blessing of the pope as the successor of St. Peter; 
apostolic vicar, the cardinal who represents the pope in extraordinary sessions; apos- 
‘tolic chamber, a council intrusted with the care of the revenues of the see of Rome; 
apostolic months—Jan., March, May, July, Sept., Nov.—the months in which the 
pope, according to the Vienna Concordat of 1448, took possession of the vacant benefices 
in Germany, etc. <A papal brief or letter is styled A.in the same sense. 


APOSTOL'IC BRETHREN, or Aposro ict, the name given in Italy, towards the end of 
the 13th c., to one of those sects which, animated by the spirit of an Arnold of Brescia, 
felt constrained to oppose the worldly tendencies of thechurch. Its founder was Gerhard 
Segarelli, a weaver in Parma. Rejected, from some cause or other, by the Franciscan 
order, his long-continued and enthusiastic meditations led him to the profound conviction 
that it was above all things necessary to return to the simple forms of apostolic life. 
Accordingly, he went about (1260) in the garb of the apostles, as a preacher of repent- 
ance, and by his practical discourses gathered many adherents into a kind of free society, 
bound by no oaths. At first he managed to avoid any direct collision with the dogmas 
of the church; but after twenty years of undisturbed activity and growing influence, 
Segarelli was arrested by the bishop of Parma; and in 1286, upon the occasion of his 
release, pope Honorius LY. renewed a decree of pope Gregory X. against all religious 
communities not directly sanctioned by the papal chair. In 1290, Nicholas IV. setting 
himself to expose the A. B., they, on their side, began avowedly to denounce the papacy, 
and its corrupt and worldly church, as the Babylon of the Apocalypse. In 13800, many, both 
men and women, and among them Segarelli, as having, after abjuration, relapsed into 
heresy, perished at the stake. But his cause survived him. Dolcino, a more energetic 
and cultivated man, brought up as a priest, who had previously taken an active part in 
the Tyrol against the corruptions of the church, now headed the orphan sect in Italy. 
He taught the duty of a complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of property and 
settled abode, etc. Having retreated into Dalmatia, he announced from thence the 
dawning of the new era, and in 1804 reappeared in upper Italy, with thousands of 
adherents, as the enemy of the papacy—at that time humbled and impoverished by 
France. In 1305, a crusade was preached against him. He fortified the mountain 
Zebello, in the diocese of Vercelli, but was, after a gallant defense, compelled by famine 
to submit. After horrible tortures, which he bore with the utmost fortitude, he was 
burned. In Lombardy and the south of France, brethren lingered till 1368 


APOSTOLIC CATHOLICS. See IRvVINGITES. 


APOSTOL'IC FATHERS, the name given to the immediate disciples and fellow-laborers 
of the apostles, and, in a more restricted sense, to those among them who have left 
writings behind them. The A. F., specially so called, are Barnabas, Clement of Rome, 
Ignatius of Antioch, and Polycarp of Smyrna. It is uncertain whether Papias of 
Hierapolis, and the author of the Shepherd, were really disciples of the apostles. The 
writings of the A. F., as to their form and subject, may be looked upon as a continua- 
tion of the apostolic epistles, though far inferior to them in spirit. Their main purpose 
is to exhort to faith and holiness before Christ’s coming again.— Editions of the A. F. 
were published by Cotelerius (Par., 1672), Jacobson (Oxford, 1838), Hefele (1889), and 
Dressel (1857); another by Zahn, Gebhardt, and others began to appear in 18765. 
There are several English translations, including one in Dr. Donaldson’s Ante-Nicene 
Library, vol. 1. (1867). 


APOSTOL'IC MAJESTY, a title held by the kings of Hungary, was conferred by pope 
Sylvester II., in 1000 a.p., upon Duke Stephen of Hungary, who had not only much 
encouraged the progress of Christianity in Hungary, but actually preached himself, in 
imitation of the apostles. In 1758, the title was renewed by Pope Clement XIII., in 
favor of Maria Theresa as queen of Hungary, and continues to be used by the emperor 
of Austria as king of Hungary. 

APOSTOLIC CANONS and CONSTITUTIONS, both ascribed by tradition to Clemens 
Romanus, are notes of ecclesiastical customs held to be apostolical, written In the form 
of apostolic precepts. The Constitutiones Apostolice, consisting of eight books, were 
probably composed in Syria, and contain, in the first six books, a comprehensive rule for 
the whole of the Christian life. These were probably written about the end of the 3d 
c.; while the seventh book, which is essentially an abridgment of them, may have belonged 
to the beginning of the 4th century. The eighth book was put together in the middle of the 
4th c., for the use of the priests, and only relates to the sacred offices. Interpolations, 
however, were afterwards introduced. The Canones Apostolici, which were also recog- 
nized by the chure':, were composed at a later period. The first fifty, compiled in the 


Apostolic. 5 
Appalachees. 560 


middle of the 5th c., and translated from Greek into Latin by Dionysius the younger, 
were acknowledged by the Latin church alone. The Greek church, on the other hand, 
accepted the 35 canons put forth in the beginning of the 6th c.; and this became a point 
of discord between the churches. Both collections were probably looked upon at first as 
apostolic traditions merely. Later, it came to be believed that they were written down 
dy the apostles themselves. 

APOSTOLIC PARTY, the name given to a party who acted a conspicuous part in the 
modern history of Spain. They were composed of fanatical Catholics, who were also 
absolutists so far as the king consented to be their instrument. They formed themselves 
(soon after the revolution of 1819) into an A. P., whose leaders were fugitive priests, and 
whose troops were smugglers and robbers. After taking an active part in all the subse- 
quent agitations, they finally merged (1830) in the Carlist party. 


APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION. The unbroken succession of the ministry of the Church, 
in due form, from the apostles, and thus from Christ Himself. The argument in 
behalf of this doctrine is as follows: ‘‘It is noteworthy that this doctrine has 
received full and explicit acceptance throughout Christendom from the earliest 
times. While many other essential articles of Christian belief have been developed 
slowly, or have attained their place only by much discussion and conflict, this 
appears in complete and distinct expression before the end of the first century. The 
Canon of the New Testament was a matter which required much time before it was 
finally settled what books it should exclude and what books it should contain. The 
doctrine of the Trinity was in wide and bitter debate in the fourth century. Funda- 
mental questions concerning the Incarnation were considered in the sixth Gicumenical 
Council, in the year 680. But the Apostolic Succession was believed and understood 
by the Church at once, as though instinctively. And it was clearly set forth while some 
of the apostles were still living, and before all the books of the New Testament were 
written ; in the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, as follows: ‘The Lord has 
enjoined offerings to be presented and service to be performed to Him, and that not 
thoughtlessly or irregularly, but at the appointed times and hours. Where and by whom 
He desires these things to be done He Himself has fixed by His own supreme will. The 
apostles have preached the Gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ ; Jesus Christ from 
God. Christ therefore was sent forth by God, and the apostles by Christ. Both these 
appointments, then, were made in an orderly way, according tothe will of God. Having 
therefore received their orders, they went forth proclaiming that the kingdom of God 
was at hand. And thus preaching through countries and cities, they appointed the first- 
fruits of their labors, having first proved them by the Spirit, to be bishops and deacons 
of those who should afterwards believe. They appointed those ministers, and they 
afterwards gave instructions, that when these should fall asleep other approved men 
should succeed them in their ministry.’ In these words, it appears (1) that not all 
Christians are stewards of the mysteries of God, but that (2) there is a ministerial order, 
which (8) originates in the supreme will of God, (4) by the mission of Christ, (5) con- 
tinued in the apostles, (6) by them entrusted to others, and (7) with instructions which 
should carry on to other generations the same ministry. The Epistles of Ignatius, 
another of the ‘ Apostolic Fathers,’ 107 A.D., are to the same effect. It must suffice 
simply to refer the reader to them. No quotation, consistent with the necessary limits 
of this article, would do justice to the extent and conclusiveness of their testimony. A 
few words, however, may be given here from Irenzeus, 185 A.D., and from Tertullian, 
196 A.D. Irenzeus says: ‘ After our Lord rose from the dead, the apostles were invested 
with power from on high, and departed to the ends of the earth preaching the glad 
tidings. It is within the power of all who may wish to see the truth, to contemplate 
clearly the tradition of the apostles ; and we are in a position to reckon up those who 
were by the apostles instituted bishops in the Churches, and the succession of these men 
to our own times. In this order and by this succession, the ecclesiastical tradition from 
the apostles and the preaching of the truth have come down to us. And this is most 
abundant proof that there is one and the same vivifying faith, which has been preserved 
in the Church from the apostles until now and handed down in truth.’ And Tertullian : 
‘Our Lord did, whilst He lived on earth, Himself declare what the Father’s will was 
which He was administering, what the duty of man was which He was prescribing, to 
the apostles whom He destined to be the teachers of the nations. They then founded 
Churches in every city, from which all the other Churches, one after another, derived 
the tradition of the faith and the seeds of doctrine, and are every day deriving them, 
that they may become Churches. Indeed, it is on this account only that they will be 
able to deem themselves apostolic, as being the offspring of apostolic Churches. Since 
the Lord Jesus Christ sent the apostles to preach, our rule is that no others ought to be 
received as preachers than those whom Christ appointed. Or, let them prove themselves 
to be new apostles! Let them maintain that Christ has come down a second time, taught 
in person a second time, has been twice crucified, twice dead, twice raised! But, if 
there be any which are bold enough to plant themselves in the midst of the apostolic age, 
let them produce the original records of their Churches ; let them unfold the roll of their 
bishops, running down in due succession from the beginning in such a manner that that 
first bishop of theirs shall be able to show for his ordainer and predecessor some one of 
the apostles or of apostolic men, a man, moreover, who continued steadfast with the 
apostles. For this is the manner in which the apostolic Churches transmit their regis- 
ters ; as the Church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp was placed therein by John : 


A t oe 
561 Abpalwonned 


as also the Church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner 
by Peter. In exactly the same way, the other Churches likewise exhibit their several 
worthies, whom, as having been appointed to their episcopal places by apostles, they 
regard as transmitters of the apostolic seed.’ ; 

‘The Apostolic Succession has continued in the Church, both in doctrine and practice, 
from the first century until now ; during 1500 years without an exception ; and, as to 
the exceptions of the last 300 years, they are the consequence of historic accident, not of 
deliberate consideration and choice beforehand. 'That there should have been this 
universal maintenance of the Apostolic Succession is but a natural result from the 
character itself of the Christian religion ; for that religion is not a mere philosophy 
or ideal. On the contrary, it takes its place in the world as a reality, a fact. The 
incarnation is real—‘ God was manifest in the flesh.’ The incarnate Son of God lived 
on earth, in actual verity, a human life. He promised, on a notable occasion, that He 
would build His Church ; He described it in His parables. And He did buildit. Through- 
out the New Testament, after His ascension, it is found to be in existence, a visible 
society, a fact and not a metaphor, having its Sacraments, worship, creed, and govern- 
ment. The Lord organized His religion, left it on the earth in the form of an institution. 
To this organization a ministry was necessary, for the administration of its sacraments, 
its discipline, its worship and doctrine. A ministry was one of the constituent parts of 
the organization. And this ministry the Lord ordained when He said to the apostles, 
‘As my Father hath sent Me, even so send I you,’ ‘ Receive ye the Holy Ghost ;’ and 
He made it not for a day but for a]l time by the words, ‘ Lo, Iam with you alway, even 
unto the end of the world.’ It appears in the New Testament that the apostles exercised 
the ministry thus committed unto them. They fulfilled its duties. No other ministerial 
line appears in the New Testament but theirs. There is no instance of any ordination 
but by apostles. And they provided for the continuance of the same ministry after their 
departure out of this world. Of thisthe Epistles to Timothy and Titus are sufficient 
evidence. Both had been advanced to apostolic rank, and had by St. Paul been left in 
charge, the one of the Church at Ephesus, the other of the Church in Crete; and St. 
Paul’s instructions to them show very fully what their duties were— duties which imply 
their supervision of elders, deacons, laymen, (1) in respect of conduct ; (2) in respect of 
the doctrine which should be taught, e.g., these words to Timothy : ‘ Hold fast the form 
of sound words which thou hast heard of me;’ ‘Charge those who preach that they 
teach no other doctrine ;’ (8) in respect of the discipline of the clergy, e.g., ‘ Against an 
elder receive not an accusation but before two or three witnesses ; them that sin rebuke 
before all, that others also may fear; observe these things without preferring one before 
another, doing nothing by partiality,’ and (4) in respect of ordination, what qualifica- 
tions the persons to be ordained must possess, for ascertaining which Timothy is 
responsible, as also for the ordination itself : ‘ Lay hands suddenly on no man,’i.e., ordain 
no one without due deliberation—so fulfilling the injunction, ‘The things which thou 
hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful men who 
shall be able to teach others also.’ 

‘“‘ The Epistle to Titus is of the same tenor, written for the same ends, and containing 
similar instructions. In brief, the Christian religion is supernatural—a supernatural 
revelation of truth, supernatural gifts of spiritual life; which truth and life are 
entrusted to and conveyed through a corporate body, the kingdom of heaven on earth, 
a visible institution yet divine in its creation and organization ; a body, moreover, acting 
by an order of men set apart, in obedience to the divine will, to be the ministrants of its 
spiritual gifts. These are principles of the Christian religion, as distinct and clear as 
they are fundamental. And from these premises it is obvious the Apostolic Succession 
is a logical and necessary conclusion, viz., that the ministry which Christ began has 
rightly and duly descended to this present time, and will continue until the end” 


APOTACTICI, a sect of heretics who, wishing to restore the purity of the primitive 
church, renounced all their possessions and adopted an ascetic mode of life. Later they 
adopted the principles of the encratites (q.v.), who forbade marriage as identical with 
unchastity. See TATIAN. 

APOTHECARY. See CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS. 

APOTHEO’SIS, deification, or the raising of a mortal to the rank of a god (Gr., theos). 
From the polytheistic point of view there is nothing monstrous in this idea ; on the cou- 
trary, it is quite natural, and a necessary part of thesystem. Among heathens generally, 
and especially among the Romans, every departed spirit became a deity (see Lars) ; 
‘‘and as it was common for children to worship (privately) the manes of their fathers, so 
was it natural for divine honors to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, who was 
regarded as the parent of his country.’’ (See Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
Antiquities.) At the Consecratio, as it was called, of a Roman emperor, the body was 
burned on a funeral pile, and as the fire ascended, an eagle was let loose to mount into 
the sky, carrying, as was believed, the soul of the emperor from earth to heaven, Many 
medals are found with the word consecratio surrounding an altar, with fire on it. 

APPALACH’EE BAY, a portion of the gulf of Mexico near the n. part of Florida, ex- 
tending about 50 m. inland. It receives the waters of St. Mark’s river. 

APPALACH’EES, a tribe of Indians, of the Choctaw family, in Florida, on A. bay. 
They were friendly with the Spaniards until white oppression provoked a revolt in 
1687, when they were quickly subdued. Soon afterwards, the English and their Indian 


lachi 
AD painchians: 562 


allies fell upon the A. and killed or carried off many of them. In 1704 St. Mark’s was 
taken and the missionaries put to death. The A. disappeared as a tribe of any impor- 
tance after 1722. 


APPALACHIAN CLUB, an organization formed in Boston about 1876, for the thorough 
exploration of mountains, particularly those of the Atlantic coast, for the advancement 
of physical geography, geology, hydrography, zoology, and botany, thus resembling 
the Alpine clubs of other countries. Its membership, which is not limited to residents 
of New England, comprises a large and enthusiastic body of professional and amateur 
students, who aid the scientist by their discoveries and observations, and add to the 
safety and pleasure of the tourist by cutting paths to mountain summits, marking 
roads, preventing the disfigurement of natural scenery, ete. The organ of the club is a 
bi-monthly magazine, Appalachia, pub., Boston. See ALPINE CLUB. 


APPALACH TANS, the general appellation of the great mountain-system—called also 
the Alleghanies—which stretches from the interior of Maine to the borders of Alabama, 
its distance from the sea gradually ranging between about 100 m. in the n. and about 
300 in the s. Speaking generally, this chain may be regarded as the parent of 
the Atlantic rivers of the United States on the one side, and on the other of the 
southern tributaries of the St. Lawrence, and of the eastern feeders of the Mississippi: it 
is not, however, the actual water-shed during its entire length, for it is crossed by the 
Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware, just as the Himalayas are pierced by the 
Ganges, and the Andes by the Amazon. The chain, in fact, consists of several ranges 
generally parallel to each other, which, along with the intermediate valleys that occupy 
two thirds of the breadth, form a belt 100 m. wide—its multiform character, however, 
developing itself only to the w. ands. of the Hudson. ‘To take the chief ridges by name, 
and to begin from the n.: the white hills of New Hampshire present some of the loftiest 
elevations, Moosehillock and Washington being respectively 4636 and 6285.4 ft. 
above the sea. Next in order, the Green mountains, which, true to the name, 
almost cover Vermont, attain, in Mt. Mansfield, a height of 4430 ft.; then come 
the Highlands, on the e. of the Hudson, so striking an object to the voyagers on its 
waters ; immediately beyond that river, again, we find the Catskill mountains, which, 
though of inconsiderable length, contain two eminences— Round Top and High Peak— 
respectively of 8804 and 3718 ft. ; while, on a terrace of another member of the group 
Mountain House, a favorite refuge from the heats of summer, is perched 2231 ft. above 
the level of the Hudson. Proceeding onwards, the Kittatinnies extend from the n. of 
New Jersey as far as Virginia ; while nearer to the sea, the Blue Ridge, stretching from 
about the same parallel down to North Carolina, is crowned, within the limits of Vir- 
ginia, by the peaks of Otter, 3993 ft. high. In North Carolina are the Black mountains, 
with the highest summit of the system, Clingman’s peak, 6940 ft. in height. Lastly, there 
lie, more to the westward, the Alleghanies proper in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and the 
Cumberland mountains on the e. border of Kentucky and Tennessee. 

Of all these elevations not one at all approaches the limit of perpetual snow. Yet 
France, while struggling with England in North America, regarded the A. as a wall that 
was physically to exclude her rival from the basins of the St. Lawrence and the Missis- 
sippi. Anglo-Saxon energy, however, has virtually leveled the supposed barrier from 
end toend. Through Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont runs a railway from Port- 
land to Canada; by canal or by railway, or even by both abreast, New York has reached 
the waters of the St. Lawrence on at least four principal points between Montreal in the 
e. and Buffalo in the w.; Pennsylvania has carried to Pittsburgh a railway of 248 m. 
from Harrisburgh, and a canal of 312 m. from Columbia; while, with the necessary 
exception of little Delaware alone, the remaining states along the coast have each its 
iron-way through the A. 

The chain abounds in coal and iron, those gifts of nature to industrious man, which 
in all ages have done so much for civilization, and which, in our own age, have, withthe 
aid of steam, more than doubled all that they had done before; and it isa curious instance 
of the adaptation of the two worlds to each other, that, while the Spaniard met, in the south, 
the gigantic counterparts of the central plateau of his own romantic land, the English- 
man, in the north, stumbled, asit were, on those same elements of almost creative energy 
which, within two centuries were to be so instrumental in placing the daughter next to 
the mother among the nations of the earth. As an evidence of the actual value of the 
coal and iron of the A., Pennsylvania—where, hitherto, they have been chiefly found— 
has since 1840 made more rapid strides in growth of population than any other state in 
the union, till between 1860 and 1870, when Illinois increased somewhat more rapidly 
Nor are iron and coal the only valuable products of the A. To say nothing of the valleys 
—many of them as fertile as they are lovely—which separate the parallel ranges from 
each other, the mountains themselves yield limestone, marble, slate, building-stone, cop- 
per, zinc, chrome, etc. 

Geology.—During the azoic and paleozoic periods of the earth’s geological history, 
the district now occupied by the A. was a level plain. These mountains date their 
origin from a period subsequent to the carboniferous epoch. The coal measures are the 
newest upturned beds associated with the Appalachian range; and as the stratified rocks, 
with few exceptions, are laid down horizontally, these strata must owe their inclined 
position to the dislocating agency which elevated the mountains; they, consequently, 


¢ A lachian. 
563 Avpalachingn, 


supply a date anterior to its activity. At the base of the A., on their eastern side, there 
are a series of red sandstone beds, unconformable to the upturned strata, and occupying 
the valleys in their original horizontality, thus evidently unaffected by the disrupting 
agency which must have been active prior to their deposition, These beds have been 
referred by geologists to different ages. That they are old red sandstone, as conjectured 
by Maclure and others, is now universally denied. Hitchcock’s supposition that they 
were permian, is also considered as referring them to too remote a geological age. W. 
B. Rogers considered them first as members of the triassic period; but has since, from 
evidence adduced from the contained organic remains, shown reason for relating them to 
the beginning of the jurassic period. We thus obtain two grand limiting dates—the 
carboniferous and jurassic periods—within which the A. must have been formed. There 
are grounds for being even more specific, and referring the period of the ele 
agency to that immediately subsequent to the carboniferous, represented in the stratifie 
rocks of other districts by the permian series; for the older upturned rock had not only 
been ruptured and plicated, but also denuded into the various shapes they now present, 
before the horizontal rocks were deposited. 

The late Prof. H. D. Rogers, after years of persevering and devoted study, enun- 
ciated a theory of mountain formation based on his examination of the A., which not 
only explains their structure, but admits of a more or less complete application to the 
mountain-systems of the world. The many proposed theories of mountain elevation 
are based upon assumptions which, unfortunately, are not true; but that is an unimpor- 
tant matter to the majority of our speculating geologists, and one never seen by the 
inventors of the theories, who allow themselves to be led captive by a poetic imagina- 
tion, instead of building their inductions on field observations. Thus, to suppose that 
mountains are elevated by a wedge-like intrusion of melted matter, is to give to a fluid 
functions incompatible with its dynamic properties. So also the supposition that the 
igneous rocks were intruded as solid wedges, separating and lifting the crust, is opposed 
to the fact that no apparent abrasion, but generally the closest adhesion, exists at the line 
of contact of the igneous and stratified rocks. Equally fatal objections can be adduced 
_ against the other theories. Prof. Rogers observing that the A. were formed of a series 
of enormous waves, and comparing this appearance with other elevated districts, espe- 
cially in Belgium and Britain, enunciated a theory of their structure, of which the follow- 
ing is a condensed view: 

Disturbed strata have a wave-like arrangement, their dip being in curved, and never 
in straight planes; and in extensive areas the varying angles of dip exhibit one or more 
wide regular curves. These undulations are in the form of long parallel waves, their 
parallelism being in the line of the general trend of the part of the mountain system to 
which they belong. When different grades of magnitude, as regards length, height, and 
amplitude, occur, the waves of the same grade are parallel, while the different grades 
are not necessarily so. The waves assume three different forms, which are characterized 
as—symmetrical flecures, equally steep on the two slopes; xermal fierures, having an excess 
of incurvation on the one side compared with the other; and folded flexures, or those 
with a doubling under of their more incurved slopes, and among which the steepest 
slopes are generally directed to the same quarters. These three forms, representing dif- 
ferent gradations in the flexure, are regular in their succession in disturbed regions, the 
order being the same as in the diagram—tnat is, when we start from the most disturbed 
side, we go from the folded waves to the normal ones, and from these to the symmetri- 
cal; and in the same order, the waves, as they recede from the folded side, become pro- 
gressively wider apart and flatter. Resting on these facts, Prof. Rogers advanced his 
view of the structure of elevated regions in the following words: ‘‘ The wave-like struc- 
ture of undulated belts of the earth’s crust, is attributed to an actual pulsation in the 
fluid matter beneath the crust, propagated in the manner of great waves of translation 
from enormous ruptures occasioned by the tension of elastic matter. The forms of the 
waves, the close plication of the strata, and the permanent tracing of the flexures, are 
ascribed to the combination of an undulating and a tangential movement, accompanied 
by an injection of igneous veins and dikes into the rents occasioned by the bendings. 
This oscillation of the crust, producing an actual floating forward of the rocky part, has 
been, it is conceived, of the nature of that pulsation which attends all great earthquakes 
at the present day.” 

This theory having originated as an explanation of the phenomena of the A., is easy 
of application to these mountains. They are composed of a series of parallel waves, 
having a general direction similar to the coast-line of the Atlantic ocean. The line of 
maximum disturbance is on their eastern limits; consequently, the folded flexures, with 
the inversion of their steep sides, are chiefly confined to the great Appalachian valley, 
and the Atlantic slopes s. of it. The flexures of this type impart a prevailing s.e. dip 
to the whole outcrop; their number, and the excessive difficulty of detecting and con- 
tinuously tracing them, frustrates every attempt at mapping them individually. The 
flexures of the second type, which curve more rapidly on the one side than on the other, 
prevail wherever the forces that disturbed the crust were neither excessively intense nox 
very feeble. It is the characteristic form everywhere between the great Appalachian 
valley and the Alleghany mountains. It distinguishes not only those larger waves which 
Yeparate the coal—containing strata e. of the Susquehanna into special basins—but the 


Appalachicola. ~ 
Apparitions. 564 


minor undulations which throw the coal measures of these basins into groups of lesser 
saddles and troughs. Undulations of the first or symmetrical type occur beyond the 
Alleghany mountains, where two groups of them may be distinguished: the one sub- 
dividing the bituminous coal-field, with its five very broad waves, into six successive 
basins; the other, composed of four equidistant and very straight undulations, traversing 
parts of Cambria, Indiana, Somerset, and Fayette counties. 

The strata thus elevated, and forming the A., belong entirely to the oldest or paleeozoio 
division of the fossiliferous rocks. Metamorphic rocks, consisting of felspathic, horn- 
blendic, and micaceous gneiss, and mica-slate, exist on the eastern base of these moun- 
tains, but have not been noticed as forming part of the plicated strata of the A. Exten- 
sive formations of talcose and micaceous slates, indurated clay-slates, and chloritic and 
steatitic slates, exist in the more disturbed districts. These are highly metamorphosed 
members of the older fossiliferous, and must not be confounded with, though they so 
much resemble, the azoic metamorphic rocks. 

The paleeozoic rocks constitute a vast succession of fossiliferous strata, commencing 
with the lowest deposits resting on the metamorphic rocks, and terminating with the 
highest of the coal strata. Their aggregate thickness, as measured in Pennsylvania, 
amounts to 85,000 ft. While exhibiting a remarkable variety of mineral character, they 
may be classed under the three great divisions of sedimentary rocks—viz., sandstones, 
slates, and limestones. Intercalated with them, as subordinate layers, there occur 
deposits of coal, chert, and ironore. They are all more or less fossiliferous, 

Coal Measwres.—The character of the rocks of the Appalachian district of North 
America indicates that during the carboniferous epoch an immense continent existed on 
the present site of the Atlantic, which supplied materials for the sandstone and slate. 
It seems to have had an extensive shallow marshy shore, of such a character as to be 
able to support the vegetation, which has become, in the course of ages, converted into 
coal. The coal-fields to the far w. of the A.,in Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Mis- 
souri, have been connected with the Appalachian coal formation, which includes all the 
detached basins, both anthracitic and semi-bituminous, of the mountain chain of Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, and also the vast bituminous trough lying to the n.w. 
in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Kentucky, ‘Tennessee, and Alabama. 

On the eastern slope of the A., the coal, from its proximity to the region of greatest 
disturbance, has lost nearly all its volatile constituents, and is converted into hard shining 
anthracite (q.v.). In the troughs to the westward of the great Appalachian valley, where 
the forces that disturbed the crust were not so intense, the coal has not parted with such 
a large proportion of volatile matter, but still is so much altered as to be characterized as 
semi-anthracite. Both the anthracite and semi-anthracite are extensively mined for 
economical purposes, but their extent as well as their value is of little importance com- 
pared with the enormous Appalachian bituminous coal-field. From northern Pennsyl- 
vania to middle Alabama, its length is about 875 m., and its greatest breadth between 
southern Pennsylvania and northern Ohio is about 180 m.; it covers an area of about 
56,000 sq.m., and is almost the largest expanse of coal measures in the world. A single 
coal-seam in this field has been traced over an extent of country 225 m. long by 100 broad, 
showing a superficial area of 14,000 sq.miles. The actual depth of workable seams in the 
deepest part of this basin is estimated at 40 ft.; but when the amount of denudation of 
the upper measures over large districts is taken into account, the average depth of the 
entire field cannot be more than 25 ft. Taking this as the thickness, the amount of coal 
in this great coal-field would be 1,387,500,000,000 tons. When this is compared with the 
estimated quantity of coal in the British coal-fields, viz., 190,000,000,000 tons, some con- 
eee may be formed of the enormous extent of coal existing in this district of North 

merica. 

Metals.—Extensive beds of magnetic, hematitic, and fossiliferous iron ores occur in 
many of the formations of the A., from the lowest metamorphic gneiss to the highest 
coal-measures. Iron ore is extensively wrought in Pennsylvania and Ohio, large quanti- 
ties of the anthracite being used in the smelting furnaces. Veins of lead occur in the 
metamorphic rocks, rarely stretching up into the red slate. In the paleeozoic beds, veins 
of copper and nickel occur in sufficient quantity to be wrought. 


APPALACHICO'LA, a river of the United States, rising in Georgia, and flowing through 
Florida into the gulf of Mexico, or rather into a bay that bears its own name. Reckon- 
ing from its remotest sources, the head-waters of the Chatahooche, the A. is about 400 m. 
long, being navigable for boats throughout nearly its entire course. It is, however, only 
at the junction of the Chatahooche with the Flint that the name of A. is applied to the 
stream; and up to this point, a stretch of about 76 m., there 1s a sufficient depth of water 
for steam navigation; while the tides also ascend for about two thirds of the distance.— 
A. is also a seaport at the mouth of the stream above mentioned. Here is shipped the 
produce of the river basin, consisting chiefly of large quantities of cotton. 

AP'PANOOSE, a co. in s. Iowa on the Missouri border; 500 sq.m.; pop. ’90, 18,961. 
It has a fertile surface of rolling prairie, with timber along the watercourses, and larga 
beds of coal. The products are chiefly agricultural. Co. seat, Centreville. 

APPARATUS, in the sciences, a collection of tools or instruments for experiment: 
ing or working. In physiology, a group or collection of organs associated in a single 


565 Apparidious. 


function; as, the heart, veins, and arteries are the circulatory A.; the limbs are the A. of 
locomotion, etc. 


APPARENT. This term is used to express a number of important distinctions, espe- 
cially in astronomy. The A. magnitude of a heavenly body is the angle formed by two lines 
drawn from the ends of its diameter to the spectator’s eye: this obviously depends upon 
the distance of the body, as well as upon its real magnitude. A planet seen from the 
surface of the earth seems lower than if seen from the center of the earth—the former is 
its A. altitude, the latter its real. A. noon is when the sun is on the meridian; true or mean 
noon is the time when the sun would be on the meridian if his motion in the heavens 
were uniform and parallel to the equator. See Equation or Time. The daily and 
annual motions of the sun in the heavens are both A. motions, caused by two real motions 


of the earth. 


APPARITIONS. The belief that the spirits of the departed are occasionally presented 
to the sight of the living, has existed in all agesand countries, and usually declines only 
when a people have advanced considerably in the knowledge of physical conditions and 
laws. ot that A. then cease to be reported—for this is far from being the case—but 
that the more intelligent part of the community are then usually able to explain away 
the alleged occurrence in some way satisfactory to themselves, not involving the admis- 
sion of a possible projection of a spirit upon the living sense. 

Nothing is more certain than that there are conditions of the body when spectral 
appearances, such as occur to us in uneasy dreams, become sensible to the waking vision. 
One of these conditions is that of the patient under the disease of delirtwm tremens, who 
not only hears ideal enemies plotting against his life in adjacent rooms or behind hedges, 
but thinks he sees them preparing to do him mischief, and has been known to jump 
overboard of a vessel into the sea, in order to escape the apprehended danger. In such 
excitements it is, though arising from different causes, that an intending murderer thinks 
he hears the prince of fallen angels tempting him on to crime, or sees before hima ‘‘ dagger 
of the mind” wherewith to end the life of his victim. There are also instances of spectral 
illusions traceable to a simply disordered state of the digestive organs. M. Nicolai, an 
eminent bookseller in Berlin, fell, in the early part of the year 1791, into a depression of 
spirits, and in that condition neglected a course of periodical bleeding which he had been 
accustomed to observe. The consequence was his becoming liable for some months to 
seeing trains of phantasmata or spectral figures, which moved and acted before him, nay, 
even spoke to, and addressed him. He was fortunately able, not merely to coolly observe 
the phenomena, but to describe them in an ample paper which he presented to the philo- 
sophical society of Berlin. This case may be said to have formed the basis of a theory 
of A., advanced by Dr. Ferrier, Dr. Hibbert, and others, amounting merely to this, that 
they are all to be accounted for by peculiar conditions of the organism of the individual 
sensible of them. 

There is certainly a large class of cases which fall readily under this explanation; but, 
if we are to accept the whole that have been, on more or less good authority, reported, it 
must be admitted that a theory of a more comprehensive nature is still required in order 
to satisfy the duly cautious inquirer. 

Let us take, for instance, an apparition story which Dr. Hibbert owns to be one of 
the best authenticated on record. It was thus written down in 1662 by the bishop of 
Gloucester, from the recital of the young lady’s father: ‘‘Sir Charles Lee, by his first 
lady, had only one daughter, of which she died in childbirth; and when she was dead, 
her sister, the Lady Everard, desired to have the education of the child; and she was by 
her very well educated, till she was marriageable, and a match was concluded for her 
with Sir William Perkins, but was then prevented in an extraordinary manner. Upon 
a Thursday night, she thinking she saw a light in her chamber after she was in bed, 
knocked for her maid, who presently came to her, and she asked why she left a candle 
burning in her chamber. The maid said she left none, and there was none but what she had 
brought with her at that time. Then she said it was the fire; but that, her maid told 
her, was quite out; and she said she believed it was only a dream; whereupon she said 
it might be so, and composed herself again to sleep. But about two of the clock she was 
awakened again, and saw the apparition of a little woman between her curtain and her 
pillow, who told her she was her mother, that she was happy, and that by twelve of the 
clock that day she should be with her. Whereupon she knocked again for her maid, 
called for her clothes, and when she was dressed, went into her closet, and came not out 
again till nine, and then brought out with her a letter, sealed, to her father: brought it 
to her aunt, the lady Everard, told her what had happened, and desired that as soon as 
she was dead, it might be sent tohim. The lady thought she was suddenly fallen mad, 
and thereupon sent suddenly away to Chelmsford for a physician and surgeon, who both 
came immediately; but the physician could discern no indication of what the lady 
imagined, or of any indisposition of her body; notwithstanding the lady would needs 
have her let blood, which was done accordingly. And when the young woman had 
patiently let them do what they would with her, she desired that the chaplain might be 
called to read prayers; and when prayers were ended, she took her guitar and psalm- 
book, and sat down upon a chair without arms, and played and sung so melodiously 
and admirably, that her music-master, who was then there, admired at it. And near 
the stroke of twelve, she rose and sate herself down in a great chair with arms, and pres- 


aritor. 5 
years 566 


ently fetching a strong breathing or two, immediately expired, and was so suddenly 
cold, as was much wondered at by the physician and surgeon. She died at Waltham in 
Essex, three miles from Chelmsford, and the letter was sent to Sir Charles at his house 


in Warwickshire, but he was so afflicted with the death of his daughter, that he came not | 


till she was buried; but when he came, he caused her to be taken up, and to be buried 
with her mother at Edmonton, as she desired in her letter.” 

Dr. Hibbert, in treating of this case, concludes that the young lady was consumptive 
and about to die, and in this diseased frame of body became the subject of an illusion; 
but these are assumptions directly contrary to what the record bears, and there is, after 
all, the singular circumstance to be accounted for, that the young lady’s death occurred 
exactly at the time predicted. To a similar purport is the case of the wife of Dr. Donne, 
related by Izaak Walton. Donne left his wife pregnant in London, and went with Sir 
Robert Drury to Paris. Two days after arriving there, he stated to Drury that he had 
had a vision of his wife walking through his room, with her hair hanging over her 
shoulders, and a dead child in her arms. So impressed were they by the incident that 
they immediately sent a messenger to London to inquire regarding Mrs. Donne’s 
nealth. The intelligence brought by the man was, that she had been brought to 
bed of a dead child at the hour her husband thought he had seen her in Paris. In this 
case, too, if the requisite disordered state of Dr. Donne were granted, the coincidence of 
the distant event in its particulars, and in point of time, would remain unaccounted for 
by Dr. Hibbert’s theory. 

That there is an abundance of such cases reported, will not be disputed. In what 
direction speculation regarding them is to move, if the insufficiency of Dr. Hibbert’s 
theory be acknowledged, will probably depend on the general tendency of the 
movements of science. If psychological study were more in repute, and the phenomena 
of dreaming in particular were diligently examined, there might be a hope of a satisfac- 
tory theory of what are called A. ere the world was many years older. 

APPAR ITOR, a name for officers and public servants who attended magistrates or 
judges, such as scribes, lictors, and heralds. In England A. is applied to the beadle of 
a university, who carries the mace, and to the messenger who serves the process of a 
Spiritual court. 

APPEAL, in the civil procedure of courts of justice, signifies the removal of a 
suit from one court or judge to another and higher court or judge, in order that the 
latter may examine the validity of tne former’s judgment, either affirming or reversing, 
altering or varying the judgment. A., however, is not atechnical term in the procedure 
of the English and Irish common-law courts. For many years past, a reconstitution of 
the English courts of law and equity has been impending, and has now in the main been 
carried out. Meanwhile it seems convenient to abide by the names and divisions 
hitherto in use in appeals; the subject can readily be traced under either system of no- 
menclature. 

1. In the courts of equity (or of chancery), where there is an A. from the judgment of 
the master of the rolls, and from the vice-chancellors, or rather, as those judges form part 
of the chancery division of the high court of justice, the A. lies from such division to the 
new court of appeal generally ; the jurisdiction of the house of lords being retained in 1875, 
so far as regards all appeals from the various courts and divisions of the high court of 
justice. The construction of the latter court, as also of the new court of appeal, is given 
under the article Common Law, Courts of (q.v.). 

2. In the courts of bankruptcy, the judgments of which may be appealed from now 
directly to the chancery division, and ultimately to the house of lords, under certain 
restrictions. 

3. In the probate division, there is an A. to the court of A., with leave of the court. 
In the procedure of this tribunal there is also an A. from the county court, where such 
court has jurisdiction, to the probate division itself, whose judgment is final, unless 
with leave of the court. 

4, In the court of divorce and matrimonial causes, the decision of the judge ordinary, 
sitting alone, may be appealed to the court of A. for the present. And in the case of a 
decree dissolving a marriage, there may be an A. to the court of A. 

5. In the admiralty courts there is an A. to the court of A., as the jurisdiction in 
admiralty causes is merged in the division of the high court of justice called the pro- 
bate, divorce, and admiralty division, and which stands on the same footing towards 
the supreme court as the other divisions. 

6. There is also an A. to the privy-council (to be merged in the court of A.), from 
the courts of India and from the colonial courts generally; and such A. includes the 
sentences, not only of courts of primary jurisdiction, but also of courts ef A. in the 
colonies, and all the dependencies of the crown;* in applications to prolong the term of 

* Asto colonial causes, we are informed by Blackstone that the jurisdiction of the privy-council 
was “‘ both original and appellate. Whenever a question arises between two provinces out of the 
realm, as concerning the extent of their charters and the like, the king in his council exercises 
original jurisdiction therein, upon the principles of feudal sovereignty. And so likewise, when any 
pene claims an island or_a province, in the nature of a feudal principality, by grant from the 

ing or his ancestors, the determination of that right pelongs to the king (or queen) in council, as 
was the case of the earl of Derby, with regard to the isle of Man, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 


and the earl of Cardigan and others, as representatives of the duke of Montague, with relation to 
the island of St. Vincent, in 1764.” 


67 descrlige 


patents for new inventions; and in making orders in certain cases relative to copyright, 
pursuant to the provisions of the copyright acts. 

Practically, however, as we are told by Mr. Stephen in his commentaries, all judicial 
authority of the privy-council was long exercised by a committee of privy-councilors, 
called the judicial committee of the privy-council; who heard the allegations and proofs, 
and made their report to her majesty in council, by whom the judgment in the final 
instance is given. 

In the practice of the common-law courts of England—that is, the court of queen’s 
bench, the court of common pleas, and the court of exchequer, or, as is put by lord 
Coke, any court whose proceedings are regulated by the common law—the procedure 
by way of A. was, as stated at the beginning of this article, technically not so called, but 
was also called error, the party complaining of the judgment being called the plaintiff 
in error, instead of appellant, and his opponent, the defendant in error, instead of 
of respondent. Formerly, the proceedings commenced by suing out a writ of error 
first to a court of intermediate A., once the court of exchequer chamber, and afterwards 
by a further writ of error to the house of lords. But by the common-law procedure 
act of 1852 (15 and 16 Vict. c. 76, s. 148), writs of error are abolished, and now the 
word appeal is used in all cases indiscriminately. 

Error also lies to the high court in criminal cases, when, after judgment, it is con- 
sidered that the indictment is bad in substance, or that the judgment is erroneous, or in 
respect of any other substantial defect appearing on the face of the record. <A court 
called the court for crown cases reserved, consisting of five judges, disposes of cases 
where the judge or court had some doubt at the trial as to a point of law. And there is 
also practically an appeal to a superior court from all magistrates’ decisions on points 
of law. 

As to redress by way of A. and error against the judgments in the courts of Ireland, 
the procedure is so similar to that hitherto employed with respect to the English courts, 
that we need not here enter into particulars on the subject. We may simply remark, 
generally, that the Irish chancellor, sitting alone, does not appear to exercise any appellate 
control over courts inferior to his own, such as that possessed by the chancellor in England; 
for, according to the Irish practice, the A., for instance, from the master of the rolls, 
and in the case of proceedings in bankruptcy, is not to the chancellor himself alone, but 
to the court of A. in chancery, in which the chancellor and a lord justice of A. are the 
appointed judges; and which court of A. likewise reviews the chancellor’s own indi- 
vidual judgments. The judgments of this court of A. itself, however, may afterwards 
be reviewed on A. by the house of lords. In criminal procedure, the same act (11 and 
12 Vict. c. 78) applies to Ireland as well as to England. 

In the procedure of the Scotch courts, there are various appeals in the practice of the 
sheriff or county courts, and in the proceedings in bankruptcy; and the house of lords 
reviews the judgments of the court of session, the supreme civil court of the country, 
and which tribunal, indeed, it may be said, supplies the house with a large portion of 
its judicial business. This circumstance has frequently been remarked on as proving a 
litigious disposition on the part of the Scotch; but perhaps the greater number of Scotch 
appeals over English and Irish may be more fairly said to be occasioned by a natural 
feeling on the part of litigants and lawyers in Scotland, that there is a better chance of 
a nice and critical examination of the judgments appealed against by such judges as 
preside in the house of lords, whose legal and judicial minds have been formed under 
a different and larger system of jurisprudence than prevails in Scotland, than there 
would be to a tribunal composed entirely of Scotch lawyers. Indeed, although the 
judicial staff of the house of lords are chiefly English lawyers, the system of A. to 
their lordships from the Scotch courts works extremely well, and gives entire satis- 
faction to the Scotch people. Some of the most valuable elucidations of the peculiar 
principles of Scotch law are to be found in the judgments in Scotch appeals by the 
chancellors and other law lords who, since the union with Scotland, have administered 
the jurisdiction of the house in the last resort, but who were never in a Scotch court, 
and, until called upon to discharge such responsible functions, had nothing but Eng- 
lish experience. In 1875 it was left uncertain whether Scotch and Irish appeals 
should continue to be to the house of lords, and settled in 1876 that they should. 

There is no A. to the house of lords from Scotland in criminal cases, nor does the 
above-mentioned act—11 and 12 Vict. c. 78, creating a court of criminal A. for England 
and Ireland—extend to Scotland. But the high court of justiciary there, which is the 
supreme criminal tribunal, and is composed of seven judges of the court of session, pre 
sided over by the lord justice general, or lord president, as he is otherwise called, reviews 
the procedure of all the criminal courts of the country (excepting where such jurisdic- 
tion is expressly excluded by statute); and it is believed that no inconvenience is experi- 
enced in consequence of there being no other or further A. from the sentences of 
these courts. Inthe United States an appeal is regularly understood to mean the re-hear- 
ing by a higher court of a cause or trial which has been decided in due form of law ; or 
the removal to a higher court or authority of a cause pending. In practice, it is the 
removal of a cause from a court of inferior, to one of superior, jurisdiction, for the pur _ 


dix, 
Abbie: 568 


pose of obtaining a review and re-trial. It is, in its origin, a civil-law proceeding and 
differs from a writ of error in this: that it subjects both the law and the facts to review 
and re-trial, while a writ of error is a common-law process which removes only matter of 
law for re-examination. On an A. the whole case is examined and tried, as if it had not 
been tried before; while on a writ of error the matters of law only are examined, and 
judgment is reversed if any errors have been committed. An A. generally annuls the 
judgment of the inferior court so far that no action can be taken upon it until after the 
final decision of the cause. Rules regulating A. are various in various states. In New 
York, the court of appeals is the last resort; in the union, the supreme court of the 
United States. 


APPENDICI'TIS. See VERMIFORM APPENDIX. 
APPENDIX VERMIFORMIS, See VERMIFORM APPENDIY. 


APPENZELL’ (from Addatis Cella), a canton in the n.e. of Switzerland. Area, 162 
sq. miles. Pop. ’94, 68,515. It is divided into two districts — Inner-Rhoden and Ausser- 
Rhoden, the former of which is peopled by Roman Catholics, the latter by Protestants, 
and noted for its dense population. The surface is mountainous, especially in the s., 
where Mont Sentis attains an elevation of 8232 feet. The chief river is the Sittern, 
which flows through the center of the canton. A. holds the 18th place in the Swiss con- 
federacy; the constitution of each half of the canton is a pure democracy. . The inhabit- 
ants are chiefly employed in agriculture, cattle-keeping, cotton manufactures, etc. 

APPENZELL, the capital of the canton of the same name, is situated on the left bank 
of the Sittern, in lat. 47° 29’ n., and long. 9° 24’ e. 


APPERCEPTION. See Papaagoey. 


APPERLEY, CHARLES JAmss, the ‘‘ Nimrod” of the Quarterly Review, is a writer who 
deserves mention, if not from the intrinsic importance of the subjects on which he exer- 
cised his pen, at least from the perfection he attained in the department to which he con- 
fined himself. He was the son of a Welsh country gentleman, and was b. in Denbigh- 
shire in 1777. His education at Rugby stimulated his love of field-sports more 
than his love of the classics. At the age of 24, he married, and went to reside 
at Bilton Hall, in Warwickshire, where he devoted his energies as exclusively to 
the chase as the great Nimrod himself could have done. He hunted everywhere 
in Great Britain. In 1821, he began to contribute to the Sporting Magazine. His 
clever, gossiping articles were so much relished, that in two years that periodical 
doubled its circulation. The proprietor, Mr. Pittman, was of course highly gratified. 
He remunerated Mr. A. handsomely, kept a stud of hunters for him, and paic. the 
expenses of his sporting tours; but ‘‘ Nimrod” seems to have been of rather expensive 
habits, and to have occassionally required an advance of money from his employer. 
When Mr. Pittman died, his relatives entered into a lawsuit with the ‘‘mighty hunter,” 
for the recovery of this money. Nimrod, however, prudently transferred himself 
to France, where he chiefly resided during the rest of his life. He d.on the 19th of 
May, 1843. His best writings are The Ohase, the Turf, and the Road, which appeared in 
the Quarterly Review (1827). 

APPERT, Bensamin Nicouas MARtg, a French philanthropist, was b. in Paris, Sept. 
10, 1797. He began his course in 1816 by introducing into several schools a system of 
mutual instruction, and, in 1820, founded and conducted gratuitously a school for the 
prisoners at Montaigu. Being suspected of having aided the escape of two prisoners, 
he was himself confined in the prison of La Force, where he made good use of his oppor- 
tunities of becoming acquainted with the moral and physical circumstances of prisoners. 
After his liberation, he prosecuted his benevolent plans with renewed zeal, and under- 
took a journey through the whole of France, in 1825, to inspect schools, prisons, hos- 
pitals, etc. The results were given in his journal. After the July revolution, he was 
employed by Louis Philippe to superintend the measures taken for the relief of the indigent 
classes. In his travels, he visited Belgium, Prussia, Austria, Saxony, and Bavaria, and 
gave the results of his observations on fhe management of schools, hospitals, prisons, 
etc., in several works. He also wrote a work entitled Diz Ans a la Cour du Roi Louis 
Philippe, and, in his Conferences contre le System Cellulaire, strongly opposed the system 
of solitary confinement. Though onesided in somes of his views, A. is a sincere, 
warm-hearted, and practical philanthropist. 


APPERT, F'RANcots, a French technologist, the inventor of a method of preserving 
meat, vegetables, and other articles of food without the use of salt or other chemical 
application. 'This method is fully described in his work L’ Art de Conserver toutes les 
Substances Animales et Végétales (4th edition, Paris, 1831). D. 1840. See ANTISEPTICS, 


APPETITE. See Drier: DIGESTION: Foop AND DRINK. 


APPIA'NI, ANDREA, styled in his day ‘‘the painter of the graces,” was b. at Milan, 
May 28, 1754. His poverty compelled him to gain a subsistence by decorative painting; 
but in the course of his travels, he studied the works of great masters, and formed for 
himself an original style, almost rivaling that of Correggio. At Rome, he devoted his 
attention to the frescos of Raphael, and made such progress, that he soon excelled ali 
living artists in fresco-painting. The best evidences of his geniusare found in the cupola 


Pee ee 
569 Anpienes 


of the church of Sta. Maria di S. Celso at Milan; and in the frescos with which he dec- 
orated the villa of the archduke Ferdinand in 1795. Napoleon I. appointed him court- 
painter. In return, he executed portraits of the French emperor and several of his gen- 
erals. His most beautiful frescos are the paintings on the ceilings of the palace of 
Milan, which consist of allegorical illustrations of Napoleon’s career; and Apollo with the 
muses in the villa Bonaparte. Almost all the palaces in Italy contain frescos by A. His 
finest oil-painting is Rinaldo in the garden of Armida. The fall of his patron, Napoleon 
I., left A. in indigent circumstances. Hed. Nov. 8, 1817. 


APPIA'NUS, a native of Alexandria, who flourished during the reigns’ of Trajan, 
Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was author of « Roman history, in 24 books, 
of which only 11 are extant. It was not remarkable for anything except the plan on 
which it was written. Instead of proceeding*to exhibit chronologically the. growth of 
the empire, from its rude beginning on the Palatine hill, to the period when its power 
held the whole world in awe, which is at once the popular and the philosophical method, 
he divided his work into ethnographic sections, recording separately the history of each 
nation up to the time of its conquest by the Romans. First in order were the books 
devoted to the old Italian tribes, and afterwards followed the history of Sicily, Spain, 
Hannibal’s wars, Libya, Carthage, and Numidia, Macedonia, Greece proper and its col- 
onies, Syria, Parthia, the Mithridatic war, the civil wars, and the imperial wars in Illyria 
and Arabia. Asa historian, A. is a mere compiler, and not very accurate in his compila- 
tion, His geographical knowledge, in particular, is singularly deficient, considering the 
age in which he lived. One specimen of his blunders will suffice: in his section on Spain, 
he states that it takes only half a day to sail from Spain to Britain. The edition of A. 
by Schweighaiiser is highly esteemed, but the most complete is that in the Bibliotheque 
Grecque of Firmin Didot. 


AP'PIAN WAY (Lat. Via Appia), well named by an ancient writer regina viarum 
(the queen of roads), was formed, in part at least, by Appius Claudius Ceecus, while he 
was censor (313 B.c.). It is the oldest and most celebrated of all the Roman roads. It 
led from the Porta Capena at Rome, in a southerly direction to Capua, passing through 
Three Taverns, Appii Forum, Terracina, etc. Subsequently, it was carried on to Bene- 
ventum, Tarentum, and thence to Brundusium. It had an admirable substructure or 
foundation, from which all the loose soil had been carefully removed. Above this were 
various strata cemented with lime; and, lastly, came the pavement, consisting of large 
hard hexagonal blocks of stone, composed principally of basaltic lava, and jointed 
together with great nicety, so as to appear one smooth mass. The remains of it are still 
visible, especially at Terracina. The cost must have been enormous, for the natural 
obstructions are great. Rocks had to be cut through, valleys filled up, ravines bridged, 
and swamps embanked. 


AP'PIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, a Roman decemvir (451-449 B.c.). ‘While the other 
decemviri were engaged in repelling an incursion made by the Sabines, A. C. and his 
colleague Oppius remained in Rome, with two legions to maintain their authority. 
Meanwhile, A. C. had been smitten by the beauty of Virginia, daughter of a respected 
plebeian named Lucius Virginius, who was abroad with the army. By force and strata- 
gem, representing that she was the born slave of Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, A. 
C. gained possession of the maid. His design was penetrated by Icilius, who was be- 
trothed to Virginia, and who, aided by Numitorius, her uncle, threatened to raise an 
insurrection against the decemviri. Virginius, hurriedly recalled from the army by his 
fricnds, appeared and claimed his daughter; but, after another mock-trial, she was again 
adjudged to be the property of Marcus Claudius. To save his daughter from dishonor, 
the unhappy father seized a knife and slewher. The popular indignation excited by the 
case was headed by the senators Valerius and Horatius, who hated the decemvirate. 
The army returned to Rome with Virginius, who had carried the news to them, and the 
decemviri were deposed. A.C. died in prison by his own hand (as Livy states), or was 
strangled by order of the tribunes; his colleague, Oppius, committed suicide; and Mar- 
cus Claudius was banished. The Claudia Gens (see GENS) was one of the most numerous 
and important of the patrician tribes or clans of Rome; and besides the sons and grand- 
sons of the decemvir, there were numerous persons of distinction who bore the name of 
Appius. 


APPLE, Pyrus malus. (For the generic character, see Pyrus.) This well-known 
fruit has been very long cultivated, and by that means it has been very much improved. 
It was extensively cultivated by the Romans, by whom, probably, it was introduced into 
Britain. The wild A., or CraAB-tree, a native of America, and very generally found in 
temperate climates of the northern hemisphere, is a rather small and often somewhat 
stunted-looking tree, with austere, uneatable fruit, yet it is the parent of all, or almost 
all the varieties of apple so much prized for the dessert. The A.-tree, even in a culti- 
vated state, is seldom more than 80 to 40 ft. high. It has a large round head; the leaves 
are broadly ovate, much longer than the petioles, woolly beneath, acute, crenate, and 
provided with glands; its flowers are always produced, 3 to 6 together, in sessile umbels, 
and are large, white, rose-colored externally, and fragrant. The fruit is roundish, or 
narrowest towards the apex, with a depression at each end, generally green, but also fre- 
quently yellow, light red, dark red, streaked, sometimes even almost black, with the rind 


PU ere ies 570 


sometimes downy, sometimes glabrous, sometimes thickish, and sometimes very thin and 
transparent, varying in size from that of a walnut to that of a small child’s head—the taste 
more or less aromatic, sweet, or subacid. It is produced on spurs, which spring from 
branchlets of two or more years’ growth, and continue to bear for a series of years. ‘The 
fruit of the A. is, with regard to its structure, styled by botanists a pome (q.v.). The 
eatable part is what is botanically termed the mesocarp (see Fruit), which, in its first 
development, enlarges with the calyx, the summit of the fruit being crowned at last by 
the dried 5-parted limb of the calyx; the endocarp being, when ripe, cartilaginous, and 
containing in its cells seeds which do not correspond with them in size, but are so free as 
often to rattle when it is shaken. 

The A. is now one of the most widely diffused of fruit-trees, and in the estimation of 
many, is the most valuable of all. It suéceeds best in the colder parts of the temperate 
zone. It is, however, to be met with on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, in Arabia, 
Persia, the West Indies, etc., but there its fruit is as small and worthless as in high nor- 
thern latitudes. The varieties in cultivation are extremely numerous. They have been 
classified with great care by recent German writers, by whom the classification and de- 
scription of apples, pears, and similar fruits, has been treated as a sort of science, and 
dignified by the name of Pomology. Metzger, in his description of the pomaceous fruits 
of southern Germany, describes 89 different kinds of A., all of which are constant, be- 
sides sub-varieties. New varieties are continually produced; and as they are chiefly pre- 
served and propagated by grafting—although some of them also grow by layers and cut- 
tings—the old ones gradually die out. The costard, from which dealers in apples received 
the name of costardmongers, is no longer known. Many varieties are designated by the 
general names of pippins, rennets, codlins, and calvilles. Some kinds, not approved for 
the dessert, are in high esteem as baking-apples, and others still more acid or austere are 
preferred for the manufacture of Cider (q.v.). 

The wood of the A.-tree is hard, durable, and fine-grained. The crab is often planted 
both as an ornamental tree and for the sake of its wood. The bark contains a yellow 
dye.—As a fruit-tree, the A. requires a fertile soil and sheltered situation. The various 
uses of the fruit—for the dessert, for baking, preserving, making jelly, etc. ,as well as for 
making the fermented liquor called cider—are sufficiently well known. Vinegar is also 
made from it; and sometimes a kind of spirit, especially in Switzerland and Swabia. It 
‘contains malic acid, which is extracted for medicinal purposes. The fermented juice of 
the crab A. is called verjwice. It is used in cookery, and sometimes medicinally; also 
for the purifyingof wax. Apples are an important article of commerce. Great quan- 
tities are imported into Britain, chiefly from France, Canada, and the northern parts of 
the United States. The A. Keeps better than most kinds of fruit. 

Beaufins or Biffins are apples slowly dried in bakers’ ovens, and occasionally pressed 
till they become soft and flat. They are prepared in great quantities in Norfolk. 

The SIBERIAN CRAB is perhaps the parent, by hybridization or otherwise, of some of 
the varieties of A. now in cultivation. Two species partake this designation, both 
natives of Siberia, and frequent in gardens in Britain, pyrus baccata of Linneus, and 
pyrus prunifolia of Willdenow, which, however, scarcely differ, except that in the former 
the sepals (leaves of the calyx) are deciduous, in the latter they are persistent—a circum- 
stance of very doubtful importance as a specific distinction. The fruit is sub-globose, 
yellowish, and rather austere, but is good for baking and preserves. 

THE AMERICAN CRAB Or SWEET-SCENTED CRAB (7p. coronaria) is a native of North 
America, especially of the southern part of the Alleghanies. It is a small tree with broad 
leaves and white flowers, becoming purple before they drop off, and which have a pow- 
erful smell, resembling that of violets. The fruit is flatly orbicular, of a deep green 
color, and sweet-scented. Itis very acid, but is made into cider and also into preserves. 
P. angustifolia, a native of Carolina, much resembles this, but has much narrower ieaves 
and smaller fruit. 

THE CHINESE CRAB (7p. spectabdilis) is a small tree, a native of China. It is very orna- 
mental when in flower; the flowers being in sessile, many-flowered umbels, and of a 
bright rose-color. The fruit is irregularly round, about the size of a cherry, yellow, and 
fit to be eaten, like the medlar, only when in a state of incipient decay. 


APPLE OF SODOM. See SoLANuM. 
APPLE-BRANDY. See APpLE-JACK. 
APPLEBERRY. See BILLARDIERA. 


APPLEBY, the co. t. of Westmoreland, lies in lat. 54° 35’ n., long. 2° 28’ w. It isin 
the n. of the co., on the river Eden, which flows past Carlisle into the Solway firth. A. 
has two parishes, one on each side of the river, which is here crossed by an old stone 
bridge of two arches. There isa castle in the t., the keep of which, called Ceesar’s tower, 
is still in tolerable condition. The Lent and summer assizes are held at A. Until the 
passing of the reform bill, it returned two members to Parliament. It was then disfran- 
chised, though it still possesses a municipal corporation. Pop. ’81, 2899; ’91, 1776. 


APPLEGATH, Ave@ustus, born near London in 1790, invented improved machines 
for printing. About 1846 he constructed a rotary vertical machine for printing the 
Uondon Times. He died in 1871. 


APPLE-JACK, A strong spirit distilled from cider, and also known as apple-brandy. 


5 % 1 Apple. 


Appointment. 


APPLETON, city and co. seat of Outagamie co., Wis., on the Chicago and Northwest- 
ern, and Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroads, 100 miles n. w. of Milwaukee. It 
is situated on the Grande Chute of the Fox River, which by a series of dams is every- 
where navigable for steamboats. A canal between the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers is the 
route of the Green Bay and Mississippi Company. The city is furnished with a large 
water-supply. The chief industries are paper, saw, flour, and woolen mills, and manu- 
factures of furniture, machinery, and farming implements. The town contains banks, 
churches, and publishes daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. ' It is the seat of Apple- 
ton college and Lawrence University. Pop. ’90, 11,958. 


APPLETON, DANIEL, 1785-1849; b. Mass. He was in business as a trader in Haver- 
hill and Boston, and lastly at New York, where he was the head of the important pub- 
lishing house of ‘‘ D. Appleton & Co.,’’ building up an immense business, which is still 
continued by his descendants. 


APPLETON, GEORGE SwETT, 1821-78 ; son of Daniel, an American publisher. At 
the age of 19 he went abroad ; he spent four years at the university of Leipsic, devoting 
himself to literary and historical researches, and the languages of France, Italy, and 
Germany. He began business alone in Philadelphia, but in 1849, with three brothers, 
John, William, and Sidney, succeeded to his father’s large publishing business in New 
York. Among numerous publications which have given this house its high standing, 
the American Cyclopedia is conspicuous. 


APPLETON, JESSE, D.D., 1772-1819; b. N. H. ; a theologian, educated at Dartmouth, 
and in 1797 ordained pastor of a Congregational church in Hampton, N. H. From 1807 
to 1819 he was president of Bowdoin college. . He was often called to preach before mis- 
sionary, peace, and Bible societies, and other public bodies. Franklin Pierce, presi- 
dent of the United States (1853-57), was his son-in-law. His sermons and other works 
have been published by another son-in-law. 


APPLETON, NATHAN, LL.D., 1779-1861; b. N. H.; a merchant and manufacturer, 
and writer on finance. He, with others, started the first power-loom for weaving 
cotton in the United States. He was one of the Merrimac company whose enterprise 
founded the city of Lowell. He served several terms in the Massachusetts legislature, 
and in 1830 was sent to congress, where he was one of the prominent advocates of a 
tariff for protection. He was again elected to congress in 1842. He published a trea- 
tise on currency and banking, a history of the introduction of the power-loom, and the: 
early history of Lowell. 


APPLETON, SAmMuEt, 1766-1853 ; b. N. H.; an eminent philanthropist, brother of 
Nathan. He was one of a family of 12 children, and passed his boyhood on a farm, but 
managed to get sufficient education to become a teacher at theage of 17. In 1794, he and 
his brother Nathan went into the English trade, in Boston, and afterwards added ventures 
in cotton manufacture, in which they made a great fortune for those times. He travelled 
for more than 20 years in other countries, and retired from active business in 1823, de- 
voting his entire income to benevolent and scientific purposes, for which he bequeathed 
$200,000. 


APPLETON, THomas Goxp, 1812-84; son of Nathan; bro.-in-law of the poet Long- 
fellow ; a noted wit and raconteur of Boston, a public-spirited citizen who contributed 
money and influence to many of the literary and scientific institutions of that city, an 
amateur painter of some distinction, and the author of A Nile Journal, Syrian Sunshine, 
A Sheaf of Papers, Windfalls, etc. 

APPLING, a co. in s.e. Georgia, 1074 sq.m.; pop. 790, 8676, inclu. colored. Co. seat, 
Baxley. 

APPLIQUE (Fr., appliquer, to put on), in needlework denotes a pattern cut out from 
one foundation and applied to another, 


Wi itten, APPOGIATU'RA, an Italian musical 
term, designating a form of embellishment 
by insertion of notes of passage in a mel- 
ody. The A. notes are printed in a smaller 
character than the leading notes of the 
melody, and should always be given with 
considerable expression. When they are 
extemporized by a performer or singer, 
they serve as an indication of good or of 
bad taste. The time of an A. is taken from 
the essential note to which it belongs. 


For APPoGIA’TO, see PORTAMENTO. 


APPOINTMENT. Inthe law of England there are frequently reserved in common 
law conveyances granted on a consideration, and in family settlements, certain powers, 
as they are called, such as powers of jointuring, selling, charging land with the payment 
of money; and the subsequent exercise of the power is called an A. This A.—which 
may be made either by deed or by will—is not considered as an independent conveyance, 
but is merely ancillary to the deed or instrument in which the power of A. is reserved, 
and from which the party in whose favor the A. is made for most purposes derives his 
title. The courts of equity give relief against a defective A., or defective execution of 


L—19 


i ‘ 
Apprentice. O72 


a power, where there is what is called a ‘‘ meritorious consideration” in the person apply- 
ing for such relief. As to what amounts to such meritorious consideration, lord St. 
Leonards, in his work on powers, lays down that equity will relieve the following 
parties: 1. A purchaser, including in such term a mortgagee and lessee; 2. A creditor; 
3. A wife; 4. A legitimate child; and 5. A charity. But in the case of a defective A. 
by a wife in favor of her husband, there is no relief in equity; nor is the equity extended 
to a natural child; nor to a grandchild; nor to a father or mother, or brother or sister, 
even of the whole blood, much less of the half-blood; nor to a nephew or cousin. 
Against the legal consequences of an A., the courts of equity give no aid. 

In the Scotch law, the expressions reserved power and faculty to burden correspond to 
the English phrase ‘‘power of A.;” and the deed or instrument subsequently executed in 
virtue of the reserved power, is simply described according to the nature and quality of 
the conveyance so made; but the term A. is not a technical word in Scotland. 


APPOINTMENTS, The ‘‘ A.” of a ship are, collectively, all her various articles of 
equipment and furniture. In like manner, the “ A.” of a soldier, especially a trooper, 
comprise many miscellaneous necessaries which can come collectively under no other! 
name, but which, in part, will be found noticed under later headings. See EQUIPMENT, 
Kit, KNAPSACK. 


AP'POLD, JoHN GEORGE, 1800-65; an English civil engineer. His chief inventions 
are centrifugal pumps for drainage, a process for dressing furs, and an apparatus for 
paying out submarine telegraph wire, which was very useful in laying the Atlantic 
cable. He made also many curious automatic machines for opening doors, etc. 


APPOMAT'TOX, a co, in s.e. Virginia; 317 sq.m.; pop. 90, 9589, inclu. colored. Its 
surface is rough, much of it covered with timber, but the soil is fertile and adapted to 
wheat, corn, oats, and tobacco, The Norfolk and Western railroad runs through it. 
Co. seat, West Appomattox. 


APPOMAT'’TOX COURT HOUSE. A village in A. co., Va., where the confederate Gen. 
Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant, April 9, 1865, ending the civil war. It is about 25 m. 
east of Lynchburg, and on the Norfolk and Western railroad. 


APPONYI, Gyérey, a Hungarian statesman, b. 1808. He was a member of the 
Presburg diet of 1848, and chancellor of Hungary in 1847, when he opposed the revolu- 
tionary movements then breaking out, and which caused his retirement. In 1859 he 
was made a member of the imperial council in Vienna, and was instrumental in bring- 
ing about the reconciliation between Austria and Hungary. He is a leading conse-va- 
tive, and is classed among the ablest of European statesmen. 


APPOQUIN’IMINK, a hundred (t. or township) in Delaware ; pop. ’90, 2836. 


APPORTIONMENT BILLS, in the United States, are laws of congress after each 
decennial census, to define the number of members of the house of representatives to 
which the several states are entitled. Every state has atleastonemember. Eleven A. B. 
have been passed, The first constitution adopted by the original 13 states fixed the 
number of members at 65, and the number of representative population required to be 
entitled to a member at 30,000. Representative population then meant all free white 
citizens and three fifths the number of slaves; two fifths of the slaves, all aliens, and 
Indians not taxed, were excluded from any share in choosing members of congress. The 
extinction of slavery has made all colored people, except the very few aliens among 
them, representative citizens. The following figures show the variations of apportion- 
ment made for each census. 


Pop. toa | Pop. to a 

Period. States. Members, member. | Period. States. Members. member. 
HiSOe Pe .hlae bs. s2e anaes 13 65 30,000 1840.5. SEar eee 26 223 70,680 
U90 eceireee tee neat 15 105 33,000 185 Oiara dots ob ards Sarat 32 234 93,423 
LSOO Reece ae avatar 16 141 83,000 186035. cane eon oe cee 84 24) 127,381 
TAIGsaitigdns fot Rea ee 17 181 35,000 ISCO nce siete aso eae re By 293 131,425 
ROO ee kee tein oes eae 24 218 40,000 LSBO See PAT eee. 38 825 151,913 
TESO ree ene cals os 24 240 47,700 1800 .-vanwoesevasthacs te 44 356 173,901 


The house had grown rapidly in number of members until 1830, when it was found 
that it would soon become unwieldy unless the number required to a member should be 
largely increased; so the ratio was nearly doubled (raised from 47,700 to 70,680). Since 
then the purpose has been to keep the house below 300 members, and the ratio is raised 
regularly, while the number of members is seldom increased unless by the addition of 
new states. In that way the house was increased by the admission of Oregon in 1859, 
Nebraska and Nevada in 1868, and Colorado (making the 38th state) in 1876. <A. B. are 
passed in the states for the distribution of the state senators and assemblymen, after cer- 
tain periods, generally of 10 years intermediate with the federal period. Thus New 
York apportioned after enumerations of 1845~’55-’65-75. 


APPOSITION, a term in grammar signifying the annexing of one substantive to 
another, in the same case or relation, in order to explain or limit the first; as, my brother, 
the physician; Thomas the Rhymer, Whole sentences or clauses admit of A.: thus, 
‘““Napoleon sought the way to India through Russia, a stroke of genius.” Sometimes a 


connecting word is used where logical propriety would require A.; as, the city of Lon- 
don, for the city London. 


A intments, 
573 | Apprentice. 


APPRAISERS and APPRAISEMENT, In the United States the law requires the 
appraisement of property of insolvents and decedents in certain cases ; of property 
taken from public use or for corporations, and in most states, of property seized by 
creditors, There are many uses for appraisement in private business, the parties mutu 
ally agreeing as to how and by whom it shall be done. In litigated causes, and where 
the public are concerned, courts appraise, or name persons to do so, 


APPREHEND. This term, in its strictest sense, is applied to taking into custody in 
criminal cases, and arrest in civil actions. In practice, however, the distinction is not 
followed, and both are included under the term arrest. The *provisions of law which 
govern arrests are purely statutory, and vary in the different States. In general, arrests 
may be made: 

1st. By a peace officer under a warrant. The officer shoula inform the offender that 
he acts under a warrant, and, if required, must exhibit it. Such an officer may break 
open any door or window of any building to execute the warrant. 

2d. By a peace officer, without a warrant. This may be done when the crime is 
committed in the officer’s presence, or when the person has committed a felony, or when 
theze is reasonable ground for believing that he has. 

8d. By a private person. This may be fora crime committed in his presence, or 
when he knows that the person has committed a fetony, although it was not done in his 
presence. Any officer may call upon a citizen to aid him in executing a warrant, and 
the person summoned must lend his assistance. Arrests for minor offenses, called mis- 
demeanors, will not in general be made in the night-time nor on Sunday, except by 
special authorization of a magistrate, and except, of course, where the offender is taken 
in the act. This rule does not apply to felonies. 


APPRENTICE is a person described in law-books as a species of servant, and called 
A. from the French verb apprendre, to learn, because he is bound by indenture to serve 
a master for a certain term, receiving in return for his services instruction in, or learning 
his master’s profession, art, or trade; the master, upon the other hand, contracting to 
instruct the A., and, according to the nature of the agreement, to provide food and cloth- 
ing for the A., and to pay him small wages. Sometimes a premium is paid by the A,, 
or on his behalf, to the master. 

In the United States the system of apprenticeship has largely gone out of use in 
recent years, and regular indentures and serving of time are now little heeded ; but 
there are laws regulating the business in most of the states. The New York statutes— 
which may be taken as generally resembling those in many other states—provide that 
males under 18 and unmarried females under that age may, with consent of natural or 
legal guardians, or of their own motion, bind themselves as A., but for no longer than 
until they become of age (males at 21, and females at 18). Consent comes from father, 
mother, guardian, overseers of the poor, or officers legally qualified, such as the com- 
missioners of charity and correction. Consent of the mother must be had in writing if 
she be living and not incapacitated. Regular indentures are provided, and specific 
agreements must be made by both parties, the main provisions of which are that the A. 
shall serve the term specified ; if he run away he may be compelled to return; the 
master shall provide proper support and medical service ; shall teach or cause to be 
taught the business intended ; and give a certificate of full service of the term. Inden- 
tures are canceled or annulled only by death, or legal process. An absconding A, may 
be arrested, and on refusing to return may be sent to the house of correction or jail ; or, 
if the A. willfully refuse to perform his portion of the contract, the agreement may be 
canceled, the A. forfeiting all claims. On the other hand, neglect, cruel treatment, or 
refusal to instruct on the part of the master, may be punished by damages, by canceling 
indentures, or by fine for the benefit of the A. or his parent or guardian. Managers of 
asylums or homes for indigent children usually have power to bind out. Indentures 
always require the master to provide a certain amount of education, and imply freedom 
in religions opinion and choice of church. There is a special section which declares 
that no person shall accept from any A. or journeyman any agreement, or cause him to 
be bound by oath, or in any manner, that after his term expires, he will not exercise his 
trade in any particular place or manner ; nor shall any one take money or value from an 
A. for permitting him to use his trade in any place. 


APPRENTICE, Navan. Apprentices are enlisted for the naval service between the 
ages of 14 and 18 to serve until they reach 21 years of age. Minors between the ages of 
14 and 18 are not enlisted without the consent of their parents or guardian. The appli- 
cant must be of robust frame, intelligent, of perfectly sound and healthy constitution, 
free from all physical defects or malformation, and not subject to fits. They must also 
be able to read and write. In special cases where the boy shows a general intelligence 
and is otherwise qualified, he is enlisted, notwithstanding his reading and writing are 
imperfect. 

Boys are enlisted as third-class apprentices at the rate of $9 per month and one 
ration, While serving on the training-ships they may, if deserving, be promoted to the 
rating of second and first-class apprentice, at the pay of $10 and $11 per month, and on 
cruising vessels to the ratings of seamen apprentice, second or first-class, at the pay of 
$19 and $24 per month, respectively, as a reward of proficiency. When first received 


eee | 574 


on board of a training-ship they are furnished, free of cost, with an outfit of clothing 
not exceeding in value the sum of $45. This outfit is furnished on the supposition that 
the apprentice will serve during his minority. Should he be discharged at his own 
request prior to the completion of his term at the Training Station and the first practice 
cruise, he must refund the value of the outfit. Apprentices are transferred to sea-going 
ships as they become proficient, and upon the expiration of their enlistments they receive, 
if recommended, an honorable discharge and continuous service certificate. As soon as 
practicable after the apprentices are enlisted, they are forwarded to the Naval Training 
Station at Newport, where they receive instructiom in English Studies and in the rudi- 
ments of the profession of a seaman, for the period of six months. At the termination 
of this period the apprentices are transferred to the cruising training ships. There are 
three departments of instruction and training—seamanship, gunnery, and English, the 
last embracing reading, writing, spelling, geography, history, and arithmetic. There is 
also special instruction as buglers, carpenters, sailmakers, and blacksmiths. When 
apprentices are to be discharged their parents or guardians are informed, and ample 
time is allowed them to come themselves or send means to defray the traveling expenses. 
The course of instruction on board the Cruising Training Ships is of six months’ dura- 
tion. The apprentices are advanced to the rating of seaman-apprentice second-class, 
as areward for proficiency and aptitude, provided that there is physical and profes- 
sional qualification to perform the duties of an ordinary seaman. ‘The instruction 
begun at the shore station is continued aboard the cruising vessels with an increase of 
practical work. When transferred to the regular service cruisers the instruction is still 
continued, and the apprentices are regularly examined before being advanced in rating. 
Should the term of enlistinent of an apprentice expire while he is abroad, he is to be 
sent immediately to the United States, unless he desires to re-enlist. 


APPROACHES, in military language, are the sunken trenches or excavated roads 
which are constructed by besiegers. The siege camp being: usually at a considerable 
distance from the fortress or city attacked, the soldiers would be exposed to imminent 
danger while hastening across a belt of open country to enter any breaches made by the 
large siege guns, were it not that concealed roads are first constructed along which they 
may approach. In some cases the A. are not actual trenches, but merely paths shielded 
by a piled-up wall of sand-bags, fascines, gabions, wool-packs, or cotton-bales. The 
most tremendous combination of A. ever known in the history of military enterprise 
was at the siege of Sebastopol in 1854-5. 


APPROPRIATION is the opposite of expropriation, and means making something 
the property of a particular person, e.g., game, which is the property of no one, is 
appropriated by capture ; or one man is said to appropriate the ideas of another. The 
word has various important applications in law. (1) When so much iren oroil, for 
instance, has been sold, but the quantity is not separated by weight or measurement from 
a larger mass; or where acertain quantity is sold, but the exact proportion or price is 
not known until measurement, etc. ; in such cases the risk of the goods perishing and 
the substantial ownership do not pass to the buyer. Before delivery, however, the goods 
may be appropriated so as to produce this effect. (2) When a bill is drawn against 
goods, and the bill of Jading is sent as a security to the acceptor, the goods are said to 
be appropriated to the payment of the bill. (8) Where several debts are due to the 
same creditor, the general rule is that when the payment is voluntary and not under 
process of law, the debtor, in making a payment, may appropriate it to a particular debt. 
If he does not do so, the creditor may elect to which debt to apply it. Where the parties 
say nothing, the law appropriates the payments in order of date. When the payment © 
is made under compulsion, the rules as to election give way, and the money should be 
applied ratably to all the claims. In church law, appropriation is the setting apart of 
an ecclesiastical benefice to the peculiar and permanent use of some religious body. 
The owner of a benefice is termed an appropriator, e.g., the lay rector, who receives 
the tithes, but is bound to appoint a vicar or perpetual curate for the spiritual service 
of the parish. In the constitutional law of England, appropriation means the principle 
that ‘‘supplies granted by Parliament are only to be expended for particular objects 
specified by itself.” _ This principle was acted on by the Commons during the Common- 
wealth, was definitely established during the Dutch war of 1665, and since the reign of 
William III. has been expressed in the Annual Appropriation Act by a clause prohibiting 
the treasury officials from applying public money to any service other than that to which 
it has been specially appropriated. 

APPROXIMATION, aterm commonly used in mathematical science to designate such 
calculations as are not rigorously correct, but approach the truth near enough for a given 
purpose. Thus in logarithmic and trigonometrical tables nearly all the numbers are 
mere approximations to the truth. The calculations of astronomy generally are of this 
nature. Even in pure mathematics there are parts in which approaches to the truth, by 
means of interminable series, are all we are able to gain. ‘The solution of equations 
beyond the fourth degree can be got only by approximation. 


APPUI (French), a stay or support. Inmilitary tactics, the points dA. are such parts 
of the field of battle as are suited to give support or shelter. As the wings of an army 
(like the extreme sides of a chess-board) are the weakest points of resistance to attack, 
they especially require support or pretection, and are placed, whe. it is possible, in 


Approaches, 
575 Apraxin. 


localities which serve to obstruct the attacking forces. Lakes, morasses, woods, streams, 
and steep declivities may thus serve as points d’A. 


APPULE'IUS, or, less properly, APULEIUS, a satirical writer of the 2d c., was b. at 
Madaura, in Africa, where his father was a magistrate, and a man of large fortune. A. 
first studied at Carthage, which at that time enjoyed a high reputation as a school of 
literature. Afterwards he went to Athens, where he entered keenly upon the study of 
philosophy, displaying a special predilection for the Platonic school. The fortune 
bequeathed to him at his father’s death enabled A. to travel extensively. He visited 
Italy, Asia, etc., and was initiated into numerous religious mysteries. The knowledge which 
he thus acquired of the priestly fraternities, he made abundant use of afterwards in his 
Golden Ass, His first appearance in literature arose from a lawsuit. Having married a 
middle-aged lady, named Pudentilla, very wealthy, but not particularly handsome, he 
drew down upon his head the malice of her relations, who desired to inherit her riches, 
and who accused the youth of having employed magic to gain her affections. His 
defense (Apologia, still extant), spoken before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, 
was an eloquent and successful vindication of his conduct. After this event, his life 
appears to have been devoted zealously to literature and public oratory, in both of which 
he attained great eminence. He was so extremely popular, that the senate of Carthage, 
and other states, erected statues in his honor. 

The Golden Ass, the work by which his reputation has survived, is a romance or 
novel, whose principal personage is one Lucian, supposed by some, though on insufficient 
evidence, to be the author himself. It is generally understood to have been intended as 
a satire on the vices of the age, especially those of the priesthood, and of quacks or 
jugglers affecting supernatural powers, though bishop Warburton, and other critics, 
fancy they can detect in it an indirect apology for paganism. Its merits are both great 
and conspicuous, as are also its faults. Wit, humor, satire, fancy, learning, and even 
poetic eloquence abound, but the style is disfigured by excessive archaisms, and there is 
a frequent affectation in the metaphors, etc., which proves A. to have been somewhat 
artificial in his rhetoric. The most exquisite thing in the whole work is the episode of 
Cupid and Psyche (imitated by La Fontaine). It is supposed to be anallegory of the 
progress of the soul to perfection. Besides the Apologia and Golden Ass, we have from 
the pen of A. an anthology in four books, a work on the Demon of Socrates, one on the 
doctrines of Plato, one on The Universe, etc. A considerable number of his works also 
are lost. The most recent and careful edition of the whole works of A. is that pub- 
lished at Leipsic in 1842, by G. F. Hildebrand. The Golden Ass was translated into 
English by T. Taylor (1822), and again by Sir G. Head (1851). An English version of 
the works of A. was published in London, 1853. 

APPURTENANCES, things belonging to another thing as principal, and which pass 
as incident to the principal thing. Thus in the conveyance of a house and land, every- 
thing passes which is necessary to the full enjoyment thereof ; and in such case the term 
includes the right of way, etc. In general it means anything necessary to the full pos- 
session and enjoyment of the principal thing. In case of a ship, the usual furniture and 
things necessary for using the vessel are A.—the boats, sails, anchors, etc. ; but it has 
been held that ballast was not appurtenant. 


APRAX'IN, STEFAN FeEporovitcH, 1702-58 ; a Russian general. In his youth he 
served against the Turks, gaining rapid promotion. In Elizabeth’s court he was a strong 
opponent of Prussian influence, and in the seven years’ war led an army against 
Frederick the Great, invading Prussia, and capturing Memel. Inthe midst of success he 
retreated, and joined the conspiracy to raise Paul to the Russian throne over his father, 
who was the legitimate heir. He was tried by a court-martial, but died in prison before 
the end of the cause. 


APRAX’IN, THEDOR MATVAYEVICH, a distinguished Russian admiral, was b. in 1671. 
When hardly 12 years of age, he entered the service of Peter the Great, who conceived a 
great attachment for him, which lasted during the whole life of the monarch. — In 1699, 
he took part in the first maneuvers of the Russian fleet at Taganrog on the sea of Azof. 
After the year 1700, he became the most powerful and influential person at the court of 
the czar, who made him chief-admiral of the Russian navy, of which, in fact, A. may 
be considered the creator. While Peter was fighting the Swedes in the north, A. was 
building war-vessels, fortresses, and wharves in the south. In 1707, he was appointed 
president of the admiralty; in 1708, he defeated the Swedish general, Liibecker, in 
Ingermannlend, and saved the newly-built city of Petersburg from destruction; in 1710, 
he captured the important t. of Viborg, in Finland; and in 1711, commanded in the 
Black sea during the Turkish war. The following year he returned to the north; and in 
1718, with a fleet of 200 vessels, he sailed along the coast of Finland, took Helsingfors 
and Borgo, and defeated the Swedish fleet. The result of his great successes was that 
at the peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Russia obtained some most valuable advantages, being 
confirmed in her possession of Finland, just conquered, and of Esthonia. In spite of his 
brilliant reputation, however, he twice suffered an apparent eclipse of imperial favor. 
In 1714-15, he was charged with embezzlement, tried, and condemned to pay a fine; and 
a few years later, was denounced by Peter himself as ‘‘ an oppressor of the people,” and 
again condemned to pay a fine; but his services were too useful to be dispensed with, 


Apricot. 
Abterous. 576 


and in both instances the czar neutralized the effect of the condemnation, by, conferring 
upon him additional richness and dignities. In 1722, he accompanied Peter in his 
Persian war, and was present at the siege of Derbend. His last naval expedition was in 
1726, when he repaired with the Russian fleet to Revel, to defend that place against an 
expected attack by the English. Hed. at Moscow, 10th Nov., 1728, in the 57th year of 
his age. 

A'PRICOT, Prunus armeniaca, a species of the same genus with the plum (q.v.), is & 
native of Armenia, and of the countries eastward to China and Japan; a middle-sized 
tree of 15 to 20 or even 30 ft. high, with ovate, acuminate, and cordate, smooth, doubly- 
toothed leaves on long stalks; solitary, sessile, white flowers, which appear before the 
leaves, and fruit resembling the peach, roundish, downy, yellow, and ruddy on the side 
next the sun, with yellow flesh. The A. was brought into Europe in the time of 
Alexander the great, and since the days of the Romans has been diffused over all its 
western countries. It has been cultivated in England since the middle of the 16th 
century. It is only inthe s. of England that it is ever trained as a standard, nor is it 

rown in the more northern parts, even as an espalier, but almost always as a wall-tree. 

fore than 20 kinds are distinguished, amongst which some excel very much in size, fine 
color, sweetness, and abundance of juice. The Moorpark is generally esteemed the finest 
variety, and the Breda as best suited for standards in the s, of England, and in Scotland 
even for the wall, except in the most favorable situations.—The A. is generally budded 
on plum or wild cherry stocks. The fruit keeps only for a very short time, and is either 
eaten fresh, or made into a preserve or jelly. Apricots split up, having the stone taken 
out, and dried, are brought from Italy as an article of commerce, in particular from 
Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn; in the s. of France, also, they are an article of export ina 
preserved and candied state. Dried apricots from Bokhara are sold in the towns of Russia, 
the kernels of which are perfectly sweet, like those of the sweet almond. The kernels 
are sweet in some kinds, and bitter in others—the bitterness being probably more 
natural, and the sweetness, as in the almond, the result of cultivation. Generally 
speaking, they may be used for the same purposes as almonds. From the bitter kernels, 
which contain prussic acid, the caw de noyaua is distilled in France. The charred stones 
yield ablack pigment similar to Indian ink. 'The wood of the tree is good only for the 
purposes of the turner. 

The Brrangon A., Prunus brigantiaca, very much resembles the common A. The 
fruit is glabrous. It is foundin Dauphiné and Piedmont. At Briangon, an oil, called 
huile de marmotte, is expressed from the seeds. 

The Srpertan A., P. sidirica, is also very like the common A., but smaller in all its 
parts. The fruit is small. It is a native of Siberia, especially of the southern slopes of 
the mountains of Dahuria. 

The A. plum is an excellent kind of plum, much cultivated in some parts of France, 
and which, preserved in sugar, dried, and packed in shallow boxes, forms a considerable 
article of trade. 

A'PRIES, king of Egypt, the Pharaoh-Hophra of the time of Zedekiah and Nebu- 
chadnezzar. He invaded Syria, but gained no substantial advantages. Herodotus says he 
was so vain and confident of his power that he would not believe that even a deity could 
overcome him. His fall was predicted by Jeremiah (xliv. 30), and it came through the 
revolt of his troops, who took Amasis for their leader, and made A. a prisoner, 569 B.C. 
Amasis saved his life for a time, but was compelled to give him over to his enemies, who 
strangled him. 


A’PRIL. The Romans gave this month the name of Aprilis, from aperire, to open, 
because it was the season when the buds began to open; by the Anglo-Saxons it was. 
called Ooster, or Easter-month; and by the Dutch, Grass-month. The custom of sending 
one upon a bootless errand on the first day of this month, is perhaps a travesty of the 
sending hither and thither of the Saviour from Annas to Caiaphas, and from Pilate to 
Herod, because during the Middle Ages this scene in Christ’s life was made the subject 
of a miracle-play (q.v.) at Easter, which often occursin April. Itis possible, how- 
ever, that it may be a relic of some old heathen festival. The custom, whatever be its 
origin, of playing off little tricks on this day, whereby ridicule may be fixed upon 
unguarded individuals, appears to be universal throughout Europe. In France, one thus 
imposed upon is called wn poisson @ Avril (an A. fish). In England, such a person is 
called an A. fool; in Scotland, a gowk. Gowk is the Scotch for the cuckoo, and also 
signifies a foolish person. The favorite jest in Britain is to send one upon an errand for 
something grossly nonsensical—as for pigeon’s milk, or the history of Adam’s grand- 
father; or to make appointments which are not to be kept; or to call to a passer-by that 
his latchet is unloosed, or that there is a spot of mud upon his face. When he falls into 
the snare, the term A. fool or gowk is applied with a shout of laughter. It is curious 
that the Hindoos practice precisely similar tricks on the 31st of March, when they hold 
what is called the Huli festival. 


__ A-PRIO'RI reasoning or demonstration is that which rests on general notions or 
ideas, and is independent of experience. Reasoning from experience is called a-posteriont 
reasoning. A predilection for one or the other of these forms of reasoning forms one of 
the most important distinctions among schools of philosophy. Plato may be taken as 


577 Abtoretis, 


typical of the A-P. school, Locke and Bacon of the other. A-P. speculation is more in 
accordance with the genius of the Germans than with that of the practical British. A-P. 
philosophy claims for its conclusions tle character of necessary truths, and denies that 
there can be A-P. proof of anything, that kind of reasoning furnishing only a confirma- 
tion or verification. The opposite school maintain that the general notions or principles 
on which A-P. reasoning rests, are themselves the results of experience, and that, there- 
fore, all truth rests really on A-P. grounds. 


APRON, A rectangular piece of lead, with a conical projection on the under side, 
used to cover the vent in heavy guns and field pieces. 

A composition cover made to fit over the lock of cannon. 

The platform on which the sill of a dock is fastened down. 

A piece of curved timber placed in a ship just above the foremost end of the keel, 
to join together the several pieces of the stern. It extends from the head to some distance 
below the scarf. 


APSE (Lat. aps7s), asemicircular recess usually placed at the east end of achoir or chancel 
of a romanesque, or what is commonly called in England an Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Nor- 
manchurch. Theoriginof this peculiar termination to the choir is so curious, and has been 
so clearly established by recent German writers, that we shall endeavor to state it in a 
very few words. It is well known that the heathen structure from which the early 
Christians borrowed the form of their churches was not the temple, but the basilica or 
public hall which served at once for a market-place and a court of justice. The basilica, 
for the most part, was a parallelogram, at one of the shorter sides of which, opposite to 
the entrance, there was a raised platform destined for the accommodation of the persons 
engaged in and connected with the distribution of justice. This portion of the building 
was the prototype of the rounded choir, to which the name of A. was given, and which 
is still to be seen in so many of the Rhenish churches. For the pretor’s chair, which 
was placed in the center of this semicircular space, the altar was substituted; and the 
steps which led to the seat from which he dispensed justice, were destined henceforth to 
lead tothe spot where the fountain of all justice shouldbe worshiped. Many A. are to be 
met with in English churches, an enumeration of which will be found in Mr. Parker’s 
excellent glossary of architecture. But as the structure is not only much more fre- 
quent, but continued to be used to a much later period on the continent, we shall 
describe it as it may still be seen in almost every little village along the banks of the 
Rhine. The lower part of the A. is there usually pierced by two or three round arched 
windows, often of irregular size and height, over which there is invariably an external 
gallery supported by pillars, in the form of which the rude idea of a Roman pillar is at 
once apparent; and the whole is joined to the end of the nave, which rises considerably 
above it, by a roof in the form of the segment of acone. Where the churches are larger, 
there is a complete row of windows of the same rounded form, divided by pillars similar 
to those by which the gallery is supported, and under them frequently a line of arches 
of corresponding construction, whilst one or two small and irregular holes of the same 
form give a scanty light to the crypt beneath. Many of the smaller churches have no 
aisles; and the semicircular A. forms the termination of, or rather contains the chancel. 
The more complete specimens of the style, however, such as the minster at Bonn, afford 
—with the exception of the transepts and the towers, which are later additions—about 
the most perfect examples to be found on this side the Alps of the form of the Roman 
basilica, as first adapted to Christian uses. Several examples of the A. are to be seen in 
the earlier ecclesiastical structures of Scotland; asinstances, we may mention the churches 
of Dalmeny and Kirkliston in Linlithgowshire, and of Leuchars in Fife. 


AP'SIDES (Gr. aps7s, connection), the two extreme points in the orbit of a planet—one 
at the greatest, the other at the least distance from the sun. The term A. is also applied 
in the same manner to the two points in the orbit of a satellite—one nearest to, the other 
furthest from, its primary; corresponding, in the case of the moon, to the perigee and 
apogee. A right line connecting these extreme points is called the lineof A. Inall the plane- 
tary orbits, this line has no fixed position in space, but makes a forward motion in the 
plane of the orbit, except in the case of the planet Venus, where the motion is retrograd- 
ing. This fact in the orbit of the earth gives rise to the anomalistic year (q.v.). This 
advancing motion of the line of A. is especially remarkable in the orbit of the moon, 
where it amounts to 40° 40’ 82"-2 annually, an entire revolution thus taking place in 
rather less than nine years. 


APSLEY, a river of Australia, in the n. division of New South Wales. It is a trib- 
utary of the river Macleay (formerly sometimes called A.), which reaches the Pacific at 
Trial bay, 30 m.n. of Port Macquarie.—A. is also a strait between Melville and Bathurst 
islands, on the n. coast of Australia. Its length is 48 m., with a width varying from 14 
to 4; and the depth of its channel is from 8 to 24 fathoms. 


APTERAL, applied to temples of the Greeks and Romans which had no lateral col- 
umuns, though there may have been columns at the ends. 


AP'TEROUS INSECTS are insects without wings. In the Linnean system, the aptera 
form an order of insects; but more important distinctive characters being found to 


rere ra 578 


belong to the insects included in it, it is no longer retained as an order or principal divi- 
sion in the most improved entomological systems. 


AP’TERYX (from the Gr. a, priv., and pterya, a wing), a genus of birds allied to the 
ostrich and emu, and perhaps more nearly to the extinct dodo. It has a very long and 
slender bill, of which it makes aremarkable use in supporting itself when it rests. It 
has three anterior toes, and a posterior one whichis scarcely developed. The legs are of 
moderate length, the wings merely rudimentary. The feathers have no accessory plume, 
The diaphragm is more complete than in any other known bird. One species is well 
known (A. australis), about the size of a goose, a native of New Zealand. It is a noc- 
turnal bird, and preys on snails, insects, etc. Itis much prized for its feathers. The 
natives call it Aevi-kivt, from its cry. See illus., ANTELOPES, ETC. 


AP’THZE are small vesicles formed of the superficial layer of a mucous membrane, 
elevated by fluid secreted by the latter. They are usually whitish in color, and the fluid 
may be serous or puriform. At the end of a few hours or days, the apthous vesicle 
bursts at its summit, and shrivels up, exposing an inflamed and painful patch of the 
mucous membrane. ‘The most common site of A. is the mucous membrane of the lips 
and mouth, but they occasionally appear wherever mucous membrane approaches the 
skin. Infants are liable to an apthous eruption termed thrush (q.v.). A. in adults are gen- 
erally the consequences of fevers and other diseases, or a symptom of disturbance of the 
digestive system. In some cases of pulmonary consumption, they form a painful addi- 
tion to the patient’s sufferings. 


APU'LIA, a part of ancient Iapygia (so named after Japyx, son of Deedalus), now 
includes the south-eastern part of Italy asfar as the promontory of Leuca, and also the 
extreme peninsula of Calabria. Here, in ancient times, lived three distinct peoples— 
the Messapians or Salentini, the Peuceni, and the Dauni or Apulians. According to old 
Latin traditions, Daunus, king of the Apulians, when banished from Illyria, settled in 
these parts of Italy. Later traditions say that Diomedes, the A®tolian, with several other 
heroes returning from the Trojan war, came to Italy, and, in his war with the Messa- 
pians, was assisted by Daunus, but was afterwards deprived of his territory, and put to 
death. Roman poetry has preserved these old names; but in history, no mention is 
made of any king of A., though we find the names of its principal cities—Arpi, Luceria, 
and Canusium, ‘The second Punic war was for some time carried on in A. In the pres. 
ent day, A. (now styled PuaGiia) is merely the name of a geographical district, and has 
no political meaning. The whole territory, including the Neapolitan provinces, Capi- 
tanata, Terra di Bari, Terra d’Otranto, etc., is but a shadow of its former self, in the 
time of the Greek colonies, under Roman dominion, or even under the Normans, who 
took possession of it in 1048 a.p. The towns are depopulated, industry has disappeared, 
and commerce, once so flourishing, has passed away. Agriculture is in a very low con- 
dition, and the few roads are infested by banditti. The people are generally ignorant and 
superstitious, but deserve praise for their hospitality to travelers. 


APU’RE, a river of the United States of Colombia and Venezuela, which rises in the 
e. Andes, near lat. 7° n., and long. 72° w. After receiving the Portuguesa and the 
Guarico from the n., it joins the Orinoco in lat. 7° 40’ n., and long. 66° 45’ w. It waters 
the towns Nutrias and San Fernando. 


APU'RE, a former province in Venezuela, bordering on Colombia ; 22,250sq.m.; pop. 
81, 21,112. Capital, San Fernando de A. 


APU'RIMAC, a river of Peru, which, after a course of 500 m., assumes the name, 
first, of Tambo, and then of Ucayali, which finally joins the Tangaragua to form the 
Amazon. The A. proper rises to the n.w. of the great table-land of lake Titicaca, 
receiving from it, however, no portion of its waters. Among the tributaries of the 
Amazon, it is one of the most southerly; while among them, it approaches perhaps 
the nearest to the Pacific. The A., from its source in lat. 16° s., drains the eastern 
face of the Andes through about 5°, till it changes its name, as above, in 10° 45's., 
meanwhile receiving several considerable affluents, more especially the Villcamayo, from 
the opposite quarter. The A. and its feeders partake of the nature rather of mountain . 
torrents than of navigable rivers; and even for traveling by land, their rocky and rugged 
banks are always diflicult, and often impracticable. The valleys vary in climate and 
productiveness according to their elevation. 'The upper ones yield wheat and barley, 
and most of the fruits of Europe; while the lower, or at least the lowest ones, abound 
in sugar and cotton, plantains, and pine-apples. The basin of the A., as a whole, is said 
to be the finest part of Peru, and to contain the largest proportion of native population 
—the best specimens apparently of the aboriginal civilization. 


AQUA (water), a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, symbol HO. The prefix A. 
was much used by alchemists; A. fortis, strong water, is nitric acid; A. regia, royal water, 
a compound usually containing one part of nitric acid with two of hydrochloric, which 
dissolves gold; A. viiw, water of life, strong drink, or alcohol. In modern pharmacy we 
have A. distilla, fluvialis, pluvialis, fontana, and marina, or distilled, river, rain, spring, 
and sea water, 


579 Aquarians 


AQUA FORTIS, literally, strong eoater, was the term used by the alchemists to denote 
nitric acid, and is still the commercial name of that acid. 


AQUA MARINE, a name sometimes popularly given to the beryl (q.v.). Some green 
and blue varieties of topaz have also been styled A. 


AQUA REGI'N&, literally, queen’s water, is a mixture of concentrated sulphuric 
acid (oil of vitriol) and nitric acid, or of sulphuric acid and nitre. Kither mixture evolves 
much fumes, and may be used asa disinfectant, as similar mixtures are sold under the 
name of everlasting disinfectants, 


AQUA REGIS, or Ruera, literally, royal water, is the common name apptied to a 
mixture of 1 part of nitric acid, and 2, 3, or 4 parts of hydrochloric acid. The gen- 
eral proportion is 1 to 2. The term aqua regia (royal water) was given to the mixture 
from the power it possesses of dissolving gold, which is the king of the metals. 


AQUA'RIANS, a Christian sect in the 8d c. who used water instead of wine at the 
Lord’s supper. The name was given in Africa, also, to those who in times of persecution 
forbore to use the wine in the communion when the scent of their breath would be likely 
to betray them. 


AQUA’RIUM, a tank or vessel containing either salt or fresh water, and in which 
either marine or fresh-water plants and animals are kept in aliving state. The name 
was formerly sometimes given toa tank or cistern placed in a hot-house, and intended for 
the cultivation of aquatic plants. The A., as now in use—originally called vivariwm or 
aquavivarium, and intended chiefly for animals, became extremely common about 
20 years ago. From 1854 to 1860, there was a mania for these scientific toys: they 
became not only an aid to study, but a source of rational amusement, depending in prin- 
ciple upon the relations discovered by science between animal and vegetable life, and 
particularly upon the consumption by plants, under the action of light, of the carbonic 
acid gas given forth by animals, and the consequent restoration to the air or water in 
which they live of the oxygen necessary for the maintenance of animal life. The A. 
must therefore contain both plants and animals, and in something like a proper propor- 
tion. Zoophytes, annelides, mollusca, crustacea, and fishes may thus, with due care, 
be kept in health, and their habits observed. The water must be frequently aérated, 
which can be accomplished by taking up portions of it and pouring them in again from 
a small height. The fresh-water A. is frequently provided with a fountain, which 
produces a continual change of water; but even where this is the case, the presence both 
of plants and animals is advantageous to the health of both. When sea-water cannot 
easily be procured for the marine A., a substitute may be made by mixing with rather 
less than 4 quarts of spring water 3} ounces of common table-salt, + ounce of Epsom 
salts, 200 grains troy of chloride of magnesium, and 40 grains troy of chloride of potas- 
sium. With care, the water may be kept good for a long time. No dead animal or 
decaying plant must be permitted to remain in it. Salt water, artificially prepared, is 
not fit for the reception of animals at once; but a few plants must first be placed in it, 
for which purpose some of the green alg, species of ulva and conferva, are most 
suitable. The presence of a number of molluscous animals, such as the common 
periwinkle, is necessary for the consumption of the continually growing vegetable 
matter, and of the multitudinous spores (seeds), particularly of conferve, which would 
otherwise soon fill the water, rendering it greenish or brownish, and untransparent, and 
which may be seen beginning to vegetate everywhere on the pebbles or on the glass of 
the tank. In a fresh-water A., molluscous animals of similar habits, such as species of 
lymnea or planorbis, are equally indispensable. For large aquaria, tanks of plate-glass 
are commonly used; smaller ones are made of bottle-glass or of crystal. 

Of course, the plants and animals with which the A. is stocked are various, according 
to taste and opportunities, or the desire to make particular kinds the subjects of careful 
and continued observation. Blennies, gobies, and gray mullets are perhaps the kinds of 
fish most commonly seen, in marine aquaria; gold-fishes, sticklebacks, and minnows are 
frequent enough in fresh-water ones. These have the advantage of being more easily 
kept in good health than many other kinds, and a further recommendation is found in 
their small size, and in the fine colors of the gold-fish. The nests of sticklebacks are a 
. subject of unfailing interest. Crabs of various species, and actinix or sea-anemones, are 
very generally among the larger inmates of the A. Serpulee contribute much both to 
its interest and beauty, as they spread out their delicate and finely tinted bronchie from 
the mouth of their shelly tube, and withdraw within it, quick as thought, upon the 
slightest disturbance. Balani or acorn-shells are very beautiful objects when they are 
seen opening their summit-valves, and rapidly stretching out and retracting their little 
nets. Even periwinkles and limpets are interesting, particularly when they are watched 
by the aid of a magnifying-glass, as they feed upon the spores of the conferve which 
have just begun to vegetate on the glass of the A., moving slowly along, with continual 
opening and shutting of the mouth, like cows at pasture, when the structure and motions 
of their mouths may be observed, and the singular beauty and brilliancy of colors never 
fails to command admiration. The use of a good magnifying lens adds greatly to the 
interest of the A., and zoophytes of exquisite forms and colors may be watched in the 


ae eduer! 580 


actual processes of life. The feeding of fishes, crabs, sea-anemones, etc., is a source of 
amusement, and it is interesting even to note how the inmates of the A. occasionally 
feed on their fellow-prisoners. 

The idea of the A. seems to have originated from Mr. Ward’s invention of the cases 
which bear his name (see WARDIAN CASES), and in which delicate ferns and other plants 
grow so we'l even in towns; but the late Sir John Graham Dalzell began to keep living 
marine animals in his house in Edinburgh so early as 1790, and continued to do so till 
the year 1850. Mr. Warrington appears to have been the first to make experiments on 
its practicability, and the name of Mr. Gosse is intimately associated with its early 
development and introduction to popularity as a scientific plaything. A Mr. Price also 
conducted some very successful experiments as to the balance of animal and vegetable 
‘life in aquaria. The largest aquaria in the world are those at Brighton and Hamburg. 
In 1897 the old fort known as Castle Garden, and long used as a landing-place for immi- 
grants, was turned into a public aquarium. 


AQUA'RIUS, The water-bearer, the 11th sign of the zodiac, through which the sun 
moves in part of the months of Jan. and Feb. It is also the name of a zodiacal constel- 
lation, whose position in the heavens may be found by producing a line in a southerly 
direction through the stars in the head of Andromeda and the wing of Pegasus. 


AQUATIC plants and animals are those that live either wholly or partly in water. The 
term is very vaguely used, those plants being often called A. which grow in ponds, 
ditches, etc., although not only their inflorescence, but great part of their foliage, is 
above the surface of the water, as well as those which more completely belong to that 
element; and a similar latitude of meaning prevails with regard to animals. Few 
phanerogamous (or flowering) plants exist entirely under water, although there are a 
few, like the common Zostera marina, or grass-wrack, which do so, and produce even 
their flowers in that condition; others, of which the greater part of the plant is usually 
under water; produce their flowers upon, or considerably above, its surface, as those of 
the genera valisneria, anacharis (q.v.), etc. The leaves, as well as the flowers, of many 
float upon the water, of which the water-lilies furnish well-known and beautiful exam- 
ples; whilst in ranunculus aquatilis, that exquisite ornament of our river margins, we 
have an instance of a kind not unfrequent, of great diversity between the lower leaves 
which remain submersed, and the upper leaves which float. Of cryptogamous plants, 
one great order, alge, is exclusively A., and these seem adapted to perform under water 
all the functions of their life. A. plants are, in general, of less compact structure than 
is usual in other plants, and are thus lighter and better adapted for rising in their growth 
towards the surface of the water; in order to which also some of the alge, as may be seen 
in more than one of the most common sea-weeds of our coasts, are provided with air-blad- 
ders of considerable magnitude. All this is the more necessary, as plants completely A. 
have generally little firmness of stem, and if their weight made them fall to the bottom, 
would lie in a mass, as they do when withdrawn from the water, in which, however, they 
gracefully float, their flexibility of stem enabling them to adapt themselves to waves or 
currents, which would destroy them if they were more rigid. So admirably are all things. 
in nature harmonized. 

Many animals, to a considerable extent A. in their habits, must not only breathe air, 
but are adapted for spending great part of their existence on dryland. Such are chiefly 
those that seek their food in the water. The peculiarities of structure by which they are 
fitted for wading, for swimming, for diving, and for remaining under water a longer 
time than other animals can, are very interesting and admirable. Even the fur of the 
beaver, the otter, the water-rat, and other animals of this description, is not liable to be 
drenched like that of other quadrupeds; and the plumage of water-fowls exhibits a simi- 
lar peculiarity. The feet of many are webbed, so as to enable them to swim with great 
facility; and to this the general form, as in water-fowls, likewise exhibits a beautiful 
adaptation. The webbed feet in some, of which the habits are most thoroughly A., as 
seals, assume the character of a sort of paddle, admirably fitted for use in the water, but 
by means of which they can only move very awkwardly on land. The forms of whales 
and fishes are remarkably adapted for progression in water; whilst, instead of the limbs 
by which other vertebrate animals are enabled to move upon the land or to fly in the air, 
their great organ of locomotion is the tail, or rather the hinder part of the elongated 
body itself, with the tail as the blade of the great oar, which all the principal muscles of 
the body concur to move. Remarkable provision is made in A. animals of the higher 
vertebrate classes for the maintenance of the requisite animal heat, by the character of 
the fur or plumage; a purpose which the blubber of whales also most perfectly serves. In 
the colder-blooded animals, where no such provision is requisite, the structure of the 
heart is accommodated to the diminished necessity for oxygenation of the blood; and 
although reptiles in their perfect state must breathe air, many of them can remain long 
under water without inconvenience. Fishes, and the many other animals provided with 
branchie or gills, breathe in the water itself, deriving the necessary oxygen, which in 
their case is comparatively little, from the small particles of air with which it is mingled. 
They cannot subsist in water which has been deprived of air by boiling. Some A. insects 
carry down with them into the water particles of air entangled in hairs with which their 
bodies are abundantly furnished. 


* 


581 Aqueduct. 


AQUATIN’TA, a mode of etching on copper, by which imitations of drawings in 
fndian ink, bister, and sepia are produced. Ona plate of copper a ground is prepared 
of black resin, on which the design is traced; a complicated series of manipulations with 
varnish and dilute acid is then gone through, until the desired result is attained. The 
process of A. has fallen into comparative disuse. 


A'QUA TOFA'NA, a poisonous liquid which was much talked of in the s. of Italy about 
the end of the 17th century. Its invention is still a matter of dubiety, but it is ascribed 
to a Sicilian woman named Tofana, who lived first at Palermo, but was obliged, from 
the attention of the authorities having been attracted to her proceedings, to take refuge 
in Naples. She sold the preparation in small phials, inscribed ‘‘ Manna of St. Nicholas 
of Bari,” there being a current superstition that from the tomb of that saint there flowed 
an oil of miraculous efficacy in many diseases. The poison was especially sought after 
by young wives that wished to get rid of their husbands. The number of husbands 
dying suddenly in Rome about the year 1659, raised suspicion, and a society of young 
married women was discovered, presided over by an old woman named Spara, who had 
learned the art of poisoning from Tofana. Spara and four other members of the society 
were publicly executed. 'Tofana continued to live to a great age in a cloister, in which 
she had taken refuge, but was at last (1709) dragged from it, and put to the torture, when 
she confessed having been instrumental to 600 deaths. According to one account she 
was strangled; but others affirm that she was still living in prison in 1780. 

The A. T. is usually described as a clear, colorless, tasteless, and inodorous fluid; 5 
or 6 drops were sufficient to produce death, which resulted slowly and without pain, 
inflammation, or fever; under a constant thirst, a weariness of life, and an aversion to 
food, the strength of the person gradually wasted away. It is even stated that the poison 
could be made to produce its effects in a determined time, long or short, according to the 
wish of the administrator—a notion generally prevalent in those ages respecting secret 
poisoning. The most wonderful stories are told of the mode of preparing this poison; 
for example, the spittle of a person driven nearly mad by continued tickling was held to 
be an essential ingredient. Later investigations into the real nature of the A. T. lead to 
the belief that it was principally a solution of arsenic. 


A'QUA VI'TE (Lat., water of life) is a common term applied to ardent spirits. During 
the alchemical epoch, brandy or distilled spirits was much used as a medicine, was con- 
sidered a cure for all disorders, and even got the credit of prolonging life; and as Latin 
was the tongue employed in the conveyance of knowledge in those days, this restorer of 
health and prolonger of life was naturally christened A. V. 


AQ'UEDUCT (Lat. ague ductus), an artificial course or channel by which water is con- 
veyed along an inclined plain. When an A. is carried across a valley, itis usually raised 
on arches, and where elevated ground or hills intervene, a passage is cut, or, if necessary, 
a tunnel bored for it. Aqueducts were not unknown to the Greeks; but there are no 
remains of those which they constructed, and the brief notices of them by Pausanias, 
Herodotus, and others, do not enable us to form any distinct notion of their character. 
The aqueducts of the Romans were amongst the most magnificent of their works, and 
the noble supply of water which modern Rome derives from the three now in use, of 
which two are ancient, gives the stranger avery vivid conception of the vast scale on 
which the ancient city must have been provided with one of the most important appli- 
ances of civilization and refinement, when nine were employed to pour water into its 
baths and fountains. 

The following are the names of the Roman aqueducts, chronologically arranged: 

1. The Aqua Appia, begun by and named after the censor Appius Claudius about 
313 B.c. It ran a course of between 6 and 7m., its source being in the neighborhood of 
Palestrina. With the exception of a small portion near the Porta Capena, it was sub- 
terranean. No remains of it exist. 

2. Anio Vetus, constructed about 273 B.c. by M. Curius Dentatus. It also was chiefly 
underground. Remains may be traced both at Tivoli and near the Porta Maggiore. 
From the point at which it quitted the river Anio, about 20 m. above Tivoli, to Rome, is 
about 43 miles. 

3. Aqua Marcia, named after the pretor Quintus Marcius Rex, 145 s.c., had its 
source between Tivoli and Subiaco, and was consequently about 60 m. long. The noble 
arches which stretch across the Campagna for some 6 m. on the road to Frascati, are the 
portion of this A. which was above ground. 

4, Aqua Tepula (126 B.c.) had its source near Tusculum, and its channel was carried 
over the arches of the last-mentioned A. 

5. Aqua Julia, constructed by Agrippa, and named after Augustus 34 z.c. Like the 
Tepulan, it was carried along the Marcian arches, and its source was also near Tuscu- 
lum. Remains of the three last-mentioned aqueducts still exist. 

6. Agua Virgo, also constructed by Agrippa, and said to have been named in conse- 
quence of the spring which supplied it having been pointed out by a girl to some of 
Agrippa’s soldiers when in search of water. The Aqua Vergine, as it is now called, is 
still entire, having been restored by the popes Nicholas V. and Pius TV. 1568. The 
source of the Aqua Virgo is near the Anio, in the neighborhood of Torre Salona, on the 
Via Collatina, and about 14m. from Rome. The original object of this A. was to sup- 


Aqueous. 582 


ly the baths of Agrippa; its water now flows in the Fontana Trevi, that of the Piazza 
Neen the Piazza Farnese, and the Barcaccia of the Piazza di Spagna. The water of 
the Aqua Virgo is the best in Rome. 

7%. Aqua Alsietina, constructed by Augustus, and afterwards restored by Trajan, and 
latterly by the popes. This A., now called the Aqua Paola, is situated on the right bank 
of the Tiber, and supplies the fountains in front of St. Peter’s and the Fontana Paola on 
the Montorio. Its original object was to supply the Naumachia of Augustus, which was 
a sheet of water for the representation of sea-fights. 

8, Agua Claudia, commenced by Caligula and completed by Claudius, 51 ap. A 
line of magnificent arches which formerly belonged to this A. still stretches across the 
Campagna, and forms one of the grandest of Roman ruins. It was used as a quarry by 
Sextus Y. for the construction of the Aqua Felici, which now supplies the fountain of 
Termini, and various others in different parts of the city. 

9. Anio Novus, which was the most copious of all the Roman fountains, though 
inferior to the Marcia in the solidity of its structure; it was also the longest of the aque- 
ducts, pursuing a course of no less than 62 miles. By the two last-mentioned aqueducts, 
the former supply of water was doubled. In addition to the aqueducts already men- 
tioned, there was the Aqua Trajana, which may, however, be regarded as a branch of 
the Anio Novus, and several others of later construction, such as the Antoniana, Alex- 
andrina, and Jovia, all inferior to the older ones in extent and magnificence. 

Nor was it for the uses of the capital alone that aqueducts were constructed. The A. 
of Trajan, at Civita Vecchia, which conveys the water a distance of 23 m., and that in 
the vicinity of Marzana, near Verona, with others that might be mentioned, still attest 
the existence of aqueducts in the smaller towns of Italy in Roman times. Even during 
the unpromising period which succeeded, the habit of their construction was not aban- 
doned, that of Spoleto having been built by the Lombard duke Theodolapius in 604. 
The extraordinary A. by which the fountain at Siena is supplied, is said to have occu- 
pied two centuries in building; and the modern A. of Leghorn, which is not unworthy 
of the Roman models after which it was designed, is surpassed in magnificence by that. 
of Pisa, with its thousand arches. In the more distant provinces which fell under the 
Roman power, aqueducts were likewise constructed—at Nicomedia, Ephesus, Smyrna, 
Alexandria, Syracuse, and in many of the towns in Gauland in Spain. At Merida there 
are the remains of two aqueducts, of one of which there are 37 piers still standing, 
with three tiers of arches. But the most magnificent structure of this class in Spain is 
the A. of Segovia, in Old Castile, for which Spanish writers claim an antiquity beyond 
that of the Roman dominion; but which, there is reason to believe, belongs to the time 
of Trajan. At Evora, in Portugal, there is likewise an A.in good preservation, with a 
castellum or reservoir at its termination in the city, consisting of two stories, the lower one 
being decorated with pillars. But of all the provincial aqueducts, that at Nismes, in 
Provence, is at once the most remarkable and the best preserved. The following de- 
scription of it, which we transcribe from Mr. Murray’s excellent hand-book for France, 
will convey to the reader a very vivid conception not only of this A. in particular, but 
of the very interesting class of works to which it belongs. ‘‘It consists of three rows of 
arches, raised one above the other, each smaller than the one below it; the lowest of 6 
arches, the center tier of 11, and the uppermost of 35; the whole in a simple if not a stern 
style of architecture, destitute of ornament. It is by its magnitude, and the skillful 
fitting of its enormous blocks, that it makes an impression on the mind. It is the more 
striking from the utter solitude in which it stands—a rocky valley, partly covered with 
brushwood and greensward, with scarce a human habitation in sight, only a few goats 
browsing. After the lapse of 16 ¢c., this colossal monument still spans the valley, join- 
ing hill to hill, in a nearly perfect state, only the upper part, at the northern extremity, 
being broken away. The highest range of arches carries a small canal, about 44 ft. high 
and 4 ft. wide, just large enough for a man to creep through, still retaining a thick lin- 
ing of Roman cement. It is covered withstone slabs, along which it is possible to walk 
from one end to the other, and to overlook the valley of the Gardon. The height of the 
Pont du Gard is 188 ft., and the length of the highest arcade 878 feet. Its use was to 
convey to the town of Nismes the water of two springs, 25m. distant. . . . The 
conveyance of this small stream was the sole object and use of this gigantic structure, an 
end which would now be attained by a few iron water-pipes.”” Neither the date nor the 
builder of the Pont du Gard is known with certainty, but it is ascribed to Agrippa, the 
nephew of Augustus; a conjecture which is rendered probable by the fact of his having 
restored the Appian, Marcian, and Anienian, and constructed the Julian A. at Rome. 
The importance which the Romans attached to their aqueducts may be gathered from 
the fact, that special officers, invested with considerable authority, and, like all the 
higher officials, attended by lictors and public slaves, were appointed for their superin- 
tendence. Under the orders of these ‘‘ guardians of the waters,” we are told that, in the 
time of Nerva and Trajan, about 700 architects and others were employed in attending 
to the A. These officials were divided into various classes, and known by different 
names, according as their duties related to the care of the course of the A. the cas- 
tella or reservoirs at its termini, the pavement of the channel, the cement with which it 
was covered, and the like. For representations of ancient A., see illus., ENGINEERING, 
vol. V,; WATER STorAGE, vol. XV. 


583 Aqueous, 


The construction of aqueducts in recent times is comparatively rare, water being now 
generally conveyed in pipes ; but several instances are worthy of notice. The Lisbon A., 
completed in 1788, is about 3 leagues in length ; near the city, it is carried over a deep 
valley for a length of 2400 ft. by a number of bold arches, the largest of which has a 
height of 250 ft., and a span of 115. London has its New River A.; Glasgow, one from 
loch Katrine ; Paris, the canal de’ l’ Ourcq, and the A. of the Vanne ; Marseilles, that of 
Roquefavour ; and Vienna, an A, 59 m. long, capable of supplying 24,000,000 gallons daily. 
The springs supplying it are at an altitude of nearly 1000 ft. In the United States, New 
York, Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, and very many other cities and villages have A. for 
supplying water. The most expensive and costly is the Croton A. for supplying New 
York, completed in.1842 at a cost of about $12,500,000. This A. is 50 m. long, and is 
carried through 16 tunnels, which have a total length of a mile and a quarter, over some 
short viaducts, and over the Harlem river on a stone bridge, 1460 ft. long and 116 ft, 
above high water, with 8 arches of 80 ft. and 7 of 50 ft. span. From the dam in the 
Croton river to the Harlem river, the A. is of stone, brick, and cement, arched over and 
under, in shape something like an egg, slightly depressed at either end. The height is 84 
ft., and the width an inch less than 74 ft. The Croton water-shed is capable of delivering, 
even in drought, 250,000,000 gallons per day. Even this supply is inadequate, and another 
aqueduct was completed in 1890, at a cost of about $2,000,000. Its length to the Harlem 
river is some 284 m., and of this distance, all but about 8000 ft. is through solid rock. 
320,000,000 gallons per day can be delivered by this means. The Boston A. is 14} m. 
long, and is chiefly a brick structure. Washington is supplied by an A. 16 m. long, of 
brick and rubble stone in cement, circular in shape, 9 ft. in diameter, subterranean for 
the most of its course. The water is brought from Great Falls on the Potomac. Of the 
four bridges under the conduit, the Cabin John bridge or Union arch, a granite structure, 
has a span of 220 ft. A dam across Little Falls branch forms a receiving reservoir, fifty- 
six acres in area. The distributing reservoir, two miles distant, covers 40 acres, and can 
supply 70,000,000 galls. daily. Many aqueducts or mining ditches, as they are called, are 
used in California ; though these are less substantial in construction, sheet-iron pipes and 
wooden troughs supported on trestles being largely employed. 

A'QUEOUS HUMOR is the fluid which occupies the space in the eye between the back 
of the cornea and the front of the lens, which, in feetal life, is divided into an anterior 
and posterior chamber by the membrana pupillaris (q.v.),and in adult life by the iris. It 
consists of water, with, according to Berzelius, about a fiftieth of its weight made up of 
chloride of sodium and extractive matters held in solution. 

Anatomists are not agreed as to the spring of this watery secretion, and are inclined 
to doubt the existence of a special secreting membrane, which used to be taken for 
granted. However, a layer of delicate epithelial cells, which exists at the back of the 
cornea (q.v.), is probably concerned in its formation. It is rapidly resecreted if allowed 
to escape by any Sti in the cornea, and in some cases is formed in such quantity as 
to cause dropsy of the eye (hydrophthalmia). 


A’QUEOUS ROCKS. In geology, every layer which forms a portion of the solid crust 
of the earth is called a rock, it matters not whether its particles are incoherent, like soil 
or sand, or compacted together, like limestone and sandstone—to all alike, irrespective 
of popular usage, the geologist applies the term rock. In this wide sense, the rocks of 
the earth’s crust are either igneous (q.v.) or sedimentary. These sedimentary rocks 
have an aqueous origin, with the exception of a very limited number, like drift-sand, 
which are brought into their present position by the action of the wind. Unlike the 
igneous rocks, whose particles have assumed their present form in the position they 
occupy, the materials of the A. R. have evidently been brought from a distance. They 
owe their origin to some older rock, whose decomposition or destruction has afforded 
the materials. The parent rock can often be identified. Its distance is indicated by the 
ae of the materials, whether they are rounded and water-worn, or angular and 
shingly. 

The agents now at work, and which have been active in past geological ages, rubbing 
down and transporting the materials from which these rocks are formed, are the follow- 
ing: 1. The sea, destroying the rocks and cliffs, and beaches which form its boundary, 
and carrying off the eroded materials to form new rocks below the level of the sea. 2. 
Rivers, including the action of their smallest tributary rills, and even of the drops of 
rain, for these abrade and carry off the almost imperceptible particles from the surface 
where they fall; and when united they form the rill with its suspended sediment, and 
these again unite to form the river, which in its course not only retains what it has got, 
but scoops up more from its own bed, and carries all to the sea or lake, to deposit it there 
as anew stratum. It is difficult to estimate the influence of this agency. Sir Charles 
Lyell calculates that the Nile annually deposits in the Mediterranean 3,702,758, 400 cubic 
feet of solid matter. 3. Glaciers and icebergs. These enormous moving masses of ice 
are not only loaded with rock-fragments, which are deposited as the ice melts, but are 
ever abrading the rocks over which they pass, and thus supply materials to form new 
layers. 4. Several stratified rocks have an evidently organic origin, such as chalk, and 
some limestones chiefly composed of animal remains, and coal consisting of vegetable 
carbon; but even these have been influenced in their formation by water so much as to 
justify us in classifying them with A. R. 5. The same remark applies to rocks which 


Aquifoliacee. ry 
Aquinas. 584 j 


have been precipitated from a fluid with which the materials existed in chemical combina. 
tion. as has been the case with beds of salt, gypsum, and calcareous tufa. 

As the result of these various actions, we havea series of rocks which, from their 
composition, may be classed as arenaceous, argillaceous, calcareous, carbonaceou 8, 
saline, and silicious. We must refer to these terms for the descriptions of the various rocks 
included under them. : . 

The arrangement of the A. R. depending on their different ages, is of more impor- 
tance in modern geology than that depending on their internal constitution. When a 
section of the earth’s crust is examined, it is found to be composed of a series of layers 
which have been produced in succession, Comparing this with sections in other dis- 
tricts, it is noticed that thereis a regularity in the several parts; for beds of the same 
structure are found in different localities, and these occupy the same relative position to 
the adjacent beds. A number of observations have shown that the crust of the earth is 
composed of a regular series of earthy deposits formed one after another, during suc- 
cessive periods of time. This general induction forms the basis of the following classi- 
fication. For the description of the included strata we must again refer to the names of 
the different divisions: 

I. TerRTIARY OR Karnozorc Epocu—1. Superficial deposits of recent period; 2. 
Pleistocene period; 3. Pliocene or upper tertiary period; 4. Miocene or middle tertiary 
period; 5. Hocene or lower tertiary period. 

II. SeconDaRY OR Musozorc Epoca—6. Cretaceous period; 7. Oolitic period; 8. 
Triassic period. 

Ili. Prruwary oR PaLzozor1c Epocu—9. Permian period; 10. Carboniferous period; 
11. Devonian or old red sandstone period; 12. Silurian period; 13. Cambrian period. 


AQUIFOLIA'CEZ, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, of which 
the common holly (q.v.) is the best known example, and the only species that is a native 
of Europe. The order, however, contains more than one hundred species, the greater 
part of which are natives of America, and many of them belong to the tropical and sub- 
tropical parts of it. The species are all evergreen trees or shrubs, with simple, leathery 
leaves, and without stipules. The flowers are small and axillary, with 4 to 6 sepals, and 
a4 to 6-parted corolla, into which the stamens are inserted, alternating with its segments. 
The ovary is fleshy and superior, with two or more cells, a solitary anatropai pendulous 
ovule in each cell, the cells generally becoming bony as distinct stones in the fruit, which 
is fleshy. The order is allied to rhamnacea, celastracew, and ebenacee. 'The most inter- 
esting species belong to the genus ea, or holly (q.v.). 


AQ'UILA. See EAGLe. 


AQ’UILA, or AQUILA DEGLI ABRUZZI, the capital of the Italian province of the 
same name, is situated on the Pescara, near the loftiest of the Apennines. Pop. 1895, 
20,800. It is a fortified city and the seat of a bishop. A. was built by the emperor 
Frederick II. from the ruins of the ancient Amiternum, at. of the Sabines, and the birth- 
place of Sallust the historian. In 1703 it was almost destroyed by an earthquake, in 
which 2000 persons perished. A. is a bishop’s see, has civil and criminal courts, and a 
lyceum, and is considered one of the best built towns in the kingdom. In 1841, much 
political disturbance took place here, and several of the inhabitants were imprisoned and 
oe in consequence. The province of A.is one of the most picturesque districts of 

taly. ‘ 

_ AQUILA, Caspar (the Latin name of Kaspar Adler), 1488-1560; a German theolo- 
gian. He studied law in Augsburg, Germany, and in Italy, and was appointed pastor 
of Jenga. He embraced Luther’s doctrines, for which he was kept in prison during the 
winter of 1519-20, but he was set free through the influence of Isabella, queen of 
Denmark. At Wittenberg he met Luther, whom he assisted in the translation of the 
Old Testament, having been appointed professor of Hebrew at W. In 1528, he became 
bishop of Saalfeld, but his vehement opposition to the interim of Charles V. in 1548, 
compelled him to fly for asylum to the countess of Schwarzburg. In 1550, he was given 
the deanery of Schmalkalden, and two years later was restored as bishop of Saalfeld, 
filling the office until his death. He left a number of controversial works and many 
sermons. 


_ A'QUILA, Pontrcus, a celebrated translator of the Old Testament into Greek, b. at 
Sinope. He flourished about the year 130 A.D., is said to have been a relation of the 
emperor Hadrian, and to have been first a pagan, thena Christian, and finally a Jew; sub- 
mitting in his last conversion to the peculiar religious ceremony of circumcision. His trans- 
lation of the Old Testament—which appears to have been undertaken for the benefit of 
his Hellenized countrymen—was so literal, that the Jews preferred it to the Septuagint, 
as did also the Judaizing sect of Christians, called Ebionites. Only a portion of the work 
¥emains, which has been edited by Montfaucon and others. 


AQUILARIA 'CEZ, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, containing 
only about ten known species, all of which are trees with smooth branches and tough . 
bark, natives of the tropical parts of Asia. The leaves are entire; the perianth leathery, 
turbinate, or tubular, its limb divided into four or five segments; the stamens usually 
ten; the filaments inserted into the orifice of the perianth; the ovary two-celled, with 


aa 


585 eee 


two ovules; the stigma large; the fruit a 2-valved capsule, ora drupe. The order fs 
chiefly interesting as producing the fragrant wood called aloes wood (q.v.). 


AQUILEGIA. See COLUMBINE. 


AQUILE’JA, or AGLAR (earlier, Velia or Aquila), is a small t. in Austria, at the head 
of the Adriatic, 22 m. w.n.w. of Trieste. Pop. about 2000. It is now sunk in utter in- 
significance, possessing no trade or public buildings of any note, except its cathedral; 
but in the time of the Roman emperors, it was one of the most important places n. of the 
metropolis. Its commerce was flourishing, for though 8 m. distant from the sea, vessels 
could reach it by canals connecting it with the rivers in its vicinity. It was both the 
central point of the transit-trade between the north and south of Europe, and the key of 
Italy against the barbarians. Founded by a Roman colony in 181 B.c., it became a 
favorite residence of Augustus; and in 168 A.p. was so strongly fortified by Marcus 
Aurelius, as to be considered the first bulwark of the empire on the n. It was called 
Roma secunda, the second Rome. Here the emperor Maximin perished; and in the 
vicinity Constantius lost his life in a battle against his brother Constans. When the t. 
was destroyed by Attila (452), it had 100,000 inhabitants. It never recovered, although 
it received some ecclesiastical honors, but has continued slowly dwindling down into 
deeper obscurity and wretchedness. ‘There are numerous remains of its former splendor. 
Councils were held at A. in 381, 558, 698, and 1184 A.p. 


AQUI'NAS, Tuomas, or THomMAS OF AQUINO, one of the most influential of the 
scholastic theologians, was of the family of the counts of Aquino, in the kingdom of 
Naples, and was b. in the castle of Rocca Secca about 1227. He received the rudiments 
of his education from the Benedictine monks at Monte-Casino, and completed his 
studies at the university of Naples. A strong inclination to philosophical speculation 
determined the young nobleman, against the will of his family, to enter (1248) the order 
of Dominicans. In order to frustrate the attempts of his friends to remove him from 
the convent, he was sent away from Naples, with the view of going to France; but his 
brothers took him by force from his conductors, and carried him to the paternal castle. 
Here he was guarded as a prisoner for two years, when, by the help of the Dominicans, 
he contrived to escape, and went through France to the Dominican convent at Cologne, 
in order to enjoy the instructions of the famous Albertus Magnus (q.v.). According to 
another account, he owed his release from confinement to the interference of the em- 
peror and the pope. At Cologne he pursued his studies in such silence, that his com- 
panions gave him the name of the ‘‘dumb ox.” But Albert, his master, is reported to 
have predicted, ‘‘ that this ox would one day fill the world with his bellowing.” Thor. 
oughly imbued with the scholastic, dialectic, and Aristotelian philosophy, he came 
forward, after a few years, as a public teacher in Paris. His masterly application of 
this philosophy to the systematizing of theology, soon procured him a distinguished 
reputation. It was not, however, till 1257 that A. obtained the degree of doctor, as the 
university of the Sorbonne was hostile to the mendicant monks. He vindicated his 
order in his work, Contra Impugnantes Dei Cultum et Religionem ; and, in a disputation 
in presence of the pope, procured the condemnation of the books of his adversaries. He 
continued the lecture with great applause in Paris, till Urban IV., in 1261, called him 
to Italy to teach philosophy in Rome, Bologna, and Pisa, Finally he came to reside in 
the convent at Naples, where he declined the offer of the dignity of archbishop, in order 
to devote himself entirely to study and lecturing. Being summoned by Gregory X. to 
attend the general council at Lyon, he was surprised by death on the way, 1274, at 
Fossanuova, in Naples. According to a report, he was poisoned at the instigation of 
Charles I. of Sicily, who dreaded the evidence that A. would give of him at Lyon. 

Even during his life A. enjoyed the highest consideration in the chureh. His voice 
carried decisive weight with it; and his scholars called him the ‘‘ universal,” the ‘‘ an- 
gelic doctor,” and the ‘‘second Augustine.” <A general chapter of Dominicans in Paris 
made it obligatory on the members of the order, under pain of punishment, to defend 
his doctrines. It was chiefly the narratives of miracles said to have been wrought by A. 
that induced John XXII., in 1328, to give him a place among the saints. His remains 
were deposited in the convent of his order at Toulouse. Like most of the other scho- 
lastic theologians, he had no knowledge of Greek or Hebrew, and was almost equally 
ignorant of history; but his writings display a great expenditure of diligence and dia- 
lectic art, set off with the irresistible eloquence of zeal. His chief works are—a Com- 
mentary on the Four Books of Sentences of Peter Lombard, the Summa Theologia, Qucs- 
tiones Disputate et Quodlibetales, and Opuscula Theologica. He gave a new and scientific 
foundation to the doctrine of the church’s treasury of works of supererogation, to that 
of withholding the cup from the laity in the communion, and to transubstantiation. He 
also treated Christian morals according to an arrangement of his own, and with a com- 
prehensiveness that procured him the title of the ‘‘father of moral philosophy.” The 
definiteness, clearness, and completeness of his method of handling the theology of the 
church, gave his works a superiority over the text-books of the earlier writers on sys- 
tematic theology. His Summa Theologiv is the first attempt at a complete theological 
system. Accordingly, Pius V., to whom we owe the publication of the completest col- 
lection of A.’s works (18 vols., Rome, 1570; a newer but less trustworthy ed., 23 vols., 


Aquitania. 586 


Arabia. 


Paris, 1636-41), ranks him with the greatest teachers of the church.’ In his philo- 
sophical writings, the ablest of which is his Summa Fidet Oatholice contra Gentiles, he 
throws new light over the most abstract truths. The circumstances of A. being a Do- 
minican, and boasted of by his order as their great ornament, excited the jealousy of the 
Franciscans against him. In the beginning of the 14th c., Duns Scotus (q.v.), a Fran- 
ciscan, came forward as the declared opponent of the doctrines of A., and founded the 
philosophico-theological school of the Scotists, to whom the Thomists, mostly Domini- 
cans, stood opposed. The Thomists leaned in philosophy to nominalism (q.v.), although 
they held the abstract form to be the essence of things; they followed the doctrines of 
Augustine as to grace, and disputed the immaculate conception of the Virgin. The 
Scotists, again, inclined to realism and to the views of the Semipelagians, and upheld 
the immaculate conception. . 

AQUITA'NIA, the Latin name of a part of Gaul, originally including the country 
between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, peopled by Iberian tribes. Augustus, when he 
divided Gaul into four provinces, added to A. the country lying between the rivers 
Garonne and Loire. Afterwards, A. passed into the hands—first, of the West Goths, and 
then of the Franks; and during the Merovingian dynasty, became an independent duchy. 
Though subjugated by Charlemagne, the duchy again claimed independence under the 
weak monarchs of the Carlovingian dynasty. In 1187, it was united to the crown of 
France by the marriage of Louis VII. with Eleanor, heiress of A. In 1152, A. became 
an English possession through the marriage of Henry II. with Eleanor, whom Louis had 
divorced, and a long series of disputes took place between England and France respect- 
ing A., which was at length ultimately united to the crown of France by Charles VIL 
in 1451. 


ARABESQUE (Fr.), means merely after the Arabian manner; and, so far as etymology 
is concerned, might therefore be general in its application. In practice, however, it is 
used to characterize a peculiar kind of fantastic decoration commonly employed in con- 
junction with architecture, and which the Spanish Moors are supposed to have introduced 
into modern Europe. But the species of enrichment to which this term is now applied, 
was extensively employed both by the Greeks and Romans, the latter in particular being 
masters of the style. The Egyptians, from whom the Moors probably derived their 
original notions of this and other forms of art, also employed it in enriching their monu- 
mental decorations. But the A. of the Moors differed from that of the Egyptians im 
entirely excluding the figures of animals, the representation of which was forbidden by 
the Mohammedan religion, and confining itself entirely to the foliage, flowers, fruit, and 
tendrils of plants and trees, curiously and elaborately intertwined. This limitation of 
the field of A. was again departed from when the decorations were discovered on the 
walls of the baths of Titus, in the time of Leo X.; and more recently those in the houses 
at Herculaneum and Pompeii came to form the models of imitation, and the modern A. 
consists usually of combinations of plants, birds, and animals of all kinds, including the 
human figure,and embracing not only every natural variety, but stepping without hesitation 
beyond the bounds of nature. The freedom with which it admits the fantastic is, indeed, 
the leading peculiarity of A.; and as it is found in some form amongst every people who 
have attempted to give a visible representation of their fancies, it is spoken of by F. Schlegel 
as ‘‘ the oldest and original form of fancy.” The arabesques with which Raphael adorned 
the galleries of the Vatican, and which he is said to have imitated from those which he had 
been instrumental in discovering in the baths of Titus, are at once the most famous and 
the most beautiful which the modern world has produced. Arabesques are usually 
painted, though the term is also applied to sculptural representations of similar subjects 
in low relief. 


ARABI PASHA, AHMED, was born about 1837, of Fellah parents, in Charkieh, 
Lower Egypt. He entered the army at an early age; later, became an intimate friend 
of Ali Pasha (q.v.), and as early as 1876 began to incite the people to discontent. Even 
before he was made Minister of War he acquired great influence in all parts of the public 
administration, and was the head of the National party during the uprising against the 
English in 1881. After their final defeat at Tel-el-Kebirin Sept., he surrendered, pleaded 
guilty to the charge of rebellion, and was sentenced to death, but this sentence was 
finally commuted to exile on the island of Ceylon. See Eayrt. 


ARA'BIA—called by the inhabitants, Jezirat-al-Arab (the peninsula of A.); by the 
Turks and Persians, Arabistan—is the great south-western peninsula of Asia, and is 
situated 12° 40’ to 34° n. lat., and 82°30’ to 60° e. long. Its length from n. to s. is about 1500 
m.; its breadth, about 800; its area, 1,230,000 sq. m.; and its pop. is roughly estimated 
at 6,000,000. It is bounded on the n. by Asiatic Turkey; on the e., by the Persian gulf 
and the gulf of Oman; on thes., by the gulf of Oman and the Indian ocean; and on the w., 
by the Red sea. It is connected with Africa on the n.w. by the isthmus of Suex 
Through the center of the land, between Mecca and Medina, runs the tropic of Cancer. 
The name A. has been derived by some from Arvada (which means a level waste), a dis- 
trict in the province of Tehama; by others, from Hber,a word signifying a nomad 
(‘‘ wanderer’), as the primitive Arabs were such. This would connect it with the word 
Hebrew, which has a similar origin. Others, again, are inclined to derive it from the 
Hebrew verb Arad, to go down—that is, the region in which the sun appeared to set to 
the Semitic dwellers on the Euphrates. There is also a Hebrew word, Arabah, which 
means *‘ a barren place,” and which is occasionally employed in Scripture to denote the 


587 Aquitania, 


Arabia, 


border-land between Syriaand Arabia, Ptolemy is supposed to be the author of the famous 
threefold division into Arabia Petrea, Arabia Felix, and Arabia Deserta—the first of which 
included the whole of the n.w. portion; the second, the w. and s.w. coasts; and the 
third, the whole of the dimly known interior. This division, however, is not recognized! 
by the natives themselves, neither is it very accurate as at present understood, for Petraa 
was not intended to mean rocky or stony. Ptolemy formed the adjective from the flour- 
ishing city of Petra (the capital of the kingdom of the Nabathzans), whose proper name 
was Thamud—that is, the rock with a single stream. The word Feliz, also, arose from 
an incorrect translation of Yemen, which does not signify ‘‘happy,” but the land lying 
to the right of Mecca—as Al-Shan (Syria) means the land lying to the left of the same. 
The divisions of the Arab geographers are as follows—l. Bahr-el-Tour Sinai (Desert of 
Mount Sinai); 2. The Hedjaz (Land of Pilgrimage); 3. Tehama and Yemen, along the 
Red sea; 4. Hadramaut, the region along the southern coast; 5. Oman, the kingdom of 
Muscat; 6. Bahrein, on the Persian gulf; 7. Nedjed, the central highlands of Arabia. 

Our knowledge of the interior of A. is still very imperfect in detail, but its general 
characteristics are decidedly African. The largest portion of it lies in that great desert 
zone which stretches from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the northern Pacific. 
The interior, so far as it has yet been explored by Europeans, seems to be a great plateau, 
in some places reaching a height of 8000 feet. ‘The western border crest of this plateau 
may be regarded as part of a mountain-chain, beginning in the n. with Lebanon, and 
stretching s. to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From Bab-el-Mandeb another chain runs 
n.e., parallel to the coast, to Oman. From the mountain-range on the w. the plateau 
slopes to the n.e., and forms, in general, a vast tract of shifting sands, interspersed here 
and there about the center with various ranges of hills, which, like the shores of the 
peninsula, are generally barren and uninteresting. 

A. has, on the whole, an African climate. Though surrounded on three sides by the 
sea, its chains of hills exclude in a great measure the modifying influence of currents of 
air from the ocean. In several parts of A. hardly a refreshing shower falls in the course 
of the year, and vegetation is almost unknown: in other sultry districts, the date-palm is 
almost the only proof of vegetable life. Over large sterile tracts hangs a sky of almost 
eternal serenity. The short rainy season which occurs on the w. coast, during our sum- 
mer months, fills periodically the wadis (hollow places) with water, while slight frosts 
mark the winters in the center and north-east. During the hot season, the simoom (q.Vv.) 
blows, but only in the northern part of the land. The terraced districts are more favor- 
able to culture, and produce wheat, barley, millet, palms, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, 
tamarinds, excellent coffee, and many aromatic and spice-plants, as balsam, aloe, myrrh, 
frankincense, etc. <A. is destitute of forests, but has vast stretches of desert grass fra- 
grant with aromatic herbs, and furnishing admirable pasturage for the splendid breed of 
horses. Coffee, one of the most important exports, is an indigenous product both of A. 
and Africa. 

In the animal kingdom, an African character prevails generally. Sheep, goats, and 
oxen satisfy the immediate domestic and personal necessities of the inhabitants, to whom 
the camel and horse are trusty companions in their far wanderings. Gazelles and 
ostriches frequent the oases of the deserts, where the lion, panther, hyena, and jackal 
hunt their prey. Monkeys, pheasants, and doves are found in the fertile districts, where 
flights of locusts often make sad devastation. Fish and turtle abound on the coast. The 
noble breed of Arabian horses has been cultivated for several thousand years; but the 
most characteristic of all animals in the peninsula is the camel, which has been both 
poetically and justly styled ‘‘the ship of the desert.” It may be regarded as an Arabian 
animal, for it seems to be proved that it is not a native of Africa, but has migrated from 
the peninsula with its master. The camel is not found among the figures of animals in 
the ancient Egyptian paintings on walls, nor does it appear to have been known to the 
Carthaginians. The breed of Oman is celebrated for its beauty and swiftness. Among 
the minerals of A. may be mentioned iron, copper, lead, coal, basalt, and asphaltum, 
and the precious stones emerald, carnelian, agate, and onyx. Pearls are found in the 
Persian gulf. 

But the most interesting features of the peninsula are found in its ancient and pecu- 
liar population. The Arab is of medium stature, muscular make, and brown complexion. 
Earnestness and lofty pride look out of his glowing eyes; by nature he is quick, sharp- 
witted, lively, and passionately fond of poetry. Courage, temperance, hospitality, and 
good faith are his leading virtues; but these are often marred by a spirit of sanguinary 
revenge and rapacity. His wife keeps the house and educates the children. The Arab 
cannot conceive a higher felicity than the birth of a camel or a foal, or that his verses 
should be honored with the applause of his tribe. : 

Arabian life is either nomadic or settled. The wandering tribes, or Bedouins, are well 
known to entertain very loose notions of the rights of property. The located tribes, 
styled Hadesi and Fellahs, are despised by the Bedouin, who scorns to be tied down to 
the soil, even where such bondage might make him wealthy. As Ritter in his Com. 
parative Geography observes—Arabia ‘‘is the anti-industrial central point in the world,” 
for on every side, branching out to the e. or w., we find industry making progress, 
while here centuries pass away without any improvement save what has been introduced, 
almost compulsorily, by foreigners. The trade carried on by exports of coffee, dates, 


Arabian. 588 


figs, spices, and drugs, though still considerable, is said to be only a shadow of the old 
commerce which existed before the circumnavigation of Africa, or when Aden was in 
its prime and the Red sea was the great commercial route. A. has few manufactures, 
but carries on a transit-trade in foreign fabrics, besides importing these to some extent 
for its own necessities. Few nations have approached so near as the Arabs to the con- 
dition of standing still in a moral and social point of view. Considering how little 

rogress has been made, it is remarkable that a greater degeneracy has not taken place. 

Sven in the desert the children are taught to read, write, and calculate; and in the 
towns, education to a certain degree is general. The division of the people into so 
many tribes is a barrier to everything like a great national improvement; indeed, the 
word national can hardly be properly applied to the Arabs. It would require a series of 
extraordinary events to develop afresh that terrible unity which Mohammed gave A. for 
atime. The government is patriarchal, and the chief men of the various tribes have the 
title of emir, sheik, or imaum. Their function appears limited to leading the troops in 
the time of war, to levying tribute, and to the administration of justice. A spirit of 
liberty in the people moderates the authority of their chieftains; but instances of extreme 
despotism have not been unfrequent both in early and modern times. 

To number all the distinct states of A. would be impossible in the present state of 
our knowledge; but the seven great divisions are those which we have enumerated. Of 
these the most important at present is Nedjed, a state which, while under Wahabite 
fanaticism it rose rapidly into leading power, and seemed for a time to wane, yet since 
1849 has asserted its pre-eminence in central Arabia, and brought even Oman under 
its influence. See WAHABIS. Yemen possesses two very important commercial towns, 
Mocha and Loheia, situated on the coast of the Red sea; Oman has made considerable 
advances in civilization. It forms to some extent an exception to the general lack 
of manufacturing activity exhibited by the Arabians, having manufactures of silk and 
cotton turbans, sashes, canvas, arms, gunpowder, etc. The imaum of Muscat formerly 
claimed authority over the whole of Oman, the islands in the Persian gulf, a portion of 
the Persian coast, and a vast extent of territory on the e. coast of Africa, including 
some valuable islands. See Muscar and ZANzrIBAR. Rostak is another large t. inland 
from Muscat. The district or division of Hedjaz contains the holy cities of Mecca 
and Medina, with their seaports, Jiddah (q.v.) and Yembo. 

The history of Arabia, before the time of Mohammed, is involved in mystery, and 
has little interest, on account of its want of connection with the world’s general progress. 
The aborigines of A. were probably Cushites, most of whom, on account of the hostile 
immigration of certain Semitic races, descended from Joktan, grandson of Shem, passed 
over into Abyssinia. A few, however, remained, who inhabited the western coasts. 
Subsequently, another Semitic race, descended from Abraham, settled in the land. The 
oldest Arabian tribes are now extinct, and only a traditional memory even of their names 
exists; but the Semitic chiefs, Joktan or Kahtan, and Ishmael, are generally considered 
to be the fathers of the present inhabitants. The descendants of the former are the pure 
Arabs; those of the latter are held to be only Arabicized. The princes of A. belong 
wholly to the first. A great-grandson of Joktan, Himzar or Homeir, inaugurated a 
dynasty—the Himyarides or Homeritee—which ruled in Yemen for upwards of 2000 

ears. This wasa prosperous time. The Arabs of Yemen, and partly those of the 

esert, dwelt in towns and cultivated the soil; carried on commerce with the East 
Indies, Persia, Syria, and Abyssinia, in the last of which countries they planted numer- 
ous colonies. The rest of the people, however, lived nomadically, as now. Bravely, for 
thousands of years, they maintained their freedom, their faith, and their peculiar cus- 
toms against the assaults of the great military empires. Neither the Babylonian and 
Assyrian nor the Egyptian and Persian kings could reduce the Arabs to a state of sub 
jugation. Alexander had determined to try his power against A., when death inter- 
rupted his plans. Three centuries after Alexander’s death, the Romans had extended 
their empire to the borders of A., and Trajan, in 107 A.pD., penetrated far into the 
interior; but though the northern chieftains were brought into a formal subjection to the 
empire, A. was not made a Roman province. The old Himyarides in Yemen stoutly 
maintained their independence, and an expedition against them in the time of Augustus 
completely failed. With the decay of the Roman empire, strife and lawlessness 
increased. The Arab races continued in a scattered, disorganized condition, and many 
hundreds of years passed away in intestine wars, during which the central highland 
region was the scene of those feuds of the Arab clans so copiously sung by the native 
poets. Christianity found an early entrance into A. The Jews, in considerable num- 
bers, migrated into A. after the destruction of Jerusalem, and made many proselytes, 
especially in Yemen. This diversity of creeds in the peninsula was favorable to the 
introduction of the doctrine of Mohammed, which forms the grand epoch in Arabian 
history, and brings it into close connection with the general history of civilization. 
Now, for the first time, the people of A. became united, and powerful enough to erect 
new empires in the three quarters of the world. The dominion of the Arabs, from the 
time of Mohammed to the fall of the caliphat of Bagdad in 1258, or even to the expulsion 
of the Moors from Spain in 1492, is an important period in the history of civilization. 
See the articles Moors, CALIpHS. But the movements which had such great effects on 
the destinies of other nations, produced but little change in the interior of A.; and, after 


“= 


~~ 


589 Arabian. 


the brilliant career of conquest was ended, the peninsula was left in an exhausted com 
dition. Then followed the subjugation of Yemen by the Turks in the sixteenth cen- 
tury; their expulsion in the seventeenth century; the dominion of the Portuguese over 
Muscat, 1508-1659; the conquests of Oman and the temporary victories gained by the 
Persians at the close of the 16th c.; and, lastly, the appearance of the Wahabis 
(q.v.), 1770, whose moral influence is still felt. The latter took an important part in the 
political affairs of A., but their progress was interrupted by Mehemet Ali, the pasha of 
Egypt, who subjugated the coast-country of Hedjaz, with some parts of the coast of 
Yemen, and in 1818 gained a decisive advantage through the victory of Ibrahim Pasha. 
He was, however, forced in 1840 to resign all these claims. Politically, Hedjaz, Yemen 
and El Hasa are Turkish provinces ; England possesses Aden; the Sinaitic Peninsula is 
under Egyptian rule ; while Nedj is practically independent, though paying a small tribute 
to the Sherif of Mecca. See WAHABIS. 


ARA’BIAN ARCHITECTURE. So inseparable is the connection between architecture 
and religion, that it may be stated asa general rule that no sooner is a new religion 
engendered than it finds expression in new architectural forms. Of this we have an 
interesting instance in the simultaneous rise of Mohammedanism, and of the style of 
architecture commonly called Arabian or Moorish, but to which the name of Mohamme- 
dan might far more appropriately be given, seeing that it has everywhere followed the 
religion of the crescent, and that the Arabians previously had no architecture peculiar 
to themselves. It is further remarkable that the style of which we speak seems to have 
arisen, as it were, undesignedly, or, at all events, without any conscious effort on the part 
of the people amongst whom it first appeared. The followers of the prophet contem- 
plated nothing peculiar in their ecclesiastical structures; and at first their mosques were 
built by Christian architects from Constantinople. As a natural consequence, they 
resembled Byzantine churches, modified in the countries of which the Moors successively 
possessed themselves by the features of the existing churches. Gradually the new and 
fanciful ornamentation known as arabesque (q.v.) was added to the recognized features 
of Greek and Roman edifices. The exclusion of animal figures, which their abhorrence 
of the very appearance of idolatry necessitated, confined the Mohammedan artists to the 
imitation of vegetable productions, varied by geometrical patterns and inscriptions, of 
which the letters were woven tnto forms which suited them for architectural uses. But 
the most original feature in their edifices, and that by which they have continued to be 
marked from all others, is the horse shoe arch. The pointed arch, on the other hand, and 
the various forms of the trefoil and quatrefoil arches, though there can be little doubt 
that we are indebted for them to the rich invention of the Moorish architects, have become 
so entirely Christian as to be no longer associated in our minds with the religion of the 
prophet. It is said that the pointed arch is to be found in Mohammedan buildings so 
early as 780 A.D. (Parker’s Glossary of Architecture), whereas the earliest examples of its 
use in Christian architecture belong to the 12th c. Moorish architecture probably reached 
its highest point of development in the Alhambra, with the characteristics of which the 
English public have been made familiar by means of the court which bears its name in 
the palace at Sydenham. 


ARABIAN GULF. See Rep Sra. 


ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Regarding the oldest literary culture 
of the Arabians, we possess but slight information. That their poetry at least must have 
had a very early development, may be inferred from the natural disposition of the 
inhabitants, who were characterized for their high spirit, courage, love of adventure, and 
delight in the glory of war. As far back as Solomon’s time, the queen of Sheba (proba- 
bly Arabia Feliz) was noted for her sententious sayings. The nomadic tribes, living 
under the patriarchal rule of their sheiks, possessed everything that was favorable to the 
growth of a simple and natural poetry. They had quick and vivid feelings, and a rich, 
glowing fancy, which, operating upon the perils, the hardships, and strange confederate 
life they led in those barren sand-deserts, and amongst naked rocks, could hardly fail to 
call forth a wild and vigorous minstrelsy. Before the time of Mohammed, the Ara- 
\Vians had celebrated poets who sang the feuds of tribes, and the praises of heroes and 
fair women. During the great fairs at Mecca and Okadh, poetic contests were held 
before the people as at the Grecian games; and the poems to which the prize was 
awarded were rewritten in golden characters, and suspended in the Kaaba at Mecca, 
the venerable national temple which the Mohammedans affirm to have been built by 
Abraham, or Ishmael. They are termed the Moallakdt—i.e., ‘‘the suspended ’”’—from 
the honor conferred on them, and are remarkable for their pathos, soaring conceptions, 
richness of imagery and phraseology, free and unconstrained spirit, and the glow of their 
love and hate. Among the famous poets of this early period are Nabegha, Asha, Shan- 
fara—whose works were translated and published by De Sacy in his Ohrestomathie Arabe 
—and, lastly, Kaab-ben-Zohair, who lived to celebrate the praises of the prophet 
Mohammed. 

But the most brilliant period of Arabic culture is that which Mohammed himself 
inaugurated in the Koran. His new doctrines of faith and life, collected under this title 
by the first calif, Abubekr, were revised and published by Othman, the third calif. The 
naturally adventurous spirit of the Arabs found a suitable excitement in the half-religious, 
half-military system of Mohammed, and, after his death, their fanaticism prepared them 


590 


Arabian. 


for their subsequent career. Like an overwhelming torrent, they passed over the 
neighboring states, and in the short space of 80 years from the death of their prophet, 
had extended their dominion from Egypt to India, and from Lisbon to Samarcand. 
During this time nothing can be said of their culture and refinement. A fanatical desire 
of conquest prevailed. Gradually, however, by their intercourse with civilized nations, 
the Arabian conquerors were themselves subjected to the humanizing influence of letters, 
and, after 749 A.D., Or during the reign of the Abassides, literature, arts, and sciences 
appeared, and were generously fostered under the splendid sway, first of Almansor 
(754-775), and afterwards of the celebrated Harun-al-Raschid (786-809). Learned men 
were now invited from many countries, and remunerated for their labors with princely 
munificence; the works of the best Greek, Syriac, and old Persian writers were trans- 
lated into Arabic, and spread abroad in numerous copies. The calif Al-Mamun, who 
reigned from 813 to 883, offered to the Greek emperor five tons of gold and a perpetual 
treaty of peace, on condition that the philosopher Leo should be allowed for a time to 
give instruction to the former. There are few instances of such a price offered for 
lessons in philosophy. Under the sway of the same Al-Mamun, excellent schools were 
founded in Bagdad, Basra, Bokhara, and Kufa; while large libraries were collected at 
Alexandria, Bagdad, and Cairo. In Spain, the high school of Cordova rivaled the 
literary fame of Bagdad, and, generally, in the 10th c., the Arabs appeared everywhere 
as the preservers and distributers of knowledge. Pupils from France, and other European 
countries, then began to repair to Spain in great numbers, to study mathematics and 
medicine under the Arabs. There were 14 academies, with many preparatory and 
upper schools in Spain, and 5 very considerable public libraries; that of the calif Hakem 
containing, as is said, more than 600,000 volumes. This state of culture, when compared 
with that prevalent before Mohammed, shows arapidity of progress in knowledge almost 
as remarkable as the career of Arabian conquest. 

In geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, and mathematics, the Arabians 
rendered important services to science; and the Arabic words still employed in science— 
such as algebra, alcohol, azimuth, zenith, nadir, with many names of stars, etc.—remain 
as indications of their influence on the early intellectual culture of Europe. But 
geography owes most to them during the middle ages. In Africa and Asia, the bounda- 
ries of geographical science were extended, and the old Arab treatises on geography and 
works of travels in several countries by Abulfeda, Edrisi, Leo Africanus, Ibn Batuta, 
Ibn Foslan, Ibn Jobair, Albiruni the astronomer, and others, are still interesting and 
valuable. 

History was also studiously cultivated. The oldest Arabic historian of whom we 
know is Mohammed-al-Kelbi (d. in 819). About the same period, however, flourished 
several other historians. After the dawn of the 10th c., history became a favorite study 
of the Arabs. The first who attempted a universal survey of the subject were Masudi, 
Tabari, Hamza of Ispahan, and Eutychius, the Christian patriarch of Alexandria. 
Masudi’s work is entitled Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems. 'These were followed by 
Abulfaraj and George Elmakin (both Christians), Abulfeda, and others. Nuvairi wrote 
a History of Sicily under the Government of the Arabs. Various sections of Arabic his- 
tories relating to the crusades have been translated into French. On the dominion of 
the Arabs in Spain, several works were written by Abul-Kasem of Cordova (d. in 11389), 
Temini, and others. For extended notices we may refer the student of Arabic literature 
to the translations by Quatremere and others; but especially to the Hncyklopddischen 
Uebersicht der Wissenschaften des Orients, by Von Hammer (2 vols. Leip. 1804). 

Arabian theology and jurisprudence are intimately connected, and both founded on 
the Koran; but are by no means so simple and uniform as is generally supposed. 
Speculation first began to prevail during the Ommaiade dynasty, and the Aristotelian 
philosophy to be studied by the Arabs. As a consequence, the vague statements of the 
Koran were soon variously interpreted, and a host of sects gradually arose. Of these 4 
only are regarded as orthodox, leaving not less than 72 heretical, whose discordant tenets 
are stated in the work of Sharistani (edited by Cureton, London, 1842). The four ortho- 
dox sects are: the Hanefites, who do not reject tradition, but subordinate it to rational- 
ism; the Shafites, who entirely refuse the aids of reason and philosophy in their treat- 
ment of theology; the Kambalites and the Malechites, who allow speculation on points 
where there is no tradition. The collection of traditions known as the Sunna gives an 
account of the sayings and doings of Mohammed, and, though pedantic in its details, is 
in substance more valuable than the Koran. The interpretation of the Koran constitutes 
the principal part of education in theological jurisprudence. The most celebrated of 
the commentators are Samakhshari and Baidhawi. The conquest of Algiers has rendered 
the study of Arabic or Mohammedan law indispensable to the French. The result is, 
that several most important works on that subject have appeared of late from the Paris 
press, such as Précis de Jurisprudence Musulmane, selon le Rite Maléchite par Khalit-lbn- 
bt eine by Perron, Paris, 1848), and Législation Musulmane Sunnite, Rite Hanéfi 

aris, } 

Arabian philosophy, which was of Grecian origin, held the same relation to the 
Koran as the scholasticism of the middle ages did to the Christian Scriptures—that is, 
it was regarded as the servant of faith. The chief study of the Arabs was the writings 
of Aristotle, who became known in Spain, and subsequently in all western Europe, 


5 g 1 Arabian, 


through translations from Arabic into Latin; though the Arabs themselves only knew 
the Greek philosopher in translations made during the time of the Abassides. special 
attention was paid to logic and metaphysics. The most distinguished of their philo- 
sophical writers are: Alkendi of Basra, who flourished about the beginning of the 9th c.; 
Alfarabi, who wrote a work on First Principles in 954; Avicenna (d. 1036), who com- 
bined the study of logic and metaphysics with that of medicine, and made considerable 
progress in chemistry, nosology, and medical botany; Ibn Yahya, who acquired a high 


_Yeputation as an original thinker ; Alghazali (d. 1111), who wrote a book entitled The 
| Destruction of all Idolatrous Philosophical Systems; Abubekr-ibn-Tofail (d. 1190), whe 


taught in his philosophical novel Hai-ebn- Yokdan (edited by Pococke, Oxford, 1671) the 
development of men from animals; and his pupil, Averrhoes, greatly esteemed as an 
expositor of Aristotle. For an account of these men and their systems, see Sur les Ecoles 
Philosophiques chez les Arabes, etc., by Schmélders (Paris, 1842), and Ritter’s Ueber unsere 
Kenntniss der Arab, Philosophie (Gott. 1844); also Renan’s Averroés et ? Averroisme (1850). 

Many of these illustrious Arabian philosophers were also physicians. The great skill 
which the Arabs acquired in their knowledge of the uses and properties of medicinal 
herbs is traced by Humboldt to their geographical position. The southern part of 
Arabia ‘‘is characterized by the highly developed vital force pervading vegetation, by 
which an abundance of aromatic and balsamic juices is yielded to man from various bene- 
ficial and deleterious substances. The attention of the people must early have been directed 
to the natural products of their native soil, and those brought as articles of commerce 
from the accessible ‘coasts of Malabar, Ceylon, and eastern Africa. Hence arose the 
wish to distinguish carefully from one another these precious articles of commerce, 
which were so important to medicine, manufacture, etc. .... The science of medicine, 
when considered with reference to its scientific development, is essentially a creation of 
the Arabs, to whom the oldest, and, at the same time, one of the richest sources of 
knowledge—that of the Indian physicians—had been early opened. Chemical pharmacy 
{see ALCHEMY) was created by the Arabs, whilst to them are also due the first official 
prescriptions regarding the preparation and admixture of different remedial agents—the 
dispensing recipes of the present day. These were subsequently diffused over the south of 
Europe by the school of Salerno” (Humboldt’s Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 581, Bohn’s translation). 
Pharmacy and materia medica naturally led to botany and chemistry. For three centuries, 
from the 8th to the 11th—a rich scientific culture prevailed. Schools of philosophy and 
medicine sprung up at Jondisahur, Bagdad, Ispahan, Firuzabad, Bokhara, Kufa, Basra, 
Alexandria, Cordova, etc. In all departments of medical science a great advance was 
made, except in anatomy. ‘The reason of this exception lies in the fact that the Koran 
forbids the dissection of bodies. The most famous writers on medicine are Aharun, 
Alkindi, Avicenna (q.v.), who wrote the Canon of Medicine, for a long time the only hand- 
book on the subject; Ali-ben-Abbas, Ishak-ben-Soleiman, Abulkasim, Averrhoes (q.V.), 
who wrote a complete system of medicine; Ali-ben-Isa, etc. 

In mathematics, the Arabs made great advances by the introduction of the numerals 
and mode of notation now in use, of the sine instead of the chord (in trigonometry), and 
of amore extended application of algebra. Astronomy was zealously studied in the 
famous schools and observatories of Bagdad and Cordova. Alzahan wrote upon optics; 
Nassireddin translated the Elements of Euclid; Jeber-ben-Afla furnished a commentary 
on the trigonometry of Ptolemy, etc. The Almagest or System of Astronomy by Ptolemy, 
was translated into Arabic by Alhazi and Sergius as early as 812. Inthe 10thce., Albaten 
observed the advance of the line of the apsides in the earth’s orbit; Mohammed-ben- 
Jeber-al-Batani, the obliquity of the ecliptic; Alpetragius wrote a theory of the planets; 
and Abul-Hassan-Ali on astronomical instruments. 

Besides these advances in the solid branches of knowledge, the genius of the Arabs 
continually flowered into poetry. Numerous poets sprang up in all lands where the 
children of the desert had carried their irresistible faith. Their verse, however, was not 
like the rude, simple minstrelsy of a purely patriarchal people; it gradually allied itself 
to the prevailing culture, and took, especially in the golden epoch of Arabian civiliza- 
tion, a highly artistic form. Motenebbi, Abul-Ala, and others acquired a great reputa- 
tion for their delicate idylls; Busiri, for his eulogy of Mohammed; Hamadani, as the 
first to introduce novels in verse (of which he wrote 400 under the title of Makamal), a 
style of literature which was brought to perfection by Hariri; Azzeddin, for his ingenious 
allegorical poem, ‘‘ The Birds and the Flowers.” Besides these, a singularly wild and 
fantastic prose literature made its appearance, in which the craving for the wonderful 
and gorgeous, so characteristic of the restless, adventure-loving Arabs, was richly gratified. 
Romances and legendary tales abounded. The most famous of these are: The 
Arabian Nights’ Entertainments (q.v.), The Haploits of Antar, The Eaploits of the Cham- 
pions, and The Hxploits of the Hero. In fact, with the exception of the drama, there was 
no sort of poetry which the Arabs did not attempt. The effect of this universality and 
richness in Arabic literature was, that it exercised a powerful influence on modern 
European poetry. The tales of fays, charms, sorceries, and the whole gorgeous 
machinery of enchantment passed into the poetry of the west. During the middle ages 
of European history, several of the most popular and wide-spread books were of Arabic 
origin; such as, The Seven Wise Masters, and The Fables of Bidpai, though the Arabians 
themselves borrowed largely from the Persian stories and the Greek fables. 


592 


Arabian. 


i of the early ages of Mohammedanism presents a strong contrast to the 
ee cine pera among the Arabs. The brutal fanaticism of the Turks 
nipped the blooming promise of the east; sunk in stupid indolence, the peoples await in 
apathetic resignation their deliverance and return to higher modes of life. Literature 
furnishes now nothing worthy of notice. Learning spends itself principally in commen- 
taries and scholia, in scholastic discussions on the subject-matter of dogmatics and juris- 
prudence, and in tedious grammatical disquisitions concerning the old Arabic speech, 
generally acute and subtle, but always unprofitable and unenlivening. The swift and 
mobile genius of the east has departed, and pedantic dullness has usurped its place. 
There are ‘‘Dryasdusts” even in thedesert. A few modern writers have attempted, with 
more or less success, to imitate European forms of thought and sentiment. Of these 
may be mentioned Michael Sabbagh of Syria (La Colombe Messagere, Arabic and French, 
Paris, 1805); Use Sheik, Refaa of Cairo (The Broken Lyre, Paris, 1827; Manners and 
Customs of ths Huropeans, Cairo, 1834; Travels in France, Cairo, 1825); and Nasif-Effendi, 
of Beirut, who wrote the critical observations in De Sacy’s edition of Hariri (Zpistola 
Oritica, Leipsic, 1848). 

The Arabic also possesses a Christian and Jewish literature which, however, is 
chiefly ecclesiastical. Its principal ornaments are Eutychius, Elmakin, and Abulfaraj. 
Translations of the Old Testament were made not from the Hebrew, but from the 
Septuagint, or from Latin versions. In the middle ages, the Spanish Jews employed. 
Arabic for their learned compositions; and several of the most important works of Moses 
Maimonides, ete., were originally written in that tongue. 

The Arabic language, it has been remarked, is at once both rich and poor. It is 
necessarily destitute of innumerable words describing those ideas and objects which only 
civilization can develop or produce; but, on the other hand, the rich and nimble fancy 
of the Arabians has multiplied, to an almost incredible extent, the synonyms of their 
ilesert-tongue, so that in some cases several hundreds of expressions are found for the 
game thing. The Arabic belongs to the so-called Semitic family of languages, among 
which it is distinguished for its antiquity and soft flexible grace. It is divided into two 
dialects—a northern and southern. The former, through the instrumentality of the 
Koran, became the predominant language of literature and commerce throughout the 
whole extent of the A. dominions; the latter, called the Himyarite, although in all 
probability the source of the Ethiopic language and writing, is known as yet only bya 
few inscriptions, etc. The earliest Arabic grammarian is Abul-Aswad-al-Duli, who 
flourished under the fourth calif, Ali. The first who reduced the prosody and metre of 
the Arabian poets to a system, was Khalil-ben-Ahmed-al-Ferahidi of Basra. AJ-Jauhari, 
who died in 1009 4.pD., drew up a dictionary of the pure Arabic speech, which he entitled 
Al-Sihah (‘‘ Purity”), and which is held in high estimation to this day. Mohammed-ben- 
Yakub-al-Firuzabadi, who d. in 1414, was the author of an Arabic Thesaurus, entitled 
Al-Kamus (‘The Ocean”), which is the best lexicon in the language, and has conse- 
quently been translated into Persian and Turkish. Jordshani has explained, in alpha- 
betical order, the meaning of the technical terms used in Arabic art and science. His 
work was published by Fliigel (Leip. 1845), under the title of Definitiones. Meidani 
made a large collection of Arabic ‘‘ saws,” apothegms, etc., which was published by 
Freytag, Bonn, 1838. Through the conquests of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain, their 
language became known in Europe; but notwithstanding the numerous traces of its 
influence in various European tongues, it became forgotten after the expulsion of the 
Moors from Spain. The first European scholars who earnestly took up the subject were 
the Dutch, in the 17th c.; after them, the Germans, French, and English. It is now, 
however, beginning to be considered a necessary part of a learned theological education. 
The modern Arabic of the inhabitants is substantially the same as that of the Koran, but 
the lapse of time has gradually introduced changes in the grammatical forms of the 
language, similar to those which have occurred in other languages. The purest Arabic 
is said to be spoken in Yemen, or Arabia Feliz. With the exception of the Roman char- 
acters, the Arabic have been more widely diffused than those of any other tongue on the 
face of the earth. (See MOller’s Ordental Palwography, Hisleben, 1844, etc.) 

Arabie Writing.—Like all Semitic writing, this proceeds from right to left. It is 
borrowed from the old Syriac, and was probably introduced into Arabia by Christian 
missionaries about the time of Mohammed. In its oldest form it is called Kufic, from 
the town of Kufa, on the Euphrates, where the transcription of the Koran was busily 
carried on. Its characters are rude and coarse, and it has particular symbols for only 16 
of the 28 Arabic consonants. This writing, nevertheless, continued to be employed for 
300 years, and for coins and inscriptions even later; but in the 10th c. it was displaced 
for common purposes by a current handwriting, the Meskhé, introduced by Ebn Mokla. 
This is the character still in use. In it, the consonants which resemble each other are 
distinguished by points, and the vowels by strokes over and under the line. 


ARABIAN NIGHTS’ ENTERTAINMENTS, a collection of Oriental tales, first made 
known to Europe by Antony Galland, a French orientalist, under the title of The Thou- 
sand and One Nights, Arabian Stories, Translated into French. They were published at 
Paris, in 12 vols. 12mo, from 1704 till 1717, and were received by many as the produc- 
tion of the genius of the translator himself, rather than the collection of an unknown 


093 Arabian. 


Arabian author, as Galland had stated in his dedication. Oriental scholars did not hesi- 
tate at first to declare against their authenticity, and denounce them as forgeries, 
Having taken only an obscure place in the literature of the east, and their style unfit- 
ting them from being classed among models of eloquence or taste—having no object of 
a religious, moral, or philosophical kind in view, while the manners and customs delin- 
eated in them were different from all received ideas of those of the Moslem nations— 
their success took the critics by surprise. The work became highly esteemed by the 
public; it filled Europe with its fame; it had abundance of readers, and no lack of 
editors. Few books have been translated into so many different languages, and given 
delight to solarge a number of readers. It:may be said that, in these Oriental tales, there 
has sprung up a new branch of literature, for their influence on the literature of the 
present day is easily discernible. Here are found, depicted with much simplicity and 
great effect, the scenes of the town-life of the Moslem. The prowess of the Arab knight, 
his passion for adventure, his dexterity, his love and his revenge, the craft of his wives, 
the hypocrisy of his priests, and the corruptibility of his judges, are all dramatically 
delineated—far more vividly represented, in fact, than is possible in a book of travels; 
while gilded palaces, charming women, lovely gardens, and exquisite repasts captivate 
the senses of the reader, and transport him to the land of wonder and enjoyment. Be- 
sides entertaining the mind with the kaleidoscopic wonders of a teeming and luxurious 
fancy, which is their most obvious merit, they present a treasure of instruction upon life 
in general, and oriental life in particular. And this is undeniable, notwithstanding the 
fact, that the aspects of society they depict are far from standing high in the social scale, 
either as to civilization or morality. In them no story is to be found that will rank in 
morality with the story of Joseph and his brethren, simply because the Moslem faith will 
not admit of that, any more than the decline of Arab civilization at the time the tales 
must have been originally promulgated. Indeed, the first translator, having a conviction 
of a demoralizing tendency of this kind, avoided giving several objectionable parts of 
some of the stories. The thread of the narrative in these entertainments is generally 
simple and clear, often leading into the departments of fable, and occasionally into the 
regions of the supernatural and the domains of popular superstition. The tales, even 
when long, are not tiresome; for they consist of shorter stories branching off from the 
main one, or rather incased within it, the smaller within the larger, and perhaps a 
smaller within that, like the little boxes used by conjurors. 

For many years all doubt as to the authenticity of the Thousand and One Nights has 
been dispelled. Several MS. copies have been found, and no less than four editions of 
the Arabic text have been published. A more thorough acquaintance with medieval and 
modern Arab life has proven the genuineness of the stories, and the truthfulness of their 
general representation of the mind of the Moslem. In them there are evident signs of 
a declension from a refined and superior civilization; the marvelous and supernatural is 
predominant; despotism in all its forms is manifest; and a prevalent falsity and insin- 
cerity of character visible, not only in the narrative, but in the tone of common conver- 
sation, replete as it is with oaths and asseverations. 

The origin of the work—where and by whom written—is still involved in mystery. 
According to some, the tales are susceptible of a threefold division. The most beautiful, 
and in fancy the richest, apvear to have come from India, the cradle of story and fable; 
the tender and often sentimental love tales seem of Persian origin; while the masterly 
pictures of life, and the witty anecdotes, claim to be the product of Arabia. Through- 
out, however, everything is conformable to the character and customs of the town 
population of Arabia, and to the Mohammedan faith. The baron de Sacy, in 1829, thus 
stated his opinion on these points. Speaking of the work he says: ‘‘It appears to me 
that it was originally written in Syria, and in the vulgar dialect; that it was never com- 
pleted by its author; that, subsequently, imitators endeavored to perfect the work, either 
by the insertion of novels already known, but which formed no part of the original 
collection, or by composing some themselves, with more or less talent, whence arise the 
great variations observable among the different MSS. of the collection; that the inserted 
tales were added at different periods, and perhaps in different countries, but chiefly in 
Egypt; and, lastly the only thing which can be affirmed, with much appearance of 
probability, in regard to the time when the work was composed, is—that it is not very 
old, as its language proves, but still that, when it was brought out, the use of tobacco 
and coffee was unknown, since no mention of either is made in the work.” 

Galland’s French edition was speedily translated into all the languages of Europe; 
edition following edition with great rapidity, some of them with enlargements and 
others with modifications. Latterly, a Dr. Scott gave a superior English edition, ‘‘ care- » 
fully revised, and occasionally corrected from the Arabic.” At length a new English 
translation from the Arabic, with copious notes and highly artistic embellishments, 
appeared in 1839. It was the work of Edward William Lane, a gentleman whose long 
residence in Egypt enabled him to acquire so thorough a knowledge of the language, 
manners, and customs of the Egyptian Arabs, as has furnished not only a superior 
version, but a series of notes embodying a portraiture of Egypto-Arabian life at once 
faithful and vivid. See Kirby’s translation, and the Villon society edition (1882-84). 

The popularity of this wonderful book has given rise to hundreds of imitations. 
Among the best of the French are—TLes Mille et Un Jours, Mille et Une Quart @ Heures, 


Brabian. | 594 


Arachnida, 


and the Contes d’un Endormeur; perhaps the best of the English imitations is the Tales 
ef the Genii, by Sir Charles Morell; while the best of the German appears to be one got 
wp from the Perso-Arabic, the Faraj bad él Shidda (Joy after Sorrow), a popular work, 
and repeatedly published. . 


ARABIAN NUMERALS or CrpHERS—the characters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9. Properly, 
they should be styled Hindu or Indian numerals, for the Arabs borrowed them, along 
with the decimal system of notation, from the Hindus. According to one account, 
Gerbert (afterwards Sylvester II.) learned the use of them from the Moors in Spain in 
the 10th c.; others think it more probable that Leonardo of Pisa (see ALGEBRA) first 
introduced them from the east into Italy about 1202. Yet the use of them was long in 
making its way, and was not general before the invention of printing. _ Accounts con- 
tinued to be kept in Roman numerals up to the 16th century. See NUMERALS and 
NUMERATION. 


ARABIAN SEA, anciently Mare Erythreum, or the Red Sea, that bay of the Indian 
ecean which lies between India on the east and Arabia on the west. Its northern boun- 
dary is Beloochistan; while its natural and convenient limit on the south is a line drawn 
from cape Comorin in Hindustan to cape Guardafui in Africa, and thence continued 
along the coast to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. In e. long. it extends from 43° 382’ at 
cape Bab-el-Mandeb, to 77° 30’ at cape Comorin; and in n. lat. from 8° 5’ at cape 
Comorin, to about 26° at the s.w. point of Beloochistan. Including its two great arms, 
the Red sea proper and the Persian gulf, it stretches far both north and west. By the 
former it is, since the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, connected with the Mediterra- 
mean sea. In this last aspect the A. 8. long occupied a most prominent place in the 
commerce of the world—a place which, after having lost it for more than 3800 years 
through the doubling of the cape of Good Hope in 1497, it has lately in a great measure 
regained, through the enterprise of English capitalists, the Egyptian government, and 
the perseverance of M. Lesseps. 

In the history of navigation, also, the A.§. proper is specially entitled to notice, It 
was along its northern shores that Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander of Macedon, con- 
ducted the first well-authenticated voyage, on a large scale, of exploration and discovery; 
and across it the trade-winds, blowing alternately from n.e. and s.w., were wont to waft 
the Greeks of Egypt, without either chart or compass, about the commencement of the 
Christian era. See SuEZ CANAL. 

ARAB ICI, or ARABIANS, a sect in Arabia, in the 3d c. who held that the soul dies 
with the body and will be raised again with it. Eusebius says that Origen convinced 
them of their error, and they renounced it at the ‘‘ Council of Arabia,” A.D. 246. 


AR’ ABINE is the essential principle of gum-arabic (see Gum), and is obtained pure by 
adding alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic in water, when the A. is precipitated in white 
fiocculi. 


ARABO-TEDESCO, a term sometimes used to denote Byzantine art (q.v.), and the com- 
bination of Moorish and Gothic art in northern Italy. 

ARACAN’, or ARAKAN, long the most northern division of British Burmah, is bounded 
on the n. by Chittagong, on the e. by Ava, on the s. by Pegu, and on the w. by the bay 
of Bengal. It extends in n. lat. from 18° to 21° 33’, and in e. long. from 92° 10’ to 
$4° 50’. Its extreme length is 400 m.; and its breadth from 90 m. at the n., gradually 
diminishes towards the s., so as to yield an average of little more than 15, The area is 
14,526 sq. miles. A range of mountains, nearly parallel with the line of coast, the highest 
point 7000 ft. above the sea-level, separates A. from Pegu and upper Burmah. The 
soil of the northern portion of A. is alluvial; but the country is hilly, difficult of access, 
and covered with forest. The province is divided into four districts—Akyab, Sandoway, 
Ramree, and North Aracan. The British conquest of the province has been highly 
beneficial in every way. In 1825-26, the population was only about 100,000; in 1881 it 
was 173,000, showing an increase of 73 per cent in 5 or 6 years; in 1839 it had increased to 
248,000; before 1854 it was upwards of 321,000; in 1872, 483,363; according to the census 
of 1881, 587,518, and of 1891, 669,540. With these results the face of the country and the 
state of trade fully correspond. Rice and salt constitute the chief articles of exportation ; 
the others are tobacco, sugar, wood, oil, betel nuts, buffalo hides and horns, 

There have been various indications of a volcanic nature in A. In the islands of 
Ramree and Cheduba there exist springs of muddy water which emit bubbles of gas. 
Two severe earthquakes have taken place respectively in 1763 and 1838, the latter having 
thrown up, in several places, muddy water of a sulphurous smell, and also, on one par- 
Gcular spot, vapor and flame to the height of several hundred feet. Of the mineral 
resources very little is known. Iron-ore has been found, but not in such quantity and 
quality as to come into profitable competition with British iron. Coal also exists, which 
is understood to be good, but, from whatever cause, it has not been extensively worked. 
There are no lakes in the province, nor are there any rivers of much importance, though 
the Aeng, which appears to be the most available among them, is said to be navigable 
during spring-tides to 45 m. from its mouth. 


* ARACAN, or Mro-nAune, a city of British Burmah, and formerly the capital of 
© province of the same name. It is situated about 50 m. from the sea, in lat. 20° 42’ n., 


Arabian. 
595 Avachnidas 


and long. 93° 24’ e. Lying in a swampy valley which, on almost every side, is confined 
by hills, A. is subject to febrile disease in all its forms. Previous to the first Burmese 
war—the occasion which brought it under British dominion—it is said to have contained 
18,000 houses; while in 1835, after an interval of less than 10 years, its population is 
represented as having been only 8000, and later little more than 2000; the decrease, 
the consequence of its having ceased to be the seat of government, A. is now, 
in fact, interesting only from its old associations. The most striking memorial of 
antiquity is its dilapidated fort, consisting of three concentric walls such as only a pow- 
erful state could have constructed. Beyond the limits, too, of this citadel, the town, as 
a whole, appears to have been surrounded by a circumyallation of 9 m. in length, com- 
posed partly of steep and rugged eminences and partly of artificial works. These 
defenses, which are believed to be several centuries old, the British carried by assault on 
1st April, 1825. 


ARACA’RI, or Artcart, Preroglossus, a genus of birds closely allied to the toucans 
(see Toucan), and differing from them chiefly in the somewhat smaller bill, which is 
not so thick as the head. They are generally also of smaller size, and the prevailing 
color of their plumage is green, often varied with brilliant red and yellow. Like the 
toucans, they are natives of the warm parts of South America. 


ARACA‘TI, a t. and port in Brazil, on the river Jaguaribe, 10 m. from its mouth, and 
75 miles south-east of Ceara. It is well built, has several churches and a town hall. 
The exports are hides and cotton. Population about 6000. 


ARA'CEZ. See ARuM. 


ARACHIS, a genus of plants of the natural order legwminose, sub-order papilionacea, 
natives of the warm parts of America, of which, until recently, the only known species 
was the A. hypogewa, sometimes called the underground kidney-bean, and more frequently 
the ground-nut. It also receives the names of earth-nut, American earth-nut, and man- 
dubi. It is an annual plant, with hairy pinnate leaves, which have four leaflets. The 
flowers are yellow, the standard veined with red. After flowering, the flower-stalks 
elongate and bend towards the earth, into which the pods penetrate, ripening under- 
ground. The pods have a lining of a sort of network, and generally contain two, three, 
or four seeds, which are about the size of a hazel-nut, of a sweet taste, with a little of the 
flavor which belongs to most kinds of pulse. This plant is now cultivated in all the 
warm regions of the globe, and its usefulness is such that its cultivation is likely to 
extend. It was introduced from Peru into Spain, and thence into France. It succeeds 
in favorable situations even in the middle of France, where it is sown after all danger of 
frost is thought to be over, and yields from eighty toa hundred fold. Its cultivation is so 
general in the western parts of Africa, and even in the interior, that doubts have been 
therefore entertained of its American origin, of which, however, the most eminent 
botanists seem to be quite satisfied. The seeds are sometimes eaten raw, but more 
generally boiled or roasted. In New Spain, and in some parts of Africa, they form one 
of the principal articles of food; but the importance of the plant is chiefly owing to the 
fixed oil contained in them, which is used for the same purposes as olive or almond oil, 
and is quite equal to olive oil either for lamps or for the table. This oil is also much 
used in Spain in the manufacture of soap and of chocolate. A bushel of the seeds yields 
one gallon of oil, when expressed cold; if heat is applied, the quantity is greater, but 
the quality inferior. It has become a considerable article of commerce. The A. hypogea 
delights in a light and sandy, but at the same time fertile, soil. The seeds are dug up 
as roots or tubers usually are. The root has qualities resembling those of licorice, for 
which it is sometimes used. The herbage is good food for cattle. Several new species 
of this genus have been discovered in Brazil. 


ARACH NIDA, or ARACHNIDES (from the Gr. arachne, a spider), a class of articulated 
animals, commonly regarded as intermediate between insects and crustacea. They were 
included by Linnzus amongst insects, and placed in the order aptera. Like the crustacea, 
they have the head and thorax united into one piece, but they differ from them and from 
insects in having simple eyes, and in the absence of proper antenne, instead of which 
many of them are provided with a sort of antennal claws called chelicere. These and 
other organs connected with a complex mouth, disappear, however, in some of the 
lower kinds, which have merely a sort of proboscis for suction. Some of them breathe 
by means of pulmonary cavities; others, by trachex, like insects; and upon this differ- 
ence is founded the primary division of the class into two orders—pulmonaria and 
trachearia. Spiders and scorpions belong to the first of these orders, and mites, ticks, 
etc. (acart), to the second. Some of the A. inhabit water, but their mode of respiration 
is that of terrestrial animals; and they seem to carry air with them by means of the hair 
which covers their bodies. The sexes are distinct. They are oviparous. They have two 
or more eyes, very frequently eight; and the relative position of these affords marks for 
distinction of genera. They have generally eight legs, but some have only six. With 
the exception of the acari, they are solitary in their mode of life, and most of them prey 
upon insects, of which, however, in general, they only suck the blood. Some of the 
lower kinds are parasitic upon insects, and a few live on decaying animal and vegetable 
substances. See Acarus, MiTE, SCORPION, SPIDER, and TIcK. 


mer 596 


ARACH’NOID MEMBRANE, one of the three coverings of the brain and spinal cord, 
is a thin, glistening, serous membrane, which, by its parietal layer, adheres inseparably 
to the dura-mater on its outer side, and more loosely to the pia-mater, which is between 
it and the brain substance. Between the pia-mater and the A. M. in some situations 
there are considerable intervals (sub-arachnoid spaces); they are filled with a fluid named 
eerebro-spinal, the presence of which is necessary to the proper action of the nervous 
centers. See CEREBRO-SPINAL FiLurIp ; NERVOUS “YSTEM. 


ARA CLI (Lat. ‘‘ Altar of Heaven”). The name given to a famous church in Rome 
of great antiquity and said to be built on the spot where the Roman emperor Tiberius 
saw a vision of the Virgin and Child. It stands on the Capitoline Hill. 


ARAD, at. in the district of A. in upper Hungary. It is situated on the right bank 
of the Marosh, an affluent of the Theiss, and is also styled Old A., to distinguish it from 
New A., which is built on the opposite side of the river. A. had a pop. in 1890 of 
42,100, including many Jews, who are very wealthy. It carries on a large trade in 
corn, tobacco, etc., and was at one time the greatest cattle-market in Hungary, and 
is even yet only inferior to Pesth and Debreczin. During the 17th c., it was often cap- 
tured, and at last destroyed by the Turks. Its new fortifications, erected in 1763, made 
A. an important position in the revolutionary war of 1849, when it was occupied for a 
considerable time by the Austrian general Berger, who capitulated here in July, 1849. 
From this place Kossuth issued his proclamation of Aug. 11, 1849, in which he expressed 
in impassioned terms his despair of the Hungarian cause for the present. After the 
catastrophe of Vilagos, on the 17th Aug., A. was surrendered to the Russians through 
the treachery of Gorgey. 

New A., at. in the Banat of Temesvar, contains 5600 inhabitants, including many 
Germans, who are the principal persons in the place. ‘The district or province of A. 
has an area of 1700 sq. m. 


AR’/ADUS (now Ruap), a rocky island of about 600 acres, off the mouth of the river 
Eleutherus, 2m. from shore and 35 or 40 m. n. from Tripoli. Strabo says that the city 
of A. was founded by fugitives from Sidon. It was independent, ruled over the adjacent 
coast, and assisted the Macedonians in the siege of Tyre. Later, the town became sub- 
ject to Persia, to Antiochus Epiphanes, and to Rome. In 638, the caliph Omar’s com- 
mander destroyed A., and it was not rebuilt. The ruins show that it was once a very 
strong place. At present A. has a small population. 


ARAF, the purgatory of Islam, the place between paradise and hell, doubtless a place 
of purification by fire. 


AREOM’ETER. See AREOMETER. 

A'RAFAT, Mount, or Jebel-er-’rahme (mountain of mercy), is a granite hill about 15 
m. s.e. of Mecca, which is believed by the Mohammedans to be the spot where Adam, 
conducted by the angel Gabriel, met again his wife Eve, after a punitive separation of 
200 years, on account of their disobedience in Paradise. It is not above 200 ft. high, 
but its circuit is a mile and a half. Its importance since the time of Mohammed arises 
from its being the scene of a yearly procession of the faithful who visit Mecca. Burck- 
hardt, who witnessed the procession of 1814, states that not less than 70,000 people were 
present, and that at least forty different languages were spoken. The principal part of 
the religious ceremony of this pilgrimage is a sermon, the hearing of which entitles all 
to the name and privileges of a hadji. - 


AR’AGO, DomrIniIQugE, a celebrated French astronomer and natural philosopher, was 
b. Feb. 26, 1786, at Estagel, near Perpignan, in the department of the eastern Pyre- 
nees. At the early age of 17, he entered the polytechnic school at Paris, where the 
spirit, promptitude, and vivid intelligence he exhibited in his answers to the questions 
of Legendre, excited the admiration of every one. In 1804, he became secretary to the 
observatory at Paris. Two years afterwards, he wasengaged, with Biot and others, by the 
French government, to carry out the measurement of an arc of the meridian, which had 
been commenced by Delambre and Méchain. A. and Biot had to extend it from Barce- 
lona to the Balearic isles. The two savants established themselves on the summit of 
Mt. Galatza, one of the highest of the Catalonian branch of the eastern Pyrenees. 
Here they lived for many months, comraunicating by signals with their Spanish collabo- 
rateurs, across the Mediterranean in the little isle of Ivica, though many a night the 
furious tempests destroyed their hut along with the labors of weeks. Visitors they had 
none, except two Carthusian monks, who were wont to come up and spend a portion of 
the evening in converse with them. Before A. had completed his calculations, Biot had 
returned to France, and war had broken out betwixt the two nations. A. was now held 
to be a spy; his signals were interrupted; and with great difficulty he succeeded in mak- 
Ing his escape to Majorca, where he voluntarily imprisoned himself in the citadel of 
Belver, near Palma. At last he obtained his liberty on condition of proceeding to Algiers, 
which he did; but was captured, on his return to France, by a Spanish cruiser, and sent 
to the hulks at Palamos. He was, however, liberated after a time, and sailed once more 
for France; but almost as he was entering the port of Marseilles, a tempest arose which 
drove tie vessel across the Mediterranean all the way to Algiers, The former dey, to whose 


597 Arachnoid. 


Arago. - 


demands he had owed his liberation from the hulks, was dead; his successor, a ferocious 
tyrant, placed him on his list of slaves, and intended to employ him as interpreter. After 
some time, he was released at the request of the French consul, and, narrowly escaping 
another capture by an English frigate, finally found his way to Marseille in July, 1809. 
As a reward for his suffering in the cause of science, the Academy of Sciences suspended 
its standing rules in his favor ; and though only 23 years of age, he was elected member 
in the place of Lalande, who had just died, and was appointed professor of analytical 
mathematics in the Polytechnic School. Afterwards, his attention was devoted more to 
astronomy, magnetism, galvanism, and the polarization of light. In 1811, he read a 
paper to the Academy, which may be considered the foundation of ‘‘ chromatic polariza- 
tion.” In 1812, he commenced his extraordinary course of lectures on astronomy, etc., 
which fascinated all Paris—the savants, by their scientific rigor and solidity; the many, 
by their brilliancy of style. In 1816, along with Guy Lussac, A. established the Annales 
de Chimie et de Physique, and confirmed the truth of the undulatory theory of light. In 
the same year he visited England for the first time, and made the acquaintance of various 
persons distinguished in science, especially Dr. Thomas Young. In 1818 appeared his 
Recueil @ Observations géodésiques, astronomiques et physiques. In 1820, he turned his facile 
and inventive genius into a new channel, and made several important discoveries in 
electro-magnetism. Oecersted had shown that a magnetic needle was deflected by a voltaic 
current passing along a wire. A. pursued the investigation, and found that not only a 
magnetic needle, but even non-magnetic substances, such as rods of iron orsteel, became 
subject to deflection also, exhibiting, during the action of the voltaic current, a positive 
magnetic power, which, however, ceased with the cessation of the current. Some time 
after, he demonstrated that a bar of copper, and other non-magnetic metals, when 
moved circularly, exert a noticeable influence on the magnetic needle. For this discov- 
ery of the development of magnetism by rotation, he obtained, in 1825, the Copley medal 
of the Royal Society of London; and in 1834, when he again visited Great Britain, espe- 
cial honors were paid to him by the friends of science in Edinburgh and Glasgow. Four 
years previous to this second visit to Great Britain, he had received the honor he most 
coveted—that of being made perpetual secretary of the Academy. It was while holding 
this office that he wrote his famous éloges of deceased members, the beauty of which has 
given him so high a place among French prose-writers. As a politician, also, his career 
was remarkable. He was a keen republican, and took a prominent part in the July revo- 
lution (1830). In the following year he was elected by Perpignan as member of the 
chamber of deputies, where he occupied a position on the extreme left. In the February 
revolution of 1848, he was chosena member of the provisional government, and appointed 
minister of war and marine. In this position he resisted the proposed measures of the 
socialist party, regarding the constitution of the United States as the beau-ideal of democ- 
racy. His popularity in his own province was the means of preventing the discontented 
population of the east Pyrenees from proceeding to lawless and violent measures. On 
the question of the presidency, A. opposed Louis Napoleon, declared himself against 
the policy of the new ministry, and refused to take the oath of allegiance after the coup 
@état of 1851. The emperor, in a letter, paid a high eulogium on his talents and virtues, 
and made a special exception in his case. A. died Oct. 8, 1853. In his general charac. 
ter A. was sociable, energetic, and fond of fame. He was the intimate friend of Alex- 
ander von Humboldt. 


AR’/AGO, EMMANUEL, author and French politician; b. Paris, Aug. 6, 1812. In 
youth he produced a volume of poems and some plays, but at the age of 25 left literature 
for the bar, where he soon became eminent in political cases. He became an ardent 
republican, and defended such political recusants as Martin Bernard and Barbes. On 
the 24th of Feb., 1848, when the abdication of the king was announced in the chamber, 
A. rose, and, proclaiming that by that act royalty was extinct, demanded the deposition 
of the Orleans family, and protested against a regency. Under the provincial govern- 
ment, A. was sent to Lyons as commissary general, and prevented a serious insurrection 
by applying half a million francs to relieve immediate distress. He was afterwards a 
member of the general assembly for the department of Eastern Pyrenees, and was 
envoy to Prussia, where he interested himself for the oppressed Poles, procuring the 
liberation of Gen. Microlawski. He resigned as soon as Napoleon was elected, and 
became one of the future emperor’s most active opponents, vigorously protesting against 
the expedition to Rome. After the coup d état, Dec. 2, 1851, he quitted political life, 
returning to his law practice, but became a member of the provisional government in 
1870, afterwards minister of justice and minister of war; was elected to the senate in 
1876 and in 1891. D. 1896. 


ARAGO, Jacques ErmnneE Victor, brother of the great savant, was born in 1790. 
In 1817, he accompanied the expedition, under Freycinet, in a voyage round the world. 
Afterwards, we find him engaged, first at Bordeaux, and then at Toulouse, in several 
branches of light literature, industriously writing, in company with other scribes, a mul- 
titude of vaudevilles, besides publishing several poems and romances. In the year 1885, 
he undertook the management of the theater at Rouen; but having become afflicted with 
blindness, he was compelled to resign this post in 1837. To his early voyage round the 
world we owe two very pleasant books of travel: Promenade autour du Monde (Paris, 


Aras 598 


1838), Souvenirs Wun Aveugle; Voyage autour du Monde (Paris, 1838). In 1849, though 
deprived of sight, he formed a company of speculators; placed himself at the head of it, 
and departed for California, to search for gold on a large scale. His companions muti- 
nied and left him, deserted and disappointed, at Valparaiso. On hisreturn, he published 
his painful experiences, under the title, Voyage Wun aveugle en Californie et dans les 
Regions auriferes (Paris, 1851). He d. Jan. 1, 1855.—A., Errennn, another brother of 
the astronomer, was b. 1802, and became widely known as a popular /fewilletoniste in 
the Siéc/e and other journals. He held an appointment under the provisional govern- 
ment, as director-general of the post-office, in which he displayed great vigor, prompti- 
tude, and sense, and achieved several postal reforms; was elected member of the national 
assembly ; was compromised by the insurrection in June, and sentenced to exile for life. 
In 1859, he returned to France; and at the time of the Franco-Prussian war was mayor of 
Paris—an office which he soon resigned. D.1892.—A. Jean, another of the brothers A., 
b. 1789, d. 1836, was general of the republican army in Mexico, and wrote, in Spanish, 
a history of Mexico. 


ARAGON, once a kingdom, then a province in the n.e. of Spain, lies between 40° 2’ 
and 42° 54’ n. lat., and Jong. 2° 10’ w. and 0° 45’e. Greatest length from n. to s., 190 
m.; breadth, 180. Area, 17,900 sq.m. Pop. ’87, 910,880. It is bounded, n., by the 
Pyrenees, separating it from France; w., by Navarre, and Old and New Castile; s., by 
Valencia, and part of New Castile; and e., by Catalonia, and part of Valencia, The 
river Ebro, which descends from the northern heights of Old Castile, flows through the 
middle of A. in a south-easterly direction, receiving numerous tributaries both from the 
lofty regions of the Pyrenees and from the Sierras in the south; of the former, the prin- 
cipal are the Noguera, which forms the boundary-line between Aragon and Catalonia, 
the Essera, and the Gallega; of the latter, the principal are the Guadalope, the San 
Martin, and the Salon. The province is naturally divided into the level country, along 
the Ebro, and the northern mountainous district of upper Aragon. The central plain is 
sterile, poorly supplied with water, and intersected by deep ravines (barancos). Agricul- 
ture is here confined to the raising of maize, vines, and olives; but on the sides of the 
Ebro, where water abounds, rice and other grains are abundantly produced; and in the 
valleys of upper A., which are at once the most beautiful and fertile of all the Pyrenean 
valleys, we find a splendid vegetation, and a soil that enables the inhabitants, in spite of 
the wretchedness of their agriculture, to grow considerable quantities of wheat, rye, 
maize, barley, etc. The climate of the province is various; comparatively cool in the 
mountain-districts, but often very sultry on the plains. Spurs of the Pyrenees strike 
down into the province a long way. It is between these ridges that the rich valleys lie, 
some of them upwards of 20 m. long. The slopes of the hills are clothed with forests 
of oak, beech, and pine, and the felled timber is floated down the rivers into the Ebro, 
and thence down to Tortosa at its mouth. The minerals of the province are copper, 
lead, iron, salt, alum, saltpetre, coal, and amber. The manufactures are inconsiderable. 
A., peopled by a brave, active, enduring, but obstinate race, has frequently been the 
arena of sanguinary warfare. It early became a Roman province; and, on the fall of 
the empire, passed into the hands of the West Goths, but was conquered by the Moors in 
the beginning of the 8th century. The rulers of A., after it had been recovered from 
the Moors, and united with Catalonia (1137), became powerful; obtained possession of 
the Balearic isles in 1213, of Sicily in 1282, of Sardinia in 1326, and of Naples in 1440. 
By the marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella, heiress of Castile, in 1469, the two states of 
A. and Castile were united, and formed the foundation of the great Spanish monarchy. 
After Ferdinand’s death in 1516, the union of the states was made permanent. In the 
war with the French, 1808-9, Saragossa, the capital of A., was remarkable for its heroic 
defense under Palafox; and in recent Spanish wars the people of A. have displayed the 
same courage which marked their conduct on that memorable occasion. Upper A. was 
on the side of the queen; but lower A. generally adhered to the party of Don Carlos, 
The province is now divided into three departments—Saragossa, Teruel, and Huesca. 
The chief towns are Saragossa, Calatayud, Huesca, and Teruel. See Saragossa, etc. 


ARAGONA, a t. of Sicily, 8 m. n.n.e. from Girgenti. It is a poor t., and stands in 
the midst of bare green downs; but the hills above it are clothed with pines, cypresses, 
olives, almonds, and carobs. The only object of interest is the old castle of the princes 
os A. ‘ ey building, in the renaissance style, which has fallen much into decay. 

op. 11,000. 


ARA'GUA, a former state of Venezuela, in a fertile region on the river A. It is a 
small division, only about 3700 sq.m. ; pop., estimated, 81,500. Chief t., Victoria. 


ARAGUAY’, a large river of Brazil, rising in s. lat. 18° 10’, and w. long. 51° 30”. Like 
most of the considerable rivers of the country, it flows towards the n. After a course 
of about 1000 m. to San Joao, it there joins the Tocantins, which again, after a northerly 
course of 300 m. more, mingles its estuary with that of the Amazon round the Isle of 
Marajo. Like most of the rivers in this part of Brazil, the A. is of difficult navigation, 
being frequently interrupted by rapids. 


ARAGUAY’A, or ARAGUIA. See ARAGUAY. 


599 Aragetic 


Aran. 


ARAKTCHEI’EF, ALExer ANDREEVITCH, Count, 1769-1834; a Russian general 
Of low origin, he rose rapidly to high rank under the favoritism of Paul, who made: 
him governor of St. Petersburg and commander of his personal guards. After Paul's 
assassination, A. was kept near the person of Alexander, the succeeding emperor, and 
in the late years of that emperor’s reign, A. became practically the ruler. He was 
energetic, but cruel, and always untrustworthy. It is recorded that he left in his will 
a prize for the best history of Alexander’s reign, to be written a century after the death 
af the emperor, and it is supposed that this part of the testament was canceled by 
Alexander. 


ARAL, Laks, next to the Caspian sea, from which it is separated by the plateau off 
Ust-Urt, is the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It lies wholly within the limits of 
Russian Central Asia, between 43° 42’ and 46° 44’ n. lat., and 58° 18’ and 61° 46’ e. long. 
It is fed by the river Sir (the ancient Jaxartes) on the n.e. side, and the Amu (or ancien& 
Oxus) on the s.e. It is shallow, and has no outlet. Its level is 117 ft. above that of 
the Caspian, and 33 ft. above that of the Black sea. Like other lakes which are drained 
only by evaporation, it is brackish. Owing to the shallowness of its waters, navigatiom 
is difficult; but Russian steamers have been launched upon it, and took part in the 
operations against Khiva in June, 1873. The history of the sea of Aral is very remark- 
able. Sir Henry Rawlinson and Col. Yule have recently collected references made to itt 
in Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Persian writers, and have established the fact that the area 
it now occupies has been dry land twice within historical times—the Jaxartes and the 
Oxus then running s. of the sea of Aral to the Caspian. This was the case during the 
Greco-Roman period, and again during the 13th and 14th centuries after Christ. The 
Russian government has undertaken the restoration of the Oxus to its old bed.—See 
Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, vol. xi., vol. xvi., and vol. i. (new series, 1879); 
also T’he Shores of Lake Aral, by major Wood (Lond., 1876). 

ARA'LIA, a genus of plants, the type of the natural order araliacee. This order is 
dicotyledonous or exogenous, and consists of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, 
resembling the wmbellifere (q.v.) both in their general habit and in their botanical char- 
acters, but differing essentially in the fruit, which is not didymous or formed of two 
separable carpels as in the wmbelliferew. The fruit of the araliacese consists of several 
one-seeded cells, and is often succulent. The order contains about 160 known species, 
natives of tropical, temperate, and cold climates, generally possessing stimulant and 
aromatic properties. Poisonous qualities are not developed as in the wmbellifere. The 
herbage of many species affords good food for cattle, and some are used for humam 
food. The genus ARALIA contains a considerable number of species—trees, shrubs, and 
herbaceous plants. It has a succulent fruit, with 5 or 10 cells, crowned with the styles. 
A. nudicaulis is a native of the United States of America, a species of humble growth, 
having a solitary radical leaf with a trifid stalk and ovate serrated segments; the scape is 
shorter than the leaf. The root is said to be equal in value to sarsaparilla as an altera- 
tive and tonic. <A. racemosa, A. spinosa, and A. hispida, also natives of North America, 
produce an aromatic gum resin. A. spinosa is a stimulant diaphoretic. The berries, 
infused in wine or spirits, are employed in America as a cure for rheumatism. It is 
sometimes called toothache-tree; it also bears the name of angelica-tree. It is a native 
of moist woods in Virginia and Carolina, growing to a height of 10 or 12 ft., with a sin- 
gle stem, spreading head, doubly and trebly pinnate leaves and ovate leaflets, and i# 
very ornamental inalawn. A. polaris, found in the southern island of New Zealand, 
and in the greatest abundance and luxuriance in Lord Auckland’s islands, is described 
by Dr. Hooker as a ‘‘ very magnificent plant,” a herbaceous perennial, 4 to 5 ft. high, with 
large orbicular masses of green foliage and waxy flowers, presenting a very striking 
appearance. A. edulis, now called dimorphanthus edulis, is employed in China as @ 
sudorific.. Its shoots are very delicate and pleasant when boiled; and the roots, which 
have an agreeable aromatic flavor, are used by the Japanese as carrots or parsnips are 
in Europe. Aralias abound in the warm valleys of the Himalaya. The natives collect 
the leaves of many as fodder for cattle, for which purpose they are of great value in & 
country where grass for pasture is scarce; but the use of this food gives a peculiar 
taste to the butter. Chinese rice paper has been ascertained to be cut from cylinders 
of the pith of an A. Ginseng (q.v.), the root of a species of panax, is one of the most 
important products of the order araliacee, The astringent roots of gunnera scabra, or 
panke, are used in tanning, but its fleshy leaf-stalks are eaten like those of rhubarla 
It has been seen on the sandstone cliffs of Chiloe with leaves nearly 8 ft. in diameter, 
each plant with four or five of these enormous leaves. It has been introduced ini@ 
Britain,and is found to succeed well in the climate of Edinburgh. The only represent- 
atives of this order in the British flora are the ivy (q.v.), and a small plant called the 
tuberous moschatel (adoxa moschatellina). 


A'RAM, EvceEne, was b. in 1704 at Ramsgill, in Yorkshire. His father was a gar- 
dener, and could afford to keep A. at school only for a short time; but even while assist- 
ing his father, he contrived to gratify his passion for learning. At an early period of 
his life he married, and became a schoolmaster, first in Netherdale, and afterwards si 
Knaresborough, where he continued to reside till 1745. In the town of Knaresborough 
lived one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, and an intimate acquaintance of A.’s. On one 


Arango. 600 


occasion Clarke happened to purchase a quantity of valuable goods, which he easily 
obtained on credit; but, to the surprise of everybody, he soon after disappeared, and 
no trace of him could be discovered. Suspicion lighted upon A., not as Clarke’s mur- 
derer, but as his confederate in swindling the public. His garden was searched, and in 
it was found a portion of the goods which Clarke had purchased. A. was arrested and 
tried, but acquitted for want of evidence. He now left his wife at Knaresborough, and 
went to London, and other parts of England, in his capacity of schoolmaster; and, in 
spite of his nomadic mode of life, contrived to acquire a knowledge of botany, heraldry, 
Chaldee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish, and was planning a great etymological work, to be 
entitled A Comparative Lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic Languages, 
when he was suddenly dragged away from his ushership of Lynn Academy, in Norfolk, 
and committed to prison on a charge of murder. 

The circumstances of the remaining portion of the story are pretty well known. In 
1759, a skeleton was dug up near Knaresborough, which the inhabitants suspected to be 
that of Clarke, for they had now come to the conclusion that the unfortunate man had 
met with foul play, especially as A.’s wife had, on several occasions, made strange state- 
ments to the effect that her husband and a man named Houseman knew more of Clarke’s 
disappearance than they chose to admit. Houseman was now confronted with a bone 
of the skeleton which had been discovered. He very emphatically denied that it was 
Clarke’s. People naturally wondered how he could beso positive, the bones of skeletons 
being, to the uneducated eye. so similar in appearance. They became convinced that 
if the skeleton was not Clarke’s, Houseman must know where the latter was. At last 
he confessed that he had been a spectator of the murder of Clarke by A. and one 
Terry. He named the place where the body had been hidden. It was searched, the 
buried skeleton was dug up, and A. was tried at York, for the murder of Clarke, on the 
3d Aug., 1759. What has given so extraordinary an éclat to this trial, is the fact that 
A. conducted his own defense. Heattacked, with great acumen, plausibility, and curious 
erudition, the doctrine of circumstantial evidence; but to no effect, for a verdict of 
guilty was returned, and he was condemned to be executed three days afterwards. In 
the interval, he confessed his guilt to the clergymen who attended him. While in the 
condemned cell he wrote a defense of suicide; but failed in a practical illustration of the 
doctrine, which he attempted. The story forms the subject of a novel by Bulwer. 


ARAM2Z’'A (from the Hebrew word Aram, signifying the highland in opposition to 
the lowland of Canaan) includes the whole of the country situated to the n.e. of Pales- 
tine. Its boundaries, though not rigorously defined, were as follows: N., by Mt.Taurus; 
e., by the Tigris; s., by Arabia; and w., by Arabia, Phcenicia, and Lebanon. It embraced 
the countries known to the Greeks by the various names of Syria, Babylonia, and Meso- 
potamia. Zhe Aramaic language, a branch of the Semitic, was common to the whole 
country, and was divided into two principal dialects—the west Aramaic or Syriac, and 
the east Aramaic, or, as it is improperly termed, the Chaldee. The former was that 
spoken almost universally in Palestine in the time of Christ. Ever since the Babylo- 
nian captivity, the pure Hebrew, in which the whole of the Old Testament, with the 
exception of a few chapters in Daniel and Ezra, had been written, had gradually given 
place to the Aramaic. The Aramaic version of the Bible was that used in Christ’s time, 
who quotes from it, and not from the original Hebrew; as, for instance, the beginning 
of the 22d Psalm, which he repeats on the cross. The Talmud, especially the Babylo- 
nian, has a large admixture of Aramaic elements. The Aramaic dialect is, in general, 
the harshest, poorest, and least elaborate of all the Semitic languages, and has now 
almost entirely died out, and given place to the Arabic and Persian. Indeed, it is only 
found living among some tribes in remote districts of the mountains of Kurdistan, 
and in two or three villages in Syria; yet it is considered highly probable that it is the 
root of the whole cluster of Semitic tongues. 


ARAMAIC, Arum, is the name of a part of the north Semitic family, inhabiting from 
time to time, but never with one definite centre, various districts within the tract of 
jand bounded by the coast line of Syria and Palestine on the west, the Taurus range and 
Armenia on the north, the Tigris on the east, and central Arabia on the south. ‘The 
name, which is referred by tradition to one of the sons of Shem (Gen. x, 22) designates 
a racial and linguistic, rather than a political unity. From the Egyptian monuments 
we learn that as early as 1500 B.C. Syria had a well-developed civilization. But the in- 
habitants were probably the non-Semitic Hittites. The Aramzans dwelt to the east of 
the Hittites, and gradually drove them farther to the west. On the cuneiform inscrip- 
tions they are mentioned (arimu, aramu, arumu) as having settlements in Assyria by 
Tiglath Pileser I. (1120-1100 B.C.), Shalmanassar II. (860-824 B.C.), and as dwelling in 
Babylonia by Tiglath Pileser II. (745-727 B.C.), Sargon (722-705 B.C.) and Sennach- 
erib (705-681 B.C.). Homer is thought to mention them as the”Epeufor or "Apiuor (Od. 
6. 84, Il. B. 783). By the Greeks they were called Svpo:, a shortened form of ’Accipox, 
Which name was accepted by the later Christian Arameans, as the word Aramaan 
was used in Jewish literature in the sense of ‘‘ Gentile, heathen.’’ The Arameans were 
probably divided into small principalities, whose rulers are called in the cuneiform litera- 


ture “‘ princes,” and not ‘‘ kings.” Of these principalities the Bible mentions : i. Arim 
Nahardtim (Egypt., Naharina ; Assyr., Mami Armiaya), the district between the rivers 


Wm 


601 Arango. 
Euphrates and Chaboras, and, therefore, not equivalent to the Greek Meoororapéa; ii., Arim 
Déiméshéq, the territory around Damascus ; iii., Arum Sobhih, in the Hauran ; iv., Aram 
Bath Réchdbh, probably in the northern part of Galilee ; v., Aram Médichah, the territory 
around Mount Hermon. From the banks of the lower Tigris, where in Sasdnian times 
the district was still called Béth Armdyé (Home of the Arameans), Aramzean influence 
spread northward and westward, until it dominated, as a social and linguistie force, 
Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. The Arameeans seem to have been the chief inland 


traders of that region : the route from Egypt and the Mediterranean to the valley of the 
Tigris lying in the lands they inhabited. This influence was felt even in northern 


Arabia. Aramaic inscriptions have been found at Taima ; and the Nabateeans, an Arab 


race, made use of an Aramzean script and language. When the Jews returned from the 
Babylonian captivity, they found Aramean to be the language of Palestine ; and in 


‘this tongue Jews and the apostles conversed. At an earlier time(8th century B.C.) Aramean 


seems to have been the lingua franca for that part of Asia (cf. 2. Kings, xviii. 26; 
Isaiah xxxvi. 11). In the Persian period, it became the official language of the provinces 
east of the Euphrates ; and Pahlavi has retained many Aramzean words, which, how- 
ever, are pronounced as their Persian equivalents. One of its dialects, Syriac, became 
the official language of the Eastern Church of Syria and Mesopotamia. ‘The Aramzean 
script, derived from the older Phenician, became the parent of the ‘‘ sacred scripts of 
the five great faiths of Asia : Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Northern Buddhism, 
and Islam.” With the rise of Mohammedanism, Aramean influence commenced to 
wane definitely ; and in the tenth and eleventh centuries, A.D., even Syriac died out as a 
living tongue—though still spoken by small communities in the Lebanon, Mesopotamia, 
and around Lake Urmia. 

The Aramean dialects are divided into an Eastern and a Western branch, of which 
we have the following literary remains: A. EASTERN ARAMAIC.—i. The Syriac of 
Edessa, the most important of all the Aramezan dialects, has a very large and valuable 
literature, consisting chiefly of religious works and translations from the Greek.—ii. 
The Talmtd of Babylon.—iii. The writings of the Mandezans (so-called ‘‘ Brothers of 
St. John’) with a script of their own. A small number still exist in WAsit, Basra, and 
Chiizistan.—iv. The modern Aramaic dialects of Tiir Abdin, Urmia, Salamis, etc. B. 
WESTERN ARAMAIC.—i. The Aramaic portions of the Old Testament (two words in 
Gen. xxxi. 47; Jer. x. 11; Daniel xi. 4 b—vii. 28; Ezra iv. 8; vi. 18; vii. 12-26). 
Through a mistaken application of Daniel ii. 4 a, this dialect has been called ‘‘ Chal- 
dean.’’—ii. Various words and sentences in the New Testament (Mark xiv. 36 ; Matthew 
x. 25; John v. 2; Matthew xxvii. 46; Mark xv. 84; 1 Cor. xvi. 22) and Josephus. —iii. 
The Targimim, or Aramaic translations of the Old Testament.—iv. The Samaritan Tar- 
giim of the Pentateuch and the later Samaritan ritual—v. The Talmiid of Jerusalem.— 
vi. The Aramaic inscriptions found in Assyria, in Arabia, and on Papyri in Egypt.—vii. 
The numerous inscriptions (mostly bilingual) found in the ruins of Palmyra.—viii. Naba- 
tean inscriptions and coins found in the Sinai-peninsula, Idumea, Haurdan, etc.—ix. 
The so-called Christian-Aramaic dialect of Palestine as seen in a MS. of the Gospels 
and in other fragmentary MSS.—x. Remains of a modern Aramaic dialect spoken in 
Ma‘lila and some other places in the Anti-Lebanon. See SHemMrTric LANGUAGES. 


ARAN'DA, PEDRO PasnLo ABARCA DE BoA, Count of, b. in 1718 of a distin- 
guished Aragonese family, at first embraced a military career; but having evinced a 
remarkable spirit of observation, he was appointed by Charles III. ambassador to the 
court of Augustus III., king of Poland; which post he filled for seven years. After his 
return, he was appointed captain-general of Valencia, and in 1766 recalled to Madrid on 
account of its disturbed state, and the presidency of the council of Castile was bestowed 
on him. A. not only soon restored order in the capital, but limited the power of the 
inquisition, procured the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain, and carried the salutary 
terror of government into the recesses of the Sierra Morena, then infested by hordes of 
ferocious banditti. Like many other reformers, he was not able fully to carry out his 
fiberal intentions. In 1773, he was removed from his high position through the influ- 
ence of the clergy, the Dominican monks especially, and sent as ambassador to France. 
Grimaldi succeeded him in his office, and after him Count Florida Blanca ; but when the 
latter lost his office in consequence of court intrigues, A. returned to his position; soon, 
however, to lose it again through the agency of Godoy, duke of Alcudia, the queen’s 
favorite. He, however, still remained president of the council of state, which he had 
organized; but upon expressing his views regarding the war with France, he was ban- 
ished to his native province of Aragon, where he d. in 1799. | 


ARA'NEA and ARANE'IDZE. See SPIDER. 
ARANEIDES. See SPIDER. 
ARANEIFORM. A name applied to any insect having the form of a spider (q.v.). 


ARANGO. The native African name for a bead of rough carnelian (q.v.) much used 
as ornaments by the natives of the East Coast, and made for the African trade in Bombay. 


Aranjuez. 602 


Araucania, 


ARANJUEZ (a corruption of the Latin Ara-Jovis, altar of Jupiter), a t. in the 
province of Madrid, Spain. It is situated on the left bank of the Tagus, 28 m. s,8.e. 
from Madrid, in a beautifully wooded valley, and is now connected with the Span- 
ish metropolis by a railway. The t. is built in the Dutch style, has broad and regu- 
lar streets intersecting each other at right angles, and a pop. of 9600. It is famed 
for its palace and gardens, The former was long a favorite resort in spring of the 
royal family, during which period A. occasionally reckoned as many as 20,000 inhabit- 
ants: the latter were laid out by Philip II., who built a palace also, for there was only a 
shooting villa here during his father’s time, but a fire destroyed a portion of it, and 
more was taken down by Philip V., who reconstructed the edifice in French style. The 
present chiteau was completed by Charles ITV. On account of its gardens, the natives 
call A. ‘‘the metropolis of Flora.” These gardens are interspersed with numerous 
summer-houses, the most celebrated of which is the casa del labrador, or laborer’s cot- 
tage; but their most splendid ornaments are the great elm-trees brought from England 
by Philip IL, which thrive magnificently. They radiate out from a central plot in 12 
distinct rows. A. is known historically for the treaty of alliance concluded here 
between France and Spain on April 12, 1772, and as the scene of the abdication of 
Charles IV. on March 18, 1808. 


ARANSAS, a co. in Texas, on the Gulf of Texas. Area, 400 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 1824. 
Co. seat, Rockport. 

ARANY, JANos, next to Petdfi the most distinguished of modern Hungarian poets, 
was b. at Nagy-Szalonta in 1817. His father was a poor peasant, who spared no 
pains to get him into the church. In 1832, he entered the college at Debreczin, where 
he distinguished himself by his diligence; but unable to restrain his love of adven- 
ture, he joined, in 1886, a company of strolling-players, with whom he traveied about 
for several months, till, driven by necessity and an upbraiding conscience, he hurried 
home to do what he could for the support of a now blind and aged parent. At Szalonta 
he worked as a teacher of Latin and as a notary. When the Kisfaludy Society of Pesth 
offered a prize for the best humorous poem, A. sent in anonymously his Az elveszett 
Alkotmdny (The Lost Constitution of the Past). He was successful. Thus emboldened, 
he ventured, in 1847, to forward to the same society the first part of a trilogy, Toldt. 
Struck by the beauty of this purely national effort, the members published it at their 
own expense, and again rewarded the author. A. soon became a popular favorite, even 
in the lowest ranks of the community. In 1848 appeared his Murdnu Ostroma (Conquest 
of Murany), which received less attention owing to the political excitement of the time. 
The poet himself took a slight part in the revolution, but after the dismal termination of 
the war, he was allowed to return to his country. Soon afterwards he became professor 
of Hungarian literature at Nagy-Koros, and then director of the Kisfaludy society, and 
editor of the journal Koszoru. The chief of his later works are Katalin, the second part 
of Toldi, 2 vols. of lyrics, the first part of another trilogy, Buda Haldia, and a humorous 
poem recounting his early adventures (1874). Some of his works have been translated 
into German. He d. 1882. 


ARAP’ AHOE, a co. in n.e. Colorado ; 5220 sq.m, ; pop. in ’80, 38,607 ; in ’90, 132,135. 
The Kansas Pacific railroad passes through, and the co. is watered by the branches of 
the s. fork of the Platte. The w. part is mountainous, the e. level. Mining and agri- 
culture are the industries. Co. seat, Denver, which is also the capital of the state. 


ARAP’AHOE, a co. in s.w. Kansas, formed in 1873; 576 sq.m. ; unorganized. 


ARAP’AHOES, an Indian tribe, dwelling on reservations in Wyoming and in the 
Indian territory, allied by language to the Caddoes. A powerful tribe half a century 
eee they are now few in number and inoffensive. The French called them ‘‘ Gros 

entres.” 


ARAPAI'MA, a genus of fresh-water fishes, the largest known fresh-water fishes in 
the world. They are found in the rivers of South America, and are sometimes taken 
in the Rio Negro 15 ft. in length, and of the weight of 4cwt. They are taken with 
the harpoon, and are highly esteemed for food, both fresh and salted. In the salted 
state they have begun to form an article of commerce, and are conveyed in large quan- 
tities to Para. The genus A. belongs to the family of clwpesocide, a family of malacop- 
terous fishes, allied to the cluwpeide or herring family, and is remarkable for the mosaic 
work of strong, bony, compound scales with which the body is covered. About six 
species are known. 


AR'ARAT (Airarat, in the old Armenian dialect; i.e., the plains of the Aryans), the 
ancient name of the fertile plateau through which flows the river Aras or Araxes. It 
occupies the centre of the mountainous region of Armenia, belonging partly to Turkey 
and partly to Russia. Notwithstanding the passage in Gen. viii. 4, where it is said 
that the ark rested ‘‘ on the mountains of Ararat,” it has become common to give the 
name A., not to the entire range, but to the mountain called by the Armenians Massis 
Leusar—i.e., ‘mountain of the ark” (known among the Turks as Aghri-Dagh, “steep 
mountain ;” and among the Persians as Koh-i-Ntih, ‘‘ Noah’s mountain”). It rises in two 
volcanic cones, known as the greater and the lesser Ararat; the former, which attains 
the height of 17,212 ft. above the level of the sea, is covered with perpetual snow. It 


Aranjuez. 
603 (eberkar. 


is the highest elevation of western Asia; and since the war of 1827 it forms the point 
where the Russian, Turkish, and Persian territories meet. In 1840, the form of the 
mountain was partially changed by a frightful and destructive earthquake. Previous 
to this period, at the base of the mountain, and at a point where a stream runs from 4 
wild gorge, there stood the village of Arguri or Aguri. It was surrounded by gardens 
and orchards, and inhabited by upwards of 1000 inhabitants. In the ravine, 2300 ft. 
above the village, stood the Armenian convent of St. James; and 1000 ft. higher still, & 
chapel dedicated to St. James. The beauty and mild air of the district made Arguri 
a favorite summer resort of the richer inhabitants of Erivan. It was to undergo a 

reat change, however. On the 20th of June, 1840, dreadful shocks of earthquake were 
elt. Great masses of the mountain were thrown into the plain, the ravine was closed, 
the convent and chapel disappeared, and the village, and the gardens which surrounded 
it, were buried under rocks, earth, and ice, and with the inhabitants utterly destroyed. 
Tournefort made a partial ascent of the mountain in 1700; since then, ascents have been 
made in 1829 by Prof. Parrot, of Dorpat, and his companions; in 1850 by Col. Chodzko, and 
a large party of Russians engaged in the transcaucasian triangulation ; in 1856 by Major 
Robert Stuart; and in 1870 by Dr. G. Radde and Dr. G. Sievers, These naturalists, the 
former of whom is director of the museum at Tiflis, have carefully explored the 
mountain and district in which it is situated. See their ‘‘ Reisen in Armenschen Hoch- 
land” (Petermann’s Mittheilungen for 1871); also the Transcaucasia and A. of Mr. Bryce, 
who made the ascent in 1876. 


A'RAS, the ancient Arazes, a river of Armenia, formed by the junction of the Bingol. 
Su and the Kaleh-Su, and uniting its waters with those of the Kur (ancient Cyrws) after 
a course of about 500 miles. The main stream is the Bingol-Su, which rises in the Bingol- 
Tagh, in lat. 41° 30 n., and long. 41° 10' e.; and flowing n.n.e., is joined alittle below Hasan 
kaleh by the Kaleh-Su, after which the combined stream is called the A. It then flows east. 
ward, forming for some time the southern boundary of the province of Kars, till it is joined 
by the Arpa, which flows into it from the n. After this, it divides Russian and Turkish 
Armenia; at some distance to the s. of Erivan it turns to the s.e., along the base of 
Ararat; soon after which it receives the waters of the Zenghi, a river descending sovth- 
ward past Erivan. Near Djulfa it runs eastward for about 60 m.; after which it rans 
to the n.e. for upwards of 125 m., till it is joined by the large river Kur, descending 
from the Caucasus through Georgia. Their united waters, after a short eastward course, 
turn suddenly to the s.,and fall by three mouths into the gulf of Kizilgatch, in the 
Caspian, in lat. 89° 20’ n. 

ARA'TUS oF Sicyron, a distinguished Greek statesman, was b. about 271 8.c. His 
youth fell among the party strifes of his native t., in which his father, Clinias, met his 
dcath; and he himself was only saved by the efforts of his aunt, who had him secretly 
conveyed to Argos, whence he returned, in his 20th year, and liberated Sicyon from its 
tyrant, Nicocles, 251 s.c. Supported by Ptolemzus Philadelphus, A. restored the re- 
publican form of government to Sicyon, and united it with the Achaian league, of which 
he was appointed general, 245 B.c. During his honorable but checkered career, this 
office was conferred on him 17 times. His great object was to unite the Greek states, 
and form out of them an independent nation; but this was thwarted by their mutual 
jealousies. A. was a brave general, a skillful tactician, and a disinterested patriot. He 
died by poison administered to him by command of Philip ITI. of Macedon. 


ARA'TUS oF Soxt (or Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia), wrote about 270 B.c., a Greek didactie 
poem entitled Phenomena, founded on the astronomical system of Eudoxos of Cnidos, 
and appended to itanother poem, Diosemeia, giving rules for prognostication of the 
weather. A pure style and correct versification mark both poems, which were trans- 
lated into Latin by Cicero, Cesar Germanicus, and Rufus Festus Avienus. <A. was a 
native of the same province as St. Paul, who quotes from him in his speech on Mars’ 
Hill: ‘‘ For as certain of your own poets have said, We also are his offspring.” The 
best edition is that by Buhle, 2 vols. Leipsic, 1793-1801. 


ARAUCA'NIA, the country of the Araucos or Araucanian Indians, in the s. of Chili. 
The Chilian province of Arauco, lying between the rivers Biobio and Valdivia, was 
incorporated in 1852. The Indians occupy a large territory in Arauco and the more 
southerly province of Valdivia, and have of late mostly submitted to the Chilian re- 
public. ‘The Araucanians are interesting as furnishing the only example of Indian self- 
government in the presence of the European races. Their country is divided from n. to 
s. into four parallel regions, varying from each other, with tolerable regularity, in soil 
and climate. These are the coast region, the plain region, the region of the lower Andes, 
and the region of the higher Andes. The productions of A. are similar to those of 
Chili. The population cannot be accurately estimated on account of the independence 
of the nation; but the official estimates for 1894 set down the aboriginal population of 
Chili at about 50,000 souls. 

A. has the proud distinction of being the only portion of the new world that 
has never received the European yoke. From the days of Pizarro and Almagro 
downwards, it has uniformly vindicated its freedom —its wars of independence 
having lasted, with intervals of precarious truce, from 15387 to 1778. During the 
war between Spain and the Chilian colonists, A, remained neutral. In 1861, a Frenck 


T,—20 


i 


adventurer named De Tonneins was elected king of A., but was dispossessed and died 
in 1878. 

ARAUCA'BIA, a genus of plants of the natural order conifer (q.v.) or pines, consist- 
ing of lofty trees, natives of the southern hemisphere, and distinguished by having the 
male and female flowers on separate plants, the pollen of the male flowers contained in 
10—20 cases pendent from the apex of each scale, the female flowers two under each 
scale; each having one ovule. The species are all evergreen, the leaves broader than in 
pines and firs, which, however, the trees resemble in their general manner of growth. 
‘A, imbricata, sometimes called the CurILt PINE, a native of the Andes of Chili, forming 
forests on their western declivities, attains a height of 150 ft., the trunk quite straight 
and free from knots. The bark of the young trees is studded with leaves from the base 
upwards, even until 12 or 15 years of age. The branches are in whorls of 6, 7, or 8. 
Young trees have branches almost from the ground; old trees have tall naked stems, 
with a crown of branches. The female strobile (cone) is roundish ovate, 8 to 10 in. in 
diameter, the scales terminated by a long awl-shaped point, the seeds wedge-shaped, 
and more thananinch in length. ‘The outer and inner bark of full-grown trees are each 4 
to § in. in thickness; the outer bark of a cork-like texture; the inner, fungous and 
porous. From both outer and inner bark, and indeed from all parts of the tree, resin 
flows readily and in great abundance. The leaves are lanceolate, about 14 in. in length, 
and + in. in breadth near the base, sharp-pointed. The timber is heavy, solid, hard, 
fibrous, yellowish white, and beautifully veined. It is very suitable for masts of ships. 
The resin, which is white, has a smell like frankincense, and a not unpleasant taste. 
It is applied as a plaster to contusions. The seed is pleasant to the taste, not unlike the 
chestnut, and is a most important article of food to the Indians. It is eaten raw, boiled, 
or roasted. A spirituous liquor is also distilled fromit. A single strobile sometimes 
contains between 200 and 300 seeds, and one tree may be seen loaded with 20 or 30 of 
these great strobiles. This A. was introduced into Britain in the end of last century, and 
is now pretty frequently planted. It promises to add a new feature to British land: 
scapes, as other trees of the same order, particularly the larch and spruce (see illustra- 
tion, CONIFER, vol. IV., figs. 1, 4, 6), have done before, and will probably prove 
important in an- economical point of view. A. brasiliana, the BRaAziL PINE, has 
loosely imbricated lanceolate leaves, and a looser and more spreading habit than A. im- 
bricata. The seeds or nuts are sold as an article of food in Rio Janeiro. The resin 
which exudes from the tree is mixed with wax to make candles. A. ercelsa, now called 
eutussa excelsa (and by some altingia), the Norrouk IsLAND PINE, a native of Norfolk 
island, New Caledonia, etc., attains a height of 160 to 220 ft., free from branches to 80 
to 100 ft., and with a trunk sometimes 11 ft. in diameter. The wood is white, tough, 
close-grained, and so heavy as almost to sinkin water. The leaves of the young trees 
are linear and spreading; those of the adult are ovate, and closely imbricated. The 
strobiles are ovate, 4 to 5 in. in length. A. cunningham, now also ranked in the-new 
genus ¢eutassa or altingia, the MorETON Bay PINE, a native of the shores of Moreton bay 
and banks of the Brisbane river in New South Wales, very much resembles the last. It 
attains a height of 60 to 180 ft.,and a diameter of 4to8ft. The leaves of the adult 
trees are lanceolate and imbricated. The wood is yellowish, and is used for boat-build- 
ing, house-carpentry, and the common kinds of furniture. The large seeds of A. 
bidwilltt are used for food by the natives at Moreton bay. 

Certain fossil conifere found in carboniferous sandstone have received the name arau- 
carites. Livingstone found a forest of large silicified trees near the Zambesi, which Mr. 
Quekett, on examination of specimens, ascertained to be ‘‘silicified coniferous wood of 
the Araucarian type.” Fossil trees of the same type occur in the carboniferous strata of 
Britain. A trunk, for instance, 47 ft. long, was found in Craigleith quarry, near Edin- 
burgh, in 18380. 


ARAU‘CO, a province in s. Chili between the Andes and the Pacific ocean; area, 
15,714 sq.m.; pop. (est.) 94, 92,524. The chief t. is of the same name, on a bay of the 
same name, about 300 m. s. of Valparaiso. 

ARAUJO, DE AZEVEDO, ANTONIO DE, afterwards count da Barca, was b. at S4, in the 
neighborhood of Ponte de Lima, in Portugal, on the 14th of May, 1754. At the age of 
11, he was sent to Oporto to study under his uncle, who held a high military command 
there. In 1787 he was appointed Portuguese ambassador to the Hague. Before enter- 
ing on his duties, he visited England, where he omitted no opportunity of obtaining a 
knowledge of English manufactures, commerce, politics, etc. He next proceeded to 
Paris, where he similarly employed himself. Soon after his arrival at the Hague, he 
found himself entangled in political difficulties. The French revolution had broken out, 
but the part which he played in the complication of political affairs which ensued falls 
to be treated more properly under the history of Portugal (q.v.). 

At length he threw up his ambassadorship, and traveled through Germany, enlargin 
the sphere of his studies. He paid especial attention to mineralogy and chemistry, an 
was fortunate enough to become acquainted with Goethe, Wieland. Schiller, Herder, ete. 
After the peace of Amiens, A. was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg; in 1803 he was 
recalled to Lisbon, to assume the office of secretary of state; and in 1806 he obtained the 


Araucari 
605 Axutivation: 


highest political dignity in the kingdom. His efforts to introduce the various agencies 
of civilization, while he occupied this situation, were unremitting. Glass, paper, wool, 
and cotton manufactures received liberal encouragement. But the sudden approach of 
the French army put an end to all his improvements. The royal family, which Bona- 
parte had formally dethroned in his victorious proclamation, emigrated to Brazil. A. 
embarked also, taking along with him a complete printing apparatus, his mineralogical 
collection, arranged by Werner, and all necessary chemical instruments. During the 
first years of his residence in the new world, he devoted himself assiduously to scientific 
and literary pursuits; founded a school of medicine and chemistry, introduced the culti- 
vation of tea, an improved machine for sawing wood, and a sugar-alembic, and established 
a porcelain manufactory. He had also a magnificent garden, the plants of which were 
scientifically arranged. He died on the 2ist June, 1817. 


ARAU'RE, at. of Venezuela, South America. It is situated in lat. 9°17' n., long. 69° 
28’ w., 60 m. e.n.e. of Trujillo, in a region noted for its fertility in the production of 
cotton, coffee, cattle, ete. The t. itself is rather handsome. Population about 4000. 
Some estimates place it at 10,000. 


ARAVUL'LI, a range of mountains in western India, extending from about 22° 40’ n. 
lat., 74° e. long., to 26° 50’ n. lat., 75° e. long. The highest summit is Abu (q.v.). The 
north-eastern extremity of the range sinks into comparatively low rocky hills. The 
north-western side is very bold and precipitous, the south-eastern less so. There is no 
road practicable for wheel-carriages across this range for a distance of 220 miles. 


ARAXES, See Aras. . 


AR'BACES, one of the generals of Sardanapalus, and the founder, 876 B.c., of the 
Median empire. In conspiracy with a Chaldean priest who commanded the troops from 
Babylon, he revolted, gained the assistance of several prominent officers, and defeated 
Sardanapalus, who committed suicide. 'The dynasty of A. lasted until 559 B.c., when 
Cyrus overthrew it. 

AR'BALEST, ARCU'BALEST, or CROSS-BOW, Was a Weapon much in use during the 
feudal times. Its recognized position among military arms may be dated from about the 
period of Richard I. The smaller kinds of A. were bent by pressing the hand on a small 
steel lever called the ‘‘ goat’s foot;” but the larger kinds were bent by placing the foot in 
a loop or stirrup at the end of the central shaft, and drawing the cord upwards with the 
hand. Ata later period, the bow was made very strong, often of steel; in this form it 
required a mechanical contrivance, called a ‘‘moulinet,” to bend it. Sometimes ordi- 
nary arrows were used with the A., but more usually arrows of a shorter and stouter 
kind, called ‘‘carrials” or ‘‘ quarrels,” were employed; these had a four-sided pyramidal 
form of head. Occasionally stones and leaden balls were shot from the larger arbalests. 
The arbalestiers, or cross-bowmen, carried a quiver with 50 arrows as an armament in 
some of the battles of the 13th century. They were an essential component of armies of 
that period, taking up their position In the van of the battle array; some were mounted, 
some on foot, and they occasionally wore armor. The supply of arrows or quarrels was 
carried after them to the battle-field in carts. The A. continued to be a favorite weapon 
in England throughout the 13th c.; but in the 14th it gave way to the long-bow, which 
was found to be a more convenient weapon in battle. Further information concerning 
the long-bow and the general military system to which it belonged is given under 
ARCHERS AND ARCHERY. 


ARBALESTI'NA, in the military system of the middle ages, was a small window or 
wicket through which the cross-bowmen shot their quarrels or arrows at an enemy besieg- 
ing a fortified place. 


ARBE'LA, now Erbil or Arbil, a small t. of Assyria, e. from Mossul, famous as hay- 
ing given name to the battle in which Alexander finally defeated Darius, 331 B.c. 
The battle was really fought near Guagamela (the ‘‘camel’s house”), to the n.w. of A. 

ARBITRAGE, comparing and settling accounts, and arranging disputes, applied both 
to a calculation and to a trade. As to calculation, A. relates to the simultaneous values 
at any particular moment of any specified merchandise in one market in terms of the 
quotations on one or more markets, exchange considered. As to trade, A. relates to the 
business, founded on such calculations, of buying or selling wholesale in the cheapest 
market for the time being, and simultaneously re-selling or buying. <A. proper is a 
distinct and well-defined business, with three main branches, viz.: A. in bullion or coin, 
in bills and exchanges, and in shares or stocks. 


ARBITRATION is the adjudication by private persons appointed to decide a matter, 
or matters in controversy, ona reference made to them for that purpose, either by agree- 
ment of the disputants or by the order, or on the suggestion, of a court of law. The 
proceeding generally is called a submission to arbitration, or reference; the parties 
appointed to decide are termed arbitrators, or referees; and their adjudication is called an 
award. This mode of settling disputes is not only frequently resorted to by litigants 
themselves, who are anxious to avoid the delay and expense of proceedings in the 
public tribunals, but the statute-book bears witness to the approval of it by the legis- 
lature at various times, 


Arbitration, 606 


The matters that may be determined by an arbitrator are all personal disputes and 
differences which might otherwise be made the subject of controversy in the courts of 
civil jurisdiction. Thus breaches of contracts generally, breaches of promises of mar- 
riage, trespass, assaults, charges of slander, differences respecting partnership transactions 
or the purchase price of property, and questions relating to tolls or the right to tithes, 
may all be referred to A. Questions relating to real property may also be referred, such 
as those relating to the partition of lands of joint tenants or tenants in common, to 
settlements of disputed boundaries—to differences between landlord and tenant respect- 
ing waste—and to the title to land. Pure questions of law may also be referred to the 
decision of an arbitrator. An arbitrator may have, therefore, to determine the liability 
of a party on a promissory note or bill of exchange, or to construe an act of parliament, 
or to give a judicial opinion on the effect of a will or deed. Actions at law, and suits 
in equity, may also be settled by A.; and this kind of reference may be made at any 
stage of the proceedings, sometimes even after verdict, and probably by analogy, after 
decree in equity. Questions relating to the future use and enjoyment of property, and 
future or anticipated differences between parties, may likewise be referred. 

A matter, however clearly illegal, cannot be made the subject of a valid reference. 
But where transactions between parties have been brought toa close by a general award, 
apparently good, the courts have refused to reopen them on a suggestion that some 
legal item has been admitted in account. 

Among the questions that cannot be referred to A., are matters arising out of the 
administration of the criminal law in the case of felonies and relating to agreements or 
transactions against public policy. Felonies and offenses of a public nature cannot be 
referred, because the public safety and good require them to be punished, and for this 
purpose they can only be properly tried in one of the ordinary courts of the country. 

With respect to matters which cannot be referred on account of their being against 
public policy, the rule is so obviously just that no illustration is required. 

But there are certain misdemeanors which may be either settled by agreement or by 
means of an A., on a principle of very general application stated by chief-justice Gibbs 
—that where there is a remedy, by action as well as by indictment, a reference of the 
matter in controversy is good. And in these cases of misdemeanor, a compromise or 
settlement under a reference may be made, even after conviction, but with the sanction 
of the court, 

Respecting the powers of infants or persons under age to submit to A., there are 
numerous decisions in the courts of law and equity ; but they go upon refinements and 
nice distinctions more suited for the professional lawyer than for the ordinary reader, 

and we therefore do not think it necessary to give any explanation of them in a popular 
article such as this professes to be. 

Partners and corporations may make references to A. on the principles already 
explained, and according to the relation in which they stand to the matter in dispute. 

Submissions to reference may also be made by executors and administrators, by 
trustees, by the committee of a lunatic, and by the officer of a public company, who is 
authorized by a statute to sue and be sued in the name of the company. And there are 
persons especially empowered to refer by the statutes which we have already enumerated. 

The arbitrator ought to be a person who stands perfectly indifferent between the dis- 
putants; but there are no other particular qualifications for the office. And the choice 
by parties of the person’ who they agree shall decide between them, is perfectly free. 
Some legal writers have even gone so far as to maintain, that not only infants and 
married women, but even idiots and lunatics, can be arbitrators, on the argument that 
every person is at liberty to choose whom he likes best for his private judge, and he can- 
not afterwards object to the deficiencies of those whom he has himself selected. But 
this, it is clear, is going too far, and the policy of the law would certainly be interposed 
against such extreme cases. It is better to state the rule to be, that on the condition 
that the party selected is of ordinary intelligence, the choice of an arbitrator is absolutely 
unfettered. The only exception to this rule is the case of a party who, by office or 
position, is the person pointed out for the duty under a reference made by statute. In 
matters of complicated accounts, mercantile men are generally preferred. In other 
cases, it is usual to appoint barristers who, being accustomed to judicial investigations, 
are able to estimate the evidence properly, to confine the examination strictly to the 
points in question, and, in making the award, to avoid those informalities in respect of 
which it might afterwards be set aside. Both time and expense are thus saved by fixing 
on a professional arbitrator. It has, indeed, been wisely remarked, that an arbitrator 
should endeavor to arrive at his conclusions upon the same rules and principles which 
would have actuated the court for which he is substituted—a rule of conduct that 
obviously points to the expediency of a lawyer being the referee. But an arbitrator is 
not bound by the mere rules of practice which prevail in the ordinary courts of justice, 
and he has been held justified in allowing interest on both sides of an unliquidated 
account, although such a determination was against the practice of the court of chancery, 
where the suit, which had been referred, had been commenced. 

The proceedings before an arbitrator are regulated according to the peculiar circum- 
stances of the case submitted, but generally it is advisable to conduct them according to 
the forms observed in courts of law, and they usually are so conducted, Each of the 


607 Arbitration. 


parties furnishes the arbitrator with a statement of his case, which is done by giving him 
a copy of the briefs on each side; and on the day appointed he proceeds to hear them 
(either in person or by their counsel or attorneys), and to receive the evidence on each 
side, nearly in the same manner as a judge at an ordinary trial. Having so heard the 
case, the arbitrator proceeds to make his award, which need not necessarily be in writing, 
for a verbal award is perfectly valid; but in practice it is usual for the arbitrator to make 
his award on paper stamped with the proper award stamp, and this he delivers to 
the successful party. The unsuccessful party gets a copy of the award on unstamped 
paper. This award in its effect operates as a final and conclusive judgment ‘respect- 
ing all the matters submitted, and it binds the rights of the parties for all time. 

An award may be set aside on the ground of corruption and fraud in the arbi- 
trator, and for any material irregularity or illegality appearing on the face of the 
proceedings. But the tendency of the courts is to favor arbitrations and maintain 
awards, unless such serious grounds as we have referred to can be substantiated. 

Where there are two arbitrators, the submission often provides that in the case of 
their differing in opinion the matter referred shall be decided by a third person, called 
an umpire, who is generally appointed under a power to that effect, by the arbitrators 
themselves. But they cannot make such an appointment unless specially authorized 
so to do by the terms of the submission. This umpire rehears the case, and for this 
purpose is invested with the same powers as those possessed by the arbitrators, and 
bound by the same rules. : 

In the United States arbitration is under very much the same laws as in Eng- 
land, but some recent decisions are noteworthy. The New York court of appeals 
holds as void an article in the constitution of a private society, which made certain mem- 
bers a court to judge of violations of the rules, with power to forfeit the offender’s rights 
in property; regular courts would not enforce the decision of tribunals organized by pri- 
vate agreement, except where the person affected expressly agreed to submit the matter 
in dispute to A. Some states exclude certain matters from A. as in New York, where 
claims to life estates, whether in fee or in realty, cannot be submitted, the object of the 
law being to preclude from unlearned arbitrators questions depending upon strictly tech- 
nical points. The old rule that married women could not enter into A., is practically 
obsolete, as most of the states have recently enacted laws which put women nearly on 
the plane with men in the holding and disposition of property. The question, whether 
one partner in business can bind another in an agreement to arbitrate , is not definitely 
settled, but the drift of authority is against such power, though it is held that the con- 
tracting partner is bound, and the partner’s refusal to fulfill the award may cost the con- 
tractor in damages. Forms of agreement are unimportant, and may be merely verbak 
without written documents; and the omission ofan arbitrator to be sworn is held as only 
an irregularity. Hearingsin A. must be on notice to both sides; where ev-parte they are 
void. If there is to be an umpire he must be chosen before the hearing. AlJl the arbi- 
trators must agree in the award, unless other provision is specially made, and awards 
must be specially conclusive and final. All states have laws provided for setting aside 
or overruling the decisions of arbitrators for partiality, fraud, or any misconduct, on 
appeal to a regular court; and courts may correct mistakes or other imperfections in 
awards. Some states provide that awards may be vacated for any legaldefect. Ina few 
states, laws provide that neither party shall revoke his submission to A. without consent 
of the other; some provide that no revocation shall ensue after the case has been sub- 
mitted to the arbitrators upon evidence; in some states the rules are less stringent, and a 
party may revoke his consent at any time, incurring only the accrued costs, but this sel- 
dom happens. Submission to A. suspends the right of suing on the pending cause of 
action, and a legal award bars the right of suit altogether. If awards are honest and 
fair, the courts will not vacate them because of mere errors of statement. Justice Story 
gives decision that arbitrators may make their judgment on the principles of equity and 
conscience rather than on legal technicalities. In Pennsylvania, a party in a civil action 
may compel the submission of it to A., with or without the consent of the other party. 
In New York city there is a ‘‘ board of brokers” in whose articles of association is & 
section providing for A. incertain cases. The courts have held that this section is noth- 
ing more than an agreement in general terms to submit, and have declined an application 
to compel a member to such submission, since his refusal was merely an exercise of his 
power of revocation. A. in international affairs is of long standing, and growing 
rapidly in favor. One of the first in American history was the case of the privateer 
General Armstrong, in which the first Napoleon acted as arbitrator. One of the most 
successful instances of arbitration involving the United States, was the ‘‘ Geneva 
award’’ in settlement of the Alabama claims. (See GENEVA ARBITRATION.) An 
_ International Court of Arbitration has often been proposed for deciding disputes 

between all nations. The United States has always been favorable to international 
arbitration. In 1891 the government referred to arbitration the solution of the Behring 
Sea controversy with Great Britain. In 1895, President Cleveland made the refusal 
of Great Britain to arbitrate with Venezuela the question of the boundary line of 
British Guiana the subject of a spirited message to Congress, and an act was passed 
providing for a commission to investigate the claims of the two powers. The members 
of this commission were appointed in January, 1896, and the inquiry was begun, 
but before it had prepared its report the British government agreed to submit its 
claims to a joint commission for arbitration. A treaty between Great Britain and 
Venezuela to that effect was signed on Feb. 2, 1897, and the commission appointed 


Arboga. 6 0 8 


Arboriculture. 


by the United States suspended its labors, submitting its final report to the President 
on Feb. 27, 1897. This report was placed at the disposal of the International Commis- 
sion, which consisted of Chief Justice Fuller and Justice Brewer of the United States, 
selected by Venezuela, and Lord Herschell and Justice Collins, chosen by England. 
In the event of the failure of the commission to agree on a fifth member, King Oscar 
of Sweden was to name the umpire. On January 11, 1897, a general arbitration treaty 
between the United States and Great Britain was signed by the British ambassador and 
the United States secretary of state, but was rejected by the senate in May, 1897. For 
some account of arbitration in labor disputes, see the article STRIKES. 


ARBO'GA, an ancient city in Sweden, in the province of Westmannland, on a small 
river of the same name, by which, with the aid of a canal, the lakes Hialmar and Malar 
are united. A. used to be animportant commercial town, but it has now sunk into insig- 
nificance, and only possesses an historical interest from the antiquities in its neighbor- 
hood. Of all its churches, cloisters, and chapels there only now remain the town and 
parish churches, the former with an altar-piece of Rembrandt’s. Several kings of the 
family of Vasa have resided here. Church assemblies were held here in 1396, 1412, 1417, 
1423, and 1474; diets in 1435, 1440, 1471, 1529, and 1561, in which last year also certain 
articles, known as the Arboga articles, were passed by which Eric XIV. was enabled to 
limit the power of the nobles; and in 1625, Gustavus Adolphus issued an edict here, 
commanding that the copper coin of the realm should contain its full worth of copper. 
Pop. about 5000. 


ARBOGASTE, Louis FRANGoIS ANTOINE, a French mathematician, was born in 1759 
and died in 1803. He was Rector of the University of Strasbourg, and Professor of 
Mathematics in the Ecole Centrale of that city. In his work entitled Du Caleul des 
Derivations (1800), he was the first touse symbols of operation independently of symbols. 
of quantity. He was a member of the National Convention in 1793. 


ARBOIS, a t.in the department of Jura, France, in a deep valley on the Cuisance, 
940 ft. above sea-level; famous for its wines, which were exempted from taxation in 1493, 
by Maximilian I. It has trade also in brandy, grain, oil, fruits, cattle, and cheese, and 
manufactures of paper and leather. It had once a commandery of the knights of Malta, 
two monasteries, and three nunneries, and still possessesa college and the ruins ofa castle. 
Pop. 4000 to 5000. 


ARBOR. A bower or grove of trees. 
ARBOR (in mechanics). An axle on which a wheel revolves. 
ARBOR (in botany). A tree as distinguished from a shrub or plant. 


ARBOR DAY, a day set apart by the legislatures of the states and territories of the 
United States for the annual planting of trees by the people, and more especially by 
school children. It is believed to have been suggested by Julius Sterling Morton, and was 
recommended by the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture in 1874, and the American 
Forestry Association. The day, either in April or May, is observed in nearly every state 
and territory, in some as a legal holiday, in others as a school holiday. 


ARBOR DIANE. The name given by chemists to a precipitation of silver in a beau- 
tiful arborescent form. It is made by putting mercury (q.v.) into a solution of nitrate 
of silver. 


ARBORESCENT (from Lat., arbor, a tree), a term applied to plants to signify that they 
possess either altogether, or in some measure, the character of trees. Even the dwarf 
willows and birches, on the confines of polar or alpine perpetual snow, are described as 
the A. vegetation of these regions, 


ARBORETUM, A collection of specimen trees in a park or nursery, 


ARBORICULTURE (from Lat. arbor, a tree), a term literally signifying the cultivation 
of trees, but in use generally restricted to the planting and management of timber-trees, 
or employed as exclusive at least of the cultivation of fruit-trees, which is a branch of 
horticulture or gardening. 

The ancients practiced A. to some extent, but chiefly with the view of beautifying 
their villas, or of forming public walks in the vicinity of cities. It is only for similar 
purposes, and on a very limited scale, that A. is yet anywhere practiced in America. 
The planting of timber trees for economical purposes, or with a view to profit, is 
unnecessary whilst natural forests are abundant, and can scarcely be referred even in 
Britain to an earlier period than the beginning of the 16th c., nor did it become at all 
general till a much later date. The early forest laws of England, as of other feudal 
countries, had reference chiefly to game, for the sake of which it was, and in order to 
the enjoyment of the chase, that large tracts were depopulated and converted into forests 
by the first Norman kings. Plantations for timber and fuel were, however, certainly 
made in England in the 16th c.; and the importance of the subject was urged on public 
attention by authors of that period. In the 17th c., the greatly increased demand for 
oak, for the building both of ships and of houses, gave a new impulse to A., which 
attracted more than ever before the attention both of the government and of the great 
landowners; the publication of Eivelyn’s Sylva also did more than any previous work to 


> Arboga, 
609 Arboriculture. 


promote a taste for it. Jt was in this century that nurseries for forest trees were first 
established. It was not until the beginning of the 18th c. that the first extensive planta- 
tions were made in Scotland, nor until towards the end of that century that A. became 
general in that country or in Ireland. How much the very landscape hag been changed 
by it—how great a difference has been made by the conversion of bleak hills and barren 
wastes into woods—how much the scene has been changed by the new forms of foreign 
trees, some of which are now in many districts more abundant than those which are 
indigenous, it is not easy to imagine; and how much these changes have promoted and 
are indicative of improvements in agriculture and increased productiveness of fields, is 
equally difficult to estimate. : 

The A. of France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, to this day, consists in a 
great measure of the management of natural forests; and in the move eastern parts of 
the continent this is almost exclusively the case. Without a careful management of the 
natural forests, many districts of France and Germany would soon be destitute of fuel; 
by means of it an increased supply of valuable timber is also obtained; and extensive 
domains belonging to the state, or to private proprietors, are rendered much more pro- 
ductive. It isin Germany that the management of the forests has received the greatest 
attention, and has been most systematically and scientifically conducted. 

The forest trees of Britain, and of temperate climates generally, are conveniently 
divided into two classes—the one consisting of coniferous trees cr pines and firs (nadel- 
holz, i.e., the ‘‘needlewood” of the Germans), the other including all other kinds (/au6- 
holz, i.e., the ‘‘leaf-wood” of the Germans); the latter being sometimes subdivided into 
hard-wooded trees, of which the most important in Britain are oak, ash, elm, beech, birch, 
hornbeam, sycamore, walnut, and chestnut; and soft-wooded trees, as willow, poplar, lime, 
alder, and horse-chestnut. Of these and other trees, of their particular uses, and of the 
soils and situations to which they are adapted, notice is taken in separate articles. 

Plantations are generally formed in Britain by means of trees raised from seed in a 
nursery; but sometimes also by sowing the seed on the ground intended for the planta- 
tion; in which case, if circumstances permit, a crop of grain is often sown along with 
the seeds of the trees, as these do not in general vegetate very soon; and the young 
plants derive advantage from the absence of choking weeds when the grain-crop is 
reapea, and from the protection afforded by the stubble. It has been supposed by some, 
but there is no sufficient evidence in support of the opinion, that more healthy and 
vigorous trees are obtained by sowing on the spot than by planting those which have 
been raised in a nursery. However, only very young trees can be planted with advan- 
tage, those which have attained a greater size requiring a degree of attention far beyond 
what is possible in plantations even of very moderate extent. The time of planting is 
from November to February. The most approved mode of planting is in small pits, in 
which the roots are disposed in a natural manner, and which are then carefully filled up 
with earth; but it is often thought sufficient when the tree to be planted is very young, 
to make a slit for it with the spade, or two slits, one at right angles to the other in the 
form of the letter T. Other methods are also adopted, particularly for rocky situations, 
in which the spade cannot be used. Economy is often a consideration of great importance 
in determining the mode of planting. 

The formation of plantations by the sowing of seed has been more generally prac- 
ticed on the continent than in Britain. In this way the vacancies in the natural forests 
ef France and Germany are filled up. In this way also great sandy tracts have been 
covered with wood on the coasts of Pomerania and of France. This has particularly 
been accomplished on a scale of extraordinary magnitude in the downs of drifting sand, 
between the rivers Adour and Gironde. The operations there were begun by M. Bre- 
montier in 1789, and deserve to be mentioned as perhaps the most important operations 
in A, that have ever been performed in the world. Vast forests of pinaster now occupy 
what was originally loose sand destitute of vegetation. 

Too little attention has hitherto been generally paid to the adaptation of the kinds of 
trees that are planted to the soil and climate; and to this cause many failures in A. are 
to be ascribed. Some trees grow well even in exposed situations, and are fit to be 
employed in these, either to form entire plantations, or to occupy the outer part, and so 
to shelter other trees, which in general are not planted until the outer zone or belt of 
the most hardy kinds is somewhat advanced; some succeed only in rich soils; some are 
incapable of enduring the sea-breeze; others, as the sycamore, the elder, and the pin- 
aster, are comparatively unaffected by it. Some trees suffer from an amount of 
moisture from which alders or willows would rather derive advantage; but, in general, 
the thorough drainage of the land intended for a plantation is one of the circumstances 
most important to its success. 

To the necessity of this thorough drainage we must look as compensating, or more 
than compensating, the influence which woods exercise in condensing the moisture of 
the atmosphere, and in rendering a climate cold and damp; marshy soils being in this 
respect still worse. The shelter afforded by plantations judiciously disposed, whether 
in belts or otherwise, is also of great importance in rendering them suitable for that 
improved agriculture in which thorough drainage is of the first necessity, and which is 
always productive of amelioration of climate. The influence of plantations is, there- 
fore, upon the whole, beneficial, although vast masses of forests are injurious to climate: 


Rc tiee 610 


and it must be admitted that in some localities the planting of trees has been carried to 
excess, so that fields often suffer, particularly in autumn, from want of free circulation 
of air, and the landscape is often restricted to very narrow limits. The remedy in such 
cases is obvious; and it not unfrequently happens that within a short distance new plan- 
tations might be formed with every prospect of benefit. 

Much has been written about the pruning of forest trees, with a view especially to 
the production of taller and straighter stems; and considerable difference of opinion 
exists as to the extent to which pruning should be practiced. It is, however, very gen- 
erally delayed till the branches to be removed have attained too great a size, and is then 
very rudely performed, to the spoiling of the timber rather than to the improvement of 
it. The practice of leaving snags, instead of cutting branches clean off, has particularly 
‘bad effects. Pines and firs, from their manner of growth, need pruning less than trees 

. of other kinds. When trees have been planted, not merely for profit but for ornament, 
this ought to be remembered in pruning, which, however, is too often intrusted to per- 
sons utterly devoid of taste; and trees which, as they naturally grew, were very beauti- 
ful, are so treated with axe and saw that they become deformities instead of adorning the 
scene. 

In forming plantations, different kinds of trees are very generally mixed, although 
masses of one particular kind are also frequently planted. It is usual, however, to plant 
along with those which are destined most permanently to occupy the ground, trees of 
other kinds as nurses, to be gradually removed as the plantation advances in growth. 
For this purpose, spruce and larch are more generally employed than any other tree; 
although Scotch fir and birch are also deemed suitable for certain situations. The 
removal of some of these nurses affords the first returns of profit from the plantation, 
which is afterwards thinned from time to time. Plantations far more frequently suffer 
from being thinned too little, than from being thinned too much. To the want of 
proper thinning is to be in part ascribed the failure of many of those narrow belts of 
planting which are too common in Scotland, and which, having been intended for shel- 
ter, very imperfectly serve their purpose, and seem to have suffered from the hardest 
usage themselves. The thinning of a plantation which has been allowed to grow too 
thick, must, however, be very gradually performed, that it may be beneficial, and not 
injurious. After a sudden thinning, a plantation sometimes ceases to thrive, and many 
trees are often laid prostrate by the next storm; for trees accommodate themselves both 
in their roots and branches to the situations in which they grow. 

A considerable number of years must elapse before any pecuniary return is derived 
from a plantation, yet this mode of employing soils is often found to be the most remun- 
erative of which they are capable, even without reference to the improvement of adja- 
cent lands to which shelter is afforded; and the increased demand for timber in 
Britain, ye sleepers of railways and other purposes, tends to the still further encourage- 
ment of A. 

The resinous products of pine-woods are not considered as a source of profit in 
Britain; but the tar, turpentine, and resin obtained from them in some parts of Europe, 
form articles of commerce. The great pinaster plantations already mentioned, on the 
sands between the Adour and Gironde, now yield products of this kind in large quan- 
tity. The employment of trees for ornamental purposes belongs not so much to A. as 
to landscape gardening (q.v.). The transplanting (q.v.) of large trees is only practiced 
for ornamental purposes. Hedgerow trees are planted chiefly for ornament, although 
sometimes they may afford useful shelter; but where this is not the case, they can sel- 
dom be reckoned profitable, as they are injurious to crops. Copse or coppice-wood 
differs so much, both in its uses and in the mode of its management, from other planta- 
tions, that it must be briefly noticed in a separate article. 

The wholesale and thoughtless destruction of forests ky .umbermen in the United 
States long ago attracted attention in the older states, and measures have been taken to 
remedy and counteract the evil. The most efficient of these is A., which is now well de- 
veloped in the eastern, middle, northern, and western states. Itis estimated that, even in 
New York, timber has been destroyed at the rate of 150,000 acres per year, most of the 
wood going for railroad fuel and building. Landowners, however, are growing more 
careful, and the young trees, once grubbed out as worthless brush, are now very gener- 
ally not only spared but nursed. The ordinary process with natural growth isto exclude 
browsing cattle, and then thin out, taking the crooked and damaged first, and next such 
as will make hoop poles, hay stakes, etc. The timber left will grow more rapidly and 
will be more handsome and valuable than a full natural growth. With care, the grow- 
ing trees may be grouped in lines, and ample wagon roads be left for ease of communi- 
cation with highways or other fields. Raising trees from seed takes more time and 
care, but will furnish better timber and larger profit. In this practice the ground is pre- 
pared as if for corn, and the seed sown by hand or drill in hills or rows. Fora year or 
two, corn and trees may grow in alternate rows, if desirable to get immediate profit from 
the land. Large seeds, like chestnuts and walnuts, are planted about three or four times 
their own diameter below the surface. Evergreen seedings must be shaded through the 
kd aa removing the shade occasionally that the plants may be hardened. Not 

ch is done in the way of transplanting in the older states, except for parks and orna- 


A b « 
611 Arbuthiots 


mental purposes. In Minnesofa and other western states, the successful culture of trees 
is accepted in lieu of certain taxes, and millions of trees are transplanted annually. It 
is important to preserve old or raise new trees in thick belts or ranks for the protection 
of houses, crops, and cattle, against heavy winds and storms. Such protection often 
saves the half or nearly the whole of winter grain. Where such belts should be planted 
depends upon the situation of the farm with reference to the prevailing direction of the 
winds. Simply for ornamentation, A. is largely practiced, and is growing in import 
ance, and men of knowledge and experience are employed for the purpose in public and 
private parks and cemeteries. 


ARBOR VITE, Thuja, a genus of plants of the natural order conifera, allied to the 
cypress, and consisting of evergreen trees and shrubs with compressed or flattened 
branchiets—small, scale-like, imbricated leaves—and moneecious flowers, which have 
4-celled anthers, and the scales of the strobiles (or cones) with two upright ovules.—The 
common A. V. (7. occidentalis) is a native of North America, especially between lat. 45° 
and lat. 49°, but has long been well knownin Europe. It is atree of 40 to 50 ft. high; its 
branches are horizontally expanded, and the strobiles (cones) small and obovate. The 
young leafy twigs have a balsamic smell, and both they and the wood were formerly in 
great repute as a medicine; the oil obtained by distillation from the twigs, which has a 
pungent and camphor-like taste, has been recently recommended as a vermifuge. 
The wood of the stem is reddish, soft, and very light, but compact, tough, and 
durable, bearing exposure to the weather remarkably well. The tree is very com- 
mon in Britain, but planted chiefly as an ornamental tree, and seldom attaining so 
great a size as in its native country. It delights in cool, moist situations.—The CHINESE 
A. V. (7. orientalis), a native of Chinaand Japan, which is immediately distinguishable 
from the former species by its upright branches and larger, almost globose and rough 
strobiles, is also in Britain, and upon the continent of Europe, a common ornament of 
pleasure-grounds; but it does not attain so great a size as the preceding, and is more 
sensible of the cold of severe winters. The balsamic smell is very agreeable. The tree 
yields a resin, having a pleasant odor, to which high medicinal virtues were formerly 
ascribed; hence the remarkable name arbor vite (Latin, signifying tree of life), given 
to this species, and extended to the genus. Other species are known, but they are Jess 
important than these. In its native country, this species also attains the size of a con- 
siderable tree.—There are several other species of thuja, some of which seem well suited 
to the open air in the climate of Britain, and others require the protection of green- 
houses. Amongst the former are 7. plicata, from Nootka sound; and 7. dolabratu, a 
native of Japan, a tree of great height and thickness, and which will not improbably 
prove the most important of the whole genus.—A tree, common in North America, and 
there known by the name of WHITE CEDAR, is sometimes included in the genus thija, 
under the name of 7’. spheroidea, but is more generally ranked in the genus ecwpressus 
as C. thyoides. See Cypress. The timber is highly esteemed, and an infusion of the 
scrapings is sometimes used as a stomachic.—Closely allied to the genus thujais callitris, 
See SANDARACH. 


ARBROATH’, ABERBROTHWICK, Or ABERBROTHOCK, a seaport t. in the e. of 
Forfarshire, situated at the mouth of a stream called the Brothock. Here king William 
the lion founded a Tyronensian abbey in honor of Thomas a Becket in 1178. ‘The 
king was interred in it in 1214. In the abbey, Bruce and the Scottish nobles met in 
1320, to resist the claims of Edward II. to Scotland. Cardinal Beaton was the last 
of its abbots. Next to Holyrood, the abbey was the most richly endowed monastery in 
Scotland. It was destroyed by the reformers in 1560. Its ruins—which are cruciform, 
270 by 160 ft.—are very picturesque, presenting lofty towers, columns, gothic windows, 
and a fine circular east window, ‘‘the Round O of A.” The chief industries of A. are 
flax-spinning, jute-spinning, and the manufacture of sail-cloth. The new harbor, begun 
in 1841, admits vessels of 400 tons ; it is protected bya breakwater. The chief exports are 
grain, potatoes, fish, pork, and pavement, chiefly from Lower Devonian quarries 8 or 10 
m. inland. A. is a royal burgh, and in conjunction with Montrose, Brechin, Forfar, 
and Bervie burghs, returns one member to parliament. Pop. in 1891 of parliamentary 
burgh, 22,960. A. is supposed to be the Fairport of The Antiquary, and the Redhead 
crags and coves form some of the scenes in that novel. The famous Bell-rock light- 
house stands in the sea, 12 m. s. e. of Arbroath. 


AR’BUTHNOT, Joun, 1667-1735, a noted writer and physician, the contemporary and 
friend of Pope and Swift, was the son of a Scottish Episcopal clergyman; and b. at 
Arbuthnot, in Kincardineshire, shortly after the restoration. He studied medicine at 
Aberdeen, where he took his degree. A.’s father was obliged to resign his charge at the 
revolution. His sons’ prospects being thus blighted in their own country, they were 
under the necessity of going abroad to seek their fortune. John removed soon after to 
London, and there supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1697, he published 
an examination of Dr. Woodward’s account of the deluge, which brought him into 
notice as a person of no common ability. Accident called him into attendance on 
prince George of Denmark, who thenceforth patronized him. In 1709, he was appointed 
physician to the queen, and in 1710 was elected a member of the Royal college of 


Arbutus. 9 
Arcesilaus. 61 + 


physicians, On the death of Queen Anne, in 1714, he lost his situation, and his circum: 
stances were never so prosperous afterwards. In 1717, A., along with Pope, gave assist 
ance to Gay in a farce, entitled Three Hours after Marriage, which, however, in spite of 
having the aid of a trio of wits, proved a complete failure. In 1723, he was chosen 
second censor of the Royal college of physicians; in 1727, he was made an elect, and had 
the honor to pronounce the Harveian oration for the year. He died at Hempstead, in 
1735. A. was one of the leaders in that circle of wits which adorned the reign of Queen 
Anne, and was still more nobly distinguished by the rectitude of his morals and the 
goodness of his heart. He assisted Swift and Pope in the composition of that brilliant 
satire, the Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus, contributing those portions of it which refer 
to science and philosophy; and he was undoubtedly the author of the celebrated politi- 
cal jeu d’esprit, the History of John Bull, which has so often been imitated. Besides 
several medical essays, he published TZabdbles of Greek, Roman, and Jewish Measures, 
Weights, and Coins (London, 1705-8), a work which was long the best authority on the 
subject. There is also a philosophical poem of his composition in Dodsley’s Miscellanies, 
entitled ‘‘ Know Thyself.” 


AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants of the natural order ertceew, containing a number of 
species, small trees and shrubs, the greater part of which are American. The fruit is 
fleshy, 5-celled, many-seeded, usually dotted with little projections, whence that of some 
species has a sort of resemblance to strawberries; the coralla is urn-shaped.—A. U'nedo, 
the STRAWBERRY TREE, is a native of the south of Europe, found also in Asia and 
America, and in one locality in the British isles, the lakes of Killarney, where its fine 
foliage adds much to the charm of the scenery. It requires protection in winter in the 
climate of Paris. In Britain, it is often planted as an ornamental evergreen. It grows 
to the height of 20 to 80 feet but israther a great bush than a tree. The bark is rugged; 
the leaves oblongo-lanceolate, smooth and shining, bluntly serrated; the flowers nodding, 
large, greenish white; the fruit globose, of a scarlet color, with a vapid sweetish taste. 
It is, however, sometimes eaten. Of late, excellent alcohol has been made from it in 
Italy. A wine is made from it in Corsica, which, however, is narcotic, if taken in con- 
siderable quantity, as the fruit itself is, if eaten too freely. The bark and leaves are 
astringent—A. andrachne is also sometimes cultivated as an ornamental plant in Britain, 
but is impatient of severe frosts. Its fruit, and that of A. integrifolia, are eaten in 
Greece and the east. But all the species seem to possess narcotic qualities in greater or 
less degree; the fruit of A. furens, a small shrub, a native of Chili, so much as to cause 
delirium.—A, aculeata, which abounds at Cape Horn and on Staten Island, is an elegant 
and most pleasing evergreen, very much resembling the myrtle. It grows to the height 
of 3 or 4 feet, and produces small white flowers, followed by a profusion of red shining 
berries, which ornament the bush during winter. Their flavor is insipid, but somewhat 
astringent. Mixed with a few raisins, they have been made by voyagers into tolerable 
tarts. A. uva urs, now generally called arctostaphylos uva ursi, the RED BEARBERRY, is 
a small trailing evergreen shrub, common in the Highlands of Scotland and in the 
Hebrides, and indeed in the northern parts of Europe, Siberia, and North America. It 
grows in dry, heathy, and rocky places. 


ARBUTUS, TRAILING (epigea repens), called mayflower in New England and ground- 
laurel in the southern states. A prostrate or trailing plant, with evergreen leaves and 
clusters of fragrant rose-colored or white flowers, opening in early spring ; found in 
sandy or rocky soil, especially in the shade of pines. It grows from Canada to Texas, 
but is particularly abundant in New England, the Middleand South Atlantic States, as 
well as in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. 


ARC (Lat. arcus, a bow) is any part of a curved line. The straight line joining the 
ends ofan A. is its chord, which is always less than the A. itself. Arcs of circles are sem- 
lar when they subtend equal angles at the centers of their respective circles; and if 
similar arcs belong to equal circles, the arcs themselves are equal. The length of an A. 
is readily found if the angle which it subtends at the center of the circle is known, and 
also the length of the whole circumference. Let the whole circumference be 100, and 
the angle ofan A. 50°, the length of the A. is 


MP aby iy stile i 
BE07i O05 1 LOOE: 360 


ARC. See Joan or ARC. 


ARCA, or ARK-SHELL, a genus of bivalve shells, and lamello-branchiate mollusca, the 
type of a family called arcade or arcacew. In the true ark-shells, the hinge is straight, 
and occupies what at first seems the whole length of the shell, but is in reality its whole 
breadth, the breadth being greater than the length. One species is found on the British 
shores; the species are larger and more numerous in the seas of warmer climates, and 
some of them are frequently to be seen among the shells employed for the ornament of 
drawing-rooms, etc. Fossil arcad@ are, however, more numerous than recent species. 


AR CADE (Fr.), a row of arches, supported by columns, either having an open space 
of greater or less width behind them, or in contact with masonry. The A. in Gothic 
corresponds to the colonnade in classical architecture, the difference between them 
being that, whereas the pillars in the colonnade support straight architraves, those in the 
A. support arches. The term A. is sometimes applied to the row of piers, or columns 
and arches, by which the aisles are divided from the nave of a church, or by which 


= 14 nearly. 


OE a ee 


a 


613 Arceuilaus. 


cloisters, or what are erroneously called piazzas in Britain, are inclosed ; but it is more 
generally confined to those series of smaller arches which are employed simply for pur- 
poses of ornamentation. Arcades of the latter kind are often found surrounding the 
square towers of English churches. Of this we have early examples inthe church of 
Middleton Stoney, Oxfordshire, and in the still older ones of Tewkesbury, and Christ 
church in Oxford. The term is also applied, improperly, to a glass-covered street or 
lane, with arow of shops or stalls on each side. 


ARCA'DIA, the middle and highest part of Peloponnesus, was bounded on then. by 
Achaia, on the e. by Argolis, on the s. by Messenia and Laconia, and on the w. by Elis. 
According to Pausanias, it derived its name from Arcas, the son of Callisto. Next to 
Laconia, A. was the largest country in the Peloponnesus. It had an area of 1700 sq.m., 
and was girt round by a circle of mountains, which cut off to a large extent its commu- 
nication with the rest of the peninsula. Mountains also intersected it in different direc- 
tions. The western part of what was anciently A., is wild, bleak, and rugged, and was 
at one time covered with huge forests; the eastern is more fertile, the mountains not so 
high, and the vales more luxuriant. In these eastern valleys lay all the principal cities 
of A. The loftiest peak in A.—the loftiest also in the Peloponnesus—is Mt. Cyllene, 
in the n.e., 778 ft. The chief river was anciently the Alpheius, (q.v.). Originally A. 
was named Pelasgia, after its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi. Subsequently, it was 
divided into several small states, which formed a confederation. Of these united states, the 
chief were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenos, Pheneus, Psophis, and Megalopolis. The 
inhabitants, engaged chiefly in tending cattle and in hunting among the wild highlands, 
remained long in a state of barbarism. After civilization had advanced, and the Arca- 
dians had become known by their love of music and dancing, they still retained some 
military spirit, and were sometimes engaged as mercenary soldiers. But generally their 
character accorded with their simple, rural mode of life; though it seems certain that 
human sacrifices were offered as late as the period of the Macedonian sway. The Arca- 
dians were not remarkable for their intelligence. In fact, an ‘‘Arcadian youth” was \ 
a synonym for a blockhead. Pan and Diana were their favorite deities. Ancient 
and modern poets (the latter especially in the time when “‘ pastorals” were popular) 
have described A. as the land of peace, innocence, and patriarchal manners. 


ARCADIUS, first emperor of the east (895-408 a.pD.), was b. in Spain, 383 a.p., and 
was the son of the emperor Theodosius, after whose death the Roman empire was divided 
into east and west. A. lived in oriental state and splendor, and his dominion extended 
from the Adriatic sea to the river Tigris, and from Scythia to Ethiopia; but the real 
rulers over this vast empire were, first, the Gaul Rufinus, and afterwards the eunuch 
Eutropius, who openly assumed the reins of government and the command of the army, 
while A. reposed in luxurious indifference. In 399, the eunuch Eutropius was deposed 
by another usurper, Gainas, who, in his turn, soon fell a victim to his own ambition. 
Afterwards, Eudoxia, the wife of the emperor, assumed the supremacy. One really 
great man adorned this period, the virtuous and eloquent Chrysostom, who was perse- 
cuted by Eudoxia, and through her influence exiled in 404, on account of his firm oppo- 


sition to Arianism, which the empress herself favored. During the reign of A., his 


territories suffered by barbarian incursions, earthquakes, and famine, but nothing could 


disturb the indifference of the monarch. He d., unlamented, 408 a.p. 


ARCACHON, a bathing-place which has grown up since 1854, on the south side of the 
Bassin d’ Arcachon, 34 miles southwest of Bordeaux by rail. The fine broad sands are 
admirably adapted for bathing, and the place is sheltered by sand-hills covered with 
extensive pine-woods. Its main street stretches 24 miles along the shore, with the pine- 
forests immediately behind. The climate is always temperate. Its numerous villas 
among the firs are much frequented in the winter by invalids afflicted with lung disease. 
Scientific oyster-culture is practised here on a large scale. Pop. 8000. 


ARCA'NI DISCIPLI'NA (system of secret instruction). See MysTaGocur. 
ARCANUM, THe Great. In the middle ages the Latin word arcanum, literally 


‘meaning secret, was used of any of the most valued preparations of alchemy (q.v.), but 


the name great arcanum was especially applied to the highest problems of the science, 
the discovery of such supposed great secrets of nature as the elixir of life or the philos- 
opher’s stone. 


ARCH’ (anc. Arz), a t. of south Italy, in the province of Caserta, 60 m. e.s.e. from 
Rome. It is situated on a hill near the Liris; and the summit of the hill, which is lofty 
and precipitous, is crowned by an interesting medizxval fortress called Rocca d@ Arce. 
This fortress was considered impregnable till it was scaled and taken by the invading 
army of Charles of Anjou in 1266. Numerous inscriptions in which the name of 
Cicero occurs have been discovered near A.; and some ruins near the town are known 
as L’aja di Cicerone, or Cicero’s barn. Pop. of commune, 5467. 


ARCESILA'US, a Greek philosopher, founder of the New Academy, was b. at Pitane in 
Holia, Asia Minor, 316 B.c. He studied philosophy, first under Theophrastus the peri- 
patetic, and afterwards under Crantor. After the death of Crantor, A. became the 
chief master of the academic party, or those who held to the doctrines of Plato; but he 
introduced so many changes that its philosophic character was completely changed. 
His great rivals were the Stoics, whose opinions he attacked, but he does not appear to 
have attained any certainty in his own convictions. He had studied under too many 


eres rea 614 

masters, and discussed too many different systems, to be sure of the truth of any. He 
denied the Stoical doctrine of a ‘‘ convincing conception,” which he affirmed to be, from 
its very nature, unintelligible and contradictory. He also denied the existence of any 
sufficient criterion of truth, and recommended abstinence from all dogmatic judgments. 
In practice he maintained that we must act on grounds of probability. It is not easy to 
determine satisfactorily what his moral character was. A wit, a poet, and a man of 
frank and generous disposition, which seems to have captivated his disciples even more 
than his philosophy, he has yet been accused by his enemies of the grossest profligacy; 
and whatever extravagance there may be in such an extreme charge, it is tolerably cer- 
tain that he died of a debauch in his 76th year (241 B.c.). Nevertheless, his adversary 
Cleanthes, the Stoic, passed this high eulogium on him: ‘‘ The morality which A. abol- 
ishes in his words, he re-establishes in his actions.” 


ARCH, an arrangement of bricks, stones, or other materials over an open space, by 
which they are made not only to support each other by mutual pressure, but to sustain 
a superincumbent weight. We have the excellent authority of sir G. Wilkinson for 
stating that the A. was known to, and used by, the ancient Egyptians; and that the 
Assyrians were acquainted with its principles is placed beyond doubt by the arched 
gateways so frequently represented in their bas-reliefs. The A. is generally supposed to 
have been unknown to the Greeks—a supposition which hecomes very improbable if we 
hold it to be proved that it was used by nations with whose works they must have been 
familiar. But that the Greeks did not employ it generally in their architectural struc- 
tures is certain; and as it is not less certain that the Romans did, it is to the latter people 
that the nations of modern Europe are indebted for their acquaintance with its great. 
utility. The introduction of the A. by the Romans gradually effected a complete revo- 
lution in the architectural forms which they borrowed from the Greeks. The predomi- 
nance of horizontal lines gave way by degrees, till, as the Romanesque passed into the 
Gothic style, it was superseded by the segments of a circle, placed generally more or less 
in a perpendicular direction. In its earliest application by the Romans, the A. did not 
spring from the entablature of the columns, but was generally placed behind them, and 
rested upon separate imposts. Subsequently, this arrangement was departed from, and 
the A. assumed the position which it has since retained above the columns; sometimes 
having an entablature interposed, and sometimes rising directly from the capital of the 
column or pier, as in the Romanesque. Before mentioning very briefly the different. 
forms of the A., it seems natural to refer to a very simple structure, frequently met. 
with in those early edifices in our own country which we are in the habit of designating 
as Saxon. It consists of two stones, their lower ends resting on rude piers, their tops 
leaning against each other, and thus forming two sides of a triangle, which is capable 
of supporting a moderate superincumbent weight. The mechanical principles on which 
the A. depends, though here very imperfectly employed, seem sufficiently called into 
play to suggest their more extensive application; and it is not impossible that out of 
this rude construction the A., in its later and more elaborate forms, might have developed 
itself amongst ourselves without hints from foreign sources. 

Of the A. itself, the following variations of form may be enumerated: The semi- 

circle, the segment, the ellipse, which were the only forms employed by the ancients, 
and which alone were known in medieval architecture up to the time at which the 
pointed A. was introduced. Of these, the stilted A. and the horseshoe A. are modifica- 
tions, in both of which the center or point from which the A. is described is above the 
line of the impost, but in the former of which the moldings are continued downwards 
vertically; whilst in the latter they are slightly inclined inwards, or the curve is pro- 
longed till it meets the impost. The horseshoe A. belongs peculiarly to Arabian archi- 
tecture (q.v.), not only from its having originated simultaneously with the faith of the 
prophet, but from its continuing to be used exclusively by his followers. Next, in point 
of time, though far surpassing all the others in beauty and variety, is the pointed A., 
the origin of which is still a subject of antiquarian controversy. 
The greater or less acuteness of the pointed A. depends on the 
position of the two center points from which its curved sides 
are described. 
_ (Of the foil arches or arches in which the forms of a leaf are 
imitated may be mentioned the trefoil, the cinquefoil, and the 
polyfoil, the latter being met with in Arabian and Romanesque 
buildings. At a later period of Gothic architecture, with thee 
decorated style, the ogee A. was introduced, and the Tudor or 
four-cornered A. appeared about the commencement of the per- 
pendicular style. When first introduced, the proportions of this 
A. were bold and effective; but it was gradually depressed till 
the principle of the A. was lost, and its very form was again 
merged first in two and then in one flat stone or lintel over an 
opening. With the last form of the Tudor A. we thus reach 
almost the point of departure in the construction of the A., and 
complete our enumeration of its forms. 

The sides of an A. are termed haunches or flanks, and its highest part is called the 
crown. ‘The wedge-shaped stones, bricks, or other materials of which an A. is con- 


‘ 615 Ans Sledy: 
structed are called vouwssoirs (a, a, a); the uppermost one of all (0) is called the keystones 
the lowest, which is placed immediately over the impost, the springer, or springing-stone; 
the under or lower side of the voussoirs, the intrados ; the upper side, the eatrados or 
back, For the investigation of the mechanical principle of the A., and of the conditions 
of stability, see Moseley’s Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture. See 
also BripGe, Impost, PrER, BUTTREss. 


ARCH, TRIUMPHAL, was a structure erected by the Romans across roads, or at the 
entrance of cities, in honor of victorious generals. The original triumphal arch was 
the Porta Triumphalis, one of the gates of Rome through which the triumphal proces- 
sion entered the city. Among the earliest detached arches built at Rome was that built 
by Scipio Africanus (190 B.c.) on the Capitoline hill. Under the emperors, these struc- 
tures became numerous and magnificent, and were decorated with bas-reliefs and 
inscriptions. Three of what were properly triumphal arches still remain in Rome, 
those, namely, of Titus, Septimius Severus, and Constantine. Numerous similar 
monuments exist also in other parts of the old Roman empire, as at Rimini, Susa, 
Verona, Ancona, Orange (in France), Capura (in Spain). 


ARCH, JosEPH, an English agriculturist, b. 1828. His parents were in humble 
circumstances, and he educated himself; at an early age he became an advocate of tem- 
perance and a Methodist local preacher. He rebelled against the low price paid for 
farm-labor, and after much struggle and suffering became a leader in efforts to better 
the condition of laboring men. In 1872, the national agricultural laborers’ union was 
formed, and A. became its president. In 1873, he visited Canada and the United States 
to study the condition and prospects of labor, and the question of emigration. In 1885 
he was elected to parliament as a liberal, was defeated in 1886, and re-elected in 1892 and 
in 1895. 

ARCHE’AN, or Azoic, PeER1iop—from the Greek for ancient—commencing with 
the earliest formation of the earth’s crust, is the period to which are assigned the oldest 
rocks on which those of late ages have been spread, and from which most of them have 
been made. The archean rocks, extending round the globe, are in most places shut out from 
sight by the later formations, yet in various parts of both hemispheres, rising above the 
rest, they are exposed to view as surface rocks. In Europe they are visible in the n.w. 
of Scotland, in the iron regions of Norway and Sweden, in the n.w. and n.e. of Russia, 
down to the White sea, in the Ural mountains, and further s. in Podolia. In central 
Europe they appear in the midst of the more recent formations, protrude frequently in 
the Carpathian mountains and central crests of the Alps, and in Bavaria and Bohemia 
between the Danubeand the Elbe. In North America they rise to the surface in a large 
district between the Arctic circle and the great lakes, in a tract s. of lake Superior and 
another in southern New York, in the Highlands, and in the central part of the 
Appalachian chainand Rocky mountains. In Canada, where they have been carefully 
studied, they are believed to be more than 30,000 ft. thick; in Europe their exact thick- 
ness can scarcely be conjectured, yet it must be many thousand feet. These rocks are 
chiefly crystalline, such as granite, syenite, gneiss, syenitic gneiss, mica-schist, horn- 
blende schist, chlorite slate, and granular limestone. There are also some hard conglom- 
erates, quartz rocks, and slates. They very often contain iron-bearing minerals, and 
immense beds of iron ore are found with them in northern New York—where they are 
from 100 to 200 ft. thick—New Jersey, Michigan, and south of lake Superior. Graphite 
also is found abundantly throughout the archzean rocks of Canada and the adjacent parts 
of the United States. In the archean rocks indications of life are almost if not entirely 
wanting. For thisreason the period is named also the azove, lifeless. But in the lime- 
stones of Canada a form has been discovered whichis thought by eminent geologists to 
be a coral-like fossil made by protozoans of the class of rhizopods, the simplest kind of 
animal life. Its organic nature has not indeed been placed beyond doubt; still geologists 
think it probable that rhizopods existed in the waters before the close of the archean 
period, and that the beds of limestone have been made up of their minute shells.. The 
abundance of graphite found throughout the archean rocks of Canada and the United 
States is also régarded as an indication that organic plants then existed, as it is known 
that in late times graphite has been formed out of such remains. For these reasons the 
name eozoic—the dawn of life—has been applied by some geologists to the archzean period. 
Others class all rocks preceding the Paleozoic period under the term A. Group. 


ARCHEOLOGY. ‘‘ Monumentoru™ artis qui unum vidit nullum vidit, qui milia vidit 
unum vidit.’’ (Gerhard.) Bs thes 

Definition.—Archeology is, as its name implies, the science (Adyoc) of antiquities 
(apyaia)—that is, of the material remains of ancient peoples. Butfrom the fact that inits 
origin and development it has been primarily and chiefly concerned with the artistic and 
architectural remnants of the Greco-Roman world, it is generally taken to mean the 
science of Greek and Roman antiquities, in which sense the term will be used in this 
article, without losing sight of the connection subsisting between these monuments and 
these of the more ancient peoples to whom they owe in great measure their inception. 

History of the Sctence.—As a science archeology cannot justly be said to have existed 
before the present century, although the way had been gradually paved for it from the time 
of the Italian Renaissance. The passion for the artistic relics of Graeco-Roman civiliza- 
tion, which then took such surprising hold upon the cultured classes of Italy under the 


616 


Archeology. 


papal sway, led to the foundation of museums, in which were gathered together, often 
at vast expense, statues of bronze and marble, vases, inscriptions, gems, a and 
coins, affording material for study and comparison, under the guidance of the various 
statements and criticisms preserved in the works of the ancient writers. The spvils 
brought over from Greece by her Roman conquerors, and the mania for collecting 
treasures from the same source, which had been displayed by many Roman amateurs, 
chief among whom may be mentioned the emperors Augustus, Caligula, and Nero, as 
well as the great artistic and architectural activity in imperial Rome under the guidance 
of Greek masters, had rendered that city a mine for the early archeologists ; and fur- 
thermore about the time of the Renaissance much filtered in from Greece itself. (Cf. 
Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, Boston and New York, 1889.) 

The father of modern archeology is Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768), 
whose writings, although superseded in many points, are still of value, and who by his 
genius marked out the field since so successfully cultivated. He first presented ta 
European scholars an authentic account of the discoveries made in the Campanian city 
of Herculaneum (buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., excavated in 1738-80, 
and again, for short periods, in 1827 and 1866), and, more than all, first wrote a sys- 
tematic history of ancient art (Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums, 1764, vid. Winckel- 
mann’s complete works, ed. Meyer and Schultze, Dresden, 1809). By a passage in 
Winckelmann’s writings, Lessing was stimulated to the composition of his great esthetic 
essay ‘‘ Laocoon,”’ and Goethe also was powerfully influenced by him. ‘Thus the seed 
of the new science was planted, to develop after the zra of the wars of the French Revo- 
lution. The excavation of Herculaneum, suspended largely on account of the depth of 
the voleanic deposit and the increasing danger and ditliculty of the work, has been 
already mentioned. It is impossible to dwell here at length upon the artistic treasures 
thereby brought to light. A site in many ways more promising and accessible, of which 
the unearthing has given us a remarkably perfect view of an ancient city, was offered 
by Pompeii, where excavations were begun in 1755 (seven years after the accidental dis- 
covery of the buried town) and have been carried on more or less continuously ever 
since. Here, too, many priceless monuments of ancient art were found. In Greece 
itself English scholars were at this time doing what could be done under the Turkish 
régime. The chief result was the splendid work of Stuart and Revett, The Antiqut- 
ties of Athens (4 vols., 1762-1816). The expedition sent. out by the Society of Dilet- 
tanti to continue their work accomplished but little. The Napoleonic occupation of 
Egypt led to the recovery of the key to the hieroglyphs, and opened to savants that seat 
of incalculably ancient civilization, to which the debt of the Greeks cannot even yet 
be accurately estimated. The sculptures of the Parthenon removed to London by Lord 
Elgin (1801-3) were a revelation to European scholars. These, together with the reliefs 
from the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Basse, near Phigalia, in Arcadia, discovered in 
1812, were subsequently acquired by the British Government, and form a most impor- 
tant part of the archeological treasures of the British Museum. In 1811 the same 
English and German explorers who had brought to light the Phigalian marbles, dis- 
covered the remains of the remarkable pedimental groups of the temple of Athena, on 
the island of AXgina, which were purchased by Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, and placed 
in the Glyptothek at Munich, where they have afforded German scholars fruitful mate- 
rial for study. The Aphrodite of Melos, discovered in 1820, and presented to Louis 
XVIII. of France, forms the great glory of the Louvre collections, and is still the sub- 
ject for discussion apparently as endless as profitable. The successful termination of 
the Greek War of Independence (1821-29) opened a new mine from which somewhat 
was immediately realized by the French exploration of the Morea (Peloponnesus) in 
1829. But the sculptures then brought from Olympia and deposited in the Louvre 
were but a foretaste of what was to come. The foundation of the ‘‘ Instituto di Cor- 
rispondenza Archeeologica,’’ by Gerhard, in 1829, was one of the most important steps in 
the history of archeological progress. This institution, now the Imperial German 
Archeological Institute (Kaiserliches Deutsches Archeologisches Institut) has, by its 
publications and by the training of young scholars, been of inestimable value.* The 
French School of Archeology established at Athens in 1846, as well as the activity which 
began to be displayed by certain Greek savants under the Bavarian régime, had also an 
important influence on the development of our science. The important finds made in 
Etruscan tombs at Vulci, in 1828, added vastly to the stock of ancient Greek vases pre- 
‘viously known to scholars, and have been followed by a long series of successful riflings 
of other necropoles. The discoveries of Layard at Nineveh (1845-6), and the subsequent 
decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, revealed the ancient civilization of the 
Euphrates valley, and gave new material for a more accurate estimate of the relative 
position of Greek culture and art. We must not omit to mention here the important 
addition made to the British Museum by the discoveries of Sir Charles Fellows in Lycia 
ase of Wood at Ephesus (1867-74), and of Newton at Branchide, Halicarnassus, and 

nidos. 


The study of Greek inscriptions under Boeckh and Franz, and of comparative lin- 


“ For a fuller account of this institution, cf. an article b Michaelis, ‘‘ The Imperial German Archeological 
Tnstitute,” translated in the Jour. Hellen. Studd., 1889, pp 190 sqq. M4 : 


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5. Etruscan chair, 


7. Battle-axe of 


WII, 12, 15, 17. Greek ornaments. 
24. Egyptian harp. 
32. Amber ornament of stone-age, 


incient Peruvian vessels. 
r.. 31. Ancient Italian Urn. 
cey. 37. Utensil of bronze-age. 


18. Horn of the bronze-age. 
25. Bronze throne of King Dagobert, 
33. Copper star from 


13, 19. Ornaments, 


LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY OF iLLINUIS 
URBANA 


617 Archeology. 


guistics under Bopp and his successors, contributed their share to the modern archeolo- 
gist’s equipment. We have now brought the account down to the last and most im- 
portant period. The greatest widening of our knowledge of prehistoric civilization on 
Greek soil is due to the unrivaled enthusiasm, diligence, and devotion of Henry Schlie- 
mann, who unearthed Troy, laid open the treasures of Mycenex, and investigated Tiryns 
and Orchomenus—to mention merely his most important achievements. His work has 
put the Homeric age in a new light. The founding of the Athenian branch of the Ger- 
man Institute (1874), and subsequently of the American and British schools at Athens, 
has, under the favoring auspices of the Greek Government, and in conjunction with the 
labors of Greek investigators, been fruitful of excellent results, while important work 
has been constantly carried on by the French School. The details of the results achieved 
in various parts of the Greek world, as well as in Italy, by the several governments and 
societies engaged during the last two decades, exhibit a truly astonishing activity ; and 
the publications of all kinds on classical archeology have already reached an unwieldy 
bulk. The excavations at Olympia, carried on by the German Government under the 
special treaty of 1874, were well rewarded (witness the Hermes of Praxiteles, the Vic- 
tory of Pzonius, and the Pediments of the Temple of Zeus) ; and those at Pergamon, on 
the Acropolis of Athens, in Delos, and at Icaria, may also be mentioned among many 
others. Important side-lights have been thrown upon Greek history by the excavations 
of the Egypt Exploration Fund, uotably by those at Naucratis, the ancient Greek com- 
mercial town founded some six centuries before our era near the western arm of the 
Nile, s.e. of the later Alexandria. Cyprus, from which much in statuary and: other 
works of art had been brought by Cesnola (now chiefly in the Metropolitan Museum, 
New York), is undergoing more scientific investigation by English scholars. The 
excavations at Rome have been under the care of an Italian archeological commission, 
by which many questions of topography have been settled, and many objects of art, 
together with a host of inscriptions, brought to light. The work of active research is 
going on at a score of points with unabated vigor, and many ancient sites still await the 
spade. 

t As may be inferred from this sketch, archeology is an eminently progressive science, 
and in all its departments subject to constant revision. 'The steady increase of material, 
and the filling of gaps in the general structure, as well as continual correction or rejec- 
tion of hastily formed theories and insufficiently supported conclusions, will occupy 
savants for generations to come. We can only deal provisionally with the most certain 
and generally accepted data, supplementing the statements of ancient writers by the 
monuments, and interpreting the monuments in turn by our literary sources. 

Literature.—Collignon, Manual of Greek Archeology, translated by J. H. Wright, 
Cassell & Co. (1886); Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler (2d ed., Stuttgart, 
1889) ; Overbeck, Geschichte der Griechischen Plastik. (38d ed., Leipzig, 1881-2), and Die 
Antiken Schrifiquellen zur Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste hei den Griechen (Leipzig, 
1868) ; Murray, History of Greek Sculpture (2d ed., London, 1890); Mitchell, History of 
Ancient Art (New York, 18838); Baumeister, Denkmdiler des classischen Altertwms (Munich 
and Leipzig, 1885-8) ; Archwologische Zeitung ; Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archeologischen 
Instituts ; Bulletin de Correspondance hellénique ; ’Eonuepic ’Apyaiodoyixh ; American 
Journal of Archeology. (Cf. also an admirable sketch of Greek art by Kekulé in Baede- 
ker’s Griechenland ) 

For our purpose we may divide the general subject of classical archeology, from an 
historical point of view, into the following periods : 

I. Pelasgo-Achean Period, from circa 1500 B.C. or earlier, te the Dorian conquest, 
circa 1000 B.C. 

II. Earlier Hellenic Period, from circa 1000 B.C. to the era of the Persian Wars, 
circa 500 B.C. 

III. Period of Hellenic Prime, from circa 500 B.C. to the Macedonian supremacy, 
circa 350 B.C.—the period of Phidias and Praxiteles. 

IV. Period of Hellenic Dissemination and Decline, from circa 350 B.C. to the Roman 
conquest, circa 150 B.C.—the period of Lysippus and of the Rhodian and Pergamene 
schools, so called. 

V. Roman Period, from circa 150 B.C. to circa 150 A.D. or later—the period of the 
union and united achievement of Greek and Roman civilization. 

For convenience, the consideration of Roman art, properly so called, will be reserved 
to the last period. 

I. PeLasco-AcH#AN PERIoD.—The excavations carried on by Schliemann at Troy 
(Hissarlik), Mycenz, Tiryns, and Orchomenus, and by other investigators at Mycenz, as 
well as at Spata and Menidi in Attica, near Bolos (Volo) in Thessaly, under the citadel 
of Palamidi at Nauplia, and lastly at Bapheion, near Sparta, have revealed or brought 
more clearly into view (for the walls of Tiryns and Mycene had never been buried) a 
most important class of monuments, which seem justly to be referred to a period ante- 
dating the Dorian conquest, i.e., about 1500—1000 B.C. A much older dating for this 
civilization is claimed. (See note on Flinders-Petrie’s paper, under the literature at the 
end of this period. ) 

Most noteworthy among the objects found in these excavations are the treasures of 
Mycenx. Here were unearthed, partly from the deep, rock-cut graves within the 


618 


Archeology. 


ringed enclosure upon the acropolis—presumably those of the ancient princely house— 
partly from a treasury discovered near by, golden masks, representing rudely the 
features of the dead; golden breastplates, diadems, necklaces, and buttons; bronze 
swords, with blades richly inlaid, in variously alloyed gold, with hunting sceres and 
animal figures ; gold plaques stamped with figures of butterflies, squids, and gryphons, 
or with those of miniature temples with doves perched upon them, symbolic of the 
oriental Aphrodite (Astarte), or even with that of the goddess herself ; engraved rings 
of gold ; vessels of gold, silver, and bronze ; a silver ox-head with golden horns ; ob- 
jects of ivory, ‘‘ Egyptian porcelain,’’ and alabaster ; and, lastly, an ostrich egg, evi- 
dently an oriental curio. Nor does this exhaust the list of these remarkable treasures. 
The objects from Troy are less rich and elaborate, but evidently belong to a similar, in 
part earlier, civilization ; while those found at the other sites mentioned are obviously 
to be. put in the same category with those from Mycene. It must further be noted that 
there were discovered on the acropolis of Mycene, above the graves just mentioned, 
certain tombstones (stelee) roughly wrought in bas-relief with figures of warriors, which 
bear a striking likeness to those represented on the gold rings and sword-blades above 
mentioned. Molds were also found from which certain of the gold objects were formed, 
thus proving the native manufacture, if not the native character, of the art. From the 
palace of Tiryns we have a most interesting fragment of mural painting on stucco, 
representing a running bull and a human male figure. The forms of lions are also of 
frequent occurrence in remains of this age, not merely in the well-known relief above 
the gate of Mycene, in which the two animals mounted on either side of a curiously 
shaped pillar constitute a sort of heraldic device recurring on engraved gems from the 
tombs of the lower town of Mycene, as well as on others ; but also in those scenes in 
which lions tear their prey. The pottery found at Troy appears to be the most primi- 
tive from the Mediterranean region. Its fundamental forms are simple, and chiefly 
derived from that -of a clay ball hollowed and baked. They are almost all wrought 
without the lathe and unpainted. Often, instead of handles we find merely ‘‘ ears’’ per- 
forated for cordsfor suspension. Their ornamentation, which follows no system, consists 
of linear forms scratched upon the clay—the most simple ‘‘ geometric’’ decoration so 
called. We observe in the shape of the vessels rude imitations of animals and of the 
human figure. Such oddities as vases of several bodies with but one mouth, or vice versa, 
occur. To this primitive ceramic art the oldest Cyprian vases offer a close analogy. 
There are few or no traces of foreign influence in this pottery. The primitive vases 
from Thera (of at least 1000 B.C.) and other Aigean islands, as Paros, Naxos, Ios, 
Amorgos, Melos, and Syra, anpear to represent a later development. These are all 
wrought with the wheel, are intended to stand, not to be suspended merely (as is the 
case With most Trojan pottery), and the decorations are painted, not scratched in. Rough 
imitations of plants appear upon them ; not conventional types, but direct imitations of 
nature. We have also some special ornaments (suggesting, perhaps, oriental metal 
work) and animal figures. This ware is of native manufacture, as proved by the clay, 
and seems to form a transitional class between the primitive pottery of Troy and Cyprus, 
and tne more advanced technique of the Mycenzan vases. The older ware of the latter 
class is unglazed, but what seems justly to be considered the later type has a brilliant 
glazed coloring. In this, whether it be a Mycenzan invention, as has been claimed, or 
not, ‘fa completely new factor” enters the history of art. The decoration of Mycenszean 
pottery is not of a ‘‘ geometric” pattern, but consists of representations of marine ani- 
mals. water plants, and waves, with various spiral devices. We shall have occasion to 
consider this ware in its further relations in the sequel. The architecture of this period, 
if not of a still earlier as well, is observable in the huge walls of Tiryns and Mycene, 
and at numerous other places in Greece proper, Asia Minor, and Italy (the so-called 
‘* Cyclopean”’ architecture). This is likewise to be seen in the curious beehive-shaped 
tombs (tholi) at Mycenee (lower town) near the Hereeum of Argos, at Orchomenus, and 
at Menidi. A principle of construction which these tombs present in common with the 
fortifications of Tiryns, consists in a vault formed by ascending courses of stone con- 
verging to an acute angle. This occurs frequently on the Cyclopean architecture else- 
where. Animportant point of contact between these monuments and our literary source 
for the period, the Homeric poems, is presented in the palace structures, the plans of 
which have been accurately drawn from the foundation-remains at Troy, Mycene, and 
Tiryns, and which appear to coincide with the Homeric descriptions of royal buildings. 
Hitherto iron objects of this period have been discovered in scanty number only in the 
more unpretentious rock-cut tombs of the lower town of Mycene. To these finds must 
be added the results of investigations in the A‘gean islands, particularly in Thera, where 
remains of dwellings with primitive mural decoration and of antique pottery (previously 
mentioned) have been found beneath a deposit of lava, the result of an eruption not later 
than 1000 B.C. ; in Crete, where the ruins of the many great cities mentioned in Homer 
still await exploration, and where most valuable figured shields of bronze, as well as 
huge earthenware sepulchral urns have lately been discovered ; and in Phrygia and the 
adjacent regions of Asia Minor, where rock-cut tombs and reliefs present (notably in the 
form of the lion device) obvious points of comparison with the remains of Greece (par- 
ticularly Mycene), adding weight to the ancient tradition which tells how the walls of 
Mycens were the work of Lycians, and shedding light upon the other legends connect- 
ing the Argolid with Asia Minor. 


619 Archeolegy, 


An adequate discussion of these monuments of early civilization in the Greek world 
is not possible here, but their probable relation to the older culture of the East, as well as 
to the later Hellenic art, must be pointed out. The unfathomably ancient civilization of 
the Nile valley and that of the Semitic peoples dwelling about the head of the Persian Gulf 
certainly acted upon the inhabitants of the Aigeao islands and the coasts of Asia Minor 
and Hellas, who were of Indo-European origin and of more recent development. The 
details of this process cannot as yet be adequately determined. Leaving out of account 
the vexed question of the Hittite civilization of Asia Minor from Carchemish on the 
Euphrates, we may say that those famous early navigators, the Phoenicians, who, occu- 
pying an intermediate position between Egypt and Mesopotamia, absorbed elements from 
both these fruitful sources, and who traded through the length and breadth of the Meditere - 
ranean and beyond, certainly brought in much to the early AXgean peoples. This would 
naturally take place largely through the islands, and Crete appears to have played a promi- 
nent part in the process. It has also been already implied, in speaking of Phrygia, that 
much came overland by another way to the seaboard of Asia Minor, and from thence 
passed over the Aigean. But these influences from without of an older civilization could 
never have given rise to a great culture among the Indo-European tribes (Pelasgians, 
Carians, Leleges, or Achezans, or, later, Dorians and Ionians), to whom they were 
brought, had there not existed vigorous native genius to be fertilized by them, and to 
bring new creations to birth. Traces of such primitive native elements (possibly Pelas- 
gian) have been sought, not without probability, in the early engraved gems (the so- 
called ‘‘ island-stones,’’ from the fact that many have been obtained from the Aigean 
islands, though the richest recent finds have been made at Mycenz and Bapheion), the 
figures rudely represented on which seem to present, besides Oriental types, e.g., those 
of the Aigypto-Pheenician scarabsei and of the Babylonian cylinders, certain traces such 
as horse figures, representations of the Prometheus-myth (the Indo-European fire roe 
and certain monstrous forms that are not of a Semitic or Egyptian character. It has 
been well said that ‘‘ the Greeks borrowed from the Asiatics the writing of art ; but in 
art too [as well as in literature] they spoke from the beginning their own language.”’ 
This, though applicable rather to the next and succeeding periods, seems also true in a cer- 
tain degree of that with which we are here dealing. We shall have to consider it further 
in the sequel. It may be questioned whether we can truly say that the art of this period 
perpetuated itself in Hellenic art strictly so called. The Acheean civilization, repre 
sented by ‘‘ gold-rich Mycenz,’’ as the Homeric epic justly terms it, was overflooded by 
the tide of Dorian conquest ; but the decorative elements and influences in certain well- 
established oriental types (sphinx, lion, gryphon, siren, and various patterns and motives 
derived from the Egyptian lotus and the Assyrian palm) we find carried on constantly 
and undergoing development in the later art. But Greek architecture and sculpture, 
properly so called, are in their greater and nobler features yet to be developed. 

Literature.—Schuchhardt, Schliemann’s Ausgrabungen im Lichte der heutigen Wissen- 
schaft, 1890 (the best résumé of the subject) ; [English translation, edited by Leaf, Lon- 
don (Macmillan), 1891.] Milchhoeffer, Anfdnge der Kunst in Griechenland, Leipzig, 1883 
(a thorough and scientific discussion of the subject) ; Mitchell, History of Ancient Sculp- 
ture, I,, Chap. X. (where Milchhoeffer’s work is summarized) ; Baumeister, Denkmdler 
des classischen Altertums, articles: Mykenai, Tiryns, Kyklopenbau (admirably illustrat- 
ed); Journal of Hellenic Studies, Oct., 1890, art. by Flinders-Petrie, ‘‘ The Egyptian. 
Bases of Greek History,” from which we make the following extracts : ‘‘ The whole of 
the early civilization of the Peloponnese, commonly now known as the Mykene period, 
is a branch of the civilization of the bronze age in Europe, with but little contact with 
the East. Gaul, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Libya all enjoyed a simultaneous civil- 
ization, which brought these countries far more into contact with one another than with 
the Asiatic lands which played so great a part in the later-Greek culture” (ib., p. 276). 
‘The general results of my excavations, from the Greek point of view, then are: (1) 
That we have dated the Greek pottery to within a generation as far as 600 B.C. (at 
Naucratis) ; (2) that we have dated it to within a century as far back as 1400 B.C. ; (8) 
that we have tangible remains of the Greek or Libyo-Akhaian invasions of Egypt as 
far as this period ; and (4) that we have pushed back the hazy and speculative region 
to before 2000 B.C., and shown reasons for looking to a rise of European civilization 
before 2500 B.C.” (ib., p. 277). 

II. Earuy Hetientc Perrop.—The dark age, from the Dorian invasion to the rise of 
sculpture in the 7th century B.C., is bridged, from an archeological point of view, chiefly 
by the painted vases, the earliest varieties of which have been already mentioned. 
Though the chronology of this class of monuments labors under much uncertainty, it 
will be of advantage to summarize the results of recent investigation for the whole of 
the period under consideration before taking up the other archeological monuments 
included in it. , 

The funereal urns and other represeutatives of the so-called ‘‘ Dipylon-réyle’’ from 
the Dipylon gate of Athens, in ancient tombs near which the finest specimens of this 
class have been discovered) appear to extend over a period from about 1000 B.C. to the 
7th (or 6th ?) century B.C. The patterns upon this pottery are ‘‘ geometric,’’ derived 
from carving and textile fabrics, rather than from nature, as in the Mycenean ware. 
The human and animal figures upon them are eminently schematic and conventional. 
Figures of nautical scenes (sea-fights and the like) are prominent. The figured examples 


620 


Archmwology. 


are naturally of later date than those with merely a geometric pattern. This pottery 
shows little trace of oriental influence. It is not improbable that Athens was the seat of 
its manufacture. 

Closely connected in style and place of manufacture with the Dipylon ware seem to 
be the ‘‘ Phalerum-pitchers,’’ and we find a further development in primitive Attic hydrias 
(water-pitchers) and amphoras of the 7th century. 

What may be called the second class of Cypriote vases shows abundance of oriental 
forms, and doubtless belongs to the time of Phenician domination on the island. Later 
we seem to find vessels imported from Greece predominating in Cyprus. 

A class of Rhodian vases, apparently contemporary with the later Dipylon and 
Phalerum-ware is also strongly oriental in decoration, notably in the lotus-pattern sur- 
rounding the foot of the vases. Platters (pateree) and pitchers are the favorite forms of 
this ware. In the former the influence of Phoenician metal bowls may perhaps be dis- 
cerned. The earliest inscribed piece of Greek pottery seems to be a Rhodian patera of 
the end of the 7th century. We have in this vessel the earliest figures distinctly to be 
assigned to the Epic cycle of myths, of which the influence soon becomes so overpower- 
ing in Greek art. Rhodian ware was exported to Cyprus, Africa (Naucratis), Sicily, 
and Italy (Etruria). Its manufacture seems to have been carried on chiefly in the 8th 
and 7th centuries B.C. 

Certain Melian vases of similar fabric seem to belong to about the same period. 
They are chiefly amphore. On one we have apparently the earliest figures of Greek 
gods (Apollo and Artemis) in Greek ceramic art. 

The earliest master’s signature is said to be that of Aristonophos (or Aristonothos) on 
an ancient vase from Etruria, on which is represented the blinding of Polyphemus. 

The Naucratite factory seems to be represented by a small class of gayly decorated 
vases ee texture to the Rhodian and Melian. ‘They are assigned to the 6th cen- 
tury b.C. 

‘In the same century are also to be placed the vases assigned to Cyrene, of which the 
best known is that representing the Cyrenzean king Arcesilas. The prevailing form is 
the cylix (a saucer with foot and handles). These vessels may be classed as black-figured 
—that is, as coated over their undecorated portions with a black glaze, the figures being 
represented in black glaze on a light ground, the surface of the original clay being cov- 
ered with a light-colored coating. The figures in such ware are detailed with fine en- 
graved lines, often produced apparently with the diamond-point. 

The so called “‘ proto-Corinthian’’ vases (a name not intended to denote their place 
of manufacture, but rather their relation to later ware) form an interesting class, chiefly 
lecythi (oil-pitchers), The most beautiful example is the ‘‘ Macmillan vase’’ in the Brit- 
ish Museum. (Cf. Journ. Hell. Studd., April, 1890.) This ware seems to have been 
dying out at the end of the 7th century. 

The ‘‘ Corinthian’’ style, represented by the ‘‘ Dodwell vase’’ and a host of other 
examples, is strongly oriental in decoration, perhaps through the infiuence of oriental 
metal-work and woven fabrics, to which Corinth, from its geographical and commercial 
position, would be particularly subject, although it may be doubted whether the term 
Corinthian for this ware as a class is precise. It is marked especially by monotonous 
bands or friezes of animal figures with no internal relation. Among the forms of the 
ware are to be noted numerous aryballi (globular ointment-pots). We may date this 
ware in the 7th and 6th centuries. 

Certain so-called ‘‘ Chalcidian,’’ ‘‘ Ionic,’’ ‘‘ Ceretanian,’’ and ‘‘ Beeotian”’ vessels, 
with others of still more uncertain category, seem to belong also to this period. 

The beginnings of the later Attic ware are to be referred to the 6th century, and 
consist of black-figured vessels, chiefly amphore, on which the glaze is of that peculiar 
hardness, brilliancy, and blackness, which is familiar in all Attic pottery of this style. 
‘We shall have occasion to consider it further in the following more distinctively Attic 
period. 

Painting in Greek archeology can hardly be separated from ceramics, architecture, 
and sculpture before the time of Polygnotus (5th century). We therefore take up next 
the consideration of these two latter developments. 

The history of the origin of Hellenic architecture rests largely upon conjecture and 
reasoning from analogy. Although in its development, as known to us from existing 
monuments, we have to deal with it as manifested chiefly in temple-building (private 
dwellings being of comparatively little account among the Greeks), it is plain that we 
have to seek for its primitive principles in domestic structures, which were, doubtless, 
primarily of wood. The point, however, which chiefly concerns us in this place, leav- 
ing fuller details to be discussed under the separate head of architecture, is the rise of 
the two great orders, connected, as their names imply, with the two great branches of the 
Greek race—the Dorians and the Ionians. The main distinguishing marks of these 
orders are to be found in the form of the columns employed ; and it is to these that we 
must turn our attention here, leaving the discussion of the several varieties of temple, 
whether im ants (with the front recessed and columns between the projections of the side- 
walls), prostyle (with columns across the front), amphiprostyle (with a front at either 
end), or peristyle (surrounded by columns), as well as the details of the architrave and 
roof, for another place. 


62 pt Archeology. 


The Doric column, such as we find to have been employed in the Hereum at Olym- 
pia, in the old temple at Corinth, and in those of Selinus, as well as in other buildings 
of this and the succeeding periods, and which is traceable to the 7th century B.C., 
is characterized in general by the absence of a distinct base, (though this seems clearly to 
have been an origina! element of this species of column), by an outward sweep at the top 
called the echinus, and by a square plate (the abacus) between the echinus and the archi- 
trave, as well as by the division of the circumference of the shaft by successive chamfer- 
ings to a series of flat longitudinal surfaces, in number multiples of four (up to thirty- 
two), which surfaces are again hollowed, so that the shaft presents the appearance of a 
circumferential succession of shallow rounded grooves separated by sharp arrises. The 
nearest prototypes of this form of column, which is marked, particularly in the oldest 
examples known to us, by great heaviness of proportion, seem to be Egyptian, although 
Doric architecture offers a new element in the entasis (or slight bulge) in the shaft, 
which serves to correct a familiar optical illusion. 

The Ionic column, on the other hand, which is of lighter and more ornamental de- 
sign, has always a distinct base with a succession of moldings above it, while the 
grooves in its shaft do not meet in arrises, but are separated by flat bands. Its chief 
point of interest, the capital, consists of double spirals, parted in the earlier forms by a 
palmette device. Over the origin of this form of capital much has been written ; and 
ulthough the question is not as yet settled, it is certain that it goes back to an oriental 
prototype, whether a conventionalized Assyrian palm-form or a derivative of the Egyp- 
tian lotus. Vid. Amer. Journ. Arch., 1886, pp. 1-20, ‘‘ A Proto-Ionic Capital,’’ J. T. 
Clarke ; ib., pp. 267-285, ‘‘ A Doric Shaft and Base found at Assos,’’ same author (con- 
taining a full bibliography of the subject in both articles) ; Goodyear, ib., 1887, pp. 271 
sqq. (an attempt to derive all palmette, as well as lotus-patterns from the Egyptian 
lotus). 

The Corinthian capital, with its acanthus leaves, so extensively used by the Romans 
on account of its more elaborate character, may be considered a variety of the Ionic 
influenced by metal-work. It was little used in strictly Greek architecture. (Cf. Bau- 
meister, op. cit., art. Baukunst, with the authorities there cited.) The question of the 
decoration of the pediments, metopes, and friezes of the temples and monuments of sim- 
ilar structure brings us to the consideration of sculpture. 

Sculpture, in the stricter sense of work in the round, cannot be accurately traced in 
its earliest beginnings on Greek soil. Nor can we say definitely that it took its rise 
either in the molding of figures from clay or the carving of them from wood, bone, or 
the like, exclusively. We have noted the great antiquity of the potter’s art, and men- 
tioned clay vessels of rude human shape from Troy. We also find shapeless fetiches of 
wood and stone venerated in various parts of Greece down to the 2d century A.D., and 
a A step beyond this primitive worship brings us to rude cultus-statues of wood 
and stone. 

The accounts of the mythical Dedalus, who evidently stands to Greek sculpture 
much in the same relation as Homer to Greek poetry, give us but hints, which must be 
supplemented and corrected by such early monuments as we possess. To a certain ex- 
tent we must accept with Winckelmann a theory of the independent rise of sculpture 
among the Hellenes. But we should expect the same oriental influences to manifest 
themselves here as in the case of ceramic art ; and when we look to the early statues 
themselves, such as the various so-called Apollo-figures of the 7th and 6th centuries 
(typical is the famous ‘‘ Apollo of Tenea’’ in Munich), we seem to find unmistakably 
Kgyptian elements. The angularity of the figure, the heavy masses of hair, the high 
set of the ears, the advancement of the left leg insuch statues are unmistakable reminis- 
cences of Egyptian works, with which the Greeks were especially brought into contact 
about this period. On the other hand statues like the Hera of Samos and other closely 
draped female figures, with the feet just appearing below the drapery, may be compared 
with the seated statues from Branchide, in the British Museum, and with what seem to 
be their older Chaldean prototypes from Tello. Statues like the Hera have the aspect of 
being modeled after wooden figures. 

The series of works of archaic sculpture from the period under discussion has rapidly 
increased through recent excavations, and we are able to trace with tolerable clearness the 
attempts made by the vigorous Greek artists to gain increased naturalness and lifelike- 
ness in their figures, while gradually acquiring the full mastery of material and tech- 
nique requisite for the free exposition of the sculptor’s ideal. 

To the opening of the marble quarries of Naxos and Paros we owe much. The 
marble thence obtained is a wonderfully fit material, easily worked, and in its very hue 
imitating human flesh. Prominent among the artists who worked in this marble we find 
Micciades and Archemus of Chios, members of an artist-family mentioned by Pliny, 
and now known to us by inscriptions as well as by certain archaic works of the 6th 
century. 

Of inestimable value for the study of the sculptures of this period are the archaic 
statues discovered on the Acropolis of Athens, which certainly antedate (how much we 
cannot say) the Persian invasion of 480 B.C. The tyranny of Pisistratus in the 6th 
century certainly formed an epoch in the artistic as well as literary life of Athens, only 
to be paralleled by the Periclean age. The full comparison and discussion of these re- 
markable works, with their elaborate polychrome decoration, together with the history 


Archeology. 622 


of earlyAttic art, still remains to be written. (For an account of the painted decoration 
of some of the female statues cf. an illustrated article by Russell Sturgis, in Harper’s 
Magazine for September, 1890.) 

But the development of the period was not confined to Attica alone, nor merely to 
sculpture in the round. The pedimental groups of the gigantomachy from the Mega- 
rian treasure-house at Olympia, and of Heracles and the hydra from the Acropolis of 
Athens, wrought in high relief from poros, a sort of tufa, and, like all such work. 
stuccoed and painted, are also of special note, together with the early metopes of 
Selinus in Sicily ; while the elaborate grave-stele of the ‘‘ Warrior of Marathon ” type 
(stele of Aristion, wrought by Alexenor of Naxos), with complete and minute poly- 
chrome decoration supplementing the details of the bas-relief, are the forerunners of 
the exquisite monuments of the Ceramicus to be mentioned hereafter. 

Figures like the winged victory of Archermus, and the sphinx, if not also the lion, 
show the influence of the East, particularly of the Asiatic orient, in the sculpture of this 
epoch. But we feel, in contemplating the Acropolis statues, that we are on Greek 
ground, and that the artists are rapidly bringing in a nobler native art. 

We have hardly entered upon the list of these important monuments ; but it must 
suffice for this place to have indicated to some degree their relations, and we now pass 
to the mention of the kindred class of bronze works. 

Together with the rude terra-cotta dedicatory figurines of early workmanship, we 
find also many small bronzes which exhibit a gradual development from the rude and 
primitive to the delicate and refined. An elaborate and truly remarkable technique, 
however, is manifested in such consummate works of archaic Greek art as the bearded 
bronze head found on the Acropolis, or the similar head of Zeus from Olympia. We see 
in such works the links in a chain extending back to those legendary metal-workers, the 
Dactyls of Crete and the Telchines of Rhodes, and forward to the glories of the Argive- 
Sicyonian school. 

To the period under discussion belongs another development in metal-work, namely, 
the minting of coins. The earliest coins, properly so called, seem to date from about the 
beginning of the 7th century, and to have been struck by the Lydian monarchs (pos- 
sibly first by Gyges). Their material is electrum or ‘‘ white gold,” a native alloy of gold 
and silver in about the proportion of 3:1. The standard of weight adopted seems 
clearly to be of Babylonian origin, and to have come overland to the seaboard of Asia 
Minor. Phidon of Argos, a tyrant of uncertain date, but not earlier than the 7th cen- 
tury, is said to have been the first to issue coins among the Greeks, Aigina being the 
seat of their mintage, and the name “‘ tortoises’’ being bestowed upon them from the 
figure on the obverse, the reverse (which was the side struck by the upper die in mint- 
ing) having upon it the familiar ‘‘ incuse-square,’’ or punch-mark so prevalent in archaic 
coinage. The tortoise was one of the animals sacred to Aphrodite (Astarte), and we find 
other evidence that we have here a trace of Phoenician commercial intercourse with the 
Peloponnese. The AXginetan standard of weight differing from that of the Lydian 
coinage, but also seemingly of Babylonian origin, appears to have been introduced over- 
sea by the Phoenicians. 

In Greece proper sprang up, subsequently to the Aginetan, a coinage at Corinth, the 
so-called ‘‘ colts,” from the Pegasus on the obverse, and at Athens the so-called 
“‘maidens,” or *‘ virgins,’”’ from the Athena-head of the obverse, or ‘‘ owls” from the type 
of the reverse. We see in all these types asacred symbolism which continues unbroken 
in coinage till the Macedonian period. 

The greatest Greek cities in this early period were the Achzan colonies of Magna 
Grecia, foremost among which was Sybaris, afterwards overthrown by her great rival 
Croton. The coinage of the Achzean confederacy, which seems to have existed in this 
region, is far superior in artistic workmanship to that of Eastern Hellas, and is dis- 
tinguished by having, instead of an incuse-square on the reverse, an incuse type, gen- 
erally the same as that of the obverse (Posidon, bull, boar, etc.). 

Sicilian coinage, notably that of Syracuse, which in the 5th and 4th centuries reached 
so high an artistic position, also began in the 6th century. 

All the coinage here mentioned, except the Lydian, is of silver. (Fora full discussion 
of ancient coins, with exhaustive bibliography, consult Head’s Historia Numorum, Ox- 
ford, 1887; also particularly Percy Gardner’s admirable Types of Greek Coins. The 
period here outlined corresponds to Head’s archaic period, 700—480 B.C.) 

The minting of money became gradually diffused through the Greek world, so that 
there was hardly a town of any consequence without a coinage ; some towns being 
known to us only from their coins. 

Intimately connected with die-cutting is gem-engraving, for the details of which see 
the work of Middleton, The Engraved Gems of Classical Times, (Cambridge, 1891). 

[On vases cf. the article ‘‘ Vasenkunde” in Baumeister, op. cit.] 

III. PeRrop or HELLENIC PRrmE.—The period which we now enter upon is naturally 
subdivided by that great convulsion of the Greek world, the Peloponnesian War (431— 
404 B.C.), into an earlier and a later half, in which diverse social and political influences 
are at work, wherefore it will be of advantage to keep this subdivision in mind. The 
most noteworthy development of this time for us is that of sculpture and statuary, the 

great monuments of the painter’s art having irretrievably perished. 


623 Archeogoly. 


About the beginning of this epoch we find bronze-casting by the so-called ‘‘ cire 
rdue’’ method (a model of clay being coated with wax more exactly to the artist’s 
deal, the whole covered with clay, and the molten metal let into the baked form in the 
place occupied by the wax) which seems to have been carried to a high degree of perfection. 
The statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton at Athens by Antenor seem to have been of 
bronze. But bronze statuary was practised notably by the so-called Argive-Sicyonian 
school, successors of a line of native artists, and connected with the mythic Dedalids 
Dipcenus and Scyllis, who, according to Pliny, came to Sicyon from Crete, and were the 
first sculptors in marble. We find Ageladas of Argos, and Canachus of Sicyon famous 
as statuaries in bronze about the end of the 6th century. Gold and ivory (in the famous 
chryselephantine work) and marble were more popularinAttica. Pythagorasof Rhegium 
{the author of the limping Philoctetes), and Calamis and Myron among Attic artists, the 
latter famed for his Discobolus and bronze cow, are the forerunners of Phidias in the 
development of the great art of the 5th century. We may also mention Onatas, who is 
perhaps to be strictly connected with one of the Hginetan pedimental groups. 

Greek sculpture, however, reached its highest ideal development, though not its full 
legitimate growth, in Phidias, son of Charmides and pupil of Ageladas of Argos, the 
companion and friend of Pericles, the superintendent of the Parthenon sculptures, and 
the artist of the chryselephantine Athena Parthenos, as well as the creator of the highest 
anthropomorphic type of Greek religion in the great chryselephantine Zeus at Olympia, 
of whose calm and marvelous beauty and dignity we can now, unfortunately, gain but 
feeble conception. (Cf. Waldstein, Hssays on the Art of Pheidias.) 

We have noticed Phidias’s activity in connection with the Parthenon, but we must 
not leave unmentioned the other great buildings of the time, the Propylea, the so-called 
Theseum, the Erechtheum, the temple at Eleusis, and that at Rhamnus, while a like 
architectural activity was going on across seas in Ionia, Sicily, and Magna Grecia. 

Painting as a great and independent art was developed contemporarily with Phidias, 
by Polygnotus of Thasos, whose paintings in the lesche (portico) at Delphi have been 
fortunately described to us by Pausanias. He must have powerfully influenced the art 
of the ceramic-painters, as we seem to be able to trace in their works. After him may 
be mentioned Agatharchus of Samos, Apollodorus, the first painter of pictures in the 
more modern sense (i.e., on flat, movable surfaces, anciently not of canvas but of board), 
Zeuxis, the contemporary of Socrates, whose Centaur-family is minutely described to us 
by Lucian, and Parrhasius of Ephesus. 

At the beginning of the 4th century must be mentioned Timanthes of the Sicyonian 
school, the painter of the celebrated sacrifice of Iphigenia. But we must leave undis- 
cussed all details in regard to the work of these artists for lack of sufficient monu- 
mental data. 

The work of the Argive-Sicyonian school was carried forward by Polycletus, the 
author of the Doryphorus (spear-bearer) and Diadumenus (youth binding on head-band), 
and who established a canon of proportion characterized by a certain squareness and 
heaviness. To him is ascribed an advance in the statuary’s art in that he caused his 
figures to rest upon one leg, thus easing the pose and producing greater grace of attitude 
and freedom of outline. 

After the stormy period of the Peloponnesian war we find Cephisodotus and his 
famous son Praxiteles carrying out Greek plastic art to its legitimate and logical conclu- 
sion, and to its fullest bloom and perfection. The Irene with the baby Plutus preserved 
in Munich, a replica of a work of Cephisodotus, is a gracious and lovely figure; but 
Praxiteles’s marble Hermes with the baby Dionysus, found in the place designated by 
Pausanias, the Hereum at Olympia, in exquisite sensuous beauty, in perfection of 
manly strength and grace, and in the combination of the divine ideal with human form, 
as well as in complete mastery of technique, surpasses all that is left us of ancient art, 
while the pensive expression of the god’s face indicates but too clearly the speculative 
thought that was undermining the old faith. There isno more perfect image of the 
period than this marvelous statue. 

It is to Praxiteles that we are to attribute the development, if not the invention, of 
languid but not yet effeminate figures, with hand supported on hip; such as the famous 
Faun, of which several replicas exist, perhaps even the torso of the original. Praxiteles 
is pre-eminently the sculptor of youthful beauty, not merely in man but also in woman, 
as proved by his famous Cnidian Aphrodite, inadequately preserved in replicas. 

Side by side with Praxiteles must be mentioned Scopas of Paros, whose art seems to 
have been of somewhat similar character. The remains of his work from the temple of 
Athena Alea at Tegea do not suffice for an accurate judgment, nor can we certainly 
attribute to him anything from the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, or from the Mauso- 
Jeum at Halicarnassus. If it be true, however, as is plausibly maintained, that the influ- 
ence of Scopas was strongly felt in the Pergamene school, we shall have good ground 
for adjudging to him the celebrated Niobe-group, about the authorship of which Pliny 
is uncertain between Scopas and Praxiteles, and for the characterization of Scopas as 
““the master of the dramatic or ethical pathos,’’ Praxiteles being described as “‘ the 
master of the psychic pathos and of the complete sensuously beautiful form.” 

To the first half of the 4th century we may assign those most exquisite funereal 
monuments, particularly of the Athenian Ceramicus, such as that of Dexileos, and the 
deeply pathetic relief of Hegeso, This art is markedly Phidian in character. 


Archeology. 624 


The growth of the Attic drama in the 5th century brings into prominence the theatre 
as a form of architecture, the numerous details of the construction of which have not 
et been fully settled. It will be sufficient to refer the reader to the excellent work of 
Haigh, The Attic Theatre (Oxford, 1889). 7 

In ceramics we must consider the Attic development, which in this period is of 
absorbing interest, and gives us much light on painting on a larger scale as well as on 
contemporary manners and customs. The rise of Attic black-figured ware has already 
been mentioned. As a special form of this we must mention particularly the fine 
Panathenaic amphoras, with figures of the armed Athena, in which the sacred oil was 
presented to victors at the Panathenaic games. These vases are interesting as being 
continued in an archaistic form into the 4th century. (Cf. Baumeister, Denkmdler, 
srt. Panathenaia.) The hydria is also a favorite form in this ware, while the lecythi, 
‘nterred in such large numbers with the dead, form a noteworthy class. Among painters 
of black-figured vases may be named Execias and Nicosthenes, the latter represented by 
nearly 80 vases. (Cf. W. Klein, Die Griechischen Vasen mit Meistersignaturen, 2d ed., 
Vienna, 1887.) A special class of peculiarly Attic vases are the beautiful ‘‘ prothesis 
(laying out) lecythi,’’ on which funereal scenes are exquisitely depicted in various colors 
on a soft white ground. They may be classed historically as the successors of the 
Dipylon vases, and in art as kindred with the Ceramicus gravestones. 

In the ‘‘ red-figured’’ ware, which far surpasses in artistic merit the black-figured, 
and of which the rise as a separate variety seems now to be assigned to the latter half of 
the 6th century, the figures are merely left bare of the black glaze instead of being 
relieved in black against a light ground, and then details are touched in with black, 
white, and various colors. In this variety, in which scenes from the myths, while not 
excluded, yet make room for delightful bits of social and domestic life and in the de- 
velopment of which the cylix plays an important part, the most noteworthy artists are 
Euphronius, Duris, Hiero, Macron, Pithinus, and Sosias of the first half of the 5th 
century. 

Varidue grotesque forms of vases, such as the rhyton (in the shape of a head, gener- 
ally that of an animal), now come into use, and we find numerous examples of the 
pyxis or woman’s toilet-box. But the art gradually sank, and vase-painting was fast 
dying out at the beginning of the Alexandrian period. 

In the domain of numismatics we must briefly mention the periods of transitional 
art (480—415 B.C.) and of finest art (415—336 B.C.). We have here not to deal par- 
ticularly with Athenian coinage, which, like the Panathenaic amphoras, keeps a de- 
signedly rude and archaic character in order to maintain its position with foreign peo- 
ples, with whom the Attic state came in contact through its wide maritime relations and 
commercial dealings, but rather with such beautiful work as that of the Syracusan die- 
cutters Euenetus and Cimon, in the period subsequent to 415 B.C., whose splendid 
decadrachms ‘are justly reckoned among the highest achievements in this class. We 
may trace, however, through the coins of this entire epoch that same gradual mastery of 
material and development from the more severe to the more graceful, which is marked 
in other lines of art. But coinage still maintains the sacred symbolism which character- 
ized it from the beginning, the purely human and individual element appearing dis- 
tinctly only in the special marks of magistrates and mint-masters, which are kept sub- 
ordinate to the main design. (See again Gardner, op. cit.) 

1V.—PERIOD OF HELLENIC DISSEMINATION AND DECLINE.—The development of Mace- 
don under Philip and the conquests of Alexander change the entire aspect of the Greek 
world. We have henceforth to consider a Hellenism synonymous with civilization 
rather than the geographical Hellas with her outlying colonies. 

In Greece itself the greatest influence is exerted at the opening of this period by 
Lysippus of Sicyon, who not only continued the prestige of the Argive-Sicyonian school, 
but also introduced a new canon in statuary, making the figure more slender and the 
head proportionally smaller than in the preceding art, and forming a marked contrast 
to the canon of Polycletus. Characteristic of his work is the Apoxyomenos (a youth 
scraping himself with the strigil), known to us from replicas. He was also a sort of 
court-sculptor to Alexander the Great, as Apelles was his painter. His influence extends 
immediately to Rhodes in Chares of Lindus, one of his best-known pupils, and artist of 
the famous Colossus of Rhodes. 

_ ‘The Rhodian school, which was justly distinguished during the 3d century, pro- 
duced among other famous works the Laocoon group, by Agesander, Athanodorus, and 
Polydorus, to be noted as marking distinctly the new element in sculpture, which, start- 
Ing apparently from Scopas, emphasizes the pathetic, and well-nigh oversteps the bound- 
ary between sculpture and painting. This art is the legitimate precursor of the Perga- 
mene school, presently to be mentioned. It is also connected with the style of such 
sculptors as Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, the artists of the group called the 

‘ Farnese Bull.”’ 

The splendid Victory of Samothrace, now in the Louvre, which may be dated about 
the beginning of the 3d century, is one of the greatest monuments of this period, and 
deserves to be ranked with such splendid figures as the Victory of Pseonius of Mende, 
set up at Olympia a century or more earlier, and with the Victories from the balustrade 
of the temple of Nike Apteros, at Athens. 


625 Archeology. 


The Pergamene art, cultivated especially under the Attalid kings, and of which we 
see such astonishing examples in the frieze of the great altar of Zeus at Pergamon, of 
the earlier part of the 2d century B.C., representing a colossal gigantomachy, exhibits 
great mastery of technique, violence of action, and the free expression of physical suffer- 
ing, the two latter qualities rather of painting. As intimated above, it is the grand 
finale of Greek sculpture, in which this art still appears great, though overstepping its due 
bounds. 

The Aphrodite of Melos follows rather in the wake of the great idealistic art of the 
5th century, and is more Phidian than Praxitelean. The question about the proper 
restoration of the statue is still unsettled. 

We must mention here, in passing, the celebrated Apollo Belvedere, a work of pre- 
eminent beauty and grace, concerning the history of which we are sadly ignorant. 

With the painting of the Alexandrian period we come more closely into contact than 
with the earlier art in this kind through the wall-decorations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, 
and Rome, which follow the traditions of this epoch. Apelles of Colophon represents 
the highest development of Greek painting. His idealized portraits of Alexander were 
as famous as Lysippus’s statues. Protogenes of Caunus, who worked at Rhodes about 
the end of the 4th century, is also distinguished in this department. Antiphilus at the 
court of Ptolemy is characterized as ‘‘ most eminent in facility.’”’ But the list of great 
Greek painters closes with Theon of Samos, also of the 3d century. (Cf. the article 
‘* Malerei,’’ in Baumeister, op. cit.) . 

In another species of art we find the eminent gem-engraver Pyrgoteles, employed by 
Alexander ; and this branch of the sculptor’s profession, ever excessively popular among 
the ancients, was fostered by that monarch’s successors. 

In vase-painting we note little else than decline, the latest development manifesting 
itself in Magna Grecia, Etruria, and Campania. The South-Italian painted vases, 
which present a distinctly funereal element side by side with a marked influence from 
the drama, give- us much valuable archeological material. Assteas (of Psstum ?), 
Pytho, and Lasimus are its only masters known to us by signature. We have also some 
Campanian vases with Latin inscriptions of the 8d century. The end of vase-painting 
seems to fall about the beginning of the 2d century B.C. 

We may here depart from our chronological order to consider briefly the peculiar 
ware of Etruria, when, side by side with primitive geometric pottery, continued seem- 
ingly over a long period, and more or less skillful imitations of Greek painted ware (par- 
ticularly Attic), we find the so-called vast di bucchero, a peculiar class of pottery of black 
clay, about which we have but little exact knowledge, and of which examples have been 
found not merely in Etruria, but also in the Orient, in Cyprus, in Greece proper, and on 
the coasts of the Black Sea. The earliest of such vessels in Etruria are made without 
the lathe, but in the manufacture of the later (and darker) ware the lathe was employed. 
The earliest figures are scratched in ; subsequently relief-decoration appears. In the 
latter case Greek types are employed, at first roughly, afterwards more skillfully, and 
with a mold or incised roller. In individual cases polychrome painting occurs. This 
art seems to have continued into the 6th century. 

Before leaving the subject of pottery we must also notice the so-called Samian and 
Megarian relief-ware, assigned to the 2d century B.C., and the Aretinian ware, ap- 
parently of the 1st century B.C. 

In numismatics the new development under Alexander and his successors, designated 
as “‘the period of later fine art from the accession of Alexander to the death of Lysi- 
machus’’ (886—280 B.C.), and marked by the influence of Lysippus, is succeeded by a 
period of decline in art extending to the Roman conquest (280—146 B.C.). Types of 
sovereigns, first that of the deified Alexander, then those of other and living princes, 
make their appearance upon coins, and continue down to the later Roman empire a 
valuable series of historical portraits. Gold coinage now begins to occupy a prominent 
position, and continues side by side with silver and bronze as a medium of exchange 
under the Roman empire. (On copper currency, @s grave, etc., cf. Head, op. cit., pp. 
14-17.) 

In small art our attention is particularly drawn tc the terra-cotta figurines of this 
period, particularly those of Tanagra in Beeotia, which in their charming shapes and 
lovely coloring give us so many delightful pictures of Greek life. 

Bronze mirrors may also be alluded to here before we pass out of the domain of 
Greek classic art. Of these some most beautiful specimens exist, their lids forming a 
class of chefs d’ceuvres in metal-graving, while their handles are often statuettes of 
finest workmanship. 

V. Roman PER10D.—The passion of the Roman connoisseurs for objects of Greek art 
has already been alluded to ; but in the period upon which we are now entering certain 
other elements demand our attention. As among the Greeks, the introduction of 
foreign art was met by a native element, which at first colored and afterwards completely 
overpowered by the strength and vigor of its own development external influences ; so 
we find in Italy, among the Etruscans, the masters, in so much, of the Romans, and 
whose peculiar bucchero-ware has already been mentioned, a native element which 
reacted upon the art from without, though in a vastly slighter degree than that of Greece 
and with inferior genius, Their art was not the oldest in Italy ; for we find specimens 


Archeopterysx. 626 
Archbishop, 


of situle (pails) of beaten metai, perhaps to be designated as Umbrian, the decoration of 
which, while it seems to show certain elements derived through the Greeks, has but little 
affinity with Etruscan art. a 

The influences at work among the Etruscans were principally Greek, as we have 
noticed in the case of their figured pottery. The native elements were chiefly their 
sombre religion, and a marked aptitude for portraiture. We find ‘‘ realism combined 
with poverty of style’. The chief Etruscan monuments are funereal, consisting of 
decorated tombs, sarcophagi, and ash-urns, in which Greek ornamentation and Etruscan 
portraiture are not very happily blended. 

The same tendency to portraiture appears among the Romans, fostered by the im- 
pertance attached to ancestral ¢magines (portraits in wax) which played so marked a 
part in their funeral ceremonies. Their masters in this were Etruscan artists. 

Although we read how the Sicilian artists Damophilus and Gorgasus, as early as 493 
B.C., decorated with sculpture and painting the temple of Ceres at Rome, they are 
stated to have been the first temple decorators there who were not Tuscans ; and the 
Greek custom of erecting consecrated statues to the gods did not come into vogue until 
after 290 B.C. 

Hand in hand with the art of plastic portraiture, in which Roman artists learned from 
Etruscan masters, went that of honorary statuary in bronze. The beginning of this 
branch of art is placed about 450 B.C., and after the Second Punic War such statues 
were to be seen at Rome in large numbers, most Romans of any distinction being hon- 
ored in this way. It was just after this time that their Grecian conquests began to bring 
the Romans decidedly under the sway of Hellenic art. 

In architecture the markedly Roman feature is the great employment of the arch, 
which, although not unknown to the Greeks, was but rarely used by them. This rendered 
possible such great works as the aqueducts, to say nothing of the Colosseum, the Pan- 
theon, and the other huge structures of imperial times. In temple construction we find 
Etruscan influence at work in the earlier period, both in form and decoration. Later 
Greek architecture is combined with native elements in elaborate and luxuriant struct- 
ures. 

The so-called Attic Renaissance in sculpture about the beginning of the period we are 
now considering, i.e., shortly after Greece had become the Roman province of Achaia, 
intreduced no new elements, but carried on with enfeebled ability the old. This revival 
is best known to us through the Farnese Hercules, an exaggerated work of which the 
motive is derived from the Pergamene school. 

The archaistic school of the 1st century B.C., Pasiteles, a native of Southern Italy, 
his pupil Stephanus, and Stephanus’s pupil, Menelaos, deserves mention as exercising 
somewhat of independent influence. (Cf. Waldstein in Am. Journ. Arch., 1887, pp. 
1-13.) 

The most active class of sculptors at Rome in the time of the late Republic and early 
Empire were from Asia Minor. Best known among such is Agasias, the artist of the 
so-called ‘‘ Borghese Gladiator’. ; 

From the time of Augustus on we meet, side by side with a vast importation of 
ancient Greek works and reproductions of them in copies, a host of portrait statues, and 
busts, triumphal arches and elaborate public and private buildings of all kinds. A most 
splendid specimen of Roman portrait-statuary is that of Augustus in general’s uniform, 
now in the Vatican. In it are admirably combined grand and realistic portraiture, and 
rich decorative effects, particularly in the cuirass. Especially noteworthy also are the 
reliefs of the ara pacts Augusti and of the triumphal arches, such as that of Titus. 

Of idealistic bronze statuary we have a beautiful example in the Victory of Brescia 
of the 1st century A.D. 

The sera of Hadrian is the last period of vigorous impulse in art among the Romans. 
That emperor’s passion for ancient art, both Egyptian and Greek, and his encourage- 
ment of new works, both at home and abroad, is well known. To his reign are to be 
assigned the various idealized portraits of his famous Bithynian favorite Antinous. 

n numismatics the last periods of continued decline (146—27 B.C.) and of the coin- 
age of the Roman empire down to Gallienus (27 B.C.—268 A.D.) fall in here. The 
material is vast, and here, too, the element of realistic portraiture is prominent. 

The luxury of the Romans manifested itself in the multiplication of elaborate mosaics, 
rich jewelry, wonderful intaglios, both in stone and in paste, ‘costly glassware and the 
like. But of all this art, which cannot be fully discussed here, suffice it to say that it 
involves no new principles. It is merely the bloom of that decay which was fast con- 
suming the ancient world. 


ARCHEOP’TERYX, a fossil bird, a few specimens of which have been found in 
the jurassic limestone of Solenhofen, Bavaria. It was about the size of a rook, had a 
tail formed of 26 elongated vertebree, each supporting a pair of quill feathers, and short 
wings with 2 free claws. It is probable that the jaws were furnished with sunken teeth, 
like those of the toothed birds of cretaceous times. 


ARCHANGEL (from the Greek prefix archt- or arch-, denoting chief, and angelos, an 


angel), a term which occurs in the New Testament; and which, according to some, is 
there a title of our Savior—but according to others, designates an angel superior in powet 


627 Archbishop. 


and glory to the other angels. We read, in the epistle of Jude, of ‘‘ Michael the A.,” 
and in Rev. xii. 7, of ‘‘ Michael and his angels.” In 1 Thess. iv. 16, we are told that the 
coming of our Lord at the last day shall be ‘‘with the voice of the A., and with the 
trump of God.” We nowhere read in the Holy Scriptures of archangels, although the 
plural is popularly as much used as the singular. The notion of an angelic hierarchy 
certainly prevailed among the Jews, the highest place being assigned to Michael; and 
the same notion has extensively prevailed in the Christian church. There are passages . 
of Scripture which seem to indicate different degrees and classesamong the angelic hosts, 
but no clear revelation has been made upon this subject. See ANGELS. 


ARCHANGEL, the‘chief city in the Russian department of Archangel, is situated in 
lat. 64° 82’ n., and long. 40° 33’ e., about 40 m. above the junction of the river Dwina 
with the White sea; is the seat of an archbishop, and contains about 18,000 inhabitants. 
Its name is taken from the monastery of St. Michael. A. is the chief commercial city 
for the north of Russia and Siberia, and is visited by numerous vessels — especially British 
—from July to September, the port being clear of ice only during that period. The 
houses are built chiefly of wood; and their general appearance is far from handsome. 
The finest edifices are the bazaar or mart, and the marine hospital. A. has an ecclesias- 
tical college, schools for engineering and navigation, etc. The chief articles of traffic 
are fish, train-oil, skins, furs, timber, wax, iron, tallow, bristles, caviare. The t., 
which is the oldest seaport of the empire, and was for a long period the only one, 
was founded in 1584. Its merchants trade as far e. as China, and have all the commerce 
of Siberia. During summer, A. has a continual market. 


ARCHANGEL, or ARKANGELSK, a government and city of Russia; the government 
between 61° and 71° n., and 29° to 68° e., along the White sea and Arctic ocean, 
and including the island of Nova Zembla; 331,505 sq. m.; pop. ’92, 854,411. The n. 
part is sterile, and its winters are severe. Below the arctic circle are extensive forests, 
lakes, and morasses. The spring is moist, with cold frosty nights; summer has long, 
foggy days, and the autumn is short and moist. The wealth of A. is in its forests. Gold, 
naphtha, salt, coal or lignite, and sulphur springs are found. ‘The productions are pitch, 
tar, tallow, turpentine, potash, cordage, mats, and leather. 


ARCHANGEL, New. See SITKA. 


ARCHBISHOP (Gr. arch-, and episcopos, overseer) is the title given to a metropolitan 
bishop who superintends the conduct of the suffragan bishops in his province, and also 
exercises episcopal authority in his own diocese. ‘The title arose, in the 38d and 4th 
centuries, from the provincial synods being held once or twice a year in the chief t. 
of the province under the presidency of the bishop of the place. Another cause of the 
origin of the title is said to be the custom of planting new bishoprics as Christianity 
spread, a slight supremacy being still retained by the original over the newly-appointed 
chief pastors. In the oriental church, the archbishops are still called ‘‘ metropolitans,” 
from the circumstance first mentioned. In the African church, on the other hand, the 
term used was ‘‘primus.” The great archbishoprics of the early church were those of 
Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Rome. Since the 6th 
c., the A. of Rome has assumed the name of pope (papa). There is an official letter by 
Justinian, addressed to ‘‘ John A. of Rome and patriarch;” and several ecclesiastical 
constitutions are addressed to ‘‘ Epiphanius A. of Constantinople and patriarch.” The 
synod of Antioch, in 341, assigned to the A. the superintendence over all the bishoprics, 
and a precedence in rank over all the bishops of the church, who, on important matters, 
were bound to consult him and be guided by his advice. By degrees there arose, out of 
this superiority of rank, privileges which at length assumed the character of positive 
jurisdiction in ecclesiastical matters. Many of these rights passed to the patriarchs 
(q.v.) towards the end of the 4th and during the 5th centuries, and still more to the pope 
in the 9th. Te archbishops still retained jurisdiction, in the first instance, over their 
suffragans iz. matters which were not criminal, and over those who were subject to 
them they acted as a court of appeal. They possessed also the right of calling together, 
and presiding in, the provincial synods; the superintendence and power of visitation 
over the bishops of the metropolitan see; the power of enforcing the laws of the church; 
the dispensation of indulgences, and the like. The archbishops further enjoyed the 
honor of having the cross carried before them in their own archiepiscopate, even in 
presence of the pope himself, and of wearing the pallwwm. In England, there are two 
A., of whom the one has his seat at Canterbury, the capital of the ancient kingdom of 
Kent; the other at York, the capital of Northumbria. But though, as ruling over a 
province in place of a single diocese, both have enjoyed the rank of metropolitans from 
the first, the A. of Canterbury has all along enjoyed, not merely precedence as the suc- 
cessor of Augustine and the senior A., but as possessing a pre-eminent and universal 
authority over the whole kingdom. ‘This pre-eminence is marked in the titles which 
they respectively assume—the A. of Canterbury being styled the primate of all England 
(metropolitanus et primus totius Anglie), whilst the A. of York is simply called primate 
of England (primus et metropolitanus Anglia). It is also indicated by the places which 
they occupy in processions—the A. of Canterbury, who has precedence of all the 
nobility, not only preceding the A. of York, but the lord chancellor being interposed 
‘between them. Previous to the creation of an archbishopric in Ireland, the authority 


hdeacon 
aera ; 628 


of the A. of Canterbury extended to that island. The amount of control which belongs 
to an A. over the bishops of his province is not very accurately defined; but if any 
bishop introduces irregularities into his. diocese, or is guilty of immorality, the A. may 
call him to account, and even deprive him. In 1822, the A. of Armagh, who is primate 
of all Ireland, deposed the bishop of Clogher on the latter ground. To the A. of Can- 
terbury belongs the honor of placing the crown on the sovereign’s head at his coronation; 
and the A. of York claims the like privilege in the case of the queen-consort, whose per- 
petual chaplain he is. The province of the A. of York consists of the six northern 
counties, with Cheshire and Nottinghamshire. The rest of England and Wales form 
the province of the A. of Canterbury. The dioceses of thet two A.—that is to 
say, the districts in which they exercise ordinary episcopal functions—were remodeled 
by 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 77. The diocese of Canterbury comprises Kent, except the city 
and deanery of Rochester, and some parishes transferred by this act; a number of par- 
ishes in Sussex called ‘‘ peculiars;’ with small districts in other dioceses, particularly 
London. ‘The diocese of the A. of York embraces the co. of York, except that portion 
of it now included in the dioceses of Ripon and Manchester; the whole co. of Not- 
tingham; and some other detached districts. 

‘In Ireland there are two Protestant and four Roman Catholic archbishops. Of the 
former, the A. of Armagh is primate of all Ireland; the A. of Dublin being primate of 
Ireland. They formerly sat alternately in the house of lords; the three bishops who, 
along with them, represented the church of Ireland, being chosen by rotation. ‘The 
election of an A. does not differ from that of a bishop (see BisHor); but when he is in- 
vested with his office, he is said to be ‘‘enthroned,”’ whereas a bishop is ‘‘ consecrated. ’ 
He also writes himself, ‘‘ by divine providence;” a bishop being, ‘‘ by divine permission ,” 
and has the title of ‘‘grace,” and ‘‘most reverend father in God,” whilst a bishop is 
styled ‘‘lord,” and ‘‘right reverend father in God.” The A. is entitled to present to all 
ecclesiastical livings in the disposal of diocesan bishops, if not filled up within six 
months; and every bishop, whether created or translated, was formerly bound to make 
a legal conveyance to the A. of the next avoidance of one such dignity or benefice be- 
longing to his see as the A. shall choose. 

The only archbishops in the U. 8. are those of the Roman Catholic church, now 
14 in number. Up to 1789 the ecclesiastical government of that church in this country 
continued under the vicar apostolic of the London (England) district, the local su- 
perior being father John Carroll, of Baltimore. In 1789 Baltimore was erected into an 
episcopal see, and father Carroll became bp. In 1808, after New Orleans, New York, 
and Boston had been erected into sees, Baltimore was raised to metropolitan rank, 
father Carroll becoming the first archbishop, as he had been the first bp., in this country. 
The dates of the establishments of other archiepiscopal sees in this country are as follows 
—the first date being that of the foundation of the see, and the second of its elevation 
to a metropolis: Oregon City, 1846, 1846; St. Louis, 1826, 1847; New Orleans, 1793, 
1850; New York, 1808, 1850; Cincinnati, 1821, 1850; Dubuque, 1887, 1893; San Fran- 
cisco, 1853, 1853; Milwaukee, 1844, 1875; Boston, 1808, 1875; Philadelphia, 1808, 1875; 
Santa Fé, 1850, 1875; Chicago, 1844, 1880; St. Paul, 1850, 1888. 


ARCHDEAOON (Gr. arch-, and diaconos, servant). An ecclesiastical dignitary whose 
jurisdiction is immediately subordinate to that of the bishop. The A. originally was 
simply the chief of the deacons, who were the attendants and assistants of the bishop in 
church affairs. His duties consisted in attending the bishop at the altar and at ordina- 
tions, assisting him in managing the revenues of the church, and directing the deacons 
in their duties. From being thus mere assistants, archdeacons in the 5th c, began to 
share the bishop’s powers, and step by step attained to the authority which they now 
enjoy, which from the 9th c. became in many respects distinct from that of the bishop. 
Several synods protested against the innovation, but it was continued in the 11th and 
12th centuries, when the archdeacons were recognized as the most influential of prelates. 
In the 13th c., their powers were limited by the establishment of episcopal courts. Their 
dignity and influence is now very much reduced in the Catholic church. There were 
formerly 60 archdeaconries in England, but their number has been considerably increased 
since the passing of the act for carrying into effect the report of the ecclesiastical com- 
missioners (6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 77); and it is probable that under the provisions of that 
act they may be still further increased. No person can be appointed an A. till he has 
been six years complete in priest’s orders (8 and 4 Vict. c. 118, s. 27). The duty of paro- 
chiai visitation has long been regarded as belonging specially to the archidiaconal office, 
and it was by its exercise mainly that the archdeacons attained to the dignity of ordi- 
nary instead of delegated jurisdiction. Even in performing this function, however, and 
in holding general synods or visitations, ordering repairs of churches, and the like, the 
A. is properly to be regarded as being what the canon law called him, ‘‘ the bishop’s eye.” 
« The judge of the A.’s court, when he does not preside, is called ‘‘ the official.” There 

is an appeal to the court of the bishop, or in the case of an A. of an archbishopric, to 
the court of arches. See Deacon, DEAN, Priest. In the American P. E. church, the 


archdeacon acts as the agent of the bishop in visiting and reporting upon the condition 
of the parishes, 


ARCHDUKE, A. and archduchess are titles now takeu by all the sons and daughters 


Archdeacon 
629 Archelaus. F 


of the emperor of Austria, and by their descendants through the male line. The title of 
A. was gradually assumed by the dukes of Austria, as a mark of precedence over the 
other dukes of the empire. Duke Rudolph IV. of Austria, in 1859, called himself 
Palatinus Archidux, but he was not so styled by theemperor. His brothers, Albert and 
Leopold, did not assume the title after his death, though they had occasionally done so 
in his lifetime. The third son of Leopold, however, Ernest-the-Iron, revived it. Still 
he was addressed by the emperor simply as duke. At last the title was formally con- 
ferred on them by the emperor Frederick III. in 1453, who himself, as duke, was the 
first recipient of the imperial gift. Still the usage was not uniform, for he afterwards 
speaks of himself as duke. The privilege was extended to the Tyrolian branch of the 
Austrian house in the person of Sigismund. The value of the dignity thus assumed 
was a cause of contention with Bavaria in 1589. The Austrian view was that to duke 
it held the same relation that archbishop does to bishop. The dukes of Austria claimed 
to have always had precedence over the other ducal houses, and regarded the title as a 
mere indication of what had been universally acknowledged. Bavaria, on the other 
hand, relied on the greater antiquity of its dukedom. The contest was decided by the 
emperor Rudolph II. in favor of Austria, the precedence of which has not since been 
called in question. Other dukedoms claimed the privilege of being so called, but it was 
invariably denied by the emperor. 


ARCHEDEMUS, or ARCHEDAMUS, whose nickname was I'Aduwy, the blear-eyed, was a 
foreigner who by fraud obtained the franchise at Athens. He appears to have been the 
Archedemus mentioned in Xenophon’s Memorabilia, who rose from obscurity to an in- 
fluential position by means of his talent for public business and oratory. After the 
battle of Arginuse, B.C. 406, he led the public disaffection against the six Athenian 
generals, by imposing a fine on Erasinides, 

ARCHEGOSAU’RUS, a remarkable fossil saurian reptile, so named by Goldtuss (arché- 
gos, leader; and sauwros, lizard), as constituting the real beginning of reptilian life, which 
had previously been considered as not extending below the permian series of rocks. 

The skull is flattened and triangular, with rounded angles, the front one being some- 
what lengthened. The teeth are simple cones, having a labyrinthic structure similar to 
that of the recent lepidosteus. The vertebral column remains in an embryonic condi- 
tion; the arches and peripheral elements of the vertebre are ossified; but the chorda 
dorsalis, which is persistent, is unprotected below. The ribs are short and almost 
straight, round and slender in the middle, expanded and flattened at the ends. The 
two pairs of limbs are nearly equal in size, and in structure very much resemble those of 
the proteus. They have each four long, slender digits, which obviously supported a 
longish, narrow-pointed paddle, adapted for swimming. Externally, the body was . 
protected by a covering of oblong quadrangular scales, which have been preserved in 
some specimens. 

Four species have been described. 

The history of the A. is shortly this: Its remains, found in the Bavarian coal-measures, 
had been described as those of a fish under the name of pygopterus lucius (Agassiz). In 
1844, H. von Meyer first described it under the name of apateon pedestris. 'This speci- 
men was found in the coal-measures of Miinster-Appel, in Rhenish Bavaria, and was sup- 
posed by Meyer to be related to the salamanders, and yet not without considerable doubt; 
for he says, ‘‘its head might be that of a fish, as well as that ofa lizard, or of a batra- 
chian.” In 1847, Goldfuss figured and described three distinct species discovered in 
large concretionary nodules of clay-ironstone, from the coal-field of Saarbriick, giving to 
them the generic name of A. He considered them to be a transition state between the 
fish-like batrachia and the lizards and crocodiles. Prof. Owen has subsequently des- 
cribed this fossil; he makes it a remarkable connecting link between the reptile and the 
fish, and on these grounds: Itisrelated to the salamandroid-ganoid fishes by the con- 
formity of pattern in the plates of the external cranial skeleton, and by the persistence of 
the chorda dorsalis, as in the sturgeon, while it is allied to the reptiles by the persistence 
of the chorda dorsalis, and the branchial arches, and by the absence of the occipital con- 
dyle, or condyles, as in lepidosiren, and by the presence of labyrinthic teeth, as in ladby- 
rinthodon, which, however, also ally it to the ganoid lepidosteus. There is thus in the A. 
a blending together of the characteristics of reptile and fish in one animal. It occupies 
a position between, and equally related to, the salamandroid-ganoid fishes on the one 
hand, and the labyrinthodont reptiles on the other, while the latter conduct us through 
the lepidosiren to the perennibranchiate batrachia. 


ARCHELA'US, one of the Heraclidze, who, when driven by his brothers from his native 
land, fled to Macedon, where he became the founder of a powerful family, of which 
Alexander the Great was said to be a descendant.—ARCHELAUS, natural son of the Mace- 
donian king, Perdiccas II., came to the throne (after he had murdered the rightful heir) 
in 413 B.c. His reign was far better than its commencement, as he introduced several 
salutary measures, and was a generous patron of art and literature. Euripides and Zeu- 
xis frequented his court; and the palace of the monarch was splendidly adorned by the 
paintings of the latter. It is said that Socrates refused an invitation to proceed thither, 
having no great respect for the character of A., which was stained by odious vices. He 
is believed to have been murdered by Craterus, one of his favorites; but the story of his 
death is told differently.—A., a general under Mithridates the Great, was sent into Greece 


Archelaus. 6 30 


Archers. : 


with a large fleet and an army of 120,000 men to oppose the Romans in 87 B.c. Sulls. 
was sent against him, and besieged him in Pireeus, whence A. moved to Beeotia, and here 
collected all his forces. A battle took place at Cheronéia, when victory declared for the 
Romans. A. now retreated to Chalcis, where he waited until Mithridates had dispatched 
another army of 80,000 men into Greece. The second fight took place at Orchomenos, in 
Beotia, and, after two days’ contest, the whole host led by A. was totally routed by 
Sulla. A., after hiding for three days in a morass, escaped to Chalcis. Aftera treaty of 

eace had been effected between Sulla and Mithridates, A. fell under the displeasure of 

is monarch, being unjustly suspected of treason, and, fearing for his life, as also per- 
haps disgusted at the return he had received for his many services, he went over to the 
Romans at the outbreak of the second war, in 81 8B.c. After this time he appears no 
more in history.—A.,son of the former, married Berenice, daughter of King Ptole- 
meus Auletes (56 B.c.), and ruled over Egypt for the short space of six months during the 
banishment of Ptolemezus. The usurper lost his life in a battle against Aulus Gabinius, 
proconsul of Syria. His grandson, also named A., obtained from Marcus Antonius the 
province of Cappadocia, and retained it during the reign of Augustus. Tiberius accused 
him of political innovations, and condemned him to death; but, as he was old and 
fatuous, his life was spared. He died soon after his trial, at Rome, in 17 A.p.—A., son 
of Herod, the tyrant at Judea, succeeded his father in 3 B.c., and maintained his posi- 
tion against an insurrection raised by the Pharisees. His heirship to the throne being 
disputed by his brother Antipas, A. went to Rome, where his authority was con- 
firmed by Augustus, who made him Ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. 
After a reign of nine years, he was deposed by Augustus, on account of his cruel tyranny, 
and banished to Vienna, in Gaul, where he died. His territories were added to the 
Roman province of Syria. 


ARCHELA'US, surnamed Puysicus, a Greek philosopher, pupil of Anaxagoras, 
about 450 B.c. Nothing of his writing remains, but his leading ideas were like those of 
his tutor. He admitted a primitive matter, consisting of infinite particles similar in 
nature to the bodies formed from them. He also admitted a ruling mind. He thought 
matter was mingled with mind, and identified the primitive matter with air; thus his 
first principle was air endowed with mind. Out of this air, by processes of thickening 
and thinning, arose cold and heat, or water and fire, the first passive, the last active. 
From the action of fire and water were formed the atmosphere, and the mud out of which 
the heavenly bodies were developed. Living organized beings, at first of low type, 
sprang from the mud, and gradually the races of animals were formed. Man he held to 
be superior to other beings by reason of his artistic and moral powers. 


ARCHELA'US, a sculptor, celebrated for his bas-relief representing the apotheosis 
of Homer, which is supposed to have been made in the 1st c. of the Christian era. It 
_ was purchased in 1819 for the British Museum. 


ARCHENHOLZ, JoHANN WILHELM, Baron von, a German author, b. Sept. 3, 1743, 
d. Feb. 28, 1812. After service in the army, he gained his discharge at the close of the 
seven years’ war, and passed several years in travel, visiting almost all the principal 
cities of Europe, and supporting himself by authorship, and, as it was generally reported, 
also by gambling. He wrote a History of the Seven Years’ War (2 vols., Berlin, 1798), 
which, when compared with the generally dry style of his German contemporaries, 
deserves praise on account of its narrative interest. He also wrote England and Italy 
2d edition, Leip., 1787), Annals of British History (1789-98), and biographies of queen 
Elizabeth of England and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden. 

ARCHER, a co. in n. Texas, of about 900 sq.m., thinly settied, but favorable for 
cattle-raising and the growth of cereals. There are also valuable minerals, bismuth 
among them. Pop. 1890, 2101, co. seat, Archer. 


ARCHER, Joun, 1741-1810; b. Md. The first man in the United States honored with 
the degree of doctor of medicine. He was an officer in the army of the revolution; mem- 


ber of the Maryland general assembly, and representative in congress from that state for 
three terms, 1801-7. 


ARCHER FISH, a name given to certain small East Indian fishes of the acanthop- 
terygious family of sgwamipennes or chaetodontide, which have the faculty of project- 
ing drops of water with sure aim at insects, and thereby causing them to fall into the 
water, where they are instantly seized as prey. Tovotes jaculator, one of these species, 
is a fish about 6 or 7 in. in length, a native of Java and other parts of the Indian archi- 
pelago, and is that to which the name A. F. has been more strictly appropriated. It 
can project a drop of water to the height of 4 or 5 feet. It is the only known recent 
species of its genus, but there is a fossil one. Ohelmon rostratus, also a Javanese fish, 
possesses the same power, and the Chinese in Java keep it in jars for their amusement, 
causing 1t to practice its art by placing insects within its range. 


ARCHERS and ArcnEry. Archers are soldiers whose weapons are the bow and 
arrow. Among the ancients specially eminent in this mode of warfare, we may particu- 
larize the Thracians, Cretans, Parthians, and Numidians; among the moderns, the Ara- 
bians, Germans, and Saracens. The emperor Frederick II. employed Saracenic archers 
with great effect in his Lombard campaign; and to them is ascribed the victory at Cor- 


Archelaus, 
6 3 1 Archers. 


tenuova in 1287, The archers belonged to the light troops, and their province was to 
open the battle. The emperor Leo especially lauded the dexterity of the Arabian 
archers. In later ages, the bow came to be employed in England, where the archers wore 
light armor, a short sword, and a quiver with twenty or more arrows. At first, these arch- 
ers fought in small groups; in later years, in large masses. At the battle of Cressy, they 
formed in divisions of 4000 men, 200 in line and 400 deep. The archers decided the 
fate of the day in several battles—such as Cressy and Poitiers (13856), Agincourt (1415), 
Crévaut (1423), Verneuil (1424), and Rovernay (1429). _The French archers never equaled 
the English, in spite of the pains Charles VI. and Charles VII. took with them. The 
latter organized in 1448 the Hranc-archers, to which corps every parish had to contribute 
one man; but this measure was attended with so little success that the king was induced 
to take Scottish archersinto his pay, to make any head against the English. The French 
archers wore a coat of buffalo-hide lined with strong linen, and were accompanied by 
shield-bearers. In this manner 2000 bowmen with their shield-bearers fought under 
the count de Foix at the siege of Bayonne in 1451. The archers universally belonged to 
the élite of the troops, and received higher pay than the rest. At one period, the arba- 
lest or cross-bow was more in favor than the long-bow. See ARBALEST. Long after the 
discovery of gunpowder, we find the bow and arrow still used; as, for example, at the 
siege of Oapua in 1500; and the siege of Peineburg in 1502. Nay, even in 1572, queen 
Elizabeth promised to place at the disposal of Charles [X. 6000 men, of whom the half 
were archers. The English archers are the subject of frequent mention by our old 
writers. Chaucer, in his Canterbury Tales, speaks of the archer 


‘*Cladde in cote and hode of grene, 
A sheafe of peacock arwes brighte and kene, 
Under his belt he bare ful thriftilie. 
Wel coude he dresse his takel yewmanlie, 
His arwes drouped not with fetheres lowe, 
And in his hand he bare a mighty bowe.”’ 


In a treatise on martial discipline, by Ralph Smithe, written in the time of Queen Eliza- 
beth, we have a picture of the English archer two centuries after Chaucer’s time: ‘‘ Cap- 
tens and officers should be skilful of that most noble weapon the long-bow; and to see 
that their soldiers, according to their draught and strength, have good. bowes, well 
nocked, well strynged, everie strynge whippe in their nocke, and in the middes rubbed 
with wax braser, and shutting-glove, some spare strynges trymed as aforesaid; every 
man one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather defensible against the rayne, and in the 
same four-and-twenty arrowes, whereof eight of them should be lighter than the residue, 
to gall or astoyne the enemye with the hailshot of light arrowes before they shall come 
within the danger of their harquebus shot. Let every man have a brigandine or a little 
coat of plate, a skull or hufkyn, a maule of leade of five foote in lengthe, and a pike, 
and the same hanging by his girdle with a hook and a dagger.” 

Among the Asiatic Turks, the Persians, the Tartars, and other nations of the east, 
as well as among the American Indians, the bow and arrow are still in more or less com- 
mon use as weapons of war, but in Europe they are almost entirely abandoned for 
military purposes. 

Although archers are still included among the fighting-men of barbarous and semi-bar- 
barous nations; in England, archery is now nothing more than a pastime, encouraged 
by archery clubs or societies. In this sense, however, archery is experiencing a revival, 
being healthful as an out-door exercise, even if no furtlier useful. During the reign of 
Charles II., archery was much patronized by the court, Tothill fields being the chief 
scene of exercise. After his reign, archery fell into desuetude for about a century. In 
1776, a Mr. Aston revived archery in the neighborhood of London; and very shortly 
there were several toxophilite or archery societies formed. The system survived till 
1793, when another period of inactivity supervened, lasting till 1844. In this last-named 
year, archery was revived in Yorkshire, and has since gone on extending every year. 
A recommendation to the sport is that ladies can take part in it—one of the few open- 
air pastimes of which this can be said. In the modern exercise of archery, there are 
several varieties of contests between the antagonistic parties; but the usual variety is 
target-shooting. In archery-matches, anumber of prizes are generally awarded, the prin- 
cipal being for the greatest number of arrows shot into any part of the target, and for 
the nearest approach to the exact center. The target has a gold spot in the center, a 
red ring around this, then a blue ring, then a black, and outside of all a white ring bor- 
dered with green. The merit of the shooting consists in a near approach to the exact 
center or ‘‘gold.” Two targets are generally used in a match, on opposite sides of the 
field, each by one party. The apparatus mostly used at these archery meetings is: 
1, the bow, varying in weight according to the strength of the person who is to use it; 
2, the arrow; 3, the quiver,.a tin case for holding arrows not immediately in use; 4, 
the pouch; 5, the belt for holding the arrows actually in use. The tassel of the belt 
serves to clean the arrows when dusty. 6, the brace, buckled round the left arm, to 
protect it from being hurt by the string when shooting; 7, the shooting-glove, formed 
to protect the three fingers used in drawing the string. Besides these articles and 
the target, archers are sometimes provided with a large case called an ‘‘ascham,”’ fitted 


* 


Arches, 632 


Archil, 


up with the necessary drawers and compartments for the reception of the bow, arrows, 
string, and other necessary accouterments. pee ; 
In archery competition, the total number and value of each person's hits are regis- 
tered on a scoring-card. The shots are usually punctured on a card with a pin, as being 
preferable to pencil or ink marks; and the mode of ascertaining the value of the hits, 
which is increased in proportion as they reach the center, will be seen by the following 


example: 
ForM OF THE SCORING-CARD. 


Names. Gold. Red. Blue. Black. White. Total. Value. 
A eeeeeereeeeesee . e e . e e ‘ ; ; . : : : ; 3 ; 25 119 
B ect er eer eeeee e e e e . e e e i ete” ‘ef e 7708 1 ae & 8 7 eo '< 26 90 


It appears by the card that A has 2 in the gold, 4 in the red, 6 in the blue, 10 
in the black, and 13 in the white, making a total of 35. The real value of these is 
ascertained by multiplying the hits in the gold by 9; in the red, by 7; in the blue, by 5; 
in the black, by 8; and by leaving without alteration the number in the white or outer. 
By this process it will appear that A’s numbers, according to the value of each circle, 
amount to 119, and B’s to 90—hence A is the winner by 29. But A’s total might have 
been less than B’s, and still he might have been the winner, providing the shots had lain 
more towards the gold than B's. 

ARCHES, COURT OF. The name is derived from the ancient place of sitting, which 
was in the church of St. Mary of the Arches, now usually called Bow church, 
London. The old church, which was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, had a fine 
arched crypt, whence came the name. The C. of A. is the court of appeal of the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province, and the judge is styled the dean 
of the arches. Appeals from decisions of the C. of A. are heard before the judicial 
committee of the privy council. The C. of A. is empowered to hear such suits as are 
sent up to it by letter of request from the consistorial courts of the bishop of the province 
of Canterbury after they have issued commissions of inquiry and the commissioners 
have made their report. The official principal of the C. of A. is the only ecclesi- 
astical judge who is empowered to passa sentence of deprivation against a clerk mM 
holy orders. 

ARCHETYPE (Gk., arche, beginning, typos, type), the original patfern or model of a 
work, the model from which a thing is made. In the philosophical system of Plato, 
the word denoted the universe as it existed in the divine mind before creation. In 
paleography, archetype means an older manuscript, to which existing manuscripts can 
be traced. See TEXTUAL CRITICISM. 


AR CHIAS, AuLus Lictnrus, a Greek poet of the 2d c. B.c., defeaded by Cicero in 
one of his most noted orations. He passed his life almost entirely in Rome and among 
Romans, serving under L. Lucullus, Sulla, and other eminent commanders. Cicero and 
Quintilian praise his gift of extemporization, the richness of his language, and his 
wealth of thought. 


ARCHIA'TER, or ARCHIATOR, ‘‘ principal,” or ‘‘chief physician,” a complimentary 
title given by some Roman rulers to their favorite medical attendants, who were 
usually Greeks. The use of the title and the office spread to all large towns, and 
a certain number of doctors were selected as archiatri, with salaries and perquisites, 
but required to minister to the poor without charge. They also served in the same 
capacity as modern health officers. A similar medical order is still found in some of 
the Scandinavian countries. 


ARCHIBALD, Sir ADAMS GEORGE, b. 1814; an English colonial statesman. He was 
a native of Nova Scotia, and was twice chosen to the colonial legislature, in 1851 and 
1855. In 1856 he was solicitor-general, and one of the liberal leaders, and was again 
sent to the legislature. He was president of the council in the cabinet formed by Sir 
John Young, and secretary of state for the province; in 1871 received the office of 
lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, but resigned the next year. He died in 1892. 

ARCHIDA’MUS II, King of Sparta, 17th of the Eurypontids, son of Zeuxidamus. 
He took the sceptre after the banishment of his grandfather Lectychides, 469 B.c. In 
the fourth or fifth year of his reign Greece was shaken by a terrible earthquake, and 
Sparta was left a heap of ruins. He seems to have been a wise and temperate ruler, 
moving with deliberation, and more merciful than might have been expected in those 
days. His only famous child was Agesilaus. 


ARCHIDA'MUS IIl., grandson of A. II., King of Sparta, 20th of the Eurypontids. 
He succeeded his father 361 B.c. In six years afterwards he defeated the Argives and 


633 Aeekiln 


Spartans, and the next year defended Sparta against Epaminondas. In the sacred war 
he at first assisted the Phocians, but when Philip came into the field he abandoned 
them. In 338 he went to Italy as an ally of the Tarentines, and was slain in battle 
on the same day that Philip won the important victory of Cheeronea, 


ARCHIDA’MUS IV., grandson of A. IIJ., King of Sparta, 28d of the Eurypontids. 
In 296 s.c. he was defeated by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 


ARCHIDA'MUS V., King of Sparta, 27th of the Eurypontids, brother of Agis IV. 
On his brother’s murder, 240 B.c., A. fled, but subsequently obtained the throne through 
the assistance of Aratus. But he was killed by those who had slain his brother, and so 
ended the last of the Eurypontids, his sons being passed over and the crown given to 
Lycurgus, a stranger. 


ARCHIL, or ORCHIL, is a coloring substance obtained from various species of 
lichens. The A. is not originally present in the lichens, but is developed during a pro- 
cess of putrefaction and fermentation. The lichens, collected from rocks near the sea, 
are cleaned, ground into a powder with water, placed in tanks, and ammoniacal liquids— 
such as purified gas liquor or stale urine—added; when, by the combined influence of 
the ammonia, air, water, and the constituents of the lichens, a violet-colored matter is 
generated, which appears for a time to dissolve in the water, but finally falls to the 
bottom of the vat in the condition of a moist powder or paste. The latter is then mixed 
with some substance like chalk or stucco, to give it consistence. The lichens which 
yield the best A. in largest quantity, are roccella tinctoria and fuciformis.. The former is 
called the Archil plant, and is obtained in large amount from the Canaries and Cape de 
Verd island, and the Levant. Another lichen, lecanora tartarea, collected from rocks 
in Sweden, is largely imported into Britain. It is sometimes called cudbear (q.v.), or 
cudbear lichen, and sometimes white Swedish moss. A. is soluble in water and in 
alcohol, to either of which it imparts a violet color, with a good deal of a crimson hue. 
It is much employed in the dyeing of silks, where a beautiful lilac color is required; but 
though a brilliant rich hue is imparted to the silken fabric, the color is not a permanent 
one, being easily acted upon by the rays of the sun. Hence the A. is seldom used by 
itself, and the cloth is first dyed lilac by another coloring matter, and is then passed 
through an A. dye, which imparts a brilliant lilac hue to the cloth. A. is seldom 
employed to dye cotton cloth, but it is often used, along with indigo, in the dyeing of 
woolen cloth; and besides enabling the indigo color to go much further, it imparts its 
peculiar rich tint to the blue or black cloth or yarn immersed in it; the color, however, 
so obtained is not so permanent as where the A. is left out. Cudbear (q.v.) and litmus 
(q.v.) are analogous to A.,and are obtained from the same lichens. 

The lichen distinguished by the name of the A. plant or lichen roccella tinectoria, 
grows very sparingly on the southern coasts of England, but abundantly on the shores of 
the Mediterranean and of the neighboring parts of the Atlantic, where it often covers 
rocks near the sea, so as to form what has been likened to a sort of turf upon them. The 
Spanish name is orcigiia, from which the French orsevile, the English A. or orchil, and 
even the botanical name roccelia, are derived. Its substance is between cartilaginous and 
leathery, roundish, pretty erect, branching in a dichotomous manner, of a grayish brown 
color, with powdery warts (soredia) ; the apothecta (see LICHENS) orbicular, flat, horny, 
almost black, with a scarcely prominent border. That from the Canary isles is gen- 
erally regarded as the best. It seldom exceeds the thickness of a pin, and about an inch 
and a half in length. A Jess branched and more slender, prostrate, or pendulous variety 
(roccella hypomecha of Bory de St. Vincent) is common at the cape of Good Hope and in 
the island of Mauritius, and appears in commerce along with the other, but is of very 
inferior quality. A variety remarkable for its large size, or perhaps a distinct species (ft. 
flaccida), is brought from Lima and other parts of the w. coast of South America; it is 
sometimes as thick as a goose-quill, and 6 or 8 in. long, and is of excellent quality. 
All these, and ,roccella fuciformis, very generally receive in commerce, and from A.- 
makers, the name of orchella weed, the different kinds being distinguished according 
to the countries from which they are imported. They are also popularly called dyer’s 
moss.—f. fuciformis now yields perhaps more of the A. or orchella weed of commerce 
than FR. tinctoria. It differs from R. tinctoria ghiety in being not rounded, but flat, and 
in having the apothecta very distinctly bordered. It grows in similar situations, and is 
also a native of Britain, but abundant only in warmer climates, as on the coasts of 
Africa, Madagascar, etc. That from Angola is reckoned of the very best quality. 

Among the lichens from which A. is manufactured is the parelle d Auvergne or 
orseille de terre (ground A.) of the French, variolaria orcina or corallina, which is gath- 
ered for this purpose in mountainous districts of the s. of France and other parts of the 
s. of Europe, and is also an article of export (with other similar lichens) from Sweden 
to Holland. But the greater facility with which A. of the finest quality can be procured 
from the species of roccella, and the increasing abundance of the supply from different 
quarters, particularly from Angola, tend to diminish the demand for other lichens. 

ARCHIL’OCHUS of Paros, in Lydia, flourished about 714-676 B.c., and is regarded 
as the first of the Greek lyric poets, although the origin of the elegy is claimed by Cal- 
linus, a writer whose age seems to have slightly preceded that of A. Glimpses of his 
life, especially of the calamities which befell him, were frequently given in his writings. 


Archimandrite, 
Archimedes. 634 


His father’s name was Telesicles, his mother was a slave called Hnipo. At an early age, 
becoming entangled in political contests, he abandoned his native town, and led a col- 
ony of the citizens to Thasos. While here, as he informs us in some extant verses, he 
lost his shield in a battle against the Thracians, yet not through cowardice. Subse- 
quently he was banished from Sparta, to which he had gone, some say because he had 
vindicated his conduct in running away from the fight, others, because of the licentious- 
ness of his verses. He is said to have gained the laurel-wreath at the Olympic games by 
an ode in honor of Hercules, but this is doubtful. Having returned to Paros, he took 
part in the war which broke out betwixt it and Naxos, in the course of which he lost 
his life, either in battle or by assassination. The Delphian oracle pronounced a curse 
upon his slayer. Variety, novelty, and satirical bitterness characterized his lyric poems; 
so much so, that ‘‘ Archilochian bitterness,” and ‘‘ Parian verse,” became by-words in 
ancient times. He scourged his enemies in the most merciless fashion, and always dis- 
played the most malicious skill in selecting for his sarcasm the points on which they 
were most sensitive. It is said that Lycambes, who had promised his daughter Neobule 
in marriage to A., having failed to fulfill the promise, was so severely satirized by the 
poet, that, to escape ridicule, both father and daughter hanged themselves. Among 
the ancients, A. was ranked with Homer. They dedicated the statues of both on the 
same day, and placed the head of A. beside that of Homer on the same bust. It is 
therefore supposed, and with high probability, that there must have been far more in A. 
than mere vehemence of satire. Even Plato, who was not likely to err on the side of 
admiration in such a case, calls him ‘‘ the very wise;” and Georgias, the rhetorician, is 
reported to have said, when Plato sent forth his dialogues against the sophists, ‘‘ Athens 
has given birth toa new A.” ‘There must have been strong sense, and a keen percep- 
tion of truth in the man, to have won so universal and permanent a reputation. Still 
the line of Horace—who was a vigorous imitator of him in many respects—proves that 
‘‘rage” was considered ‘‘ the special faculty” of A. 
** Archilochum proprio rabies armavit iambo.”’ 
Ars Poetica, line 79. 
‘Rage hath armed Archilochus with his own iambus.”’ 


The word zambus was in use before the time of A., and was employed to denote a 
species of rude raillery, such as flashed out spontaneously under the inspiring excite- 
ment of the Bacchic and other festivals. A. was, however, the first to reduce these 
irregular and capricious effusions to fixed rules. Seelampic. The semi-pentameter, 
of which he made abundant use, was called after him Archilochian verse. 

The fragments extant of his poetry have been edited by Bergk in his Poeta Lyrics 
Grecorum (Leipsic, 1848). 


ARCHIMAN'DRITE (Gr. archi-, chief, and mandra, a fold or a convent), the title of 
the highest order of superiors of convents in the Greek church (see ABBOT). The 
Russian bishops are chosen from among the archimandrites. 


ARCHIME'DES, the most celebrated of ancient mathematicians, was b. at Syracuse 
about 287 B.c. He is said to have been a kinsman of king Hiero, though he does not 
seem to have held any public office, but devoted himself entirely to science. In regard 
to mathematics, we cannot estimate fully the merits of A. without a more exact knowl- 
edge of the state of the science as he found it; we know, however, that he enriched it 
with discoveries of the highest importance, on which modern mathematicians have 
founded their methods of measuring curved surfaces and solids. Euclid only considers 
a few curved figures in relation to one another, but without comparing them with recti- 
lineal surfaces and solids. The theorems necessary to this transition are laid down by 
A. in his treatises ‘‘on the Sphere and Cylinder,” ‘‘on Spheroids and Conoids,” and 
‘‘on the Measurement of the Circle.” His demonstration that the area of a segment of 
a parabola is two thirds of the inclosing parallelogram, is the first real example of the 
quadrature (q.v.) of a curvilinear space. In his treatise on spirals, he rises to yet higher 
Pathe eben which, however, are not very easily understood even by masters of the 
subject. 

A. is the only one of the ancients that contributed anything satisfactory on the 
theory of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first established the truth, that a body 
panei in a fluid loses as much of its weight as is equal to the weight of an equal vol- 
ume of the fluid. (See the following article.) It was by this law that he determined how 
much alloy the goldsmith, whom Hiero had commissioned to make a crown of pure gold, 
had fraudulently mixed with the metal. The solution of the problem suggested itself to 
iim as he was entering the bath, and he is reported to have been so overjoyed as to 
hasten home without waiting to dress, exclaiming: ‘‘I have found it! I have found it!” 
(Hureka! Hureka!) Practical mechanism seems to have been an equally new science 
in the days of A.; for his boast, that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point, he could move 
the world, betrays the enthusiasm with which the extraordinary effects of his newly 
invented machines inspired him. Among the numerous inventions ascribed to A., is 
that of the endless screw, and the cochlea or water-screw (see ARCHIMEDES’ Screw), in 
which the water is made in a manner to ascend by its own gravity. During the siege of 
Syracuse by the Romans, he exerted all his ingenuity in the defence of the city. Poly- 


~ Archimandrite 
6 3 0 Archimedes. 


bius, Livy, and Plutarch speak with astonishment of the machines with which he 
opposed the attacks of the enemy. But while giving detailed accounts of his other con- 
trivances, they say nothing of his having set fire to the ships by means of mirrors, a 
story which is not very probable in itself, and rests on later narratives. When the 
Romans took the city by surprise (212 B.c.), A., according to the tradition, was sitting in 
the public square lost in thought, with all sorts of geometrical figures before him drawn 
in the sand. Asa Roman soldier rushed upon him, he called out to him not to spoil the 
circle! But the rude warrior cut him down. According to his own direction, a cylin- 
der inclosing a sphere was engraved upon his tombstone, in commemoration of his 
discovery of the relation between these solids—a discovery on which he set particular 
value. hen Cicero was in Sicily as questor, he discovered the tomb hid among briers. 
His collected extant works were edited by Torelli (Oxf. 1792). There is a French trans- 
lation with notes by IF’. Peyrard (Paris, 1808, 2 vols.), and one in German by Nizze 
(Strals. 1824). The Arenariws was translated into English by G. Anderson (Lond. 1784). 
The object of the treatise is to prove that it is possible to assign a number greater than 
that of the grains of sand that would fill the sphere of the fixed stars, the diameter 
of which A. assumes at a certain number of stadia. The difficulty lay in expressing 
such a vast number by means of the clumsy notation of Greek arithmetic, and the device 
by which the difficulty is eluded is considered as affording a striking instance of A.’s 
genius. See Heiberg’s edition of A.’s works, with Latin translation (Leipsic, 1881). 


ARCHIME'DES, the PRINcIPLE oF, is one of the most important in the science of 
Hydrostatics, and is so called because the discovery of it is generally ascribed to the 
Syracusan philosopher. It may be thus stated: A body when immersed in a fluid loses 
exactly as much of its weight as is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces; or: A 
fluid sustains as much of the weight of a body immersed in it as is equal to the weight of 
the fluid displaced by it. It is proved experimentally in the following way. A delicate 
balance is so arranged that two brass cylinders, A and B, may be suspended from one of 
the scale-pans, the one under the other. The lower cylinder, B, is solid, or closed all 
round, and fits accurately into the upper cylinder, A, which is hollow. When the two 
cylinders are placed under the one scale, pan-weights are placed upon the other until 
perfect equilibrium is obtained. The cylinder B is now immersed in water, and in con- 
Sequence of the buoyant tendency of the water exerted upon it, the equilibrium is 
destroyed; but it may be completely restored by filling the hollow cylinder, A, with 
water. The amount of weight which B has lost by being placed in the water, is thus 
found to be exactly the same as the weight of a quantity of water equal to its own bulk, 
or which is the same thing, to the quantity of water displaced by it. When bodies 
lighter than water are wholly immersed in it, they displace an amount of water of 
greater weight than their own, so that if left free to adjust themselves, they swim on the 
surface, only as much of their bulk being submerged as will displace a quantity of 
water weighing the same as themselves. Accordingly, while bodies heavier than 
water displace, when put into it, their own bulk, bodies lighter than water displace, 
when allowed to float on the surface, their own weight of the fluid. Bodies of the same 
weight as water, according to the principle of Archimedes, have no tendency to rise or 
sink in it, for the water displaced by them weighs precisely the same as they do. ‘The 
pretty scientific toy called the Cartesian diver is intended to illustrate this. Although 
the principle of Archimedes is generally established with reference to water, its applica- 
tion extends equally to bodies immersed in air or any other fluid. 


ARCHIME'DES’ SCREW (called also the spiral pump), a machine for raising water, 
said to have been invented by Archimedes, during his stay in Egypt, for draining and 
irrigating the land. Its simplest form consists of a flexible tube bent spirally round a 
solid cylinder, the ends of which are furnished with pivots, so as to admit of the whole 
turning round its axis. The machine is placed in an inclined position, so that the lower 
mouth of the tube may dip below the surface cf the water to be raised. The lowest 
bend of the tube will be filled with water, and if now the handle be made to turn in the 
direction of the hands of a watch, the mouth of the spiral tube will be raised above the 
surface; and the water inclosed in the tube, having no means of escape, will flow within 
it until, after one revolution, it will occupy the second bend. The first bend has mean- 
while received a second charge, which, after a second revolution, flows up into the 
second bend, and takes the place of the first charge, which has now moved up to the . 
third bend. When, therefore, as many revolutions of the cylinder have been made as 
there are turns in the spiral tube, each of the lower bends will be filled with water; and 
in the course of another revolution, there being no higher bend for the water of the first 
charge to occupy, it will flow out of the tube by its upper mouth. At each succeeding 
revolution, the lowest bend will be charged, and the highest discharged. It will be seen 
that there may be room to dispose a second tube side by side with the first, round the 
cylinder, in which case the screw would be called double-threaded. In the ordinary 
construction of these machines, the cylinder itself is hollowed out into a double or triple 
threaded screw, and inclosed in a water-tight case, which turns round with it, the space 
between the threads supplying the place of tubes. It is sometimes found convenient to 
fix the exterior envelope, and to make the screw work within it, the outer edge of the 
latter being as close as possible to the former without actual contact. This modification 


T.—21 


Archipelago. 
A rehitectire: 636 


of the A. S. receives the name of water-screw, and frequently of Dutch screw, from its 
being extensively used in Holland for draining low grounds. 


ARCHIPEL’AGO, a term (of doubtful etymology) applied originally to that gulf of the 
Mediterranean which separates Greece from Asia; but now extended to any sea, like it, 
thickly interspersed with islands, or rather to the group of islands themselves. The 
islands in the Greek archipelago or Augean sea consist of two groups, called Cyclades 
and Sporades; the first from their being massed after the manner of a circle, the second 
from their being scattered in something of a line. The former lie to the east of southern 
Greece, while the latter skirt the w. of Asia Minor. 

Of the Cyclades the principal isfands are: Lyra, Kythnos, Thera, Tenos, Andros, 
Naxos, Melos, and many more of inferior size. They all belong to Greece, and will 
more conveniently be considered in connection with it. The chief islands of the Spor- 
ades are: Scarpanto, Rhodes, Cos, Patmos, Nicaria, Samos, Scio, Metelin, Lemnos, 
Imbros, Samothraki, Thasos, and many more of inferior size. These all belong to 
Turkey, and constitute a separate vilayet of the empire. Of both groups, the more,con- 
siderable islands will be noticed, under the alphabetical arrangement, in their respective 

laces. 
: The other archipelagoes, loosely so called, will receive separate notice each in its 
proper place. 

A remarkable circumstance may be mentioned in connection with archipelagoes. 
The islands of the globe rarely stand alone. With very few exceptions, they may all be 
classified into clusters. In most clusters, again, there is generally more or less of simili- 
tude between the different members of each—stmilitude sometimes of one kind, and some- 
times of another. Perhaps the similitude that is most obvious even on the face of an 
ordinary map, is that, really like the links of a chain, the members of a cluster have 
their lengths, as distinguished from their breadths, in one and the same direction. In 
the West Indies, for instance, look at the Bahamas, and look also at the Antilles, 
Greater and Lesser. In the East Indies, again, the same thing is seen in carrying the 
eye from the n. end of the Philippines to the n. end of Sumatra, or even of the Anda- 
mans. Lastly, on the opposite coasts of the upper Pacific, observe the American side 
upwards from thes. end of Vancouver’s Island to Mt. St. Elias, and the Asiatic side 
downwards from the upper extremity of Kamtchatka—which is all but an island— 
through the Kuriles, to the lower extremity of Japan. 


ARCHITECT URAL PAINTING has for its subjects the exteriors or interiors of remark- 
able buildings: churches, castles, streets in cities, etc. It is mentioned by Vitruvius, 
but is comparatively a modern art. Benozzo Gozzoli, Ghirlandajo, and the Venetian 
school, cultivated this department of art in the middle ages ; and Pinturicchio, by order 
of Pope Innocent VIII., painted a series of views-of cities in the style of the Flemish 
school, which, under the brothers Van Eyck, had distinguished itself by careful treat- 
ment of architectural backgrounds, etc. For a long time A. P. was regarded only as 
accessory to other styles of art; but, at the close of the 16th c., P. Neefs in his views 
of the interiors of Gothic churches, gave to this branch of the fine arts an independent 
form ; and Steenwyck the younger, in the following century, extended its application 
in his views of the interiors of prisons, of which his picture of ‘‘ Peter Liberated from 
Prison” is an example. The art was still further extended and cultivated by Van 
der Heijden, Blick, Van Deelen, E. de Ville, Johann Ghering, and others who painted 
views of church interiors in the Italian style, palaces, and chambers. The interior view 
of the church of Amsterdam, painted by Ruisdael, deserves especial notice. In the 
18th c., the Venetian Canale and his nephew Bellotto (generally known by the name of 
Canaletto), painted many views of cities, but especially of the canals and buildings of 
Venice. Collections of their numerous works are found at Dresden, Woburn abbey, ete. 

In recent times, A. P. has been very successfully cultivated in Germany, France, 
England, Holland, and Belgium. Schinkel is celebrated for his fine union of classical 
taste with richness of decorative invention. His two most striking works are St. Peter’s, 
and the Duomo at Milan; Paul Gropius has shown great talent in his cathedral at 
Rheims, built in honor of Joan of Arc. His dioramas are well known; and Domenico 
Quaglio, who d. in 1837, throughout his innumerable compositions, has exhibited an 
exquisite appreciation of perspective, and of the poetical arrangement of details. Among 
modern A. painters may be mentioned—in England, Prout (views of Italy, Germany, 
etc. ), Roberts (whose genius has sought for its materials in Spain and the east, and who 
paints the architecture of foreign lands with rare truthfulness and lively vigor), 
Mackenzie, Goodall, Williams, and the water-color painters Haghe, Chase, Howse, and 
others; in France—Granet (d. 1849), the most celebrated art painter of the new French 
school; and the water-color painters Ouvrié, Garnery, Rochebrune, and Villeret; in 
Italy—Migliara and Nehrlich (a German, who has been styled ‘‘ the modern Canaletto’’); 
in Germany—Von Bayer, Hasenptlug, of Halberstadt (who painted beautifully old cloister- 
alleys under winter-effects), Ainmuller, Vermeersch, Pulian of Diisseldorf (who displays 
ee skill in the representation of old streets and time-worn churches), Conrad, Giirtner, 

reeb, Helfft, Dietrich, etc.; in Holland and Belgium—Waldorp, Carsen, Boosborn, Vou 
Haanen, Ten Kate, Springer, and Bossuet. 


A hy ai eg 


agit 


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ARCHITECTURE. —I. Temple of Edfu, Egypt. 
from the Alhambra. 7. Base of pillar from Cervetri. 


I2. Renaissance capital from Trent. 13. Capital from Persepolis. 


2. Teocalli, Central America. 
8. Egyptian capital. 


a 


An 


FUT ial 
fate Hint 


3. Lion gate 
g. Greek 
14. Old houses, Nu 


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a NIMH TH an 


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ycene. 4. Restoration of Greek (Doric) temple. 5. House at Pompeii. 6. Capital 
onic) capital. 10. Capital from Ravenna. 11. Romanesque base (Parenzo cathedral), 
iberg. 15, 16. Moorish stucco-work. 17. Renaissance stair-case, Venice. 


rs te 


? 


LIBRARY. 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


_ URBANA 


By 


Archipelago. 
637 Rrotitectind: 


ARCHITECTURE, in its widest sense the art of building any structure with reference 
to its uses and requirements, is more usually restricted to the art of erecting and 
arranging edifices, as distinguished from Military and Naval Architecture. It includes 
various more or less independent divisions,—Ecclesiastical, Public, Private, etc. In 
buildings designed primarily for utility, the attainment of that end, by mechanical 
skill, practice, and happy combination, is of chief importance. But when the builder 
adds to his mechanical handiwork the adornments of artistic taste and invention, Archi- 
tecture reaches its highest development and takes its place among the fine arts. 

The architect is concerned not only with the shell of the building, its foundation 
and superstructure, but also with its internal arrangement and decoration—the stair- 
cases, heating and lighting apparatus, woodwork, painting, etc. For dwellings, build- 
ings of stone or brick are generally considered best because most lasting and least in- 
flammable, facilitate the maintenance of equable temperatures (see SANITARY SCIENCE), 
and are best fitted for interior and exterior ornamentation. Walls built of rough stone 
demand greater thickness than where cut stone or brick is used, as do also the walls of 
long buildings without division walls. In regard to the time of building, account must 
be taken of the length of time necessary for the completion of the structure, the most 
favorable season, and the most advantageous order of the various operations. It is of 
advantage to extend the time of building over a considerable period, because after the 
completion of certain portions pauses are very useful, especially for the foundation 
before the walls are laid, and for the walls before they are plastered. The winter 
months in cold climates are least fitted for building operations ; walls particularly, in 
which common mortar is used, should not be built before or during a frost. The 
rougher carpenter work may be done without disadvantage during the winter, but finer 
woodwork, laying floors, fitting doors and windows, should be postponed to a dry 
and warm season. Thc laws regulating the erection of buildings vary widely in differ- 
ent countries, the strictest oversight being exercised in Germany. 

History oF ARCHITECTURE.—The origin of A., like those of the other arts, is 
wrapped in obscurity. Caves and huts of branches were the first buildings by the hand 
of man. A smooth stone was in the earliest times the altar to which the divinity 
descended to receive the prayers and gifts of mortals; a mound of earth was heaped 
over the bones of the dead hero, whose deeds were kept alive through sacrifices offered 
on the scene of his earthly labors. With the development of the race, these rude memo- 
rials assumed a more distinctive form: Burial Mounds, found in great numbers in the 
north of Europe, the base often surrounded with a circle of stones, and the top crowned 
with great flat rocks; Monoliths, high, slender stones, often almost obelisks in form, 
occurring singly or in groups, especially in the Scandinavian north ; and the Cromlech 
or Dolmen, found in many parts of Great Britain and Brittany, and in Algeria and 
India. The remarkable Rocking Stones, so resting on one or two supports that a slight 
force can put them in motion like the beam of a balance, and the Circles of Stones, 
which surround consecrated spots, are found specially in Celtic countries. The most 
important of these Celtic remains in France is at Carnac, near Quiberon in Brittany, 
and forms a broad space covered with 4000 stone columns like obelisks, some reaching 
a height of 40 feet, and most standing on the thin end. Still more important is the 
chief heathen monument in England, at Stonehenge (q.v.), originally called Choir Gaur, 
or Cor Gawr, ie., the great circle. Examples of a second stage of development are 
found in the stone monuments of various islands of the Pacific, and in the ancient 
monuments of America (see AMERICA—A. Antiquities). The remains of Mexico show no 
foreign influence in their artistic workmanship, and are therefore to be considered an 
evidence of an independent, national development. Some of these remains show an 
advanced and highly ornamented form of the pyramid. 

ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE.—The same form is found in Egypt. The whole land of 
the Nile was covered with a multitude of monuments, many still in good preservation, 
especially the colossal tombs of Memphis, and the Pyramids which lie scattered in 
various groups for a distance of eight miles along the spurs of the Libyan mountains, 
and date back as far as the fifth century B.c. The most magnificent of the Nile monu- 
ments belong to the period following the expulsion of the Hyksos, above all the monu- 
ments of Thebes in Upper Egypt, which were almost all built by Rameses the Great or 
Sesostris (about the middle of the 15th cent. B.c.), and his predecessors and nearest suc- 
cessors. In these the pyramid again appears as the oldest architectural form. The 
walls of the temples sloped to the top, their immense surface broken by no windows. 
They enclosed a long portico and were covered with richly colored inscriptions and 
portraits of gods and rulers. Double rows of colossal sphinxes or rams led to the high 
and narrow entrance, placed between two turret-like pylons and sometimes flanked by 
obelisks or colossal sitting statues. The grooves on either side cut into the pylon served 
to support high masts for banners. The narrow portal led to the unroofed court, sur- 
rounded on at least three sides by columns forming a covered gallery. In some temples 
this court is repeated behind a second pair of pylons, followed by a great hall or 
pronaos, its heavy stone beams resting on close rows of columns, of which the middle 
rows were higher and supported a higher roof. With this hall, which no Egyptian 
temple lacks, were connectéd the other smaller and gloomy chambers of the shrine, with 
the narrow, low cell of the adytum, which contained the image of the deity. These 


Architecture. 638 


inner rooms also were covered with painted inscriptions. The greatest of these monu- 
ments are the remains of the two gigantic temples at Karnak and at Luxor, connected 
by an avenue over a mile long of colossal sphinxes, the great temple-palace at. Medinet 
Abu, and the ruins to the north with many fragments of colossal statues, of which two 
are still upright, one being the celebrated statue of Memnon. The monuments of 
Abu Simbal, Derri, and Sebna in Lower Nubia, hewn in whole or part in the solid rock, 
are remains of the same early period of the monuments of a later time, which differ in 
arrangement and shape ; the magnificent temple of Dendra, near Thebes, the eastern and 
western temples on the island of Phils, and the great temple at Edfu, dating from the 
time of the Ptolemies, are most renowned. In these the great hall of columns is almost 
never closed, but furnished with open galleries of columns, although never wanting the 
breastwork or dado and the door-posts between the columns. In front of this hall the 
court with its pylon is sometimes found, sometimes lacking. The temples surrounded 
by colonnades seem to be an imitation of Grecian temple building, only the pyramidal 
columns at the corners recalling the foundation element of Egyptian architecture. In 
works of public utility also the Egyptians excelled, especially in the water constructions 
for protection against the annual inundation of the Nile. 

The most widely known monument of the ancient Egyptians is the Great Pyramid, 
the most colossal work in the world, at Ghizeh, near Cairo, The engineering knowledge 
and skill demanded for the quarrying, transporting, raising and polishing of the 
immense blocks of stone of which it is composed shows a standard of proficiency in 
mechanics never surpassed. The structure was designed for the tomb of its builder, 
Cheops, and is of solid rock, 480 feet in height, with a square base 760 feet long. The 
stone is laid in horizontal courses, forming steps from 2 to 5 feet in height. The 
entrance is on the north side, and leads to several chambers by low and narrow passages 
lined with smooth and closely fitting slabs. The principal chamber, nearly in the 
centre of the mass of rock, is called the king’s chamber, and still contains the sarcopha- 
gus. Close to the Pyramid of Cheops are those of Chephren and Mencheres, the latter 
still preserving a portion of its coating of polished granite. The Great Sphinx, at the 
same place, has the crouching body of a lion with a human head, with a height of 
100 feet and a length of 146 feet. Between the outstretched paws is a small temple. 
The Serapeum, or tomb of the sacred bulls at Sakkara, is an immense excavation 
30 feet deep in the solid rock. The sarcophagi, still in their separate chambers, the 
ceilings of which are cut to the form of an arch, are 13 to 18 feet long, 7 to 3 feet wide, 
and 11 feet high, with single slabs of 2 feet thickness as lids, 

The architectures of the ancient races of Asia west of the Indus are known only from 
unsatisfactory accounts of writers of antiquity and from isolated remains of their works. 
Among the works of the once mighty nation of Babylonia is the Temple of Belus, known 
through the most ancient Biblical legends as the Tower of Babel, a solid pyramidal 
structure with a base of some 600 feet and the same height, rising in eight great dimin- 
ishing stories. 

To the older monuments of Babylon belong also the royal castle, its walls adorned 
with hunting scenes, The other ruins of Babylon belong to a later period, when a new 
nation arose after the incursions of the Chaldeans. To these jater works belongs a 
second royal palace with a magnificent garden, which rose in terraces, and as the 
Hanging Gardens of Semiramis was later reckoned among the seven wonders of the 
world. The ruinsof Babylon have for centuries served as quarries for the building of 
neighboring cities, and have thus been reduced to irregular heaps of debris. Among the 
ruins of Nimroud, supposed to be the remains of Nineveh, the village of Khorsabad and 
Kouyunjik have yielded valuable fragments. The materials are burnt brick, fastened 
together with bitumen and mortar. 

The Phenicians belonged to the same race of which the Babylonians formed a part, 
and their religion stood in intimate connection with that of Babylon. Many temples 
and other buildings are mentioned, but we hear most of their splendid ornamentation 
by means of precious metals. To the most important monument belongs the temple at 
Tyre, built by King Hiram. Carthage had a magnificent temple on the citadel; the 
inner walls of another temple in the market-place were coated with sheets of gold. 

With the works of the Phoenicians are connected those of the Jews. In the reign of 
Solomon the old portable tabernacle was superseded by a massive temple on Mount 
Moriah at Jerusalem. Only a portion of its colossal foundation is preserved, but the 
Bible contains detailed accounts of its magnificence. About 420 years after its founda- 
tion by Solomon the temple was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. The new temple built 
by the Jews after their return, about the end of the sixthcentury, was only a shadow of 
the splendor of the old. A second restoration, begun 20 B.C. by Herod the Great, was 
designed to reproduce the temple of Solomon, but stood only 70 years. Some architect- 
ural details are gained from the sepulchres of Jerusalem, of which the grave of Absalom 
deserves special notice. 

The races of Asia Minor left principally tombs, found in considerable numbers and 
of varied formation. The oldest and most primitive of these date back to the Lydians 
(700-600 B.C.), and have generally the form of a simple tumulus rising on a circular 
foundation (e.g., the grave of Tantalus at Smyrna). In contrast to these are the rock- 
cut tombs of the Phrygians, with chiseled fagade, while the monuments of the Lycians 


(Ancient Egypt.) 


CAPITALS OF COLUMNS AND COLORED GLASS. 


639 Architeeture. 


{500-300 B. C.) show another and more developed form. The tomb was hewn out of 
the rock as an independent monolithic sarcophagus, or else the sepulchre was formed in 
the rock and a fagade chiseled for it, in both cases in close imitation of woodwork, 
Examples are found at Phellos, Antiphellos, Myra, etc. In some cases the Greek influ- 
ence is visible, use being made of the Ionic column and other Greek forms, as in the 
tombs of Telmissos. 

During the Persian supremacy the kings held their courts principally at Ecbatana in 
Media, Susa, and Persepolis. Ecbatana had been the capital of the Medes, and at the 
beginning of the Medan dominion their citadel had been built with great magnificence, 
It rose in seven receding stories, the roofs of which gleamed with various colors. At its 
foot lay the royal palace, its columns, beams and walls of cedar and cypress wood 
covered throughout with gold and silver. Of Susa, the building of which is ascribed to 
the first Persian rulers, we know that it was built in the Babylonian style. The real 
shrine of the Persian nation was, however, Persepolis. Here stood the old stronghold 
of the royal blood, here the bones of the kings were interred and their resting-places 
shown by splendid tombs, and here rose a new palace. The tomb of Cyrus, on the site 
of the old capital at Murgab or Pasargade, is a pyramidal structure of colossal blocks 
of white marble forming seven steps, surmounted by the tomb with a sloping roof of 
marble, which contained the golden sarcophagus of the king. The tombs of the later 
kings are chambers hewn in the rock with concealed entrances, designated outside by a 
carved facade of simple style enriched with painting. The most remarkable of all 
monuments of Persian architecture is the ruins of the great palace of Persepolis. They 
recall the Babylonian style, rising in several broad terraces. 

The numerous monuments of India can be compared in extent and magnificence only 
with those of Egypt. The chief traits of the Indian national character, great softness 
of feeling and lively fancy, are seen in their architecture, in which the form is chosen not 
for any conventional meaning, but for itsown sake. But their untrammelled fancy seldom 
permits the quiet necessary for a harmonious whole ; it heaps forms on forms, and ends 
with the impression of an almost chaotic confusion. The chief remains are found in the 
Dekkan, the most important being the rock buildings on the west side of the peninsula 
near Bombay. The Brahmanical rock temples usually cover a rectangular space, with 
smaller chambers in connection with it. The chief court has always a flat roof sup- 
ported by columns, the front row of which forms the open front of the temple. These 
structures are frequently connected with colonnades left open to the sky. Remarkable 
examples of this arrangement are found in the caves of Ellora, notably in the larger 
temple of Indra, and in those of the Kailasa. The Buddhist temples are not open to the 
outside. They consist of a long hall, closed by a semicircular wall, and divided by rows 
of columns. The roof of the innerspace isaround vault, while that of the aisles is flat. 
In the circular end stands the shrine, by which the temple is recognized as Buddhist, 
the dagoba, a semi-spherical mass resting on a cylindrical foundation. This dagoba, the 
image of a water bubble and the always recurring symbol of transitoriness in Buddhism, 
generally contains some relic of Buddha or of a Buddhist saint. The extant monu- 
ments of Orissa on the east coast are temples, usually called pagodas by Europeans 
(corrupted from Bhagavati, ‘‘ sacred house”). They preserve the pyramidal form, but 
covered so lavishly with projections, columns and niches, and with excessive painting 
that the design is almost lost. The chief specimens of this style are the pagodas of 
Tiravalur, Chillambrum and Madura. ' 

The dagoba is found again in the Zopes (from stupa, tumulus) which line the old 
royal road leading from India through Kabulistan to Bactria and Persia. The topes 
recur in Ceylon and the same style is found in the so-called Chaityas of Nepaul, where 
the interior has become an open vaulted chamber. The remains of Java belong to the 
Middle Ages, and are due to Indian colonization. 

China received from India, together with the religion of Buddha, its architecture. 
The chief monuments were founded on a modification of the pagoda form. The 
Chinese Buddhists abandoned the symbolic domical structure and preserved only the 
terraced superstructure, which they developed into an independent style. These towers 
were built in many stories, each somewhat less in size than the next lower, each 
furnished with a sloping roof and hung with bells ; the roof tiles glisten with gold, and 
the walls are gaily painted or covered with gleaming porcelain. The Porcelain Tower 
of Nankin is one of the most celebrated structures of this kind. The temples of the 
Chinese are usually of small dimensions and are usually enclosed with columns, but the 
most important are surrounded by courts and colonnades of various kinds. In their 
architectural character they differ little from the courts and halls of private dwellings. 
Monuments to celebrate the deeds of deserving persons consist of gateways ( palw) built 
across the street, with either one or three archways built of stone or wood. The Chinese 
excel in public works, to which belong the massive wall for protection against the 
Mongols, and the extensive system of canals which unites the cast-flowing rivers and 
provides a complete water-communication. 

GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.—We may consider as the first stage of the development of 
Grecian architecture the creations belonging to the Heroic Age. The simplest mon- 
uments mentioned in the Homeric Hymns are the tombs of fallen heroes ; mounds con- 
taining the ashes of the dead, and crowned with rough-hewn rocks. The most im- 


640 


Architecture. 


portant works were strongholds, the mighty walle of which, later called Cyclopean 
walls, were built of polygonal blocks cf stone. The extant remains, which show a 
gradual progress in technical skill, are formed in part of colossal rough stones, the in- 
terstices filled with smaller stones, in part of more or less carefully cut stones carefull 
fitted into each other. The effort to lay the stones in horizontal layers finally led to reg- 
ular building in parallel courses. The gates found in these walls are of various forms. 
Their sides have generally an inclination produced partly by the projection of the upper 
stones, partly by large inclined posts. Their covering is frequently gabled either by 
the projection of the courses or by stone rafters leaning against each other, and more rarely 
by horizontal beams. The most celebrated of these is the Lion Gate at Mycene, in 
which the pressure over the gateway is divided by means of a triangular stone bearing 
two lions in relief, raising themselves against acolumn. Theexcavations of Schliemann 
have yielded but incomplete plans of the dwellings of the chiefs. of those times (see My- 
CENH, ORCHOMENOS, Trryns, TRoy), and have not carried our knowledge beyond the 
stage of conjecture. The so-called Treasuries for the storing of the wealth of the chiefs 
were subterranean, circular chambers, built in circular parallel projecting courses and 
covered with a flat rock. Of these the Treasury of Atreus, at Mycens, is the most re- 
markable and best preserved. Though Schliemann’s excavations have given us no posi- 
tive description of the homes of the heroes, yet we owe to them extensive material in 
support of the evidence that Grecian architecture isan offshoot of the oriental, and that 
Greece developed from Asiatic and Egyptian sources those forms of harmony of which the 
most splendid symbol is the Greek temple. The oldest temples are at the same time the 
oldest productions of Greek national art. The temple in its original form consisted 
only of the rectangular cella, in which the image of the divinity stood, and of an open 
pronaos, which in larger edifices was afterward extended around the whole building. 
When the temple form had reached its highest point, the architectural support was 
formed by the rows of columns, which rose from a common platform of several steps and 
received the architrave. Above the architrave was the frieze designed for sculptured 
ornament. Over the frieze was the cornice, its chief member, a boldly-projecting sur- 
face, forming a finish to the frieze. At the ends of the building rose the gable, the 
form of which, a flat triangle, was fixed by the form of the roof, and which contained 
the chief sculptures. According to the employment of a single or double system of 
columns, only on the front or on all sides of a temple, it is described as in antis, pro- 
style, amphiprostyle, peripteral, pseudoperipteral, dipteral, or pseudodipteral. The num- 
ber of columns in front, always even because of the doorway, give the names tetra- 
style, hexastyle, octastyle, etc. 

The temple consisted of the cella(naos), usually without windows, and of the court 
(pronaos), connected by a large doorway with the naos. In some temples there is found 
behind the cella an enclosed chamber (opisthodom), serving as treasury. The amphi- 
prostyle usually hadin the reara hall (posticum) corresponding to the pronaos. In 
temples of greater extent, intended to accommodate larger numbers, the cella was ex- 
tended into an open court, bypethron, surrounded by colonnades. Grecian architec- 
ture received a twofold stamp from the peculiarities of the Doric and Ionic races. The 
Doric temples are of heavier proportions. The columns stand at intervals of 14-14 
their lower diameter, their height being only four to five times the lower diameter, and 
taper to about five sixths of the diameter. The height of the entablature and gable is 
4-4 the height of the columns. Among the most perfect specimens of the Doric style 
are the Theseum and Parthenon at Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. In 
the Ionic order the proportions are lighter and freer, and the whole bears the stamp of 
majestic grace. Great delicacy of form is shown in the Temple of Athens at Priene, 
and in the Erectheum on the Acropolis at Athens, 

Next in importance to the temples themselves were the Propylaia or halls which 
gave entrance to the precincts of the sanctuary. They resembled the temples in exterior 
appearance, but differed in the absence of the cella walls, forming an open passage. Ex- 
amples are preserved in Athens and Eleusis. The halls destined for other purposes were 
either provided with open colonnades supporting a common roof, or separated from the 
outer life by walls outside the colonnades, or arranged in the manner of hypethral tem- 
ples. To this class belong the Basilicas, halls of judgment, which however gained 
their higher significance only in the period of Roman art. The usual plan of private 
dwellings in the later Alexandrian time isthe following. The most important feature 
was a court of columns, around which were grouped the men’s apartments ; further 
back the women’s apartments, with which guest chambers were often connected, separated 
from the main house by intermediate courts. Other extensive buildings were those de- 
signed for theatrical, gymnastic and musical performances ; such were the recovered 
theatre at Segesta, and above all, the fully excavated Olympia. In connection with the 
musical contests stand the Choragic monuments, erected to commemorate a musical 
victory, which were either columns or complete structures supporting a tripod, or chap- 
els containing the trophy. A work of this class is the monument of Lysicrates at 
Athens, in the form of a round temple. The tombs were usually simple, of slender col- . 
umns with sculptures of flowers, sometimes in the shape of an altar, or were exca: 
vations in the rock, with ornamental fagades. Some specimens of Grecian architectur 
of the latest period, as the Tower of the Winds at Athens, contain foreign forms. 


6 4. Mi Architecture. 


ErruscAN ARCHITECTURE. —An important link in the history of classical architec. 
ture was formed by those artistic attempts of Italy which prepared the ground on which 
afterward the Greco-Roman art arose. The remains of the ancient inhabitants of Italy 
display the same tendency which we perceive in the Greek works of the heroic age. The 
only architecture which attained a characteristic development was that of the Etruscans. 
To the most ancient remains of old Italian architecture belong the walls of the an- 
cient cities, which are frequently built in the cyclopean manner of the Pelasgic inhab- 
itants of Greece. In the structures of this kind in Etruria, as well as in the walls of 
Volterra, Fiesole, Cortona, and Populonia, there is a visible attempt to lay the stone in 
horizontal courses, so that they stand between the polygonal and parallel. With these 
are related the structures corresponding to the old Greek Thesauri, their chambers cov- . 
ered with domes consisting of projecting circles of masonry. Subterranean chambers 
of this kind are found at Norba, Vulci, and Tarquinii ; Rome possesses a similar struct- 
ure in the Carcer Mamertinus. Beside this form of construction the Etruscans em- 
ployed vaulting of arches, seen in the old gates of Volterra and Perugia. Among the 
mightiest vaulted constructions of the Etruscans are the cloace at Rome and canal 
built in 393 to drain the Alban Lake. Etruscan tombs are of three varieties. The first 
consists of amound of earth rising froma stone platform. To this class belong the 
monument in the necropolis of Vulci, called the Cucumella, and the so-called grave of 
the Horatii and Curiatii at Rome. The second kind is cut in the rock, with sculptured 
facade; examples are very numerous at Orchia (now Norchia) and Aria (now Cas- 
tel d’ Asso or Castellaccio), near Viterbo. The third class consists of tombs cut in the 
tufa rock and wholly subterranean. A narrow passage or staircase leads to a hall around 
which the tomb chambers are grouped. Sometimes short rectangular pillars have been 
left in these chambers to support the roof of the many tombs of this kind ; the most 
interesting are those in the necropolis at Vulci. Noremains of Etruscan temples exist, 
since their superstructure was of wood. Of Etruscan theatres the remains at Fiesole 
are the chief. To the Etruscans, finally, is due the first development of the Roman 
dwelling which differed from the Greek in arrangement, substituting for the open court 
of the Greeks the more enclosed atrium. 

RoMAN ARCHITECTURE.—The Romans were a people without artistic inclination. 
Whatever architectural work was done at Rome in the first centuries of the state was 
due to labors or influence of the neighboring Etruscans. With the contact of Greek and 
Roman culture came the transference of Grecian art to Rome. The two form-principles 
united in Roman architecture are the Grecian columnar and the Italian vaulted forms, 
the latter appearing through all their building operations enlivened by the application 
of the former. The simple orders of Grecian architecture, the Doric and Ionic, were 
seldom employed by the Romans. Instead, the Corinthian column predominated, the 
rich foliated capital of which better expressed the striving for splendor and effect than 
the more geometrical forms of the other two orders. Roman architecture was charac- 
terized by the free use of vaulting. The oblong halls are covered with vaulted roofs, 
producing rich combinations. The arch appears everywhere as an independent monu- 
ment spanning the streets. Temples of many varied styles were built, partly after pure 
Greek models, and partly with peculiar application of the vault principle ; and build- 
ings of the most varied character demanded by the luxury and needs of the Romans 
were erected, among them the basilica. Temples and public buildings surrounded the 
Forum, itself a characteristic architectural development, forming an imposing whole. 
The Therme, the chief resorts for health and public amusement, combined in them- 
selves a whole world of magnificence and luxury. Gigantic structures, theatres, amphi- 
theatres, naumachie, circuses, were erected; public works of almost indestructible 
strength were constructed, of which the military roads, bridges, public fountains, and 
the aqueducts with their massive arches are the most remarkable. The greatest mag- 
nificence was displayed in the monuments of illustrious men, the columns of victory, 
bearing the trophies, the majestic triumphal arches, and the tombs, which were erected 
in varied forms and were sometimes of gigantic proportions ; while the splendor of pri- 
vate houses, palaces and villas vied with that of the public buildings. 

The rapid progress of Roman architecture at the beginning of the third century 
B.C. is seen in the construction at that period of the great military roads and aqueducts 
(q.v.), among which the Via Appia and the Claudian Aqueduct are conspicuous. At the 
same period the Roman Forum was extended and beautified. The architecture received 
a second impetus at the beginning, and still more toward the middle of the second cen- 
tury B.C., when, after the conquest of Greece, Greek works of art and Greek taste were 
transplanted to Rome, and when the Romans began to employ marble, the customary 
material of the Greeks, in their great buildings, which till then had been constructed of 
the coarser peperino. The Forum was again transformed and surrounded with exten- 
sive basilicas, colonnades designed for halls of public trade and justice. Of the works of 
this period little has come down to us, the most important being the Tabularium on the 
slope of the Capitol Hill. The remains of Pompeii show the transition between Grecian 
and Roman architecture. The highest development of the latter began with the time of 
Julius Cesar, by whom the great undertakings were begun, which Augustus completed. 
Under Augustus a new and more magnificent Rome arose. He could boast of leaving 
the city of brick which he found, a city of marble, This however was principally true 


642 


Architecture. 


of the new parts of the city which he added. The old city for the most part remained 
in its former irregular construction ; not until Nero by his conflagration provided it was 
there space in the heart of the city for extensive building. Vespasian built a splendid 
new Capitol, which was still more splendidly by Domitian restored after a fire. Trajan 
erected still more magnificent structures, among which his Forum cannot be too much 
admired. Neither were the provinces forgotten ; new and splendid cities arose on all 
sides. Down to the time of Hadrian the style of Roman architecture preserved nearly 
the same degree of excellence, and not until the second half of the second century A.D. 
do we perceive a gradual falling of taste. The most important edifices of ancient Rome 
which are still preserved are the Pantheon, built by Agrippa 26 B.C., and the Temple of 
Venus and Roma, built by Hadrian 135 A.D., the largest of all the temples of Rome 
known to us. The theatres, among which the Theatre of Marcellus is conspicuous, were 
modeled after the Greek theatres, while the amphitheatres, like the Colosseum at Rome, 
and those at Nimes, Arles, Verona and Pola, exhibit the Roman style of architecture. 
The Baths of Caracalla, from the early part of the third century, and those of Diocletian, 
from the beginning of the fourth, were conspicuous through their immense size and 
magnificence. Of the bridges of this period there remain the more simple Pons lius 
(now Ponte Sant’Angelo) and the Ponte Rotto (Pons Palatinas or Senatorius) at Rome, 
as well as the Bridge of Augustus at Rimini. Of commemcrative columns we have the 
columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius at Rome. The Triumphal Arches show Roman 
art in its characteristic form and in all its majesty. The earliest of those preserved are 
the arches of Augustus at Rimini and at Susa in Piedmont, and the Arch of Victory at 
Aosta, the earliest in Rome being the Arch of Titus, after which come those of Septimius 
Severus and Constantine. The tombs are partly subterranean, without important de- 
velopments of architectural form, partly more or less remarkable structures above ground. 
The subterranean tombs are cut in the rock, like the catacombs of Rome, Naples, Syra- 
cuse, Malta, Alexandria, etc., or are of vaulted mason work like the tomb of the Furia 
family at Frascati. Remains of interesting monumental tombs above the ground are 
those of the so-called Tomb of Virgil at Posilippo, the so-called Tomb of the Servilii at 
Rome, the Tomb of Cecilia Metella, dating from the time of Julius Cesar, at Rome, and 
that of the Plautii at Tivoli. The ancient form appears magnified in gigantic propor- 
tions and decorated with the richest artistic ornamentation in the Mausoleum of Augus- 
tus in the Campus Martius, and in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, the lower portions of which 
form the foundation of the present Castel Sant’Angelo. The pyramidal form appears in 
the lofty Pyramid of Cestius at Rome, of the time of Augustus. The Roman house con- 
struction, which is related to the Pompeiian, and of which the house of Pansa at Pompeii 
is a type, differs from the Grecian in its less distinct separation of the women’s quarters 
from those of the men, and in the combination of the Italian (Etruscan) atrium with the 
rooms representing the Grecian architecture. A new phase was presented in Nero’s so- 
called Golden House, the rooms of which gleamed with gold, precious stones, etc., and 
which embraced whole fields, vineyards, and groves within its limits. Domitian founded 
a new imperial palace on the Palatine, and later emperors continued the work. Hadrian’s 
villa at Tivoli was of vast extent, and consisted of dwelling rooms of the most various 
kinds, numbers of large and small halls, several theatres, baths, etc. 

With the beginning of the third century A.D. a desire arose for greater ornamenta- 
tion, which was applied everywhere, so that frequently the main design was obscured 
and lost. But in the midst of the decay of the art of the old world, the principles of a 
new development arise, showing a more independent use of the vault and arch, partly in 
a peculiar employment of groining, partly in resting the arches directly on the pillars. 
The motive of this new development must probably be sought in the East, where many 
great constructions were carried out at this period, among them the buildings of two 
cities of Syria, of which remains have come down to us, Palmyra (Tadmor) and Heliop- 
olis (Baalbek). In these the overloading and division of the architectural masses is very 
conspicuous. Ruins still remain of the great palace which Diocletian built for himself 
at Salona (now Spalato) in the beginning of the fourth century. This formed a great 
rectangle, surrounded with walls and towers, divided in the manner of a Roman camp, 
with many colonnades and halls, temples and dwellings for the Emperor and his suite. 
Among the characteristic remains of this period at Rome are the fragments belonging 
to the palace of Nero; a temple of Sol, built by Aurelian ; the Temple of Vespasian 
(wrongly called the Temple of Concord) in the Forum; the Janus Quadrifons, in the 
Forum Boarium, of the time of Constantine ; the Basilica of Constantine in the Forum 
Pacis, and the Basilica Constantia outside of Rome, now the Church of St. Constantia. 
Through Constantine, who transferred the imperial seat to Byzantium, many important 
spare were erected in that city, in many cases in imitation of the works of ancient 

ome. 

EaRLy MeEpiavaL CHRIstIAN ARCHITECTURE.—The triumph of Christianity in- 
troduced a principle essentially different from the style of all the heathen antiquity. 
While the heathen temples were based upon the idea of the bodily presence of the god, 
and only the outer courts gave artistic expression of the divinity, the Christian church 
was designed to lift the assembled congregation above earthly thoughts, and its form was 
molded by this design. The oldest Christian architecture, therefore, was based upon 
the basilica, which was intended to contain large gatherings. The earliest Christian 


643 Architecture, 


churches, built on the model of the basilicas, did not differ from them in any essential ; 
but as early as the end of the fourth century a new and peculiar development mani- 
fested itself, which grouped about the larger basilicas new forms; smailer basilicas and 
chapels, rectangular or round (see Basruica). Among the first basilicas of Rome are 
the old church of Santa Maria Maggiore and S. Paolo Fuori, built by Theodosius. A 
peculiar architectural style was developed in the fifth and sixth centuries in the Byzan- 
tine nation. The vault was freed from the constraint imposed by the foreign Greek 
forms ; massive pillars, connected by great arches, bore the domed roof. The main edifice 
was connected with others, domed or vaulted, and the circular form showed itself even on 
the exterior, taking the place of the gable. Both systems of Christian architecture, the 
basilica and the Byzantine, spread from their chief centres, Rome and Constantinople, and 
underwent various modifications, as shown in the remarkable buildings of Ravenna. In 
these the form of the basilica predominated, although the treatment of details is frequently 
Byzantine. Remains are preserved of most of these buildings, among them the inter- 
esting Mausoleum of Theodoric (now the church ef S. Maria della Rotonda) ; on the 
other hand, few remains exist of early Christian architecture in France, Germany and 
England. In Germany, Aix, the capital of Charlemagne, enjoyed the special favor of 
the great ruler, through which, as we learn from contemporary writers, it became a 
second Rome, and had its forum, theatre, baths, aqueducts, etc. ; but of these we have 
no further details. Near the palace there, and connected with it by a portico, Charle- 
magne erected a church to the Virgin, which still stands, and is the best specimen of old 
Christian building north of the Alps. The numerous and sometimes splendid buildings 
erected during the seventh and eighth centuries in England under the rule of the Anglo- 
Saxons, as well as the Christian buildings of Spain, have perished. The first Christian 
buildings of the Eastern Roman Empire were also basilicas. The chief churches which 
Constantine built in Constantinople were undoubtedly Roman, among them the Church 
of St. Sophia. The great church at Bethlehem, said to have been erected by the mother 
of the Emperor, St. Helena, is a large basilica. Some of the Coptic churches in Egypt 
andNubia, which show the basilica form, are of very ancient models, and date back to 
the earliest period of Christianity. 

After the church of St. Sophia was burned in 530, Justinian undertook its rebuilding, 
and in the new church the Byzantine style developed its fullest and most characteristic 
form. The invention of the new style is due to the architect Anthemius of Tralles. The 
building was completed in 537, and, except some restorations under later emperors, and 
some slight changes since its transformation into a mosque, still remains in its original 
form. The church remained as the pride and model of Byzantine architecture, and was 
imitated in many other churches, even at the time of Justinian. A feature of Byzantine 
architecture is seen in the cisterns, built in great numbers in Constantinople since the 
time of Constantine ; they formed great reservoirs for water, the vaulted and domed 
roofs of which were supported by columns. The cisterns situated west of the Hippo- 
drome, called Binbirdirek (the cisterns of 1001 columns), were of immense extent, and 
connected with a system of aqueducts. The Russian development of Byzantine archi- 
tecture shows Asiatic influence in the substitution of lofty towers and minarets for the 
dome, crowned with small domes, hemispherical, egg-shaped, or pear-shaped. The 
exterior is covered with ornamentation, Byzantine, modern Italian, Arabic, and other, 
painted in bright colors, the domes usually gilt. This style had spread over ali Russia 
when Peter the Great, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, began to introduce 
modern European architecture, which has since gradually obtained predominant influ- 
ence on Russian art. 

SARACENIC (MOHAMMEDAN) ARCHITECTURE.—The new religion of Islam, which after 
610 spread first through Arabia, brought a new development in architecture. Possess- 
ing no distinctive forms of their own, the Saracens were obliged at first to borrow from 
existing styles. In their mosques we meet with two types, derived from the basilica 
form and from the Byzantine. Mosques of the first type are large, quadrangular courts 
surrounded with colonnades ; the enclosing walls have no special architectural char- 
acteristics. In the court a fountain covered with a small dome-shaped roof is invariably 
found, as in the early Christian basilicas, and beside the wall rises the slender minaret 
from which the muezzin calls the hours of prayer. In the second class of mosques the 
principal arm of the building is covered with a dome, and the wings are also domed 
and joined with it in the Byzantine style. The imposing mass is lightened by minarets 
which spring from the corners of the building. In the arches we meet with a more dis- 
tinctive oriental character. The semicircular arch is seldom used ; a larger portion of 
the circle gives rise to the striking horse-shoe arch, which is found chiefly in western 
regions, especially in Spain. Another form of arch is pointed, formed by two intersect- 
ing arcs, and is undoubtedly derived from oriental sources. It is found in Persia in 
Tuins of the time of the Sassanids (226-651 A.D.), and in Egypt in remains of the earliest 
period of the Moslem dominion. In the use of all these forms there is no organic rela- 
tion between the arch and its supports, both parts remaining as independent as in the 
later Roman and early Christian architectures. The further developments of detail in 
Saracenic art belong rather to ornamentation than to architecture. All flat surfaces were 
covered with raised or colored work, which gave to Saracenic architecture a richness 
unequaled in other styles. The ornamentation was, however, confined to a very re- 


644 


Architecture, 


stricted field. It rests upon an abstract, unvarying formula which finally wearies the 
eye (see ARABESQUE). In the most important places decorated in this way, inscriptions, 
‘+r verses from the Koran, take the place of representations of natural objects, which 
was strictly prohibited by the Mohammedan religion. A peculiar development is seen 
in the pendentives, which originated in the necessity of forming a union between the 
intersection of flat surfaces and a vault. These forms consist of small independent 
series of vaultings rising in successive tiers until the required space is filled, or hanging 
downward from the junction of two vaults in the form of a stalactite. 

The Moorish architecture of Spain is as distinguished from that of other Moham- 
medan races as the history and life of the people who produced it. Among the older 
edifices the Mosque of Cordova is most prominent. The royal palace of the Alhambra 
(q.v.), erected in the second half of the thirteenth century, shows the later development 
of Moorish architecture in all its romantic splendor. The characteristics of the latest 
period of the Moorish style are shown in the buildings of Seville, notably in the Alcazar 

royal castle). 

‘The er of the Mohammedan remains of Egypt stands midway between the styles 
of Moorish architecture and the eastern Asiatic peoples. The buildings of Cairo are 
specially important, among them the Nilometer, a rectangular structure containing an 
ornamental column on which the rise and fall of the water was noted. The oldest of 
the mosques of Cairo is that of Amrou, founded in 648, and rebuilt after a fire in 897. 
In the Mosque of Tooloon, founded in 885, and said to have been completed by a Chris- 
tian architect, broad piers take the place of columns, supporting broad, pointed arches. 

In Sicily, which the Arabs conquered in 827, two Arabian palaces, Zisa and Kouba, 
are preserved at Palermo. In European Turkey, especially in the edifices of Constanti- 
nople, which belong to the later period of Mohammedan architecture, the Byzantine 
style is combined in a not very organic conglomeration of cupolas, half cupolas, and 
arches with the oriental minaret—a more or less Arabic treatment of details, and the use 
of inscriptions as ornaments. 

In India the region of the Ganges is very rich in the most splendid monuments, of 
which some date from the earliest period of the Mohammedan supremacy. In Delhi, 
among other remains of this period, is the Kutab-minar, the minaret erected by Kutab asa 
triumphal column of Islam. The edifices erected under the Great Moguls belong to the 
most beautiful productions of Mohammedan art. The body of the building as a rule 
rises in a compact, rectangular mass, its outer side covered with niches or regularly 
recurring openings. The minarets harmonize with the whole, and have not the exag- 
gerated slender proportions of the Turkish. The portals are usually of considerable 
height, formed by a pointed niche, and flanked by minarets. The pointed arch is used 
throughout, curved toward the point and set in a rectangular framework. The most 
celebrated of these buildings belong to the reign of Shah Akbar the Great (1556-1605) 
and his son, Shah Jehan (1605-58), and are found at Delhi and Agra. Shah Jehan built 
at Delhi forty great mosques, of which the Janina shows the style described above in its 
greatest magnificence. 

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.—The name Romanesque is somewhat vaguely applied 
to the transitional style of architecture which, about the tenth century, was developed 
from the existing Roman and Christian types. The ground plan is that of the basilica, 
but the flat roof is replaced by round vaulting, and the columns by pillars supporting 


round arches, while unity in the design is secured by intersecting vaulting instead of 


isolated domes. Romanesque ornamentation often displays a fantastic tendency, uniting 
human forms and beasts, dragons and fabulous creatures of all sorts with luxurious 
foliated carvings. This style, first applied to church building, was later used in less ex- 
tensive edifices, and at last even to dwellings. 

Romanesque architecture is seen in great splendor in the cloisters of St. Paul’s with- 
out the Walls and of St. John Lateran at Rome, in the basilica of S. Piero in Grado in 
Toscana, in the Cathedral at Pisa, and in the church of S. Miniato at Florence, all be- 
longing to the first half of the thirteenth century. Among the Romanesque buildings 
of Venice which show a distinct development of this style, at the same time containing 
many Mohammedan architectural features, is the Church of 8t. Mark, begun in 976 and 
completed in 1071 after the original design. Its plan is that of a Greek cross, sur- 
mounted by five cupolas, borne partly by columns. The interior of the cupolas, as well 
as the upper portions of the walls, is decorated with mosaic on a gold ground, while the 
lower parts of the walls and the floor are of fine marble. Among the Romanesque edi- 
fices of Lombardy are the cathedrals of Cremona, Piacenza, Parma, and Ferrara ; while 
the chief Romanesque work of Spain is the cathedral of Tarragona. One of the oldest 
Romanesque edifices of France is the church of St. Front at Périgueux. Among the 
churches of southeastern France, which still show motives borrowed from the old 
Roman constructions of that region, are Notre Dame du Port at Clermont, in Auvergne, 
and the churches of Issoire, Brioude, and Puy en Velay. The edifices of western France 
are heavier in form, more arbitrary in composition, and overloaded with ornament. A 
good example of this barbaric splendor is seen in the church of Notre Dame Ja Grande 
at Poitiers. The character of the edifices of northern France, where the Germanic Nor- 
mans founded an independent culture, is essentially different. Their works show the 
system of the vaulted basilica but so consistently carried out that Normandy must be 


2 
” 


il 


645 Architecture, 


considered the source of the first independent development of the style. One of the old- 
est examples of the Romanesque style is the church of St. Georges of Bocherville, near 
Rouen, built between 1050 and 1066, while the older portions of the Cathedral of Bayeux 
date from the second half of the twelfth century. The most complete example of the 
Norman style as developed in England under the Norman supremacy is the Cathedral 
of Norwich, founded in 1096. The oldest German edifices of the period belong to the 
end of the tenth century. The Cathedral of Tréves, with its antique pilasters, is an 
early Romanesque work of great merit. The most important developments of the vault- 
ed basilica are seen in the three cathedrals of Mayence, Worms, and Speyer. <A similar 
style is shown in the Romanesque churches of Belgium, especially the churches of St. 
Servatius at Maestricht, Notre Dame la Chapelle at Brussels, and the Cathedral of 
Tournay ; while the highest stage of Romanesque decoration is found in the oldest part 
of the Cathedral at Freiberg, especially in its so-called ‘‘ Golden Gate.”’ 

GorHic ARCHITECTURE.—Gothic architecture, which followed immediately upon the 
complete development of the Romanesque, is grounded on the system of the vaulted 
basilica, as developed,during the Romanesque period. The ground plan of the churches 
remains essentially the same, but the striving for architectural unity becomes much 
more prominent. The pillars and half columns, which carry the arches and vaults, in 
Gothic church architecture rise independently, and their lines are carried out in those of 
the vaulting. The use of intersecting ribs distributed the weight of the vaulting and 
permitted the thickness of the walls to be reduced, while the thrust of the vault was 
received by buttresses. This reduction of the load and concentration of the resisting 
mass was not permitted by the round arch, which, besides, did not allow the intersection 
of vaultings of different diameters at the same height. In the application of the pointed 
form an arch was obtained which permitted great variation in height and breadth with- 
out loss of its distinctive character. The Gothic style was also eminently suited to ex- 
terior and interior decoration. The interior contains the most numerous and important 
carvings, enriched by the colors of the stained glass of the windows. The exterior 
unites sculpture with architectural form ; the doorways especially are richly decorated 
with figures and plants, and the pinnacles of the buttresses often take the shape of taber: 
nacles in which upright statues are framed. 

The first development of Gothic architecture is seen in the northeastern portions of 
France, as is proved by the numerous monuments of Isle de France, Champagne, Bur- 
gundy, and the neighboring districts. To the older edifices belongs the Cathedral of 
Notre Dame at Paris, begun in 1163 and completed in 1860. Other examples are the 
choir of the cathedral at Rouen (1212-1280), the Cathedral of Laon, the church of Notre 
Dame at Dijon (1252-1334), the cathedrals of Senlis, Auxerre, etc. The Cathedral of 
Rheims (1211-1250) is one of the most splendid specimens of the Gothic style. The 
architectural character of the Cathedral at Amiens (1220-1288) approaches the freer de- 
velopment of the style which was already taking place in Germany. The Palais de 
Justice and the Hotel de Bourgtheroulde in Rouen, and the castle of Fontaine le Henwi 
at Caen, are characteristic examples of late Gothic palatial architecture. Other exam- 
ples occur in Lorraine, and especially in Burgundy, so that this style is sometimes called 
the Burgundian. The same original system of Gothic architecture which rose in north- 
eastern France appears also in the Netherlands. Its development in that country was, 
however, very one-sided, and the exteriors often have a heavy character. To this period 
belong most of the Gothic churches in Valenciennes, Lille, Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, 
Louvain, Malines, Antwerp, etc. The Dutch churches at Rotterdam, Delft, the Hague, 
Leyden, Haarlem, Amsterdam, etc., are specimens of the plainest architecture ; the only 
exceptions being the churches belonging to the later period of the style, the Cathedral at 
Antwerp, the churches of St. Peter at Louvain, St. Martin at Hal, and St. Salvator at 
Bruges. The church of St. Gudule in Brussels is distinguished by its beautiful facade 
of the beginning of the sixteenth century. The municipal buildings of the Netherlands 
developed a very high excellence in architecture and decoration. The finest examples 
are the town halls of Louvain (1448-1469), Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Oudenarde, Arras, 
a Mons. A distinguishing feature of these buildings is the lofty clock tower or 
belfry. 

The Gothic style was introduced in England almost as early as in France, and not 


_ uninfluenced by French art. But in England the style took a direction quite different 


from the French treatment. The beginnings of Gothic architecture in England are seen 
in Canterbury Cathedral and the Temple Church in London ; Salisbury Cathedral shows 
the first independent development of the style as a whole and in all its details. Exeter 
Cathedral shows a stricter organization of the style, while Westminster Cathedral, begun 
in 1270, approaches the system of French cathedrals in its plan. The noblest and 
purest application of the Gothic is seen in York Cathedral (1291-1830), and in the con- 
temporary chapter-house of the same cathedral. In some examples of the Gothic style 
in England a national decorative element is developed to a richness attained nowhere 
else, as in the transept of Gloucester Cathedral (13881), the Lady Chapel of Peterborough 
Cathedral, and St. George’s Chapel at Windsor. The development of English Gothic 
is usually divided into three periods—Early English (thirteenth century) ; Decorated 
¢ourteenth century), and Perpendicular (fifteenth and sixteenth centuries). 

In Germany the Gothic style came into general use somewhat later than in France 


Architecture. 646 


and England. The oldest known examples show the contest still going on between 
Romanesque and Gothic. The first appearance of the style in Germany is seen in the 
nave of the Church of St. Gereon at Cologne (1212-1227) and in the Cathedral of Magde- 
burg, begun in 1208 or 1211. In western Germany the Cologne Cathedral, founded in 
41248, is the most perfect masterpiece of Gothic architecture. The other most important 
examples of the style are the Cistercian abbey of Altenberg at Cologne, the Cathedrals 
at Metz, Freiburg, Strassburg, Magdeburg, and Halberstadt. Good examples of the 
further German development are seen in the Cathedrals of Regensburg, Prague (1343- 
1385), and Ulm (1877), and St. Stephen’s at Vienna. The German Gothic developed 
many excellent forms for the decoration of public and private buildings, as is shown in 
the many works of this kind in Regensburg, Ulm, Nuremberg, Coblenz, Minster, etc. 
Gothic town halls are comparatively rare in Germany, since the older buildings of this 
class were in most cases rebuilt during the Renaissance. 

One of the earliest Gothic edifices in Italy is the church of S. Francisco, at Assisi 
(1218--1230), and a little later the church of Sant’ Antonio, at Padua. The interior of 
the cathedral at Siena, begun about the middle of the twelfth century, has noble propor- 
tions, but the construction is essentially Italian. The Campo Santo and the little 
church of Santa Maria della Spina, at Pisa, the cathedral of Arezzo, and the church of 
Santa Maria Novella, at Florence (1279), are of a similar character. The church of Santa 
Croce, at Florence (1294), and the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, both by Arnolfo di 
Cambio, are types of the Italian style. By far the greatest of all Gothic church edifices 
in Italy is the cathedral of Milan. The Gothic style was frequently used and most 
richly developed in Italy in the facades of palaces and public buildings. These offer 
examples of the highest point reached by the Gothic in Italy. While the Palazzo Vecchio 
of Florence and that of Siena, both of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, are 
heavy, castle-like structures, the Loggia dei Lanzi and the Loggia dei Mercanti, at 
Bologna, are of noble proportions and great merit. In the public buildings of some 
Lombard cities, as at Como, Cremona, and Piacenza, there was developed a style of 
decoration which made a happy use of Romanesque and Saracenic elements. Above 
all, the palaces of this period in Venice are of a characteristic and pleasing form, among 
them the Ducal Palace built in the fourteenth century. 

In Spain and Portugal the Gothic style seems to have preserved far greater purity 
than in England, yet not without being influenced in many respects by Moorish archi- 
tecture. To the Spanish churches of this period belong the cathedrals of Burgos (1299), 
Barcelona, Segovia, and Seville, the church de los Reies, at Toledo (1494-1498), and the 
Dominican Church at Valladolid. The noblest and most regular example of the Gothic 
style on the whole Iberian peninsula is the cloister church of Batalha, in Portugal, the 
interior of which at least approaches the best German Gothic edifices. 

ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE.—The newer architecture of the Renaissance, 
which in its latest development reaches to our own times, originated in the revival of 
the antique, and more particularly the Roman style of architecture. This developed 
first in Italy, whose works became models for other countries, and reached its height in 
the 15th century. Palace architecture was the earliest form of this period, the church 
buildings being of secondary importance. The best of the latter show a tendency to 
return to the simple basilica form. Later appeared Roman arches, with massive col- 
umns, or domed in the Byzantine style. Of the various schools of architecture, the 
Tuscan is the most important ; and at its head, the founder of modern architecture, 
stands Filippo Brunelleschi (1875-1444), builder of the great dome of the cathedral at 
Florence, the churches of San Lorenzo and San Spirito, and the Pitti Palace. The last 
remained for a long time the type of Florentine palaces. Other distinguished Florentine 
architects were di Greccio, da Majarco, Pintelli, who built many churches in Rome, as 
Santa Maria del Popolo and the Sistine Chapel, and Alberti (1898-1472), who distinguished 
himself by earnest study of the monuments of antiquity. 

The Venetian palaces of this time, by their peculiar grace and elegance, show a marked 
contrast to those of Tuscany, and as well as the churches have a tendency to the Byzan- 
tine style. The chief Venetian palaces are the Palace Pisani a San Polo, the Palaces 
Angarani and Dario, the Palace Corner-Spinelli, the Palace Contarini, and the Palace 
dei Camerlenghi, by the Ponte Rialto. Among the ecclesiastical buildings are San Zac- 
caria, the Scuola di San Marco, and the Scirola di San Rocco. The Fondaco dei Tedeschi 
is the work of Fra Giocondo, a learned architect of Verona. 

At the beginning of the 16th century, under the influence of Alberti, an increasing 
strictness in the imitation of antique architecture resulted in a purer style. From this 
time the rules derived from antique monuments and from the writings of Vitruvius 
were firmly adhered to. Rome now became the most important centre of Italian archi- 
tecture. The first great master of this new tendency is Donato Lazzari, usually called 
Bramante of Urbino (1444-1514). His buildings in Milan show the graceful forms 
which characterize the North Italian architecture of the close of the 15th century. Later 
at Rome the immediate presence of the monuments of ancient Rome seem to have im- 
Pees Bramante to a closer reproduction of their forms. Closely allied to Bramante is 

aldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537), who built several palaces at Rome, as the so-called 
Farnesina, while his pupil, Sebastiano Serlio, is best known by his work on architecture. 
The principal followers of Bramante at Rome were Antonio da Sangallo, from Florence 


| 
: 
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> 


} 
i 


647 Architecture. 


(died 1546), the builder of the Farnese Palace, which in its noble and beautiful propor- 
tions shows the influence of the older Florentine style, and Piero Ligorio ae 1580), 
who has left in his Villa Pia, in the Vatican Gardens, the finest example of an ancient 
villa. An entirely different direction was given to Italian architecture by the work of 
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1474-1564), the builder of St. Peter’s. His capricious and arbi- 
trary style is in marked contrast to that of the earlier masters and that of his contem- 
poraries as well, but found few adherents in the century following his death. As Leo 
Battista Alberti led the movement which spread widely in the 16th century, Michelangelo 
may be regarded as the founder of the taste which characterized the 17th century. His 
aim was to impress the spectator by the power of his works, and to fill him with aston- 
ishment by bold and unexpected combinations, without regard to the purity or real 
necessity of the means by which he accomplished this object. 

Outside of Italy Gothic architecture was in general use among the countries of West- 
ern Christendom till the 16th century. Renaissance was introduced into France from 
Italy at the beginning of the 16th century. 

The artistic enterprises of Francis I]. gave the new style a more rapid and an easier 
entrance than in other lands. The most noted French architects of this time were Jean 
Bullant (Castle of Ecouen, about 1540), Pierre Lescot (the older part of the Louvre), and 
Philibert Delorme. In the first half of the 17th century Jacques de Brosse deserves 
special mention ; he built the Luxembourg Palace in Paris, which recalls the Florentine 
style. The buildings of the latter part of the 17th century, under Louis XIV., are with- 
out special importance. The principal architects were Claude Perrault and Mansard, 
inventor of the roof called by his name. The French architects of the 18th century are 
generally very insipid ; only Jacques Germain Soufflot (1713-81), who built the dome of 
the church of Ste. Genevieve, deserves mention. The French designate the changes of 
styles by the sovereigns of the time, as Francis I. style, Henry II., Louis XIII., Louis 
XIV., Regency, and Louis XV. 

Renaissance architecture was introduced into Spain also in the first half of the 16th 
century. In the reign of Philip II. the cloister San Lorenzo in the Escurial was built by 
Juan de Toledo and his pupil, de Herrera. In England the new style of building hardly 
found acceptance before the beginning of the 17th century. Inigo Jones (1572-1652) 
may be called the founder of this movement. His chief works are the palace at White- 
hall and part of the Hospital at Greenwich. The most important modern English archi- 
tect is Christopher Wren, who carried on the rebuilding of St. Paul’s, in London, from 
1675-1710 ; in England also they use the terms Elizabethan style, Queen Anne styie, 
etc. Inthe Netherlands Jacob van Campen (died 1658), the architect of the great town- 
hall at Amsterdam, is worthy of mention. 

After the middle of the 16th century many buildings in the Italian style were erected 
in Germany, e.g., the Otto-Heinrichsbau of the Heidelberg Castle. But the German 
spirit soon so fully appropriated the antique decoration and gave it so distinct a national 
character that German Renaissance became a separate and independent branch of the 
universal Renaissance movement. At the beginning of the 17th century Elias Holl, of 
Augsburg (1573-1636), enjoyed great fame ; he built the town-hall of that city in 1615-20. 
At the same time the town-hall of Nuremberg was erected by Holzschuher. More im- 
portant constructions were undertaken in Germany toward the end of the 17th and the 
beginning of the 18th centuries. To the powerful buildings of this time belongs the 
Arsenal at Berlin (1685), as well as the portions of the royal palace built by Schliiter in 
1699-1706. The chief buildings erected by Frederic II., King of Prussia, at Berlin and 
Potsdam, were built by von Knobelsdorff. 

Rococo is not strictly an architectural but rather a decorative style. It consists of a 
meaningless use of scroll and shell work, without organization or individuality. It is, 
by its nature, usually confined to interior ornamentation, in connection with mirrors, 
lustres, porcelain and Chinese and Japanese works of art. The style spread rapidly 
through Europe under Louis XIV. Germany possesses many examples of the style in 
the palace of Sans Souci, the Zwinger at Dresden, etc., as well as of the style which 
succeeded the Rococo, the Style Régence and Louis XV. 

MopERN ARCHITECTURE.—A. new period in the development of architecture begins 
about the close of the 18th century, when a reaction against the rococo style may be seen 
here and there in buildings, which by a simple and natural style formed a pleasing con- 
trast to the mannered conventionality of the former. Important examples are the Mint 
in Berlin, built at the end of the 18th century by H. Gentz, and the Brandenburg Gate, 
by Langhans. Lys 

At the same time a second step in this new development is seen in those efforts which 
resulted from renewed and thorough study of the antique, by which the art again 
acquired a refined and purified style. Winckelmann (1717-68) led this movement, 
though his influence did not result in tangible form till the succeeding generation. 
Since Stuart and Revett the study of Greek monuments had been eagerly pursued, 
and the treasures of Greek architectural ornament were carried to the museums of 
Western Europe, and reproduced everywhere in plaster casts. This change from the 
florid style to pure classical forms resulted in France in the adoption of the Roman 
style ; in England, in an exact reproduction of the Greek models; and elsewhere in 
an attempt to create something new in the Greek spirit. In the latter class Ger- 


648 


Architecture. 


many offered fine examples in the works of K. Schinkel (1781-1841), which show purer 
appreciation of classic forms than any of modern times; also in the old Museum, 
the Doric garrison, and the theatre at Berlin. A development in another direc. 
tion resulted from opposition to the one-sided and fixed conceptions to which the 
antique tendency often gave rise. This tendency was restricted, and soon passed, but 
not without beneficial results. An important revival of Gothic Architecture took place 
at this time, developing in England, where the limits between the Middle Ages and 
modern times are not as sharply defined as in other countries. In Germany many build- 
ings were erected in Gothic style, showing partly a reproduction of its external features, 
with a tendency to classic forms, contradicting its fundamental principles, while a few 
German architects adhered to the Roman style. These various stages were followed by 
the present style, which was almost entirely confined to the reproduction of the forms of 
the Renaissance. Next to Berlin, Bavaria, and especially Munich under King Louis L., 
was the scene of great architectural activity in recent times. Here Leo von Klenze, in 
the Glyptothek (1816-1830), the Walhalla at Regensburg, the Befreiungshalle at Kelheim, 
the Ruhmeshalle and Propyleum at Munich, held closely to the principles of the 
antique with remarkable results, and in the Pinakothek and the new palace skillfully 
ased the Renaissance ; while Gartner in the Ludwigskirche, the Library, and the Uni- 
versity adhered to the Romanesque style; and Ziebland, in the basilica of St. Boniface, 
reproduced the early Christian, and Ohlmiiller, in the Mariahilfkirche, in the suburb of 
Au, the Gothic. 

King Maximilian IT. in 1848 attempted to call forth a new style in place of reproduc- 
tions from antiquity, and the Munich Academy of Fine Arts in 1851 awarded a prize to 
W. Stiers, of Berlin ; but the execution of his plans was entrusted to Burklein, who had 
showed his skill in reproducing the Roman style, but who failed to create anything satis- 
factory in the new Maximilianstrasse and its public buildings, or in the government 
buildings and the Maximilianeum. Among recent buildings in Munich are Haubrisser’s 
Gothic town-hall, and Neureuther’s new Polytechnic in Renaissance style. In the 
buildings of the Baden railroad, Eisenlohr adapted the Roman style to present condi- 
tions, and Hiibsch showed his best work in developing early Christian and Roman archi- 
tecture in the theatre at Carlsruhe, the Trinkhalle at Baden-Baden, and above all in 
the art-school at Carlsruhe. The Stuttgart school, by a free adaptation of antique 
forms, led to a noble Renaissance, of which Lein’s villa at Berg, Egles’ Polytechnic, 
and the residences of Stuttgart are fine examples. 'The development of architecture in 
Vienna dates from 1828, which Muller, a pupil of Ziebland, gave a fresh impulse in 
Alsterchenfelder church in modified Roman form, followed by the immense Arsenal 
after the combined plans of Hansen, Forster, Résner, and Siccardsburg. Hansen’s chief 
works in Vienna are the Renaissance palace of the Archduke Wilhelm, the Parliament 
buildings in Greek style, and the Academy of Fine Arts. Von Siccardsburg and Van 
der Null erected the new Opera-house in Late-renaissance and Férstel produced a 
noble Gothic specimen in the Votivkirche, and imposing Florentine in the banks and 
exchanges, and the University. Friedr. Schmidt stands at the head of the strict Gothic 
school, with his Lazaristenkirche, the Gymnasium, and Town-Hall in Italian-Gothic. The 
erection of the Royal Museum, the Royal Theatre and palace after designs by Von 
Semper and Hasenauer forms a noble conclusion to a group of buildings unsurpassed in 
any other modern capital. In North Germany the principal specimens of modern archi- 
tecture are the Friedenskirche at Potsdam, by Persius, the Jacobikirche in Berlin, by 
Stiller. Among the secular buildings with which Frederick William IV. adorned Berlin 
are Stiiler’s new Museum and the National Gallery, by Strack, the elegant hotel of the 
Russian Embassy, by Knoblauch, the Town-hall, by Wisemann, the Exchange in 
darters oe style, the first stone building erected in Berlin, and the Imperial Bank by 

itzig. 

The chief architectural works of Dresden are Semper’s Theatre and the Museum. 
From Cologne, where it was fostered by the completion of the cathedral under Zwirner’s 
ephina Gothic architecture has spread over Germany and produced many fine exam- 
ples. 

France ranks next to Germany in recent architecture, Paris being the centre of all 
production. The strictly antique tendency of Percier and Fontaine under the First Em- 
pire was followed by the free classical tendency of Hittorf of Cologne, who built the 
noble basilica of St. Vincent de Paul, and completed the laying out of the Place de la 
Concorde. Examples of Gothic, chiefly in its earliest forms, are Viollet le Duc’s church 
of St. Denis and the Church of St. Clotilde by Gau, from Cologne, and by the former 
also the restoration of the Sainte Chapelle. The influence of the Renaissance is shown 
in the restoration and enlargement of the Hétel de Ville, by Ballu and Deperthes, and in 
Duban’s splendid creation, the cole des Beaux-Arts. Visconti followed the same ten- 
dency in his fountains of St. Sulpice, and Moliére, and the Imperial tomb under the 
dome of the Invalides. Public as well as private buildings in the new quarters show an 
increasing tendency toward Late-renaissance, as in Garnier’s Grand Opera, and in some 
recent churches. An attempt to combine the elements of Roman, Moorish, and Renais- 
sance styles is shown in the Trocadéro palace, erected for the Exposition of 1877 by 
Davioud and Bourdais. 


In England archeological researches carried on from the beginning of the century 


649 Architecture, 


have sed to a pure and undeviating devotion to classic forms. Later a change was made 
to Late-renaissance in the Royal Buildings, and Gothic, chiefly in its latest forms, is much 
used—for example, in Barry’s Houses of Parliament. The possibilities of construction 
of iron and glass are seen in Paxton’s Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 

AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE.—The age and conditions of our American civilization do 
not admit of an indigenous architectural development, as in older countries, and therefore 
we find in America examples of every known national style, imported originally by the 
early colonists of the country, and of late years made more general by the diffusion of 
photographs and the increased knowledge of European architectures brought about by 
the rapid growth of foreign travel. The building operations of the settlers of the seven- 
teenth century were modeled upon those of the countries from which they had emigrated. 
Thus the early buildings of New England and Virginia are essentially English ; those 
of New York and Pennsylvania are Dutch and German, while Florida shows thoroughly 
Spanish architecture, and New Orleans is a transplanted French city. These national 
styles were modified only by the changed needs, and especially by the poverty of the 
colonists, which necessitated the use of perishable material and hasty construction. 
The earliest buildings, therefore, soon passed away ; and not for some generations were 
more ambitious and enduring works undertaken. With the beginning of the eighteenth 
century the increased intercourse between the individual colonies gave rise to a more 
homogeneous and English architecture. The more important buildings of the period 
are all the works of English architects, e.g., King’s Chapel, Boston (1749), by Harrison, 
and St. Michael’s, Charleston, 8. C. (1752), by Gibson, a pupil of Wren. ‘To the same 
period belong Christ Church, Philadelphia, and the old State-Houses of Boston and 
Philadelphia. The colonial dwelling-houses of the Colonial period were simple in style 
and usually of wood, depending for their external effect chiefly upon the use of columns, 
and with interiors of great plainness, all the ornamentation being concentrated in the 
staircases, of which some very valuable and artistic examples still exist. The rise of the 
new nation after the Revolution necessitated government buildings, of which the first 
and chief was the Capitol at Washington. The corner-stone was laid by Washington in 
1798, and the building went on under various architects— Hallet, Hadfield, Latrobe, and 
Bulfinch, under the last of whom the original Capitol was completed in 1827 at a cost of 
$2,500,000. In time the growth of the country necessitated extension of the building, 
and the work was carried out by Thomas Walter, 1851-1867. In its present form the 
Capitol is a monumental edifice, with a dome 135 feet in diameter, rising 217 feet above 
the roof. The architectural effect is secured by the free use of porticoes and colonnades, 
and by the striking approaches. The other older Government buildings were of a sim- 
ilar style. Since that time a style founded on the Italian Renaissance has been employed 
in nearly all public buildings, sometimes with great success. To this period belongs the 
New York City Hall (1803-1812), built of marble and freestone, which at the time of its 
erection surpassed all buildings of its kind in material and conception. The church 
architecture of the period was exceedingly plain, the chief feature being the steeples, of 
which many fine examples exist. For a time Greek architecture became the fashion, 
and was applied to buildings irrespective of their uses. To this development belong the 
custom-houses at Philadelphia, New York (with monolithic columns), and Boston, and 
the main building of Girard College, Philadelphia. The same style reached the height 
of absurdity when applied to small private dwellings of wood. The first successful 
attempt in Gothic architecture was the erection (1839-1845) of Trinity Church, New York, 
by Richard Upjohn, which has since remained the accepted type of American church 
buildings. From the church the Gothic style was for a time carried over to all other 
classes of buildings, but was soon abandoned. With the rapid growth in wealth and 
ambition there succeeded crazes for various architectural styles, in the use of which 
artistic ignorance’ joined with disregard for utility. Egyptian, Moorish, Swiss, and 
many other types were employed, and some unfortunately perpetuated in New York 
and other of our larger cities. All these fashions in time were abandoned, and now ap- 
pear only in rare instances. For a time iron became a favorite building material, and 
hundreds of business buildings were erected with cast-iron facgades of all architectural 
types, until it was shown that the initial cheapness of the material was more than coun- 
terbalanced by the expense in repairs, when the style followed its predecessors. A re- 
vival of Gothic architecture, under the influence of Ruskin, produced some buildings of 
real merit—among them the building of the National Academy of Design, in New York, 
largely in the Venetian style; the elaborate State Capitol of Connecticut at Hart- 
ford, and the Harvard Alumni Memorial Hall at Cambridge. 

Of late years, the prevailing style for municipal buildings has been that of the French 
Renaissance. Imposing examples of the style are seen in the new Municipal Buildings 
of Philadelphia and in the new buildings of the State and War Department at Washing- 
ton. Many of the newer Capitol buildings of the various states are architecturally of 
merit ; among these the most ambitious is the Capitol at Albany. 

In church architecture, New York, Boston, Chicago, and some western cities possess 
many good examples of Gothic and other styles. The largest and most expensive church 
edifice on the continent is the recently completed Roman Catholic Cathedral in New 
York. <A notable departure from the Gothic style is seen in Trinity Church, Boston. 
where the Romanesque has been employed with complete success. 


Architrave. Va" 
Archytas. 650 


In no other point has the American lack of architectural taste been so signally dis- 
played as in the erection by thousands of so-called ‘‘ Queen Anne’’ buildings. Even our 
larger cities have not escaped the bewildering conglomerations of gables, lattice-work, 
turrets, and tasteless and laborious ornamentation which most of these buildings display ; 
but it is in the smaller towns and villages, and especially in the West, that the craze has 
run riot. Fortunately the construction of these buildings, mostly dwelling-bouses, is of 
so flimsy a character that they will not endure long to offend good taste ; and the private 
houses which are succeeding them show a reaction from their meretricious style. The 
former sameness and monotony in dwelling-houses which obtains in most of our older 
cities is giving place to a pleasing variety, especially in newer localities, which, if prop- 
erly restrained, will soon entirely remodel the face of our cities. The change is due in 
great part to the formation of Schools of Architecture, which are beginning to provide 
us with thoroughly equipped native architects. Such are the schools connected with 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cornell University, and the School of Mines 
of Columbia College. The American Institute of Architects, founded in 1867, with its 
local branches, assists in encouraging professional intercourse among its members ; and 
the various architectural journals spread an increasing knowledge of the art. All these 
agencies combine to form, if not a national type of architecture, at least a national edu- 
cated taste, which will render impossible the crudities of past generations, and develop 
refinement in the choice or combination of styles already existing. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, GENERAL: Fergusson, History of Architecture (1873); Ramée, His- 
toire de lV Architecture ; Liibke, Geschichte der Architektur (1884-1886) ; Dohme, Geschichte 
der Deutschen Baukunst (1887) ; Schliemann, Z7ryns (1885). 

EGypriAn.—Lepsius, Denkmdiler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien (1858) ; Denon, Voyage 
dans la Haute et Basse Egypte; Gau, Antiquités dela Nubie; Mariette, [tineraire de la 
Haute Egypte (tr. 1877) ; Vyse, Pyramids of Gizeh (1840-1842) ; Piazzi Smith, Our Inher- 
stance in the Great Pyramid ; Wilkinson, Ancient Hgyptians (1854) ; and Architecture of 
Ancient Egypt ; Butler, Ancient Coptic Uhurches of Hgypt (1884). 

AssyRIAN.—Botta, Monuments de Ninéve (1849); Fergusson, Palaces of Nineveh and 
Persepolis (1851) ; Place, Ninéve et l’Assyrie (1867-1870) ; Rich, Ruins of Babylon and 
Journey to Persepolis ; Layard, Journey to Nineveh and its Remains (1858). 

JEwisH.—Canina, L’Architettura Antica ; De Vogué, Les Fgiises dela Terre Sainte. 

PERsSIAN.—Canina, LZ’ Architettura Antica (1848-1856); Flandin and Coste, Voyage 
en Perse ; Loftus, Chaldea and Susiana ; Tristram, Land of Moab (1865). 

Lycian, ETC.—Canina, L’ Architettura Antica ; Fellows and Scharff, Travels in Asta 
Minor (1852), and Discoveries in the Levant ; Texier, Description de? Asie Mineure (1865) ; 
Benndorf and Niemann, Reisen in Lykien und Karten (1884); Petersen and Luschan, 
Reisen in Lykien (1889). 

GREEK.—Cockerell, Temples of Egina and Basse ; Hittorf, Architecture Antique de 
la Sictle ; Duke of Serradifalco, Antichita di Sicilia ; Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of 
Athens ; Texier, Aste Mineure ; Wilkins, Antiquities of Magna Grecia ; Botticher, Dte 
Akropolis von Athen (1888); Curtius, Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (1876-1881) ; 
Fergusson, Parthenon (1888) ; Laloux, L’ Architecture Grecque (1888). 

Erruscan.—Canina, L’ Antica Etruria Maritima (1849-1851); Dennis, The Cities and 
Cemeteries of Htruria (1878). 

Roman.—Blouet, Baths of Caracalia ; Canina, Architettura Antica (1848-1856) ; 
Desgodets, Les Hudifices ‘Antiques de Rome ; Gell and Gandy, Pompetana (1835) ; Mazois, 
Palais de Scaurus ; Mazois and Gau, Pompeti ; Palladio, 1’ Antichita di Roma ; Taylor 
ana Cresy, Architectural Antiquities of Rome ; Vogué, Syrie Centrale ; Wood, Ruins of 
Palmyra and Baalbec (1827); Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries 
(1889) ; Hare, Walks #n Rome (1884) ; Corroyer, L’ Architecture Romane (1888). 

GorHic AND RENAISSANCE.—Britton, Cathedrals and Architectural Antiquities ; 
Eastlake, History of the Gothic Revival (1872) ; Parker, Introduction to the study of Gothic 
Architecture ; Street, Gothic Architecture in Spain (1865); Norton, Church Butlding in 
the Middle Ages (1880); Jackson, Modern Gothic Architecture (1878); Smith, Architec- 
ture, Gothic and Renaissance (1888) ; Stevenson, House Architectwre (1880) ; Gotch, Archi- 


tecture of the Renaissance in England ; Bloxam, Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Archi- 


tecture (1882) ; Freeman, Cathedral Cities (1888). 

SARACENIC.—Coste, Les Arabes en Espagne; and Architecture Arabe de Caire (1839) ; 
Jones and Goury, Plans, etc., of the Alhambra (1842) ; Girault de Prangey, Monuments 
Arabes et Moresques ; Knight, Saracenic and Norman Remains (1840). 

_CHINESE.—Fergusson, History of Architecture ; Quatremére de Quincy, Dictionnaire 
MMistorique @ Architecture (1882). 

AMERICAN.—Hutchinson, Zwo Years in Peru; Markham, Travels in Peru (1862) ; 
Stephens and Catherwood, Incidents of Travel (1841) ; Goforth and McAuley, Old Coloni- 
al Architectural Details (1890). See also a series of papers in Harper’s Magazine for 
1891, entitled, Some Glimpses of Western Architecture. 

JOURNALS.—English : The Architect, The British Architect, The Builder, The Building 
News. American: The American Architect and Building News. French: Revue d’ Archt- 
tecture, Fineyclopédie @ Architecture, Gazette des Architectes et du Bdtement. German: 
Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung, Deutsche Bauzeitung, Wochenblatt fiir Baukunde. Zeit: 
schrift fiir Bauwesen, Allgemeine Bauzeituna. 


Archi : 
651 AechYCHae 


AR CHITRAVE (Gr. archi-, chief; Lat. trads, beam), the lowest part of the entablature 
@.v.), or that which rests immediately upon the columns. 


AR'CHIVES. See REcorDs. 


AR'CHIVOLT, the ornamental band or molding which runs round the lower part of 
the voussoirs of an arch. Parker’s Glossary states that when it is quite plain, with 
square edges, as in the Roman and Romanesque styles, and in the early Norman, as at 
the chapel of the White Tower of London, the term soffit is applicable to it. In later 
Norman work, however, it usually has the edges chamfered off or molded; and 
toward the end of that style, and throughout all the Gothic styles, it is frequently di- 
vided into several concentric portions. 


ARCHLUTE, a large double necked lute about four feet five inches long, used in 
the 17th century for the lowest part in instrumental music and accompaniments. The 
neck contained two sets of tuning-pegs, and the strings were of catgut, or metal, with a 
compass of two octaves from G below the bass clef. The sound-board, pierced with a 
circular ornamental hole, was of pine, while the back was made of strips of pine and 
cedar glued together and richly ornamented. See Chitarrone, Lute, and Theorbo. 


ARCHULETA, a s.w. co. of Col., formed 1885 from the western part of Corregos; 
about 1100sq.m. ; pop. 90, 826. The eastern part is crossed by the San Juan mountains, 
and the western and more level portion is watered by the San Juan river and its branches. 
Co. seat, Pagosa Springs. 


AR'CHON, the highest magistrate in Athens. The government was originally mo- 
narchical; but on the death of Codrus (q.v.), the Athenians, according to the traditionary 
account, resolved that no one should succeed him with the title of king (daszleus), and 
therefore appointed his son Medon with the title A. (ruler). The office was at first for 
life, and confined to the family of Medon; but in 752 B.c., the time of office was limited 
to ten years; and in 714, the exclusive claims of Medon’s family to the office of A. were 
abrogated, and it was thrown open to all persons of noble birth; afterwards to all citizens, 
without distinction of rank (477 B.c.). In 688, the office had been made annual, and the 
number of archons had beenextendedtonine. The year wasnamed from the first A. ; tothe 
second, styled Basileus, belonged the care of religious affairs; the third was Polemarchos, 
or commander-in-chief; and the remaining six, having to conduct all criminal trials, were 
styled thesmothetz, or lawgivers.—Among the Jews, during the time of their subjection 
to the Romans, the title of A. had various meanings; but was generally given to the 
members of the sanhedrim or supreme council.—In the mystical jargon of the Gnostics, 
the term A. was frequently employed, and hence one of their sects, especially opposed to 
Judaism, received the name ArcHontTiIcs. See GNostics, HERESY, HERETICS. 

ARCH-PRIEST, a name dating from the fourth century, and equivalent to the Greek 
protopresbyter, was usually applied toa senior priest attached to a cathedral, whose duties 
were to assist the bishop, and to act as his substitute in the performance of the church 
offices. This title in later times gave way to that of dean. 


ARCHYTAS of Amphissa, a Greek poet, is supposed to have lived about B.C. 800. 
Only fragments of his work remain. ‘Two lines in Stobeus, taken from the Hermes of 
Eratosthenes, are attributed to Archytas, and Plutarch inserts in one of his works a hexam- 
eter verse, on the country of the Ozolian Locrians, that was written by Archytas. 
Laértius (viii. 82) speaks of an epigrammatist called Archytas, and the epic poem Tépavo¢ 
was supposed by many of the ancients to be the work of Archytas and not, as others 
claimed, of his contemporary, Euphorion. 


ARCHY'TAS of Tarentum, one of the most illustrious men of antiquity, flourished 
about the year 400 B.c. His father’s name was Mnesagoras. A. is said to have been a 
contemporary of Plato, and on one occasion to have saved the life of the latter when the 
tyrant Dionysius wished to put him to death. His public career was glorious. He was 
seven times elected general of his city, though it was customary for the office to be held 
only for one year; and in every campaign which he undertook, he was victorious. His 
civil administration was equally fortunate. Affairs of the highest moment were repeat- 
edly intrusted to him; and yet, though deeply skilled in philosophy and politics, he was 
possessed of a childlike simplicity of character. He was drowned on the Apulian coast. 
A.’s virtues were as conspicuous as his talents. He paid the most humane attention to 
the comfort and education of his slaves, and although one of the greatest geometricians, 
he did not disdain to make a rattle for the amusement of his children. He solved the 
problem of the doubling of the cube, and secured almost the reputation of a magiciam 
by his numerous mechanical contrivances, the most wonderful of which was the flying 
pigeon. A Pythagorean in philosophy, he is generally supposed to have exerted a con- 
siderable influence on Plato, and some affirm that even the gigantic understanding of 
Aristotle was indebted to him for the idea of his categories. Only fragments of his writ- 
ingsremain. They relate to metaphysics, ethics, logic, and physics. 

A work attributed to him: On the 10 Categories was published by Camerarius, under 
the title Apydrov depduevor déxa Adyor kaborrKoi (Lips. 1564; Ven. 1571); Gale in Opuse. 
Mythol. (Cambridge, 1671 ; Amst. 1688), gives several fragments of Archytas, and in 
1820 Jos. Navarro began the publication of a full collection under the title Tentamen de 
Archyte Tarentini vita atque operibus, 


Aretic. 652 


ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a small t. in the French department of Aube, situated in lat. 48° 
32’ n., long. 4° 8’ e., with about 3000 inhabitants, is remarkable on account of the battlg 
fought here, Mar. 20, 21, 1814, between Napoleon and the allied forces under prince 
Schwartzenberg. The battle, beginning with several skirmishes on the first, and end- 
ing in a general engagement on the second day, when the French retreated over the 
Aube, was not initself veryimportant. ‘But Napoleon now formed the plan of operating 
in the rear of the allies, and left the road to Paris open; assuming that they would not 
venture to proceed without attempting first to secure their rear. The allies marched, 
nevertheless, on the capital, and thus decided the campaign. 


ARCOGRAPH (Lat. arcus, a bow, Gk. graphein, to write), an instrument for describ- 
ing arcs of circles without the use of a central point, and is employed in cases where the 
compass cannot be used. 


ARC LAMP or ARC LIGHT SYSTEM. See Evectric LIGHTING. 


ARCO'LA, or Anco’LE, a village on the left bank of the Adige, in northern Italy, 15 m. 
e.s.e. of Verona, famous for the victory gained by Bonaparte over the Austrians, 17th 
Nov., 1796. The Austrians, relieved by the retreat of Moreau from the Rhine, had 

begun to take the offensive in Italy, and Gen. Alvinzy appeared at the head of 50,000 
' men, with the main body of which he advanced to Caldiero, and threatened Verona. 
Bonaparte, recognizing the danger, descended by night the course of the Adige, crossed 
that river at Ronco, and was thus in a position to threaten. the left flank of Alvinzy’s 
army, which was posted at A. A causeway leads from Ronco across the morasses to A., 
before reaching which, the road crosses the small stream of the Alpon by a narrow 
bridge. This bridge was defended by the Austrian general, Mittrowsky, with 14 bat- 
talions of infantry, and 2 squadrons of cavalry. On the 14th of Nov., Augereau 
attacked the bridge with two battalions of grenadiers, but being exposed in flank to 
the Austrian fire, was obliged to withdraw. Bonaparte now seized the standard him- 
self, and rushed on the bridge, followed by the grenadiers; but again the fire of the Aus- 
trians, who were in much greater force than the French, made it necessary to draw 
back. The struggle was renewed on the 16th, with a similar result; and it was only 
on the 17th that the French succeeded in getting possession of A., not, however, by 
forcing the bridge, but by sending a column across the Alpon, lower down, and getting 
in rear of the Austrians. On this Alvinzy was obliged to retreat to Vicenza. It fared 
no better with the other column of the Austrians under Davidovich. In this series 
of battles the Austrians lost 18,000 men killed ; the French, 15,000. 


ARGON, JEAN CLAUDE D’, a distinguished French engineer, b. at Pontarlier, 1783, 
was originally intended for the church, but on manifesting a decided preference for the 
study of Vauban, his father, an eminent jurisconsult, consented to his choice of a mili- 
tary profession. In 1754, he entered the military school at Méziéres, and, in the follow- 
ing year, he passed as an engineer. During the seven years’ war, he acquired consid- 
erable reputation, especially in the defense of Cassel. His fertility of invention was 
surprising, and of the greatest benefit to that branch of the service with which he was’ 
connected. In all his writings—which, in spite of a very faulty style, can be read with 
pleasure—there are indications of a lively, rich, and vigorous genius. He was even 
bold enough to question the wisdom of certain strategical propositions of the great 
Frederick. But his most famous scheme was that by which he hoped to reduce Gib- 
raltar, then in the hands of the English, and defended by Governor Elliot. He con- 
trived floating batteries, incombustible, and not liable to sink, which, however, were 
not successful, though this is mainly to be attributed to the fact of his efforts being 
indifferently supported. When the French, under Dumouriez, overran Holland, A. took 
several strongly-fortified places, amongst others, Breda. After this, he retired from 
public life, and confined himself to the literature of his profession. His most impor- 
tant work is Considerations Miliiaires et Politiques sur les Fortifications (Paris, 1795). In 
1799, Bonaparte called him to the senate, but he died the year after. 


ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA, a t. on the right bank of the Guadalete, in Andalusia, 
Spain. Its principal manufacture is that of tanned leather, which was the first estab- 
lished in Andalusia; thread and ropes are also manufactured. Pop. 16,280, A. de la 
F. has a wild and romantic situation, which harmonizes well with the picturesque garb 
of the inhabitants, who still wear the old national costume. It was called Arcos, from 
being built in the form of a ‘“‘bow;” and after Alfonso-el-Sabio had rescued it from the 
Moors, it received the additional name of dela Frontera, from its frontier position, being 
in the vicinity of the Moorish kingdom of Granada. Almost impregnable by nature, it 
was furthermore embattled with walls and towers, part of which still remain, and afford 
a magnificent view of the Ronda mountains. 

ARCOT, a city of Hindostan, in the presidency of Madras, the capital of the district 
of north Arcot. It is situated on the right bank of the Palar, a river which, rising in 
Mysore, is, in the rainy season, about 4m. wide before the town. It stands in n. lat. 
12° 54’, and in e. long. 79° 24’, and is distant from Madras 65 miles. Besides the military 
cantonment, which can accommodate 8 regiments of cavalry, A. contains some mosques 
in a tolerable state of repair, and the ruins of the Nawaab’s palace. At the census of 
1871, the t. of A. (more properly spelled Arkdt) had a pop. of 10,988. A. is chiefly notice- 


653 ares 


able for its history. It was the spot where Clive first firmly established his military 
reputation, With a force of 300 Sepoys, 200 Europeans, and 3 field-pieces, he marched 
against A., which was garrisoned by 1100 men; and after having taken it, he stood a 
risk of 50 days against thousands of assailants, amid hardships and privations of every 
description. 

ARcorT, a portion of the presidency of Madras. It consists of 2 districts, the northern 
and the southern, of which the respective areas are 7139 sq. m., and 4873, and the respec- 
tive populations, according to the census of 1891, 2,180,000 and 2,163,000, approximately. 

As most of the rivers are destitute of water in the dry season, there are thousands 
of tanks in A. Some of them are of an enormous size: that of Cavery-pak, in par- 
ticular, measures 8 m. by 8. These tanks are indispensable, as well for irrigation as for 
domestic use. ‘The hot and parching winds from the w., sweeping down the valleys of 
the eastern ghats, are often fatal to birds on the wing, and also to human beings when 
exposed for any length of time. Glass cracks and flies in pieces; and wood shrinks, 
splits, and shivers; and from the mutual friction of the sapless trees, spontaneous com- 
bustion sometimes takes place in the jungles. 


ARCTIC means, properly, lying near the constellation of the bear (Gr. actos), and 
hence, northern. The arctic circle is a circle drawn round the north pole, at a distance 
from it equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, or 23}. The corresponding circle round 
the south pole is the Antarctic circle. "Within each of these circles there is a period of 
the year when the sun does not set, and another when he is never seen, this period 
being longer the nearer to the pole. 

ARCTIC CURRENT comes from the northern ocean down Davis’s strait and also 
down the e. coast of Greenland, joins the Labrador current off cape Farewell, flows 
along the Newfoundland coast, and is lost in the gulf stream. Its water is very cold, 
and has the effect of lowering the temperature of the Labrador coast. 


ARCTIC HIGHLANDS, a name sometimes applied, though not very appropriately, to 
that portion of the American continent which lies between Hudson’s bay and the mouth 
of the Mackenzie. It has been the scene of all, or nearly all, the overland efforts in con- 
nection with the exploration of an.w. passage, from Hearne’s discovery of the Copper- 
mine, down to the recent voyage of Anderson—the most prominent among the inter- 
mediate laborers having been Franklin, Richardson, Back, Dease, Simpson, and Rae. 


ARC'TIC OCEAN, that part of the universal sea which surrounds the north pole. Its 
single boundary, that towards the s., naturally divides itself into four sections—the 
northern shores respectively of the two continents, and the northern limits respectively 
of the two intercontinental oceans. 

The A. O. meets the Pacific at Behring strait, in about 66° of n. lat., so that here the 
A. O. overlaps the arctic circle by about 30’. On the side of the Atlantic, again, the 
common border seems to be equally independent of arbitrary definition, for Scoresby 
sound almost as definitely terminates the s.e. coast of Greenland as North Cape term- 
inates the n.w. coast of Europe; so that, as both extremes are intersected by about the 
same parallel of 71°, the A. O. here falls short of the arctic circle by about 44°. 

In the old world, the A. O.,if we include its gulfs, stretches s. of the arctic circle, 
in the White sea, fully 2°; while at cape Severo, the most northerly point of Asia, in 
lat. 78° 25’ n., it falls short of the same by 11° 55’. Lastly, within the range of the new 
world, the A.O., in its strict acceptation, is everywhere forced back within the arctic 
circle, about 5° at Point Barrow, about 74° on Barrow’s strait, and about 3° at the strait 
of the Fury and Hecla. 

The waters of the A.O., however, may conveniently be extended beyond these their 
strict limits. So far as the mere aspect of the map is concerned, Davis’s strait, Baffin’s 
bay, and Hudson’s bay may be regarded as gulfs rather of the Atlantic than of the A.O. 
But if essential characteristics are permitted to outweigh mere position, they must be 
assigned rather to the A.O. than to the Atlantic. Besides being all fed by currents from 
the A.O., they are all hyperborean in temperature. Even the most southerly of the 
three illustrates this. While Hudson’s straits present, in general, more ice than Davis’s 
strait or Baffin’s bay, Hudson’s bay itself has been the scene of perhaps the two most 
abortive, if not most disastrous, of all modern attempts at northern discovery. On oppo- 
site sides of Southampton island, Lyons and Black were arrested by impenetrable packs, 
the one near the bay of God’s Mercy, and the other off cape Comfort—the latter point 
being 14°, and the former being twice as much, s. of the arctic circle. Reckoning, 
therefore, to the bottom of James’s bay, as an arm of Hudson’s, the arctic seas, thus 
appended to the A.O. proper, reach as far s. as the parallel of London. 

Little as is yet known, at least accurately, of the A.O., its discovery and exploration 
have developed and tasked more skill and heroism than perhaps the exploration and 
discovery of all the rest of the world since the age of Columbus. Without anticipating 
what is to be said on this subject under the heads of NoRTH-EAST AND NORTH-WEST 
PASSAGES and PoLAR EXPEDITIONS, it may not be out of place here to state summarily 
the comparatively easy labors of the Russians while issuing, as it were, from their 
domestic rivers to survey their domestic shores. Early in the seventeenth century sev- 
eral expeditions were sent out by the Muscovy company to complete, if possible, the 
n. e. passage. In the eighteenth century the Russian government sent several expedi- 
tions for the same purpose. From the White Sea to the Obi four seasons were con- 


Arctium. 654 


Ardeche. 


sumed; from the Obi to the Yenesei, four seasons; from the Yenesei to the Lena, season 
after season was spent in both directions without success; from the Lena to the Kolyma, 
six seasons were occupied; from the Kolyma to the Pacific every effort was fruitless, 
though the Cossack Deshneff was known to have accomplished this part of the enter- 
prise about a century before. — 

Arctic navigation, in fact, is beset by almost every imaginable difficulty and danger. 
Tn addition to the peculiar perils of ice in all possible states, the adventurer, often blinded 
by fogs and snows, has to face, generally without guide or sea-room, the storms, tides, 
and currents of comparatively unknown waters. If such be his three months of sum- 
mer, what must be his nine months of winter! Take a general illustration from the per- 
sonal experience of the most successful of all the arctic navigators. On the parallel of 
73°, and under a temperature of 15° below zero of Fah., Capt. M’Clure spent 
the night of 30th Oct. 1851, on the ice, amid prowling bears, and that without food or 
ammunition—his only guide being a pocket-compass, which, however, the darkness, 
thickened by mist and drift, rendered useless. The gallant officer whiled away the 
time by sleeping three hours on ‘‘a famous bed of soft dry snow,” and by wandering 10 
m., by the crow’s flight, over a surface so rugged as to endanger his limbs. It was at 
the close of a pedestrian expedition of nine days, on very short allowance of food and 
water, that the adventure took place; and it had been immediately occasioned by a gen- 
erous desire of reaching the winter quarters by a nearer cut, so as to have ‘‘a warm meal 
ready for his men on their arrival.” 

Notwithstanding the labors and researches of two centuries and a half, very 
little of this vast ocean has been even seen by man. To the n. of 83° 30’, in fact, 
the A. O., so far as authentic evidence goes, is a mere blank to geographers, for 
Parry, in 1827, barely reached lat. 82° 45’; Kane, in 1854, touched only 81° 22’; 
the Polaris, in 1871, reached only 82° 16’; in 1874, the Austro-Hungarian polar 
expedition just reached 82° 5’; the British expedition of 1875-6 could advance no 
further than 88° 20’; Lockwood, in 1882 (Greely Expedition), reached only 88° 24’. 
At all the intermediate points of longitude, the northern limit of geographical 
knowledge falls short, more or less at every point, of the parallel of 83°. Perhaps 
the actual average of such northern limit, even on the full tale of 860° of long., 
may not exceed lat. 75°, so as to leave absolutely unknown a circle of 30° of lat., or 
nearly 2100 miles in diameter—an area little inferior to that of Europe. This untrodden 
world, however, is not to be regarded as a continuous wilderness of ice. Parry, at his 
furthest point, found not an unbroken field, but separate floes; with more or less of open 
water between them—the mildness of the temperature being indicated by falls of rain; 
and Kane, again, at his furthest point, saw a free sea to the n., as far as the eye could 
reach, from a promontory 240 ft. high; while, to use his own words, ‘‘a gale from the 
n.e., of 54 hours in duration, brought a heavy swell from that quarter without disclosing 
any drift or other ice.” This is quite in keeping with the fact already noticed, that Hud- 
son’s straits and bay are often more encumbered with pack than the waters of far 
higher latitudes. With regard to currents, Parry, during nearly the whole of his boat- 
sleigh expedition of 1827, found that his place by reckoning was considerably ahead 
of his place by observation, or, in other words, that his northward progress on the floes 
was neutralized more or less by the southward progress of the floes themselves, the exist- 
ence of a current towards the s. being thus shown. M’Clure derived advantage from 
the current, whether advancing through open water or drifting along at the mercy of 
the pack. The experience of Weyprecht and Payer was different from that of any pre- 
ceding navigators, since they found that they steadily drifted north. While M’Clure had 
the fortune to return with the news of the discovery of the n.w. passage, M’Clintock 
has shown that the discovery must have been anticipated by Sir John Franklin. Suc- 
ceeding expeditions, of which a great number have been equipped by England, Germany, 
France, Sweden, America, Austria, and Denmark, have been mainly directed towards the 
north pole. The reports of the expedition of 1875-6 lead to the conclusion that the 
pole is surrounded by an inaccessible region of ice, to which has been given the name 
of the paleocrystic sea, or sea of ancient ice. 

" Of the more southerly portion of the A. O., the only section that is tolerably well 
known to a distance from the continent is that which washes the n.e. of America. It 
contains, under_the collective name of polar archipelago, these islands, or parts of 
islands: Banks Land, Prince Albert Land, Wollaston Land, Victoria Land, Prince Patrick 
Island, Princess Royal Islands, Melville Island, Cornwallis Island, North Devon, Grinnell 
Land, North Lincoln, and various others. Off the coast of the old world, again, are Spitz- 
bergen, Nova Zembla, New Siberia, Wrangel Land, King Charles Land, etc. The latest 
discovery, made by Weyprecht and Payer in 1878, is that of Franz-Joseph Land, an ex- 
tensive and mountainous tract, lying about 200 m. due n. of Nova Zembla. Its s. coast is 
in about 80 n. lat., and it was seen to extend as far n. as 83°, occupying at least 15° 
of longitude. The chief straits are Lancaster sound, Barrow’s strait, Smith’s sound, 
strait of the Fury and Hecla, Wellington channel, Banks strait, etc. The chief rivers, 
all of them on the mainland, are the Obi, the Yenesei, and the Lena, of the first class; the 
ae the Yana, the Indigirka, and the Kolyma, of the second; and many others of 

e third. 

The principal production of the A. O. has been the whale. The whale-fisheries on the w. 
coast of Spitzbergen, and on both sides of Greenland, scarcely need tobe mentioned. But 


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ft may not be generally known, that, according to official returns as quoted by Admiral 
Beechy, the Americans had, in two years, drawn more than $8,000,000 from the whale- 
fishery of Behring strait alone. 

On the side of east Siberia, however, the A. O. produces a more remarkable article of 
traflic. Here are found, in the greatest abundance, the bones of the mammoth. Spring 
after spring, the alluvial banks of the lakes and rivers, crumbling under the thaw, give 
up, as it were, their dead ; while the islands lying off the Yana, and even the depths 
of the sea itself, literally teem with these mysterious memorials of antiquity. 

The American half of the A. O., if it cannot boast of fossil ivory, presents something 
still more difficult perhaps to be explained. In lat. 74° 25’, and lat. 76° 15’ respec- 
tively, Capt. M’Clure and Lt. Mecham discovered large deposits of trees, apparently 
indigenous, of considerable size. Writing of Banks’ Island, M’Clure has the following 
passage: ‘‘ From the summit of these hills, which are 3800 feet high, to their base, abun- 
dance of wood is to be found, and in many places layers of trees are visible, some pro- 
truding 12 or 14 ft., and so firm that several people may jump on them without their 
breaking: the largest trunk yet found measured 1 ft. 7 in. in diameter”—equivalent 
in girth to about 5ft. Again, ‘‘I entered a ravine some miles inland, and found the 
n. side of it, for a depth of 40 ft., composed of one mass of wood. Some of it was petri- 
fied, the remainder very rotten, and worthless even for burning.” Writing of Prince 
Patrick Island, Mecham has the following passage: ‘‘ Discovered buried in the e. bank of 
the ravine, and protruding about 8 ft., a tree of considerable size. During the after- 
noon I found several others of a similar kind: circumference of first and second tree 
seen, 3 ft.; of another, 2 ft.10 in. From the perfect state of the bark, and the dis- 
tance of the trees from the sea, there can be but little doubt that they grew originally in 
this country.” 


ARC'TIUM. See BurDock. 

ARC'TOMYS, See Marmor. 

ARCTU'RUS, the principal star in the constellation Bootes (the ‘‘ herdsman’). A. is 
of the first magnitude, and one of the most conspicuous objects in the northern heavens, 
its right ascension is 14 h. 10.2 m. and declination 19° 49’ n. 


ARCUEIL, a French village, about 4 m. s. of Paris ; pop. about 6000. 'The place is 
celebrated as the residence of the chemist Berthollet, and also for the ruins of an aque- 
duct made by order of the Roman emperor Julian to convey water to his residence. 


AR'CUS SENIL'IS, a not very well chosen term for a change occurring in the cornea of 
the eye, in consequence of fatty degeneration of its marginal part. The term is objec- 
tionable, because the change usually commences before the advent of old age, and further, 
because the arcus, or arch, is usually converted into a complete circle by the time that 
the patient has reached the age of 60 or 70 years. The arcus senilis usually commences 
at or even before the age of 40 years, as an opaque whitish crescent, skirting either the 
upper or lower margin of the cornea; and from this commencement it extends along the 
edge, till it finally becomes a complete circle, which sometimes assumes a chalky white- 
ness, and gives to the eye a very peculiar appearance. On careful examination, it may 
be seen that a narrow interval of partially clear cornea always intervenes between the 
arcus and the opaque sclerotic. As far asthe eye is concerned, the formation of this 
circle is of little importance, but it is of great diagnostic value to the physician if, as Mr. 
Canton and several late observers maintain, its presence indicates the coexistence of fatty 
degeneration of the heart. 


ARCY, Grotto or, a remarkable cavern 12 m.e. from Auxerre, France. It is sup- 
posed to have been used in early times as a stone quarry, and possibly the material for 
the Auxerre cathedral was taken from it. One of its divisions is 400 yards long, 26 high, 
and 14 wide. 

ARD, or AIRD, a Celtic root, meaning ‘‘ height” (cf. Lat. ardwus, high), which appears 
in many geographical names, especially in Ireland and Scotland. 

AR’DAHAN, a village with a pop. of about 1000 in the portion of Turkish Armenia ceded 
in 1878 to Russia, 35 m. n. w. of Kars. Its position gives it strategic importance. Its 
fortress was dismantled by the Russians in the war of 1854-56; in 1878, the Berlin con- 
gress sanctioned the cession to Russia of A., which had been captured early in the war. 
On account of the severity of the climate, the houses of A. are mainly constructed under- 
ground. 

ARDEA. See HERON. 

ARDEBIL’, or ARDABIL, a t. in Persia, 388° 15’ n., 48° 19’ e., in a fertile plain, 40 m. 
from the Caspian sea, apparently built from the ruins of a former city. It is surrounded 
by a wall of mud, with towers and fortified bastions at the corners. Its sacred treasure 
is the tomb of Shah Ismael Sufi, founder of the Sufi dynasty of Persia. Nadir Shah was 
here crowned king after the great council of the empire in 1736. A. is an emporium of 
trade for Tiflis, Derbend, Boku, Ispahan, and Teheran. From remarkable salubrity of 
climate it has acquired the title of ‘‘ abode of happiness.” 

ARDECHE, a department in the south of France, taking its name from the river A., 
a tributary of the Rhone, includes the most northern part of ancient Languedoc. Great 


d . ae 
aeichare Ss. 65 6 


est length from n. tos., '74m.; greatest breadth, 44. Area, 2186 sq.m.; pop. ‘91, 371, 
269, A. is almost wholly mountainous. In the northwest of the department, the Cev- 
ennes culminate in the volcanic mont Mezéne, 5972 ft. in height. The variety of the 
numerous extinct volcanic peaks, deep craters, rugged valleys, masses of tufa, grottoes, 
rock-labyrinths, ranges of basaltic columns, gigantic dams, etc., give a most extraordi- 
narily picturesque appearance to the scenery. The upland, which has winter for six or 
eight months, is devoted to pasturage; but the terraces and valleys near the Rhone enjoy 
a warm climate, and produce good wine (white and red), olives, figs, almonds, chestnuts, 
etc. There are manufactures of silk, paper, leather, iron, etc.; and good roads, with 
water-carriage, facilitate commerce. Lead, iron, copper, manganese, etc., are wrought. 
The chief towns are Privas, Aubenas, Bourg, St. Andéol. 


ARDEP’, at. in the west of Louth co., Ireland, on the river Dee, 12m. inland. It con- 
tains two ancient castles — one built about the year 1200, and now used as the town-house; 
the other a square building, and now used asa prison. The chief trade is in corn and 
other agricultural products. The pop. in ’81 amounted to 2622; in ’91 to less than 2500. 


ARDENNES, the western division of the slate-plateau of the lower Rhine. It extends 
over portions of Belgium, France, and Rhenish Prussia, and consists of a broken mass 
of hills, for the most part of no great elevation, which gradually slope towards the plains 
of Flanders. In early times, the name was given to the whole of the region lying between 
the Rhine and the Sambre, a length of about 160 miles. The average height of the hills 
is less than 2000 ft.; but in the east, mont St. Hubert attains an elevation of 2300 feet. 
Large tracts of this region consist not of hills, but of gently undulating plateaus, which 
are densely covered with oak and beech forests, while other portions are marshy, heathy, 
and barren. The districts through which the Meuse and other rivers flow, present some 
extraordinary appearances. ‘The channel of the river is sometimes bound in by rugged 
and precipitous cliffs more than 600 ft. high. The principal rocks of the A. are clay- 
slate, grauwacke, quartz, etc., interspersed with extensive strata of primitive limestone. 
Coal and iron mines are wrought in the northwest; lead, antimony, and manganese are 
also found. ‘There is little cultivation of grain, but multitudes of cattle and sheep are 
reared. 

ARDENNES, a frontier department in the northeast of France, bordering upon the 
provinces of Namur and Luxembourg in Belgium. It formed a part of the old 
province of Champagne. Length, from n. to s., 63 m.; breadth, from e. to w., 60; area, 
2020 sq.m.; pop. ’96, 318,865. The northeast of A. belongs to the basin of the Meuse; 
the southwest is watered by the Aisne; both of these rivers are enriched with affluents, 
and united by the Canal of A. About one eighth of the whole surface is hilly, and 
covered with forests and wide tracts of pasturage. In the north extremity of the depart- 
ment, near Givet, marble is obtained; but the prevailing rock is limestone, veined with 
lead and iron. South of this, and stretching across the department, from e. to w., are 
great layers of slate, with here and there flint, quartz, etc. In the southeast, muschel- 
kalk, rich in iraon-ore, abounds; and in the southwest the soil is composed of arid chalk, 
a naked, treeless, elevated plain. Only the valleys are fertile, and produce corn. The 
vine is only cultivated at Méziéres, in the southwest. Slate, marble, and iron, porcelain- 
clay, and sand for making glass are obtained. Excellent work-horses and sheep are 
reared. There are manufactures of earthenware, glass, marble, woolen cloths, metallic 
wares, etc. The principal towns are Méziéres, Rethel, Rocroy, Vouziers, and Sedan, 
where Napoleon III. surrendered to the Prussians, Sept. 2, 1870. 


ARDITI, Lure1, b. Crescentino, Piedmont, Italy, 1822; educated as a violinist in 
the conservatoire at Milan ; has filled the post of musical director in various places in 
Italy, Russia, Austria, America, and in London, and has composed three operas and a 
vocal waltz, 12 Bacio, besides numerous songs, etc., and was the first to popularize 
Wagner in London. 


ARDNAMURCHAN POINT, the n.w. promontory of Argyleshire, and the extreme 
western point of the mainland of Britain. A light-house was erected here in 1849, which 
is visible at a distance of 20 miles. 


ARDOCH, a small village in Scotland, co. of Perth, 8 m.s.s.w. of Crieff, celebrated 
for a Roman camp, the most entire now in Britain. The camp is 2} m. n. of the Green. 
loaning station of the Caledonian railway, in the grounds of A. house. The intrenched 
works form a rectangle 500 by 480 ft., the four sides facing the cardinal points. The n. 
and e, sides are protected by five ditches and six ramparts, these works being 270 ft. 
broad on the n. side, and 180 ft. on thee. A deep morass exists on the s.e., and the 
perpensiguise banks of Knaig Water, rising 50 ft. high, protect the camp on the w. 

he pretorium or general’s quarter, now called Chapel Hill, rises above the level of the 
camp, but is not exactly in the center, and is nearly a square of 60 ft. each side. Three 
of the four gates usual in Roman camps are still seen. A subterranean passage is said to 
have formerly extended from the pretorium under the bed of the Knaig. Not far n. of 
this station, on the way to Crieff, may be traced three temporary Roman camps of 
different sizes, Portions of the ramparts of these camps still exist. A mile w. of 
A. there was an immense cairn of stones 182 ft. long, 45 ft. broad at the base, and 


30 ae in sloping height. A human skeleton, 7 ft. long, in a stone coffin, was found 
in it. 


Ardee, 
657 Areiopagus, 


ARDOYE, a t. in Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, 17 m. s. from Bruges. 


Linen-bleaching is the principal branch of industry. Brewing and candle-making are 
also carried on. Pop. (including the commune, which is not Jarge) 6100. 


_ ARDROS'SAN, a small seaport t. and summer bathing-place in Ayrshire. It owes 
its rise to the public spirit of the Eglintoun family. Its harbor, which is sheltered by an 
island off the coast, is one of the safest and most accessible on the w. coast of Scotland, 
and has been greatly improved, at vast expense, by the earls of Eglintoun. There 
is a large export of coal from this place, and shipbuilding is carried on to a consid- 
erable extent. On a hill above the t. stand the ruins of A. castle, said to have been sur. 
prised by Wallace when held by the forces of Edward I. Pop. 5294. 


ARE, the unit of the French land-measure, is a square, the side of which is 10 
meters (or 82°809 ft.) long (see Mmrmr), and which, therefore, contains 100 sq. 
meters = 1076 English sq.ft. The next denomination in the ascending scale is the 
decare, containing 10 ares; but the denomination commonly used in describing a 
quantity of land is the hectare of 100 ares, = 2'47 English statute or imperial acres. 


AREA (Lat.) is a term in mathematics meaning quantity of surface. The calculation 
of areas, or mensuration of surfaces, is one of the ultimate objects of geometry. The 
measuring unit is a square inch, a square foot, etc., according to the unitof length. As 
a figure is thus measured by finding an equivalent for its surface in squares, the process 
is sometimes called the quadrature of the figure. 


ARE'CA, a genus of palms, containing several species, having pinnate leaves and 
double spathes. The fruit isa fibrous one-seeded drupe, a nut with an outer fibrous husk. 
A. catechu, the PINANG PALM, or betel-nut palm, is a native of the East Indies, whose 
nut yields a sort of catechu. See CarecnHu. This areca-nut, or betel-nut, is very much 
used in all parts of the east, the chewing of it with quick-lime and the leaf of the betel- 
pepper being one of the most prevalent habits of the people. See BETEL. The nut is 
about the size of a hen’s egg; the fibrous husk about half an inch thick. Itis austere and 
astringent. It is doubtful if it possesses a narcotic power, or if this is to be ascribed 
entirely to the leaf which is used along with it. Areca-nuts form a considerable article 
of trade in the east. The timber of the palm which produces them, and its leaf-stalks 
and spathes, are also used for domestic purposes. The tree is often 40 or 50 ft. high, and 
in general less than a foot in diameter. The leaves are few, but very large, their leaflets 
more thana yard long. In Malabar, an inebriating lozenge is prepared from the sap. 
—A. oleracea, the CABBAGE Patm of the West Indies, is a very tall tree, 100 to 200 ft., 
whose huge terminal leaf-bud is sweet and nutritious, and is sometimes used for the 
table as cabbage, but when it is cut off, the tree is destroyed. The stem of this tree, 
notwithstanding its great height is remarkably slender. The nuts are produced in great 
numbers; they are about the size of a filbert, and have a sweet kernel.—A. sapida, the 
New Zealand palm, is remarkable as extending southward beyond the geographical 
limits of any other of its order, as far indeed as lat. 38° 22’ s. Itis a small palm, 
only from 6 to 10 ft. high, with leaves 4 to 6 ft. long. The young inflorescence is eaten.— 
A. vestiaria, a native of the east, is so called because clothing is made from its fibers. 
See illus., PALMS, ETC., vol. XI. 

ARECIBO, at. of Puerto Rico, Spanish West Indies, on the n. coast of the island. It 
is the chief t. of a province of the same name. Pop. 11,000. 


AREIOP’AGUS (Gr. for ‘‘ Mars’ hill”), a mount lying to the w. of the acropolis, at 
Athens, and celebrated as the spot where the most venerable court of justice in ancient 
times held its sittings. It is not easy to determine satisfactorily why the hill obtained its 
name; most probably it was on account of sacrifices having been offered there at an early 
period to the god of war; but all its historic importance is derived from the Areiopagitic 
council, the origin of which reaches far back into antiquity, and is ascribed by some 
to the semi-mythological Cecrops. Orestes, according to tradition, was tried before this 
court, and it is certain that it must have existed long before the first Messenian war 
(740 B.c.), for the Messenians, in offering to submit to its decisions certain points of dis- 
pute, speak of it, even then, as ‘‘old.” Solon, however, made many changes in its con- 
stitution, enlarging its sphere of jurisdiction to such an extent that it ceased to be any 
longer a mere criminal court, and acquired henceforth social and political powers in 
addition to the former. Before Solon’s time it was strictly oligarchical. It now became 
a tertium quid between aristocracy and democracy, the new qualification for office 
introduced by Solon being property instead of birth. It thus naturally allied itself with 
aristocracy, so that we can perfectly understand why it should have been considered a 
check upon the impetuous democracy, though it would, perhaps, be fairer to regard it as a 
check upon both extremes. It is not known how many members were included in its 
council. The nine archons—if they had recommended themselves by a faithful dis- 
charge of their duties—were elected life-members of it. Solon made the council ‘‘ over- 
seers of everything,” and we find instances of their manifold authority in the subsequent 
history of Greece. They granted money, at the time of the Persian invasion, from a 
reserve treasury of their own, the ordinary public treasury being gat After the 
battle of Cheeroneia, they executed all who had deserted their country, In social mat- 


Areometer. 658 


ters, their powers appear to have been curiously minute. They had officers whom they 
sent or accompanied into private houses, on occasion of a festivity, to see that the rooms 
were not overcrowded; they called to account persons wha lived in such riotous extrav- 
agance that their example might be considered hurtful to the community, and conferred 
marks of honor on those of an opposite character. Their sphere of influence seems to 
have extended itself to religion also. Innovations in the worship of the gods, neglect of 
the sacred ceremonies, impiety in any form, brought the offenders under the rebuke and 
punishment of the A. It is likewise asserted that they possessed and exercised great 
authority in the education of the young, although this statement, and that regarding 
some charitable functions attributed to them, are of dubious value. 

Until the time of Pericles, the brilliant and powerful ruler of the democracy, the A. 
continued to maintain its ancient dignity. He soon discovered, however, that it would 
prove an insurmountable obstacle to the realization of his designs if not shorn of its 
privileges. After much and vigorous opposition, he succeeded in carrying a decree 
(458 B.c.), by which, as Aristotle says, the A. was ‘‘ mutilated,” and democratic tribunals 
acquired supreme authority. It is, however, far from being clear what were the precise 
changes which Pericles effected, whether he abridged its powers as a criminal, or as a 
social and political court. From the high estimation in which it was held for centuries 
after, in the first of these capacities, we are inclined to think that it was its social and 
political supremacy that was destroyed. Probably the A. was made responsible to the 
demus, or body of citizens. It lingered in life for a very long period. We hear of it as 
late as 880 A.D., and it would seem, from the case of St. Paul, that it possessed in his day 
a certain authority in religious matters. 


ARE'NA, a part of an amphitheater (so called because it was usually strewed with 
sand, though when a fit of extravagance seized the Roman emperors, they used borax 
and cinnabar instead), where the combats of gladiators and wild beasts took place. It 
had four main entrances, and was surrounded by a wall about 15 ft. high, so that the 
spectators were perfectly safe. The name wasafterwards applied by the Romans toany 
building for exhibitions of baiting animals, horsemanship, etc. On the continent, the 
name has been given to the large summer theaters for dramatic performances in the open 
air. It is applied also, in a general sense, to any scene of contest or display of power. 


ARENAGC, an eastern county of Michigan, on Saginaw bay, organized 1883; 388 sq. 
m. It is watered by Rifle river and other streams. Pop. ’90, 5688. Co. seat, Standish. 


ARENA'CEOUS ROCKS, All rocks composed entirely, or to a large extent, of grains 
of silex, are included under this title. Beds of loose sand occur extensively in the more 
recent deposits. The grains, either of quartz or flint, are generally water-worn and 
rounded. In older deposits, the grains of sand are bound together by silicious, calcare- 
ous, argillaceous, or ferruginous cements. It is seldom that a rock is composed of 
quartzy materials alone; grains or particles of other mineral substances are frequently 
mingled with the grains of quartz. Silvery flakes of mica are seldom absent; and they 
often occur in layers parallel to the planes of stratification, causing the rock to split into 
thin slabs, and exposing a glittering surface. These are called micaceous sandstones. 
When grains of feldspar occur, it is a feldspathic sandstone. Often large quantities of 
calcareous matter, either as cement or as distinct grains, occur; and these are called 
calcareous sandstones. ‘The presence of lime can always be detected by the effervescence 
which takes place on the application of muriatic or other acid. When the sandstone is 
coarse-grained, it is usually called grit. If the grains are large enough to be called peb- 
bles, it becomes conglomerate or puddingstone, if the fragments are sharp and angular, it 
is called breccia. 

ARENA’RIA, or SANDWORT, a genus of plants of the natural order caryophyllea, 
differing from stellaria (stitchwort, q.v.) chiefly in the undivided petals. The species 
are numerous, annual and perennial herbaceous plants of humble growth, rarely some- 
what shrubby, natives of the temperate and colder parts of the world. Some of them 
are arctic andalpine plants. Many of them are chiefly found in sandy soils. The flowers 
are generally small and inconspicuous, but if closely examined, are seen to possess no 
little beauty. See illus., Borany, vol. II. 


_ ARENDAL, at. on the s.e. coast of Norway, situated near the mouth of the Nid-elf 
in the bay of Christiania. Pop. less than 5000. It is built partly on poles, partly on rock, 
and this circumstance, as well as its situation, gives it a veryromantic aspect. The 
bay, which is protected by the island of Tromée, forms an excellent harbor, and favors 
the commerce of the town, which is considerable, in proportion to its size. A. is inter- 
sected by canals; its exports are iron from the neighboring mines, and wooden articles. 
Ship-building is also carried on; and on a smaller scale, distilleries and tobacco factories, 

ARENG' or ARENGA. See GomuTO PALM. 

ARENIC'OLA, See ANNELIDA. 

AREOM’ETER (araios, thin, and metred, I measure; Fr. aréomeétre or pése-liqueur; Ger. 
Ardometer or Senkwage), called also hydrometer, an instrument which is allowed to float 
freely in liquids, to determine their specific gravity or that of solid bodies. By specific 
gravity (q.v.) is meant the ratio that the weight of any volume of a substance bears to 
the weight of the same volume of water. Thus, a cubic foot of alcohol weighs 793 


A a 


a Arena. 
6 59 Areometer., 


ozs., While the same quantity of water weighs 1000 ozs.; the specific gravity of 
alcohol is set down, therefore, as ;%°3, or .793. A cubic foot of sulphuric acid weighs 
1841 ozs., and has, consequently, a specific gravity of 1.841. These relations are not 
confined to the particular volume, one cubic foot, of these bodies, but hold for any 
equal volumes of them. Equal volumes of alcohol, water, and sulphuric acid, have 
always to each other the ratio respectively of 793, 1000, and 1841; and this is only an 
instance of the general principle, that equal volumes of different substances have 
weights bearing to each other the direct ratio of the specific gravities of these substances. 
This is the principle on which areometers with weights, or weight-areometers, are con- 
structed. If, however, equal weights of any two of these liquids were taken, it would 
be found that .793 of a cubic foot of water would weigh as much as 1.000 cubic foot of 
alcohol; 1.000 cubic foot of sulphuric acid as much as 1.841 cubic ft. of water; or .793 
of a cubic foot of sulphuric acid as much as 1.841 cubic ft. of alcohol; more generally 
thus—when equal weights of two different fluids are taken, the volumes of each are 
inversely as their specific gravities. On this latter principle depends the use of are- 
ometers with scales, or scale-areometers. The scale-A. is much more commonly 
employed than the weight-A., and is, in consequence, a much more important instru- 
ment. Of the various forms of scale-areometers, that contrived by Gay-Lussac deserves 
articular notice, from the simplicity of the mode of graduation; and an account of 
t will give the best idea of the general nature of such instruments. Fig. 1 gives a repre- 
sentation of it. It consists of a uni- 
form glass tube, AB, blown into two 
bulbs C and D, at the bottom. The 
lower bulb, D, is loaded with mercury, 
so that when the instrument floats in 
any liquid, the stem, AB, is main- 
tained in a vertical position. We 
shall suppose that the quantity of 
mercury is so adjusted that when 
placed in water, the A. sinks to the 
point W. which may, in consequence, 
be called the water-point. According 
to the principle of Archimedes, the 
weight of the volume of water dis- 
placed by the instrument up to this 
point is equal to the weight of the 
instrument. Let us suppose, for the 
sake of simplicity, that the water so 
displaced is a cubic inch, the weight 
of the A. will be that of a cubic inch 
of water, or 250 grains (more cor- 
rectly 252.5 grains at 60° F.). If the A 
. be now placed in a fluid heavier than 
Areometers. water, such as a mixture of sulphuric 
acid and water, having a specific gravity $ or 1.25, it is manifest that if it is sunk again 
to the water-point, the displaced fluid would weigh # of 250 — 3124 grains, or 624 grains 
more than the weight of the instrument. As much, therefore, of the stem of the A. 
must rise above the liquid as will reduce the weight of the displaced liquid to 250 
grains, or reduce the volume to 4 of what it was before. If the stem in this case rises 
to B, the volume displaced by the part WB is + of the volume displaced by the 
instrument at the water-point. If we consider the whole divided into 100 parts, and mark 
100 at W, B must be marked 80, as the A. displaces up to that point # of 100; andif the 
intervening space on the stem be divided into 20 equal parts, each of them will corre- 
spond with ;4, of the water-volume—viz., .01 of a cubic inch, or with ;4, of the weight 
of the instrument—viz., 2.5 grains. If the same scale be carried above the point W. 
and the divisions marked as ascending from 100, the A. will be serviceable likewise for 
fluids less dense than water, and will mark the volumes which it displaces in each of 
them. The A. thus graduated gives immediately the volumes which it displaces in dif- 
ferent liquids; and from these, seeing that it displaces in every case a weight of liquid 
equal to its own, the specific gravities may be calculated according to the principle 
already stated—viz., that equal weights of two different fluids have volumes inversely as 
their specific gravities. If, in a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, the A. stands at 
90, according to the above principle, 90 volumes of the mixture weigh as much as 100 of 
water; therefore, its specific gravity is 4%? or 1+. If, again, in a mixture of spirits and 
water, it should stand at 110, 110 volumes of the mixture weigh as much as 100 of 
water, so that its specific gravity is +29, or 4%. In all cases, then, 100 is to be divided 
by the number read on the A., to determine the specific gravity of the liquid in which 
it floats. | 
The delicacy of the A. depends on the distance of the divisions on the scale, or on 
the thinness of the stem compared with the bulbs. An instrument possessing this ad- 
vantage cannot be made to serve both for liquids heavier and lighter than water, for the 
stem would be of an inconvenient length; and it is usual to construct two areometers— 


Aretino. 660 


one marked with the water-point at the top, and the scale descending to 50, for fluids 
heavier than water; and the other, with the water-point at the bottom, and the scale 
ascending to 150 for fluids lighter than water. The scale is generally marked on a slip 
of paper, which is fixed inside the stem. Gay-Lussac’s A. is also known under the name 
of ‘‘volumometer.” Although it cannot be surpassed either for accuracy or simplicity, it 
is much less used than other instruments of a similar nature furnished with arbitrary 
scales requiring the aid of tables to interpret the readings. The best known of these 
is Twaddle’s A., used in England; and Beaumé’s A., extensively adopted on the conti- 
nent. The A. with an equally-divided scale is avery ancient instrument; it was known 
among the Greeks under the name of ‘‘baryllion.” On some areometers the divisions 
are not at equal distances, but are so drawn as to give at once, without table or calcula- 
tion, the specific gravity of the fluid in which they are placed. Although very desira- 
ble, in practice they do not possess the accuracy of the A. with equally-divided scales, 
because the graduation of them is attended with considerable difficulty. 

No form of A. can be made to determine specific gravities with perfect accuracy, 
and such instruments are only useful where a ready and good approximation is all that 
is needed. They are, in consequence, employed chiefly to ascertain the specific gravity 
of the various liquors and solutions which occur in the arts and manufactures, and very 
frequently they are graduated with reference to special liquids, as spirits, wine, milk, 
brine, etc. The alcoholometer or hydrometer of Sikes is an instrument of this latter 
description, and is in general use in the excise for estimating the strength of spirits. 
It is represented in Fig. 2. BC is a hollow brass ball, surmounted by a flat stem 
AB, and loaded below by a short conical stem CD, terminated by the pear-shaped 
bulb D. It is accompanied by eight weights, by which the weight of the instrument 
may be increased, and the range of the scale extended to fluids heavier as well as 
lighter than water. One of these weights, W, is shown in the figure; it is furnish- 
ed with a slit, so as to allow of it being slipped on to the narrowest part ©, of 
the lower stem. The stem, AB, is graduated into 11 equal parts, and these again into 
halves; and the instrument is so adjusted that its indications give the volumes of water 
that must be added to or taken from 100 volumes of the mixture under examination to 
reduce it to proof-spirit (see ALCOHOL), which is a mixture of nearly equal parts of water 
and alcohol. Thus, if the A. indicates 11 over-proof, 11 volumes of water must be added 
in order to bring the liquid down to proof-strength; and 100 gallons of such strength 
would be reckoned as 111; 100 gallons, at 11 under-proof, would in the same way be 
charged as 89. Very carefully-constructed tables accompany the instrument, in which 
the specific gravity and percentage of alcohol of different mixtures, at different temper- 
atures, are marked, corresponding to each degree of the A. Since the specific gravity of 
alcohol is known, it might be thought that if that of a mixture of it with water were 
known, the relative proportions of each would also be known. Such, however, is not 
the case, for alcohol and water possess a chemical affinity for each other, which causes 
the combined volumes of the two to measure less than the two volumes separately. 
Thus, 50 volumes of alcohol mixed with 50 volumes of water does not make 100 volumes 
of the mixture, but only 96, and thereby the specific gravity of the mixture is higher 
than it would have been if no contraction had taken place. As the law of this con- 
traction is very complicated, the relative proportions of the two in a combination of 
Shen specific gravity are only to be estimated from tables founded upon experimental 

ata. 

The peculiar feature of areometers with weights is, that instead of a scale, they have 
only one mark on the stem, to which the A. isin all cases sunk. One of the best-known 
instruments of this kind is the A. of Nicholson. It consists of a brass tube, BC (fig. 3), 
about 1 in. in diameter, closed above and below by conical ends, to the upper of which 
a wire is fixed, carrying on the top of it a cup A, capable of containing the weights; and 
to the lowera hook is attached, from which hangs the cup D. The lower part of the 
cup, D, is also provided with a hook, and the whole instrument is kept vertical, partly 
by the weight of the cup, and partly by the weight of the ball, E, suspended from 
it. On the wire, a notch, W, is made, to serve as the mark or fixed point to which 
the A. is sunk. The specific gravities of liquids are determined by Nicholson’s A. in 
the following way: The weight of the A. itself is first ascertained—let it be in a 
given case 2000 grains—it is then put into water at the temperature of 60° F., and 
weights (say 500 grains) put in, till it is sunk to W. It is now removed to the liquid 
under examination; and if the weight required to sink the instrument now to the 
standard-point be only 100 grains, we have the specific gravity of the liquid equal 
to 368, or 34. In both fluids the same volume has been displaced, and that is in 
each case equal to the weight of the A.; but the weight of the A. in the second case 
was 2000-+ 100, and in the former, 2000-+ 500; hence the above result. Nicholson’s 
A. is seldom used for finding the specific gravity of fluids; its use is almost entirely 
restricted to ascertaining that of small solid substances, as gems and small pieces of min- 
erals. The following example will show how this is done: If in the cup of the A. 
already mentioned, when placed in water, the gem be put, and only 440 grains be then 
necessary to bring the instrument to W, 60 grains is manifestly the weight of the gem, 
because 500 grains were needed without it to do the same thing. The gem is next 
placed in the lower cup, D, and if 460 grains are now needed to sink to the standard- 


A e 
661 Aretino. 


point, the gem has thus lost 20 grains of its weight by being immersed in the water. 
According to the principle of Archimedes (q.v.), these 20 grains are also the weight of a 
volume of water equal to that of the gem; so the specific gravity of the gem is $9, or 3. 
By reversing the cup D, which is furnished with perforations to allow free passage to 
the air, and attaching the weight, E, tothe handle of it, the specific gravity of substances 
lighter than water may also be determined by this instrument. The other forms of 
weight-areometers are those of Fahrenheit, Tralles, and Charles. For the more accurate 
determination of the specific gravities of liquids and solids, see SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 


AREOP’AGUS. See AREIOPAGUS. 


AREQUI'PA, a term primarily applied to a mountain in the west Cordillera of the 
Peruvian Andes, and secondarily to a city at its foot, being from this, again, extended to 
a district, a province, a department, anda diocese. 1. The city, which is in lat. 16° 13’s., 
and in long. 72° 18’ w., is the third largest in Peru, being inferior only to Lima and 
Cuzco, and is said to contain 35,000 inhabitants. It carries on a considerable trade both 
with the interior and by sea. Its port is Islay, one of the larger harbors of the republic. 
2. The department is bounded n. by Lima; e. by Ayacucho, Cuzco, and Puno; s. by 
Moquega, which, along with it, forms the diocese; and w. by the Pacific. It contains 
160,000 inhabitants, and is subdivided into seven provinces. Like nearly the whole of 
the maritime region of Peru, it is generally arid and sterile. 38. The mountain is volcanic, 
of the form of a truncated cone, and of the height of 20,820 feet. Its neighborhood is 
subject to earthquakes. 


ARES. See Mars. 


ARETE'US, a famous physician of Cappadocia, who flourished in the latter half of 
the 1st, and in the beginning of the 2d c. after Christ. He is considered to rank next to 
Hippocrates in the skill with which he treated diseases; but he did not, in every instance, 
follow the practice of the ‘‘father of medicine.” He was less attentive to ‘‘ the natural 
actions” of the system, which he frequently counteracted, if he thought it desirable; 
administered active purgatives copiously, employed narcotics, and did not object to 
bleeding. He was, in fact, noted for his total want of professional bigotry; and hence, 
not committing himself to any particular set of opinions, in his accuracy in the detail 
of symptoms and the diagnosis of disease, he is superior to most of the ancient physicians. 
His great work, written in singularly elegant and concise Ionic Greek, is divided into 
two parts. The first four books treat of the causes and symptoms of acute and chronic 
diseases; the second, the cure of the same. They are almost in a state of complete 
Pao SHOR. and have been translated into various European languages, besides having 

een frequently edited in the original. ‘The finest edition is the Oxford one of 1723, b 
J. Wigan; a German translation appeared at Vienna (1790-1802), and an English by T. 
F. Reynolds, London, 1837. 

ARETHU'SA, See ALPHEIUS. 

ARETHUSEZ, a tribe of orchidaceous plants, found principally in south temperate 
regions (Australia) ; usually terrestrial ; with terminal, lid-like anther, pulpy or pow- 
dery pollen, and numbering 18 principal genera, such as the vanilla of commerce, and 
in North America, Arethusa, Calopogon, and Pogonia. 


ARETIN’IAN SYLLABLES are the syllables wt, re, mid, fa, sol, la, used by Guido 
da’ Arezzo for his system of hexachords. 


ARETI'NO, Guibo, or GuIpo D’AREzzZO. See GuIDO ARETINO 

ARETI'NO, Pierro, an Italian author of the 16th c., was the natural son of a gentle- 
man named Luigi Bacci, and was b. at Arezzo, in Tuscany, on the 20th of Mar., 1492. 
Banished from his native town, he went to Perugia, where he wrought as a bookbinder, 
and gathered up a few scraps of learning, until, seized with a desire of becoming famous, 
he abandoned his occupation, and wandered through Italy in the service of various 
noblemen. At Rome, he distinguished himself by his wit, impudence, and talents, and 
secured even the papal patronage, which, however, he subsequently lost by writing 
licentious sonnets. A. now went to the Medicean court, where John de’ Medici grew so 
fond of him that he shared his bed with the adventurer, and even procured him an oppor- 
tunity of ingratiating himself with Francis I. at Milan in 1524. A few years later, he 
settled at Venice, where he also acquired powerful friends. The bishop of Vicenza not 
only soothed the irritation of the pope against A., but also recommended him to the 
emperor Charles VY. The latter, as well as his chivalrous rival, Francis, and other great 
persons, pensioned the fortunate wit, besides enriching him with splendid presents. He 
likewise obtained considerable sums for his literary efforts. 

Nature had undoubtedly gifted A. with some fine qualities, but these were vitiated 
by his love of sensual gratifications. His death in 1556 accorded with the character of 
his life. It is said that while laughing heartily at some trifling adventure of one of his 
abandoned sisters, he fell from a stool, and was killed on the spot. His poetical works 
include five comedies and a tragedy. The former. are full of wit and genuine comic 
humor; the latter is not without merit. His Sonett? Lusswriost have been translated into 
French, under the title of Académie des Dames. Besides these, he wrote a number of 
other pieces, some of which have not been published. His satire procured for him 


Aretino. 662 


Argemone, 


the name of “the scourge of princes ;” but it seems clear that he was equally well fitted 
to be their sycophant. Although the very impersonation of licentiousness, he had never- 
theless the impudence to publish some books of a devotional kind, with the view of 
obtaining the favor of the pope. 


ARETI'NO, SrPrneLo, an early Italian painter of great genius, was b. at Arezzo in 
1316, or, according to others, in 1833. He studied under Jacopo del Casentino; but before 
he had attained his majority, he had surpassed his master in the vigor and liveliness both 
of his conceptions and coloring. His reputation attained its full bloom after he went 
to Florence, where he painted in fresco, in the chapel of St. Maria Maggiore, several 
incidents in the life of the Virgin and of St. Antonio Abate. The monastery of San 
Miniato, near Florence, contains to the present day a few of his frescos. He also 
adorned the monasteries of San Bernardo at Arezzo and Monte Oliveto near Florence. 
Vasari thought that the finest works of A. were those which he executed for the Campo 
Santo at Pisa, illustrating the life of San Ranieri. Of these, however, we have only 
prints, and cannot therefore judge satisfactorily. His principal works, still remaining, 
are those from the life of pope Alexander FI. in the town-hall of Siena. He d. in 1410. 

Throughout all Italy, A. was greatly admired for his invention, the grace and 
simplicity with which he arranged his figures, and the finish of his style. His Madonnas 
possessed a remarkable sweetness of expression; and his coloring was in most cases 
bold and beautiful. Vasari prefers him to Giotto. 


AREZ'ZO (ARETIUM), the chief city of the Italian province of A., is situated in a 
fertile valley near the confluence of the Chiana with the Arno, lat. 48° 27’ n., long. 11° 
52’ e. It is 88m. e.s.e. from Florence. <A. is perhaps the oldest town in Tuscany, and 
formed one of the 12 cities of the ancient Etruscans. It was devastated by Sylla 
during the social war; and, like many other Italian cities, was sacked by the Goths 
when they burst into the peninsula. During the contest of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
in a later age, it became subject to Florence, whose troops defeated those of A. at the 
battle of Camaldino, in which the poet Dante took part. The commune of Arezzo con- 
tained (1894) 44,000 inhabitants, the town proper between 11,000 and 12,000; but there are 
evidences of a more flourishing and more populous period. The Piazza Grande, the Pieve, 
an old church founded on the site of a heathen temple, and the cathedral, which, like 
almost all the other churches, has an unfinished facade, are its principal public buildings. 
The cathedral has a splendid high altar in marble by Giovanni Pisano; and the several 
churches contain fine specimens of the old Tuscan school of painting. These ecclesias- 
tical decorations are contrasted with the general aspect of the city, which has dark and 
dirty streets. Its industry is at present at a very low ebb, there being few or no 
manufactures, and its people are not generally favorites in Italy; but perhaps no city 
of its size ever produced a greater number of celebrated men, among whom may be 
mentioned—Mecenas, the famous patron of letters in the time of the emperor Augustus; 
Petrarch; Pietro Aretino; Guido de A., inventor of the gamut; Leonardo de A., the 
historian; Cesalpino, the botanist; Redi, the physician; pope Julius III.; the notorious 
marshal d’Ancre; and Vasari, author of Lives of the Painters. Michael Angelo was also 
born in the vicinity of A. The province of A. contains 1278 sq. m., with a pop. in 
1895 (est.) 244,598. The soil is fertile in corn, wine, and oil. 


ARGALA. See ADJUTANT. 


AR'GALI, Ovis Ammon, the great wild sheep of Siberia and central Asia. It is found 
from Kamtchatka to the Himalaya mountains, where, however, it is only seen in the 
more elevated regions. ‘‘ We came suddenly,” says Dr. Hooker in his Himalayan 
Journal, ‘‘upon a flock of gigantic wild sheep, feeding on scanty tufts of dried sedge 
and grass; there were 25 of these enormous animals, of whose dimensions the 
term sheep gives no idea; they are very long-legged, stand as high as a calf, and have 
immense horns, so large that the fox is said to take up his abode in their hollows when 
detached and bleaching on the barren mountains of Tibet.” The horns of the male are 
nearly 4ft. long, and 14 in. in circumference at the base, where they are triangular. The 
general color is fulvous gray, white beneath, with a whitish disk around the tail. The 
wool is concealed by hair, The name A. is Mongolian, and was adopted by Pallas. A 
similar but smaller species is also found on the Himalaya mountains. The Rocky 
mountain sheep, or bighorn, is sometimes called the American A. See SHEEP. 


ARGALL, Sir SamMuEL, 1572-1639 ; one of the early colonists of Virginia. He be- 
came famous for carrying off the more famous Pocahontas, daughter of the Indian 
chief Powhatan, and presenting her to the government of the colony asaslave. A., it 
is said, bought the girl from the Indian having charge of her, for a brass kettle. In1613 
A. broke up the French settlement at Mt. Desert, Me., and the act was the cause of 
war between the English and French colonists, in which the settlements of the 
latter at Port Royal and St. Croix were destroyed. In 1617 he became deputy 
governor of Virginia, where he violated the established laws, and made others to favor 
illegal trade in which he had the earl of Warwick for a partner. Instead of being 
punished he was shielded by his powerful partner, both acquiring immense wealth, to 
which A. made large additions by robbing the estate of lord Delaware, of which he was 
administrator. He was captain in the expedition against the Algerines in 1620, was 
knighted the next year by James I., and in 1625 was in Cecil’s expedition against the 
Spaniards, 


A ig i » 
663 Argemone, 


ARGAN, Argania siderorylon, sideroxrylon spinosum of Linneus, a low spiny ever- 
green tree of the natural order sapotacee, a native of the southern parts of the kingdom 
of Marocco, bearing an ovate drupe about the size of a plum, dotted with white, and 
full of a white milky juice. The Moors extract an oil from the fruit, which they use 
with their food. 


ARGAND, Aim#, physician and chemist, was born at Geneva about the middle of the 
18th century. He was the inventor of the well-known argand lamp. The chief diffi- 
culties that attended the use of lamps as a source of light were—first, in procuring the 
complete combustion of the oil, so as to keep the flame from smoking; and second, in 

reventing the level of the oil in the reservoir from sinking as the combustion goes on. 

he round cotton-wick, used in the old simple form of lamp, was always attended with 
smoke and smell. The oils and fats are exceedingly rich in carbon, 
containing 70 to 80 per cent of that element, and only 10 to 12 of 
hydrogen. Theround thick column, then, of oil-vapor rising from the 
wick of an old-fashioned lamp, presented too little extent of surface to 
the air; the oxygen of all the air that could get access was chiefly taken 
up in burning the hydrogen, and a large proportion of the carbon 
ascended in the burnt airas smoke. A.’s improvement was that he 
made the wick in the form of a ring. The flame thus became a hollow: 
‘cylinder with a current of air ascending through the inside, so that 
the burning surface was doubled. It would appear, however, that the 

Argand Burner. lamp did not satisfy the expectations of A., till his younger brother 
accidentally discovered the effect of a glass cylinder, as a chimney over the flame, by 
which the flame was steadied, a draught created, and the greatest possible amount of 
light yielded. 

A. was soon involved in a dispute with one Langé of Paris regarding the 
originality of his invention. He went thither to vindicate his claim, but rather 
than risk the chances of a lawsuit, he consented to share the honor, and a patent was 
obtained by which Langé and A. alone were authorized to make and sell the new lamps 
in France for 15 years. The French revolution, however, destroyed their privilege, and 
A. retired to England. After some time, he returned to his native country, a victim to 
melancholy and fantastic humors, and d. on the 24th Oct., 1803. 


ARGAUM’, a village in the territory of the Nizam. It is in lat. 21° 2’ n., and in long. 
77° 2' e., on the route between Ellichpore and Aurungabad. Its single claim to notice is 
that, on 28th Nov., 1803, about two months after the battle of Assaye, Major-Gen. 
Wellesley here gained another victory over the Mahrattas. To commemorate this action, 
a medal was struck in 1851, about a year before the death of the illustrious conqueror. 


AR'GEL, or ARGHEL, Solenostemma A., or Cynanchum A., a plant of the natural order 
asclepiadacee, a native of Arabia and of the north of Africa, deserving of notice only because 
of the frequent use of its leaves for the adulteration of senna, They are lanceolate and 
leathery, and may readily be distinguished from genuine senna leaves by their texture, 
their being downy, their greater heaviness, the comparative absence of veins, and the 
symmetry of their sides, the sides of the true senna leaves being unequal. They are 
acrid, and cause sickness and griping, but a difference of opinion subsists as to their 
possessing purgative properties. 


ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST, one of the most eminent astronomers 
of our time, was b. Mar. 22, 1799, at Memel. He studied at Kénigsberg, where the 
science of finance first attracted him; but he was subsequently drawn away to that of 
astronomy by the lectures of Bessel, by whom he was employed to make calculations 
and observations. In 1820, he was appointed assistant to Bessel in the Koénigsberg 
observatory, and in 1823 succeeded Walbeck as astronomer at the observatory of Abo, in 
Finland. Here he commenced a series of observations on the fixed stars which have a 
perceptible ‘‘proper motion.” His studies were unfortunately interrupted by a fire 
which destroyed the observatory; but after a time, he resumed them in a new observatory 
at Helsingfors, and published a catalogue of not less than 560 stars having ‘‘ proper 
motions.” This contained the results of his observations at Abo, and received from the 
academy of St. Petersburg the great Demidov prize. After removing to the university 
of Bonn in 1837, A. published his Uranometeia Nova (Berlin, 1848), containing celestial 
charts of the fixed stars seen in our hemisphere with the naked eye; also (in 1846) his 
Astronomical Observations, containing the results of an examination of the northern 
heavens from. 45° to 80° declination. His Atlas of the Heavens will combine with 
these works to perpetuate his memory. <A. was long engaged in a series of obser- 
vations on the changes of light in variable stars, and he also demonstrated the theory 
that there is a progressive motion of the solar system in space. He d. in 1875. 


ARGEMO'NE, a genus of plants of the natural order papaveracee, distinguished by 4 
to 6 petals, 4 to 7 radiating concave stigmas, and an obovate capsule, opening by valves 
at the point. A. Mexicana, sometimes called Mexican poppy, is an annual herbaceous 
plant with large yellow flowers, and sessile, waved and sinuated, spiny leaves, varie- 
gated with white. It is a native of Mexico and of the southern parts of the United 
States, and is now also common in many tropical and sub-tropical countries, in which 
it has been naturalized. Its seeds are narcotic, purgative, and diuretic, exhibiting in 


areeenee 664 


a strong degree those qualities of the order of which the seeds of the poppy are devoid. 
They are used in the West Indies as a substitute for ipecacuanha, also instead of opium; 
and the juice of the plant is employed as a remedy for ophthalmia.—This plant is not 
unfrequently to be seen in flower-borders in Britain; but in the northern parts, at least, 
the seed is generally sown in a hot-bed. 


ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE Boyer, Marquis d’, 1704-71, born at Aix, in Provence. 
He was originally intended for a learned career; but, from a love of adventure, he 
entered the army at 15. Fascinated by a certain actress, he eloped with her to Spain, 
but was captured, and brought back to Provence. In spite of his glaring breach 
of discipline, he had the good-fortune to be employed in the French embassy to Con- 
stantinople, and on his return, re-entered the army. Being disabled by accidents in 
military service, and disinherited by his father, he tried his fortune in authorship, and 
by his Lettres Juives, Lettres Chinoises, Lettres Cabalistiques, and La Philosophie du Bon 
Sens (London, 1787), attracted the notice of Frederick IL., then crown-prince of Prussia, 
aud became a favorite at the court of Prussia when Frederick came to the throne. 
The king appointed him chamberlain, and a director of the Art Academy at Berlin, with 
a salary of 6000 livres. He was a constant associate of Frederick, who liked exceed- 
for the princely donation of 150,000 volumes to its library. He was editor of 40 volumes 
of the Universal Bibliography of Romance, in which are some novels of his own. 


ARGEN’SCLA, LurpEeRcio and BARTOLOM® LEONARDO DE, two of the first among the . 
Spanish poets in the ‘‘ goiden age,” were b. at Barbastro, in Aragon; the former in 1565, 
the latter in 1566. They studied at the university of Huesca. Lupercio afterwards 
went to Madrid, while Bartolomé entered the church. In character and fortune, how- 
ever, they were closely united throughout the whole of their career. Both were patron- 
ized by Marie of Austria, who appointed the one her chaplain, and the other her private 
secretary. The latter was subsequently made chamberlain to the archduke Albert of 
Austria, and Philip III. appointed him historiographer of Aragon. Bartolomé was em- 
ployed by the count de Lemos to edit the Conquista de las Molucas (Madrid, 1609); and 
when this nobleman was appointed as viceroy of Naples, both the brothers A., who 
had acquired fame as poets, attended his court at Naples, where Lupercio, who then 
filled the office of secretary of state, died in 1613. Bartolomé returned to Spain with 
the viceroy in 1616, and occupied the position formerly held by his brother, as histori- 
ographer of the kingdom of Aragon, where he proceeded with the work left unfinished 
by Lupercio—a continuation of Zurita’s Annals of Aragon. While engaged in this work, 
he d. Feb. 26, 1631. The collected poems of the two brothers were first published in 
1634, by the son of Lupercio, and passed through several editions. These poems (Rimas) 
consist of epistles, odes, sonnets, and satires, and are singularly alike in character. They 
are imitative of the style of the Latin poets (especially Horace, for which reason the 
brothers have been styled ‘‘the Spanish Horaces”), and display more care and polish 
than originality of invention or richness of fancy. Bartolomé A., as a prose-writer, is 
reckoned among the Spanish classics. The style of his continuation of Zurita is a great 
advance on the original, especially in correctness. 


ARGENSON, Marc PieRRE, Comte d’, a celebrated French statesman, was b. in 
1696. After holding anumber of inferior offices, he succeeded M. de Breteuil as secretary 
of state to the war minister in 1742. On the death of Cardinal Fleury, in the following 
year, the whole care of the war then raging devolved upon him. He found matters in 
the most deplorable condition. The French troops, decimated by sword and disease, 
were in full retreat across the Rhine; the Austrians already swarmed in Alsace and 
Lorraine, and the very political existence of France was imperiled; but A., by his vigor 
and lucky choice of generals, changed the fortunes of the war in the course of one year. 
After the victories of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt, and the capture of Bergen-op-Zoom 
peace was secured by the famous treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in 1748, A., how- 
ever, did not remain inactive, he established the Heole Militaire in 1751, and, by various 
measures, kept alive the military spirit of the nation. He was an illustrious patron of 
literature. Diderot. and D’Alembert dedicated to him their great Hncyclopédie; and to 
Voltaire, whose fellow-student he had been, he furnished materials for his Svécle de 
Louis XIV. In 1756, he was exiled to his estate, it is supposed by the machinations of 
Madame Pompadour. On her death he returned to Paris, where he d. in 1764. 

ARGENSON, Marc ANTOINE RENE De Patmy, vp’, 1722-87; a French diplomat 
and author, son of Louis XVth’s minister of foreign affairs. He was envoy to Poland, 
Switzerland, and Venice ; amember of the Royal Academy, and is gratefully remembered 
ingly his frank and vivacious character, but used to tease him on account of his hypo- 
chondriacal fits. When almost a sexagenarian, he renewed the adventures of his youth 
by again falling a victim to the charms of an actress, Mademoiselle Cochois, whom he 
married without Frederick’s permission. This and other circumstances irritated the 
despotic monarch, who deprived A.of his pension. The latter now returned to 
Provence, and d. at Toulon, Jan. 11, 1771. His numerous writings, but especially his 
Histoire de 0 Esprit Humain, Lettres et Mémoires, and those above mentioned, once enjoyed 
a considerable reputation. 

ARGENSON, Marc René vp’, 1771-1842; a French soldier and statesman. He 
served as Lafayette’s adjutant, and took part in the expulsion of the English from Wal- 
cheren. In 1809, he was prefect of Antwerp (then Deux-Néthes), but resigned rather 


> Argens, 
665 Argentine, 


than confiscate the property of the mayor at the order of the French ministry. He was 
elected deputy for Belfort in ‘‘the hundred days,” and re-elected after ‘the second 
restoration. In 1830 he appeared in the chamber to represent Strasburg, and in 1832 
was one of the members who signed the compte rendu. The next year he put his name 
to the manifesto of the “‘ Society of the Rights of Man.” He was a prominent member 
of the Carbonari, and was to be dictator in case the expected revolution should succeed. 

ARGENSON, René Louis Voyer vp’ (1694-1757), was Louis XV.’s minister of 
foreign affairs from 1741 to 1747, when he was forced to resign on account of the in- 
trigues of Spain, whose policy he had frustrated in his negotiations with Italy. From this 
time he devoted himself to literature, and wrote, among other works, Considérations sur 
le gouvernement de la France. 

ARGENT, the French word for silver, is always used in English heraldry to signify 
that metal. In engraving shields it is left white. 


ARGEN'TA, a t. of central Italy, in the province of Ferrara, and 18 m. s.e. from 
Ferrara, on the Reno, in the plain near the marshes of Comacchio, Pop. of commune, 
15,926, of town about 6000. 


ARGENTAN, a t. of France, department of Orne, and chief t. of the arrondissement of 
the same name, It has an ancient castle, manufactures of linen and lace, and bleach- 
fields. Pop. nearly 5000, 


ARGENTEUIL, a co. of Quebec, Canada, on the Ottawa river; 850 sq. m., pop. ’91, 
a “eat soil is good, and there are valuable deposits of buhr (burr) stone. Principal 
., Lachute. 


ARGENTEUIL, a t. of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Oise. Its priory, 
now in ruins, was founded in the 7th c., and was by Charlemagne turned into a nunnery, 
of which the famous Héloise became abbess. Pop. of A., 11,600. 


ARGENT'EUS CODEX. See ULFILAS. 


ARGENTINE, Argentina, a genus of small fishes of the family salmonida, of which 
one is rarely found on the British shores, and two or three are found in the Mediter- 
ranean. ‘They are chiefly remarkable for the resplendent silvery lustre of their sides, and 
the abundance of nacre, the substance used in making artificial pearls, with which their 
air-bladder is externally loaded. It consists of a coat of silvery fibers. Upon account of 
it, Hee are sought after. They are commonly taken in nets along with anchovies or 
sardines, 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, sometimes simply called ARGENTINA; formerly known as the 
Confederation of the Rio de la Plata (river of silver, a misnomer), is, next to Brazil, the 
largest federal republic of South America, and lies between lat. 22° and 56° s., long. 
53° 30’ and 72° w.; bounded on the north by Bolivia and Paraguay, on the east by 
Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Atlantic ocean, on the south by the Atlantic, and 
on the west by Chile ; the Andes separating the two countries. A number of islands are 
included, and the Falkland islands off the coast have been claimed by the Republic, but 
are still held by Great Britain. The total area, including eastern Patagonia and part of 
Terra del Fuego, is about 1,125,086 square miles, divided between one independent 
municipality (Buenos Ayres), fourteen organized provinces and nine territories. 

History.—The river Plata was entered in 1516 by Juan Dias de Solis, who was search- 
ing for a southwest passage to the East Indies, and in 1526 Sebastian Cabot ascended 
the Parané nearly to its confluence with the Paraguay, there founding a colony, and 
giving the name la Plata (silver) to the stream, from the abundance of silver ornaments 
worn by the Indians. A wealthy expedition left Spain in 1584 for the new country, 
and in 1535 Buenos Ayres was founded, which in 1586 was destroyed by the Indians, 
rebuilt in 1542 and abandoned in 1543, and not permanently established until 1580. 
Meanwhile Asuncion (1536), Santa Fé (1573), and other places had been settled, and 
horses and cattle had been introduced. Spanish colonists from Peru had founded cities 
in the n.w., Tucuman (1565) and Cordova (1573), and down to 1775 the basin of the river 
Plata was a dependency of the viceroyalty of Lima. In that year the viceroyalty of 
Buenos Ayres was formed, including Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay, and the country 
was governed by viceroys until 1806, when, during the war of France and Spain against 
England, Buenos Ayres and Montevideo were occupied by the English. The first- 
named city, however, was recaptured by the Argentines, who, forced to defend them- 
selves, saw the need and advisability of independence of the mother country. Accord- 
ingly, they refused in 1808 to acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, and in 
1810 formed, under a viceroy, a provisional government, replaced in 1818 by a dictator- 
ship. Civil strife followed, and in 1816 a general congress declared the independence of 
the ‘‘ United provinces of Rio de la Plata,” though this was not substantially attained 
without war, 1817-24, and was not recognized by Spain until 1842. During 1826-28 
there was war with Brazil for the possession of Banda Oriental (Uruguay), and from 
1827-31 the Plata provinces were practically isolated from each other. In 1831 Buenos 
Ayres, Entre Rios, Corrientes and Santa Fe formed a federal compact and invited the 
others to join them, but litt!e but anarchy resulted till 1835, when General Rosas was 
elected captain-general or governor with almost absolute power. His efforts to make 
Buenos Ayres supreme led to his downfall in 1852, and in 1854 Buenos Ayres declared 
itself independent, but was defeated in 1859 and obliged to re-enter the confederation, 


Argentine, 666 
but during another war, 1861-62, this province regained its position, and the city of 
Buenos Ayres became the capital of the confederation instead of Parana, During 1865- 
"0 a war was waged against Paraguay by the Argentine Republic, Brazil and Uruguay, 
with little benefit to the Republic. In 1881 a treaty was made with Chile by which the 
Argentine Republic acquired all the country east of the Andes, comprising Patagonia 
and the eastern part of Terra del Fuego. In July, 1890, a revolution broke out, aided 
by the army and navy, the result of the political and financial corruption of the cabinet 
officers, and the stagnation in business produced by debasement of the currency. 
President Celman was forced to resign, and was succeeded by Dr. Carlos Pellegrini. 

Topography.—The high table-lands or cordilleras of the Andes, between parallels 67° 
30’ and 69° 30’ w., have an average elevation of 13,000 feet, while there are many lofty 
oeaks, always snow-covered, some of them active volcanoes, the highest of which are 
Accncagua (22,422 feet) and Tupungato. In the north, lower ranges lie parallel or 
nearly so to the cordilleras, and are separated by stretches of desert. The Sierra de Cor- 
dova, bounding on the west the province of the same name, and the central table-lands 
have a considerable elevation. ‘There are hills in the province of Buenos Ayres with an 
average elevation of 300 feet, and southwest of these is a parallel range, attaining a 
height of over 3000 feet. The eastern ranges are largely composed of granite or 
granular quartz; the Andes consist of granite, gneiss, schists, porphyries, etc. The 
greater part of the country is not mountainous, but comprises three extensive plains: 
the Gran Chaco (great hunting-ground), north of the Salado river ; the central prairies 
or pampas between the Salado and Rio Negro, with an area of more than 300,000 square 
miles, and the undulating uplands of Patagonia. The northern plains and pampas, 
according to Darwin, are simply the old alluvial deposits of the Plata, subsequently 
upheaved, and are composed of earth in the form of sand ; the Patagonian plateaus were 
originally the bed of the ocean, and are composed of gravel or clay. Throughout the 
cordilleras much sublime and beautiful scenery is found. In the Cuyo district, as the 
provinces of San Luis, San Juan, and Mendoza are called, is a valley 200 miles long, 
which is said to rival the celebrated valleys of Switzerland. Glaciers exist in the Her- 
moso valley, and on the Iguazu river, a branch of the upper Parana, are falls said to 
exceed Niagara in height. The Patagonian Andes contain many beautiful valleys, and 
the southern plains are broken by a number of broad and fertile intervales. There are 
many desert or sterile tracts ot land throughout the Republic, and saline marshes or 
dry beds of what were once salt lakes are common. 

The Plata (q.v.), an estuary rather than a river, is the mouth through which the 
Paran4 (q.v.) and Uruguay discharge their waters. The chief tributaries of the Parana 
are the Paraguay, navigable for 1000 miles, the Salado and the Vermejo, these last being 
navigable for from 400 to 500 miles. The Pilcomayo, which since 1876 has formed 
part of the boundary with Paraguay, is navigable for nearly its entire length (about 
1200 miles). The southern rivers, such as the Rio Negro and Rio Colorado, flow directly 
into the Atlantic. Many of the small rivers of the interior disappear during the dry 
season. ‘The principal bays indenting the coast are those of San Matias and St. George. 
The Los Estados islands and the small islands close to the eastern division of Terra del 
Fuego belong to the Republic. The straits of Magellan are neutral, and neither the 
Republic nor Chile is allowed to erect fortifications upon them. 

Minerals.—Among those found in the Andes are silver, tin, lead, and bismuth. 
Gold is obtained in the Aconquija mountains, in the northwest (which yield silver and 
copper also), in the central province of Cordova, and from the beach and river sands of 
the extreme southeastern part of Patagonia. Salt, alum, borax, sulphur, chalk, building 
stones and beautiful marbles are common. In the Andean province of Rioja, iron ore 
is found, and also in the Gran Chaco. There are deposits of coal in the northern part 
of the Republic, and petroleum wells in the western part, in the province of Mendoza. 
In no instance has mining proved very profitable. The shipments of the precious 
metals, minerals, ores, etc. for 1894 amounted to $219,581. 

Fauna and Flora.—The larger wild animals found in the forests are the jaguar, 
cougar, ant-eater, chinchilla, and tapir. The pampas and plains are inhabited by deer, 
wild cats, wild dogs, pumas, wild boars, skunks, armadillos, foxes, and several burrow- 
ing quadrupeds. The huanaco, vicuna, and llama range from the mountains to the 
sro the capybara frequents the rivers, and the coypu is met with along the Plata. 

he condor, vulture, several species of nandu or American ostrich, several of par: 
‘ridge, the hawk, flamingo, burrowing owl, and waterfowl of many kinds, parrots, 
humming-birds, and other birds of gay plumage are seen in the mountain regions 
or on the open plains. There are several large and venomous serpents, spiders, and- 
mosquitos of great size, destructive locusts and ants, annoying chigoes and ‘‘ flying bed- 
bugs ;” seals, otters, sea-lions, and sea-elephants are captured along the coast, and the 
rivers supply trout, lampreys, skates, soles, and many other fish. Most interesting fossil 
remains are found in different parts of the Republic, more than fifty species having 
been obtained, among them the megatherium, toxodon, and horse. 

The slopes of the Andes are well wooded, especially with thorny and shrubby 
plants, as are the banks of the Paran& and the rivers flowing from the west into 
the Paraguay, though the trees do not attain great size. Palms are a distinctive 
feature of the base of the Sierra de Cordova and of the northwestern foothills. The 


667 Avacniiva: 


pampas in the wet season are covered with clover and thistles, or with tall grass and 
flowers, gay verbenas, geraniums, etc., but here as well as on the Gran Chaco there is 
little to form thickets except mimosas and cacti. The algarroba, a shrub resembling a 
honey locust, is widely distributed. It is used for fence posts, and from the pulp of the 
pod are made a kind of flour and, by fermentation, an intoxicating liquor called chica. 
Patagonia is almost treeless, except in the south, and even there but four species of 
trees are found, two of them being beeches. Among the indigenous trees and plants 
are the quince, aloe, coca, cinchona, maté or Paraguay tea, manioc, the prickly pear 
with edible fruit, the cactus foliosus, on which the cochineal insect feeds, and a shrub 
harboring an insect yielding a handsome green dye. The apple-tree, introduced from 
Chile by the Indians, flourishes in the southwestern provinces ; the grape is extensively 
grown in the western and adjoining provinces of Rioja, San Juan and Mendoza ; the 
province of Salta is famed for its bananas and coffee, and the peach, fig, orange and 
walnut are grown in many parts. The scarcity of wood in some provinces compels the 
use of dried thistles and peach tree cuttings for fuel. © 

Climate.—This is healthful but very dry, especially in the extreme north, and on the 
central and southern plains. The temperature at Buenos Ayres, which has the most 
agreeable climate of any of the cities, ranges from 72° in summer to 52° in winter, the 
yearly mean being about 64° Fahr. The zonda, a strong, debilitating wind from the 
north, is of frequent occurrence, and is generally succeeded by the pampero, a violent 
wind from the south, accompanied by heavy thunder and lightning, and when blowing 
across the land, producing severe sandstorms. The Cuyo district is said to resemble 
Alabama in its climate. The Argentine Mesopotamia has a more abundant rainfall than 
any other portion, and is seldom visited by frosts. The death rate of the Republic is 
low, and the prevalence of yellow fever in the cities in some years has been due to lack 
of sanitary regulations. 

Agriculture is very backward, only about 6.2 per cent of the available land being under 
cultivation, in 1895 the rearing of live stock having proved more profitable; but the soil 
in general is fertile and much apparently sterile land has been reclaimed by systematic 
irrigation, especially along the slopes of the Andes, where artesian wells have been sunk. 
Wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa, potatoes, Indian corn and tobacco are extensively grown. 
Cotton, flax and peanuts have been introduced within recent years. The sugar-cane is 
cultivated in the north-east, and cotton is grown in Catamarca. Oranges, olives, grapes, 
figs, and dates are among the fruits raised, and much attention has been given to silkworm 
culture. Immense herds of cattle, sheep, mules and horses are pastured on the pampas. 
In 1894 the chief agricultural products were: wheat, 2,044,957 tons, and maize, 608,000 
tons. The value of the harvest of 1893 was reckoned at $100,255,000 in gold. In 1888 
the number of cattle was estimated at 22,000,000; of horses, at 5,200,000; of sheep, at 
80,000,000, and of other cattle, 1,998,000. The Aconcagua goat is bred for its fine skin, 
and the Angora goat has been introduced. 

Commerce, which was greatly stimulated by the opening of the Plata to all nations in 
1852, is carried on by sea through the ports of Buenos Ayres and Rosario. An extensive 
inland trade is carried on by means of the Parana and Uruguay rivers, by steam railways 
and horse railways and by caravans of wagons and trains of pack-mules. The chief 
articles of export in their order of importance in 1894 were, animals and animal prod- 
ucts, agricultural produce, forest produce and minerals. In that year the exports of 
wool were 161,908 tons; of wheat, 1,608,000 tons; of meat, 80,000 tons; of maize, 54,876 
tons, and of sheep skins, 36,736 tons. In addition to these may be mentioned among 
the exports, tallow, bones, ox-hides, flax, salted beef, cabinet woods and guano. The 
chief countries receiving the exports in 1894 were Great Britain, France, Brazil and 
Belgium. The next in order of importance were Germany, United States and Italy. 
Great Britain imports more largely to Argentine than any other country, the staples 
being cottons, woolen, iron and machinery. The imports into Argentine in the order of 
importance are, textiles and apparel, iron and iron manufactures, food substances, coal, 
coke, oil, etc., drinks, wood and wood manufactures, chemicals, paper and paper manu- 
factures, etc. The trade with Europe has been facilitated by the establishment in 
Argentine cities of branches of foreign mercantile houses. The total value of imports 
in 1894 was 92,724,102 pesos, including, among other classes of goods, textiles and 
apparel, 29,514,258; iron and iron manufactures, 14,251,183; food substances, 9,812,078; 
coal, coke, etc., 8,784,051; drinks, 6,953,564; wood and wood manufactures, 5,387,532: 
chemicals, 4,234,414; paper and paper manufactures, 3,194,506. The exports in 1894 had 
an aggregate value of 101,248,824 pesos, including animals and their produce, 60,519,801: 
agricultural produce, 52,520,256; manufactured produce, 4,894,894; forest produce, 
1,511,145; minerals, 311,655, ete. The total import of gold and silver in 1894 was 
3,188,395 pesos, of which 2,843,036 were gold and 345,359 were silver. The total export 
of gold and silver in that year was 266,543 pesos, of which 140,677 were gold and 125,866 
were silver. The foreign trade with the United States in 1894 showed an increase over 
that of the preceding year. The exports to Great Britain had a total value of 20,410,884 
pesos; to France of 18,843,963; to Belgium of 12,769,341; to Germany of 11,544,515; to 
the United States of 5,285,210; to Italy of 5,066,767, and to Brazil of 13,869,404. The 
imports from these countries were — Great Britain, 33,118,014; France, 10,156,320; Ger- 
many, 10,689,487; United States, 10,149,018; Belgium, 8,958,561; Italy, 8,873,377, and 
Brazil, 2,079,429. The tonnage of vessels entered in the foreign trade at Argentine ports 
for the year 1894 was 5,605,440 steamers, and 1,082,551 sailing vessels; total 6,687,971. 


].— 22 


Argentine. 668 


Manufactures, aside from animal products, such as leather, tallow, soap, Liebig’s 
extract of beef, and artificial guano, have not yet assumed great importance, but in- 
creasing attention is given to the production of sugar, wine, agricultural implements, 
iron utensils, chemical manufactures, and there are a few factories for woolen and linen 
goods, and of furniture. The more distinctive native manufactures are those of baskets 
from the willows of the Parana islands; the homespun cotton and woolen cloths, blankets, 
rugs and laces and embroideries of the northwestern highland provinces; the tanned 
leather, wooden ware, laces, blankets, etc., of Cordoba; and the harness, belts, ponchos, 
horse-blankets, ropes, etc., made by the Indians in different provinces. 

Railroads, Telegraphs, Post Offices, Banks, etc. —In 1894 there were in operation 8,156 
miles of railroad, the total capital being $489,078,236 (1895). This shows a remarkable 
increase since 1880 when the total mileage was only 1,536. <A railroad is under con- 
struction from Mendoza at Santa Rosa de Los Andes in Chile, crossing the Cordilleras 
at an elevation of over 10,000 feet above sea level, and at the summit using a tunnel 
over two miles long. Over half of the capital invested in 1895 corresponded to private 
companies’ lines, but a considerable portion of the railway business is in the hands of 
the government, a still larger portion consists of lines subventioned by the provinces 
and a larger part yet consists of guaranteed lines. 

The total length of telegraph lines in 1894 was 20,415 miles of which 11,250 miles 
belonged to the government, 1,115 miles to cable companies, and 8,050 to railway 
companies. 

A ‘snow cable ’’ connects Buenos Ayres with Valparaiso (by way of the Uspullata 
pass), whence a submarine cable connects with San Francisco, California. Buenos Ayres 
is connected with Montevideo by submarine cable and also with Europe by way of Rio 
de Janeiro and the Cape Verde islands, and in this indirect way with the United States 
also. There is besides a cable between Buenos Ayres and Lisbon. The post offices in 
1893 numbered 1456, through which passed 128,618,580 inland letters and packages, 
and 18,500,000 international. Stage coach lines carry mails into the interior not acces- 
sible by rail, and congress annually appropriates about $2,000,000 as subsidies. There is 
mail communication with Europe nearly every day. It is said that Buenos Ayres has 
more telephones in use in proportion to its population than most American cities. 

By law of Nov. 3, 1887, national banks resembling those of the United States were 
established. At the close of March, 1895, the aggregate circulation of the Argentine 
national banks was $286,693,023, a slight decrease over the outstanding circulation at 
the same date in 1894. By the law of 1889 the paper money, of the national banks was 
to be gradually reduced to $100,000,000, but in May 1890 a new issue was authorized. 
This resulted in a further depreciation of paper money, so that the average quotation of 
the value in paper money of $100 in Argentine gold for the year 1891 was $373. Since 
then matters have improved somewhat, the average quotation for 1895 being $344. In 
that year the notes of the Argentine national banks were worth about thirty cents on a 
dollar. Of the note circulation during the year 1895, $11,848,600 consisted of treasury 
notes. In October, 1891, the old National Bank was placed in liquidation and a new 
bank called. The Bank of the Argentine Nation was opened in the following 
December. The bad condition of the Hypothecary Bank of the Province of Buenos 
Ayres has added to the confusion of the currency. The National Hypothecary Bank 
has also been in difficulties, though continuing to do business. The silver dollar, or 
peso fuerte, of the Republic is equal to 100 centisimos. The peso was quoted by the U. 
S. Treasury in Oct., 1896, as equivalent to $0.965 in gold. The weights and measures 
are the quintal = 101.40 lbs. avoirdupois; the arroba = 25.35 Ibs. avoirdupois, and the 
fannega = 14 imperial bush. In 1887 the use of the French metric system was made 
compulsory. / 

Education was very limited in its range and entirely under the direction of the 
Roman Catholic church until 1868, when General Sarmiento, who had been Argentine 
minister at Washington, was elected president. Having written much on education as 
observed in the United States, and translated many text-books into Spanish, he was 
well fitted to reorganize the educational system, if such it can be termed, of his own 
country, and by his efforts normal schools, or schools of application as they are called, 
were established. These are now found in every part of the Republic, and together 
with the seminaries for young ladies, are under teachers from the United States, chiefly 
women. Instruction is classified as primary, secondary, and scientific or superior. 
Primary instruction in Buenos Ayres and the nine provinces is under a council of edu- 
cation appointed by the general government. In the fourteen provinces it is under their 
respective governments, and the taxes established by the education acts of these 
provinces support the schools. By law of 1884, primary instruction is obligatory, free 
and graded. Secondary or preparatory education is controlled by the general govern- 
ment, which supports sixteen lyceums. Scientific instruction is given in the Universi- 
ties of Buenos Ayres and Cordoba (founded as a college in 1610), which comprise faculties 
of law, medicine and engineering, a school of mines, two colleges of agriculture, a naval 
and a military school. In 1892 there were 2,731 elementary schools with 6,864 teachers 
and 228,439 pupils. The annual appropriation for the support of elementary educavion 
is very large. In 1890 it was $10,415,789. The government maintains a meteorological 
bureau, and there are two well-equipped national observatories at Cordoba and La Plata 
respectively. There are also national museums at Buenos Ayres and La Plata. 

Government. —This is modeled upon that of the United States. The constitution of 


“ae 


669 Argentine, 


1853, revised in 1860 and 1862, provides that the president and vice-president shall be 
Roman Catholics, of Argentine birth, shall be elected for a six years’ term by 138 
representatives of the fourteen provinces, and shall be ineligible to re-election. The 
President, who receives a salary of $36,000, is commander-in-chief of the army, and 
appoints to all offices, but with his five ministers is responsible and may be impeached. 
The Vice-President (salary $18,000) is chairman of the senate, which consists of thirty 
members elected for nine years, two being chosen by each province and two by the 
capital. Each must be thirty years of age, an enrolled citizen of six years’ standing, 
and have an income of $500. The senate is renewed by thirds every three years. The 
house of deputies or representatives consists of eighty-six members, whose only quali- 
fication was that they had been enrolled citizens for four years after attaining their 
majority. The house of deputies is renewed by halves every two years. Congress 
meets annually from May 1-Sept. 30. The provinces are virtually independent, 
electing, every three years, their own governors and legislatures, enjoy a full meas- 
ure of local and municipal government, and may contract internal or external loans on 
their own responsibility. The city of Buenos Ayres is under governmental control. The 
supreme court consists of five judges and an attorney-general, and is also a court of 
appeal. There are inferior local courts, trial by jury being established for criminal 
cases. The territories are directly governed by the President and his cabinet. 

The bonded debt of the Argentine Republic on Dec. 31, 1894, was $380,279,173 in 
gold and $48,844,774 in paper. Of this $190,990,673 in gold was the amount of the 
external bonded debt. The expenditure for the year ending March 31, 1895, amounted 
to $19,271,941 in gold and $72,065,221 in paper. The revenue for 1894 was $27,790,500 
in gold and $24,861,412 in paper. The government estimates of revenue and expendi- 
ture for the year 1896 were $31,048,000 in gold and $49,560,000 in paper. In 1894 the 
estimated expenditure of the 10 provinces was $30,312,519, and in 1895 the provincial 
debts amounted to $137,261,866 in gold. 

Army and Navy. — The army in 1894 comprised 87 generals, 685 infantry officers, 507 
cavalry, 167 artillery, and 2 engineers. The privates numbered 6,498, but in 1895 it was 
provided that the force should be increased to 14,194. The national guard, which may 
be called out in time of war, is estimated at 480,000. The infantry is composed of twelve 
regiments of three battalions each. The navy consists of seven armed vessels, four 
cruisers, seven gunboats, three torpedo gunboats, torpedo boats of the larger size, and 
four vedette boats. The Gariba/di and the San Martin, twin armored cruisers, were pur- 
chased from the Italian government. They have each a tonnage of 6500, with 18,000 
horse power. The A/mirante Brown has a tonnage of 4200, the 9 de Julio 3575, and the 
25 de Mayo 8200. A squadron of evolution was formed in 1887. The army and navy 
are recruited by voluntary enlistment. 

Races, Manners, and Customs.—As described by Clemens, the upper, but numerically 
inferior class, comprises the pure-blooded descendants of the Spanish colonists, whose 
name for themselves is gente decente (literally, decent people). This class includes the 
learned and mercantile professions, the army, politicians, and many resident foreigners. 
Social life in the cities resembles that of the capitals of southern Europe, and the people 
are said to be intelligent, dignified, suave, hospitable, fastidious in dress, and punctil. 
ious in manners. The ladies follow European fashions, are vivacious and give much 
time to church services and to music. The men pay great deference to the women in 
public, but married people are seldom seen together on the street. Mourning is worn 
three years for a husband, two years for a parent, and one year for a sister or brother. 
The chief festa] season is the Carnival preceding Lent ; the national holidays are May 
25, when (1810) independence was declared at Buenos Ayres, and July 9, when (1816) the 
united provinces declared themselves free. Next to this class come the Gauchos or 
horsemen of the pampas, who are the descendants of the Spanish and Indians, live in 
mud huts thatched with grass, wear a picturesque dress, and are skilled in the use of the 
lasso and the bolas, a missile weapon consisting of three balls united by thongs. Their 
chief occupation is the catching and taming of cattle. Classed as they are together with 
the degraded laborers imported from Europe, as peons, their lot is a peculiarly hard 
one. The Indians are mainly of Araucanian descent, are divided into separate tribes, 
live on grains and mares’ flesh, and by their frequent outbreaks have given the govern- 
ment much trouble. The Patagonian Indians are nomadic. 

Immigration has received every encouragement, and a homestead law grants, on easy 
conditions, 1500 acres to bona fide naturalized settlers. In 1887 it was estimated that 
there were in the Republic, 280,000 Italians, 150,000 French, 100,000 Spanish, 40,000 
English, and 20,000 Germans. The immigrants in 1894 numbered 107,104. 

Religion. — The established religion is the Roman Catholic under the archbishop of 
Buenos Ayres and five suffragan bishops, but all creeds are tolerated, There are many 
convents, a few monasteries, and five seminaries for the education of the clergy. Protes- 
tantism increases almost solely through immigration. By law of 1888 marriage was 
made a civil contract. 

Population. — The following statistics, from the Statesman’s Year Book for 1896, are 
mainly official estimates for 1895. In 1895 Buenos Ayres and its suburbs had a 
population of 665,243; Cordoba, 54,400 inhabitants; Rosario, 124,805; Tucuman, 


a 


Arges. 6 70 


Argolis. 


25,000; La Plata, 60,982; Mendoza, 28,709; Paranda, 18,000; Salta, 20,000; Corrientes, 
14,500. 


PROVINCES. Area in sq. m. Population. Chief Towns. 
Littoral — Buenos Ayres (1889)... 1... cece cseecccecesecces eeets 665,243 Shae 
ae 66 (DIOV.) ios cna ere cccvicser cena cines 63,000 921,222 La Plata. 
Santa WG ...0. 0 se bais bie s.e.ce'e le clers le lotelelrs eettinierelets 18,000 405,360 Santa Fé. 
Entre Rios ce satecicute sae sini sipmicia's ols aps tats mteeteteieiate 45,000 302,571 Concepcion. 
COTTIENTOD cix0'e conn wie > sclslsietallele lesley a ints letettiee E00 770010 } Corrientes. 
C . : 
ANGOS —— Rioja cisicies mosis co as vis = = virleie nisi sinl¥ Ble elec sisivinialehe nate 29,700 1 See Rioja. 
Catamarca. if sis ecs sess sued -eupeenlt ote caiminee 54,000 114,814 Catamarca. 
Ban ‘Juan se cis csc ts ocsas oberon as Wee se aeaenie 54,000 353,000 San Juan. 
MGndozase few se Sudo netic sierciciors claitmeeeei eet eee 18,000 81,537 Mendoza. 
Central — Cordoba... ....ccceccccccceccce recesses cceccces 31,500 160,534 Cordoba., 
sOhig Oil AGAR SNC ea Ano dccotaadosda nN soos be 13,500 213,000 San Luis. 
Santiago. 3; <5s+.2 +s seks ax tecane tk eMusee eee 45,000 118,107 Santiago. 
TacumMan o's 606. -scitaesenart ap eenaescee memnneree 27,000 55,000 Tucuman. 
Northern — Baltars acs clesteicrcle sltievisis lenis sles clela's olaielalseis ciniereie S55 ives Salta. 
JUjJUY oo occ vcccccccccvesscccevesy secseecssscs Jujuy. 
_ 515,700 3,873,626 
TERRITORIES. 
Misiones ics Lc odie s ote oe ivo.d cunoein ape Rieheeianeaitieen e ewecene 23,932 
Formosa 
hsiogel RARE 1152512 ache 125,612 
PAI PA's .vcisis sc + 5 i9(o 6in,0 oo bien we Inloteters wfoleileetnteloleteleietelstaetetetsts 191,842 100,000 vate 
Rio Negro...... 
Neuquen 
Chubub ss <ics-'s piss cece out aleolnsie sige mn bis hile beet nr a ae 268,000 ) 
Santa Cruz..... 
Terra del Fuego 
Total oiu.c.26 cveleissisis sieisie stelalersiateistalatoinls sivielofetetete oietelsie tania 1,125,086 3,973,626 


But the preliminary report of the Census of May 10, 1895, gives the number of the 
inhabitants as 4,042,990. See Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics (Jan., 
1897); also the British and American Consular Reports, and those of the government; 
Schnepp, Mission Scientifique dans l’ Amérique du sud (1864); Napp, Leighton, The Argen- 
tine Republic (1878); Daireaux, Buenos Ayres, la Pampa et la Patagonie (1878); Arcos, La 
Plata (1882); Bove, Patagonia Terra del Fuoco (1883); Crawford, Across the Pampas and the 
Andes (1884); Paz Soldan, Geografia Argentina (1885); Child, Spanish American Republics 
(1891); Turner, Argentina and the Argentines (1892); Mulhall, Handbook of the River Plate 
(1893) ; Akers, Argentine, Patagonian, and Chilian Sketches (1893), and Goodwin, Wheat 
Growing in the Argentine Republic (1895). Among purely historical works are Sarmiento’s 
Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the Tyrants (trans. 1868); History of the Argen- 
tine Republic, by Dominguez (trans. 1866), and Saldias, Historia de Confederacién Argentina 
(2d ed. 1892). 

AR GES, a genus of small fishes, of the family silurid@, of extreme interest on account 
of their being frequently thrown out in vast numbers by some of the South American 
volcanoes, with torrents of muddy water. Humboldt was the first accurately to inquire 
into this wonderful fact, and to describe one of these fishes, which he referred to the 
genus pimelodes, and called P. cyclopum. It is now called A. cyclopum. 'The quantities 
of these fishes ejected from the volcanoes in the neighborhood of Quito is sometimes so 
great, that the stench of their putrefaction is felt at a great distance, and putrid fevers 
are caused by it. They are expelled from craters or from lateral openings at an eleva- 
tion of 16,000 or 17,000 ft. above the sea. It is supposed that they exist in lakes within 
the cavernous recesses of the mountains, but nothing is positively known on this subject. 
Their capacity of enduring the high temperature of the water with which they are 
ejected, has excited much interest. Several species are known, to which the common 
name of perfadillas is given in the country, and which are placed by ichthyologists in 
the genus A., and the closely allied genera brontes and astroblepus. 


ARGHOOL, a wind-instrument now used in Egypt, made of common cane with a 
reed mouth-piece. 


ARGIL, clay or white clay, a term now little used, but of which the derivative 
argillaceous is still in frequent use as descriptive of soils, geological deposits, etc., and 
in the name argillaceous slate or argillaceous schist, instead of which, however, the name 
clay-slate is more generally employed. The term argillaceous is rather vague, and some- 
times clayey, sometimes aluminous, would seem to be its equivalent. See ARGILLA- 
cEous Rocks ; SLATE. 


ARGILE PLASTIQUE, a series of beds at the base of the tertiary system in France, 
resting on a conglomerate or breccia of rolled and angular chalk-flints. They consist of 
extensive deposits of sand, with occasional beds of plastic clays, used for pottery. 
Marls occur, inclosing, in some places, the fluviatile shells that are met with in the same 
position in the London basin, and in others, large numbers of a species of oyster. Beds 
of impure lignite also occur.—The A. P, is the equivalent in the Paris basin of 


671 ree! 


the Woolwich and Reading series, or lower eocene of the English geologists. See 
EOCENE. 


ARGILLA'CEOUS ROCKS, All rocks composed entirely or to some extent of clay are 
included under this title. Pure clay is known as kaolin or porcelain clay. It is a 
hydrated silicate of alumina. Decomposed feldspar, from which the silicates of potash, 
soda, etc., have been washed out, supplies the material which forms kaolin. Common 
clay, however, contains many impurities; the chief are sand, in variable proportions, 
and oxide of iron, which gives its color to the mass. Any matter that contains sufficient 
alumina (more than 10 per cent.) to enable it to retain its shape when molded and 
pressed, is called clay. Plastic clays occur abundantly in the superficial deposits and in 
the tertiary strata. The older clays become more or less indurated. When they are 
regularly laminated, and split into thin layers in the direction of the lamina, they are 
called shale. In clay-slate, the clay has become highly indurated and metamorphosed, 
so as to split into plates that are altogether independent of the original lamination, and 
frequently cross it at right angles. Clay-slate forms extensive deposits in the azoic rocks 
but it is not confined to these, for the palseozoic shales are often converted into clay- 
slate, when, from their proximity to crystalline rocks, or other cause, they have been 
subjected to the action of heat. 

A. R. can generally be distinguished by the peculiar ‘‘argillaceous” odor which 
they give out when breathed upon. 


ARGIVES, or ARGIVI, a name often applied by Homer, and sometimes by others, to 
all. inhabitants of Greece, but more accurately only to those of the more powerful state- 
or government of Argolis, in whose chief city, Mycenze, Agamemnon had his residence. 
(See ARGOLIS. 


ARGO, a large southern constellation in which is commemorated the mythical 
ship of the Argonautic expedition. Canopus, a star of the first magnitude, is its chief 
ornament; its declination, 52° 88’ s., renders it invisible in the northern and central 
United States. 


AR’GOL is a crude variety of cream of tartar which forms a crust in the interior of 
wine vats and wine bottles. Originally, it exists in the juice of the grape, and is soluble 
therein; but during the fermentation of the juice, and asit passes into wine, much alcohol 
is developed, which remaining in the fermenting liquor, causes the precipitation of the 
A.; the latter being very sparingly soluble in an alcoholic liquid. Some wines, when 
they are bottled, are not fully ripe, and more alcohol being thereafter developed, a fur- 
ther precipitation of A. takes place as a crust in the bottles, and hence the meaning of 
the term crusted port. A.is generally of a reddish tinge, obtained from the color of the 
grapes, but sometimes is of a grayish-white color, when it has been deposited during the 
fermentation of the Juice of colorless grapes. The ved or white A. is denominated in 
commerce crude tartar, and its principal uses are in the preparation of cream of tartar 
(q.v.) and tartaric acid (q.v.). The constituents of A. are bitartrate of potash (cream of 


tartar), (KO,HO,T), tartrate of lime, with coloring and extractive matters. 
AR'GOLA. See ADJUTANT. 


AR GOLIS, the n.e. peninsula of the Morea (Greece), lying between the bays of Nau- 
plia and Aigina, forms a nome, or department, in the modern kingdom of Greece. The 
plain of Argos, famous in ancient times for its breed of horses, is naturally fertile, but 
isnow made pestilential by morasses. It is surrounded by an eastern continuation of 
the range of mountains on the n. of the Peloponnesus, which also girds the riven and 
shattered-looking coast. The highest summits attain an elevation of between 5000 and 
6000 ft. The plain of A. is the most extensive in the whole peninsula, being 12 m. in 
length and 5 in breadth. The eastern part is higher and more rocky than the western. 
Near where the plain opens on the sea, the ground is marshy. This was the Lernean 
marsh of antiquity. The nome of A. and Corinthia has now Nauplia as its capital, and 
contains 144,836 inhabitants. 

It was from the importance of the ancient kingdom of A. that the Greeks were col- 
lectively often styled Argivi by ancient writers. A. was colonized in very early times. 
According to the old traditions, Inachus, the Pelasgic chief, settled here in 1800, and 
Danaus in 1500 B.c., with colonists from Egypt. Here Pelops ruled, and was succeeded 
by Atreus, Agamemnon, etc. Here also Hercules was born, and achieved his victories 
over the Lernean hydra and the Nemean lion. 

The ancient capital, Argos, was situated about 3 m. from the sea, and was considered 
the oldest city in Greece. It was supposed to have been built by that Inachus of whom 
we have spoken, or by his grandson Argus; but as the whole period in which his deeds 
are said to have been accomplished belongs to the unhistorical age, we cannot possibly 
determine the truth of such a statement. It is certain, however, that at one period A. 
was the head of a league composed of several Doric states or cities—Cleonz, Philus, 
Sicyon, Troezen, Hermione, Aigina, and Epidaurus. Latterly, Sparta robbed it of its 
supremacy and influence. The population of A., during its most prosperous condition 
in ancient times, was—inclusive of the town territory—upwards of 100,000. It was 
noted for the attention it paid to the worship of the gods. Juno was the principal 
divinity, but many of the other gods had temples and statues also, This gave a stimu- 


Argon. 6 "6 2 


Argoon. 


jus to the fine arts, and we know that A. possessed one of the most famous of the ancient 
schools of statuary. The natives were, moreover, renowned for their love of music. 
Herodotus considered them the finest musicians in Greece. They do not, however, seem 
to have cultivated literature. Few poets, and no orators or philosophers, were born 
amongst them. The modern Argos, built on the site of the ancient, is 7m. from Nau- 
plia, and is a large and thriving t. Pop. 11,000. 

ARGON. A supposed chemical element discovered in the atmosphere by Lord Ray- 
leigh in 1894. See CHEMISTRY, vol. III., p. 742. 


AR'GONAUT, Argonauta, a genus of cephalapodous mollusca, pretty generally known 
by the name of paper nautilus, and, in consequence of similarity in the form of the shell, 
often confounded with the genus nautilus (q.v.), but in fact much more nearly allied to 
the poulpe (octopus). The shell is not chambered like that of the true nautilus, but has 
one spiral cavity, into which the animal can entirely withdraw itself. The animal has 
no muscular attachment to the shell, and some naturalists therefore suspected that it 
might be merely, like the hermit crab, the inhabitant of a shell originally belonging to 
some other animal; but this question has been set at rest by the observations of Mme. 
Power, proving the beautiful but fragile shell to be the production of the A. itself. It 
has, however, also been discovered that the shell is peculiar to the female A., and does not 
answer the ordinary purposes of the shells of mollusca, but rather that of an ‘‘ incubating 
and protective nest.” ‘The eggs, which are very numerous, are attached to filamentary 
stalks, and by these the whole compacted mass is united to the involuted spire of the 
shell, where it is usually concealed by the body of the parent. The descriptions, until 
recently admitted into the works of the most respectable naturalists, of argonauts sailing 
about in pretty little fleets upon the surface of the water, employing six of their tentacula 
as oars, and spreading out two, which are broadly expanded for the purpose, as sails to 
catch the breeze, are now regarded entirely as fabulous, and indeed are founded upon an 
entire misapprehension of the position of the animal in its shell, and of the use of the two 
expanded arms or vela (sails). 'The membranes of these arms are extended at the pleas- 
ure of the animal, so as to envelop the shell, and appear to be the secreting organs 
employed in its fabrication. 'Two species of A. are common in the Mediterranean. 


AR'GONAUTS, heroes of Greek antiquity (so named from their ship Ago), who, accord- 
ing to tradition, about a generation before the Trojan war, undertook a long voyage into 
unknown seas, under the command of Jason. Homer alludes to the story; Hesiod, Mim- 
nermus, Pindar, the Pseudo-Orpheus, and many others relate it, all in different ways, 
the accounts in some instances being utterly irreconcilable. The plainest and most com- 
plete narrative is that of Apollodorus, which is as follows: Jason was commisioned by 
his uncle, Pelias—who ruled over Iolcus, in Thessaly—to fetch from the country of 
fetes (Colchis) the golden fleece of the ram, which was suspended on an oak, and guarded 
by a sleepless dragon. He therefore caused Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build a ship 
of fifty oars; and, in pursuit of this adventure, gathered together the choicest heroes 
from all parts of Greece, fifty in number, with whom he sailed. Their first landing 
place was Lemnos, where the A. staid two years, because the women, in consequence of 
the wrath of Aphrodite, had slain all the men, excepting Thoas. Next they sailed to the 
Doliones, and were hospitably received by king Cizycus, who was afterwards accident- 
ally killed by Jason. After landing at Mysia, where they left Hercules and Polyphemus. 
—who had wandered too far inland in pursuit of the lost Hylas—they came to the coun- 
try of the Bebryces, where king Amycus was killed by Pollux, or Polydeuces, ina pugi- 
listic fight. They next sailed along the coast of Thrace to Salmydessus, where two of 
their number, Zetes and Calais, having delivered the blind seer, Phineus, from certain 
winged monsters called Harpies, he in return gave them good counsel respecting their 
future adventures, and especially warned them against the dangerous passage between 
the opening and closing Symplegades, from which they escaped with but little injury to. 
their vessel. The story goes that Phineus advised the A. to let loose a dove when they 
approached the dreaded rocks, and to judge from its fortune what they themselves might 
expect. The bird escaped with the loss of its tail. The A. resolved to risk the passage, 
and, after heroic efforts, got safely through, their ship only losing some of the ornaments 
of its stern. After visiting several other lands, they arrived at the mouth of the river 
Phasis, in Colchis. Here the king, Aetes, promised to give up the golden fleece to Jason, 
on condition that the latter should yoke to a plow the two fire-breathing bulls with 
brazen hoofs, and should sow the dragon’s teeth left by Cadmus in Thebes. Jason, by 
the help of the famous sorceress Medea, daughter of AXetes, who had fallen passionately 
in love with the bold navigator, fufilled these conditions; and wasalso assisted by Medea 
in still more wonderful exploits. He obtained from her, under promise of marriage, a 
charm against fire and steel, and was enabled to destroy all the warriorswho sprung up from 
the land sown with the dragon’s teeth. While this was taking place, AHetes had resolved 
to burn the ship Argo, and put to death the crew; but Jason, informed of the scheme by 
Medea, anticipated it, hastened into the grove, stupefied the dragon-sentinel by an opiate- 
charm prepared by Medea, seized the golden fleece, and, embarking in the Argo with his 
mistress and her brother Absyrtus, sailed away from Colchis by night. etes followed, 
but was hindered in his pursuit by an atrocity committed by his fierce daughter. It is 
said that she slew her brother Absyrtus, and cut him into several pieces, which she threw 
overboard, one ata time. While king etes staid to gather up the fragments of his 


A te 
673 Argoon.. 


son, Jason escaped froin the pursuit. The A. now reached the mouth of the river Eriad- 
mus; but were driven on the Absyrtian islands by astorm sent from Jove, who was angry 
on account of the murder of Absyrtus, Meanwhile the mast of the Argo—which had been 
cut from the sacred grove of Dodona—delivered an oracle to the effect that Jove could not 
be appeased unless they sailed towards Ausonia, and were purified through the expia- 
tory agency of Circe. This was accomplished; and next the A. passed by the Sirens, 
from whose charms they were preserved by Orpheus, who sang to them, but could not 
hinder one of their number, Butes, from swimming off to the sea-maidens; then through 
Scylla and Charybdis, by the help of Thetis, and at length landed on the island of Cor- 
cyra, where Alcinousruled. On leaving this place, they encountered a storm at night, 
but were saved by Apollo, who, in flashes of lightning, revealed to them the haven of 
Anaphe, where they raised an altar to their preserver. At Crete, their landing was 
opposed by the giant Talus, who was slain by Medea. They subsequently touched at 
ZXgina, and, sailing between Eubca and Locris, arrived safely at Iolcus, after a four 
months’ voyage. Jason dedicated the good ship Argo to Neptune, at the isthmus of 
Corinth. 

It is perhaps useless to speculate on the real character of the Argonautic expedition, 
even if it be more than a mere myth. The accounts given by other writers differ so 
widely, especially in the geographical parts, from those of Apollodorus, that it becomes 
impossible to determine satisfactorily whether the expedition sailed n., e., or w. It is 
said that as geographical knowledge increased, the poets felt obliged to invent new 
homeward routes for the returning heroes, it being essential to the character of the 
story that its scene should be placed in unknown regions. Herodotus, Callimachus, 
and Diodorus Siculus agreed in representing the return route as the same pursued by 
them in sailing to Colchis, but Timzeus, Scimnus of Chios, the Pseudo-Orpheus, and 
others describe the ship as making its way into the northern ocean by way of the Tanais, 
and thence along the northern coasts of Europe. Apollodorus, Apollonius, Rhodius, and 
others describe the course as through the Euxine and the rivers Ister and Eridanus into 
the western ocean, or the Adriatic. In Pindar’s account they return through the 
eastern ocean. ‘The number and the names of the Argonauts differ as well as the 
routes, but only one writer, the Scholiast upon Lycophron, puts the number of men as 
high as one hundred and fifty. The Scholiast upon Apollonius Rhodius describes the 
writers who had investigated the legend or had written poems on this theme. The 
common historical interpretation of the legend is that Jason sailed on a voyage of dis- 
covery, which had for itsaim and stimulus the hope of new commercial relations ; others 
would modify this hypothesis, and suggest that the enterprise was partly commercial, 
partly piratical, and partly adventurous, and that Jason’s crew was in all probability 
composed of young, restless, and ambitious spirits, who were ready for anything that 
might turn up. 


ARGONAUTS OF 49, a popular name for the excited and sanguine throng of fortune- 
seekers which emigrated to California after the news of the discovery of gold became 
generally known. By the close of the year 1849, 39,000 had arrived in California by 
sea and 42,000 by land, coming from all parts of the world. The name more appropri- 
ately attaches to those who sailed for the new El Dorado, which was almost as unknown 
a region as that sought by Jason and his followers. The vast body left the ports of the 
eastern states in the early months of 1849, some making the long voyage around Cape 
Horn, others proceeding by ship to Chagres, and thence by land across the isthmus to 
Panama, where they again embarked on any ship obtainable. Among the vessels that 
bore the gold-seekers, those belonging to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company were 
especially prominent. This company, incorporated in 1848, built three side-wheel 
steamers, for service between Panama and San Francisco; the first of which, the 
California, sailed from New York, Oct. 6, 1848, and reached Panama, Jan. 30, 1849, 
where over 400 persons embarked, although there was room for little more than 100. 
The Oregon, which arrived at Panama about the middle of March, 1849, left with 500 
passengers, and the Panama, which arrived early in May took on board some 700. 
Exorbitant prices were asked for tickets even in the steerage, and even holders of tickets 
were in one instance obliged to pay $100 extra for the privilege of drawing lots for 
steerage places. The California reached San Francisco on Feb. 28, 1849; the Oregon on 
April 1, and the Panama on June 4. Between these dates, brigs, schooners, and other 
vessels from ports on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, set sail for California, crowded 
with passengers, most of whom were doomed to great hardships before reaching their 
goal. See Bancroft, History of the Pacific Siates, vol. 18; Bayard Taylor, H? Dorado ; 
Stillman, The Golden Fleece ; and Bret Harte, Tales of the Argonauts. 


ARGONNE, a rocky, tree-covered plateau in n. e. France, extending along the border 
of Lorraine and Champagne, and forming parts cf the departments of Ardennes and 
Meuse. The Argonne forest proper, or western Argonne, has a length of over thirty 
miles and a width of from one to eight miles. The forest of eastern Argonne includes 
the forest of Apremont, 1225 feet in altitude. There are several passes in this region 
that have historical associations connected with them, such as the battlefield of Almy, 
the French Thermopyle. Dumouriez called his defense of this frontier in 1792 the 
‘** Argonne campaign. 

ARGOON, or Araun, an affluent of the Amoor river, rising in the Mongolian moun- 
tains and running n.n.e, through the northern part of the desert of Gobi to lake Kulon ; 


Argos. 674 


Argyle. 


thence n., separating Russian from Chinese Tartary, to meet the Shilka, the two form. 
ing the Amoor. 


ARGOS. See ARGOLIS. 


ARGOS’TOLI, a seaport on the s.w. of Cephalonia, and capital of the island. Its lat 
is 88° 10’ n., and long. 19° 59’ e. Its pop. is 9100, and its quay is a mile long. 


ARGOT, French for what the English call ‘‘slang,” especially the dialect of thieves 
and vagabonds. Like all such tongues, A. is often sparkling with wit and remarkable 
for aptness and comprehensiveness of expression. Many specimens of it are to be 
found in Victor Hugo’s Les Miserables, and in the lower grade of Parisian journals. 
The reader is referred to Barrére, Argot and Slang (1887), and the article SLANG. 


ARGUELLES, Avucustin, b. Asturias, 1776, a Spanish politician of the liberal school. 
On the breaking out of the war of independence in 1808, he went to Cadiz, where he 
agitated for the organization of a regency along with a free constitution, as the best 
method of strengthening and consolidating the powers and resources of the nation. In 
1812, he was sent as representative of his native province to the cortes, where he was 
appointed one of the members of the committee to whom was intrusted the drawing up 
of the plan of a new constitution. His splendid talents as a public speaker soon won 
him the admiration of the liberal party, who used to term him the Spanish Cicero. But 
on the return of Ferdinand VII., A. fell a victim to the reactionary spirit which ensued. 
On the 10th of May, 1814, he was arrested and imprisoned; but at his trial he displayed 
such dexterity that it was found impossible to convict him. Different judges were 
nominated five successive times, but they could not agree in their decision. At last the 
monarch himself passed sentence, which was that A. should be confined for ten years in 
the prison at Ceuta. He was not, however, alone in his misfortunes. Fourteen persons 
were condemned along with him, amongst whom was his friend Juan Alvarez Guerra. 
In their confinement they experienced such barbarous treatment, that in four years three 
died, two became mad, and the rest received greivous injuries. The revolution of 1820 
restored them to frezcdom. A. became minister of the interior, but soon resigned, in 
consequence of the king complaining of the weakness of the executive. Although pro- 
voked beyond measure by the narrow bigotry of the court, he did not rush into extremes, 
but continued a constitutional liberal to the end of his life. In the cortes held at Seville 
in 1828, he voted for the suspension of the royal power; but after the violation of the 
constitution he fled to England, where he remained till the amnesty of 1882. On his 
return to Spain, being nominated to the cortes, he was repeatedly made president and 
vice-president of the chamber of deputies, and always showed himself a moderate but 
unwavering reformer. In July, 1841, on the discussion of the law regarding the sale of 
church property, he delivered himself strongly against all concordats with the pope. 
Next to Espartero, he was the most popular man in the kingdom with the enlightened 
party. During the regency, he was appointed guardian to the young queen Isabella, 
but d. soon after, on the 23d of March, 1844, at Madrid. In his old age, he still exhibited 
the fiery eloquence that marked his youth. 


ARGUMENT (Lat. argumentum), in logic, means properly the ground or premise on 
which a conclusion is rested; popularly, it is applied to a series of arguments, or to a 
controversy. Argumentation is reasoning put into regular shape, with a view to con- 
vince or silence an objector. Logicians have given distinctive names to various kinds of 
arguments. Thus, we have the argumentum ad hominem, which is no real proof, but 
only an appeal to the known prepossessions or admissions of the persons addressed. In 
this style, wher a man upholds one method of fraud, he may, by an appeal to his con- 
sistency, be driven to uphold another. The A. ad veritatem, again, has no regard to any- 
thing save objective truth. Next we have the A. e consensu gentium, or an appeal to the 
common belief of mankind, which, of course, may be used to prove or disprove any- 
thing. The A. a tuto rests upon the supposed safety or prudence of adopting a certain 
conclusion. It is sometimes used by Roman Catholics against Protestants in the follow- 
ing form: Protestants teach that salvation is possible in any church; this is denied by 
Catholics; therefore, it is safer to belong to the Catholic church, as even the Protestant 
admits that a man may be saved in that church. Lastly, the argwmentum a baculo (or 
use of the cudgel), though objectionable, is concise in its style, and has settled many 
controversies. 


ARGUMENTUM AD HOM'INEM. See ARGUMENT, FALLACY. 


ARGUS, the son of Zeus and Niobe, succeeded Phoroneus in the government of the 
Peloponnesus, which took from him its name of Argos, as did also the territory of 
Argolis.—A., surnamed Panoptes (all-seeing), had one hundred eyes, some of which were 
always awake. He was enormously strong, and, on account of the wonderful exploits he 
performed, Juno appointed him to watch over Io, transformed into a cow. Mercury 
being commissioned by Zeus to carry off the cow, slew A. by stoning him; or, as Ovid 
says, first charmed him to sleep by playing on the flute, and then beheaded him. Juno 
used the eyes of A. to decorate the peacock’s tail.—A., the builder of the ship A7go (see 
ARGONAUTS). 


(ward A 
675 Areyle. 


ARGUS, a genus of gallinaceous birds, remarkable for magnificence of plumage. 
The only known species is A. giganteus, formerly called phasianus A., and still very gen- 
erally the A. pheasant. The sides of the head and of the neck are destitute of feathers; 
‘he tail consists of twelve feathers, of which the two middle ones in the male are very 
much elongated; the secondary feathers of the wings are much longer than the primary. 
The name A. has allusion to the many beautiful eye-like markings which adorn the 
plumage of the male, and particularly the secondaries of the wings. The long second- 
aries are said to impede the flight of the bird; but its wings are much employed to aid it 
in running. The female is of comparatively tame plumage, not only wanting the eye- 
like markings, but even the great length of the secondaries and of the middle tail- 
feathers. The size of the bird, when divested of its plumage, is not much greater than 
that of a common barn-door fowl, but the tail-feathers of the male are nearly 4 ft. long. 
The A. is a native of Sumatra and other eastern islands, of the peninsula of Malacca, 
Siam, etc. It is said to be found even in the northern parts of China. It is impatient 
of confinement, and has very seldom been brought alive to Europe. 


ARGYLE’, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, Marquis of, an eminent political character of the 
17th c., was b. in 1598, and succeeded to the earldom of A. in 1638. Already he had 
given proofs of that strength of religious principle which marked his whole life, and of 
a perilous union of attachment to the king and of faith in the principles against which 
the king made war. In the general assembly at Glasgow, in Nov., 1688, he openly took 
the side of the covenanters, and thenceforth became recognized as their political head. 
In 1640, he commanded a military expedition through Badnoch, Athole, Mar, and 
Angus, for the purpose of enforcing subjection to the Scottish parliament. On the 
king’s visit to Scotland, in 1641, he found it convenient to show peculiar favor to A., and 
created him a marquis. On the breaking out of hostilities, A. was still desirous for 
negotiation, but was finally compelled to take the field. In April, 1644, he dispersed the 
royalist forces under the marquis of Huntly, in Aberdeenshire. He was less successful 
in withstanding the genuis of Montrose, who, on the 2d Feb., 1645, almost annihilated 
his army at Inverlochy. His estates had suffered so much in the preceding year from 
the ravages of the brilliant cavalier, that a sum of public money was voted for his 
support. In Aug., 1646, he went to London, with Loudon and Dunfermline, to treat 
with the parliament for a mitigation of the articles presented to the king. He was at the 
same time the bearer of a secret commission from the king, to treat with the duke of 
Richmond and the marquis of Hertford, on the propriety of a Scottish demonstration in 
favor of Charles. On the defeat of the ‘‘engagement” plan, to which he had been 
decidedly opposed, the government of Scotland devolved on A. and the other Presby- 
terian leaders. In the parliament of Feb. 1649, Charles IJ. was proclaimed king, and at 
Scone, on the 1st of Jan., 1651, A. put the crown on his head. At this time, it was even 
said that the complaisant monarch intended to marry one of his daughters. As head of 
the committee of estates, A. took vigorous measures to oppose Cromwell’s invasion of 
Scotland, and still adhered to the king, after the subjugation of the country. After the 
battle of Worcester, he retired to Inverary, where he held out for a year against Crom- 
well’s troops. Falling sick, he was taken prisoner by Gen. Dean. e refused submis- 
sion to the protector, but took an engagement to live peaceably, which he strictly kept. 
On the restoration, he repaired to Whitehall, encouraged by a flattering letter from the 
king to his son. Impeached with the crime of having submitted to the usurper (to whom 
he had refused allegiance), he was committed to the Tower, and on the 13th Feb., 1661, 
was brought before the Scottish parliament on the charge of treason. He defended him- 
self with spirit, but in vain. On the 27th May, he was executed at Edinburgh—having 
displayed throughout his whole trial, and on the scaffold, the dignity of a true nobleman, 
and the meekness of a Christian. 

His son, ARCHIBALD, 9th Earl of A., was early distinguished by personal accom- 
plishments, and exhibited great bravery on the disastrous day of Dunbar, where he 
commanded a regiment on the royal side. After Worcester, he continued, like his 
father, in arms, and made himself so obnoxious to the parliamentary leaders, that he was 
specially excepted by Cromwell from the act of grace in 1654. After much harassing 
persecution, he submitted to the parliament, but continued to be closely watched. On 
the restoration of Charles II., he was received into high favor (as a balance to the execu- 
tion of his father), and, unfortunately for his own fame, participated in some of the 
iniquitous acts of the Scottish legislature. He had, however, numerous and active 
enemies; and, on the ground of an intercepted letter, in which he had complained of 
neglect, he was tried and condemned to death by the Scottish parliament for the 
imaginary crime of lesa majestas, The influence of Clarendon restored him to liberty 
and favor; even the king himself was prejudiced in his favor; but his explanation in 
subscribing the infamous test framed by the Scottish parliament in 1681 was declared 
treasonable, and he was again condemned to death. The devotion of his wife enabled 
him to escape from Edinburgh castle in the disguise of a page; and after remaining con- 
cealed some time, he fled to Holland. Landing in the north of Scotland, in May, 1685, 
with an armed force, to co-operate in the revolt of Monmouth, he was, after a series of 
misfortunes, taken prisoner, hastily condemned, and beheaded, June 30, 1685. His son 
Archibald, one of the deputation sent by the Scottish convention to present the crown 
to the prince of Orange, was in 1701 created duke of Argyle. 


Arfas.” 676 


ARGYLE’, Grorcre Joun Dovcias CAMPBELL, 8th duke of A., was b. in 1828, 
and succeeded his father in 1847. At the age of 19, his grace, then marquis of Lorne, 
wrote a pamphlet entitled A Letter to the Peers from a Peer’s Son, on the subject of the 
struggle which ended in the disruption of the Scottish church. Seven years later he 
published an essay on presbytery, which contains a historical vindication of the presby- 
terian system. On taking his seat in the house of peers, he soon commanded the respect 
of that dignified assembly. On the formation of the coalition ministry by lord Aberdeen, 
his grace was invested with the office of lord privy seal, which he continued to hold in 
lord Palmerston’s administration. In 1855, he relinquished his office, and became post- 
master general. In 1859, on Palmerston’s return, he again accepted the office. He was 
secretary of state for India in 1868 and again in 1881; he resigned office in 1881, disap- 
proving the Irish land bill. In 1874, he had supported the abolition of patronage in 
the church of Scotland. In 1854, he was chosen lord rector of the university of Glas- 
gow ; in 1855 presided at a meeting of the British Association in that city ; and in 1861 
was elected president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His grace is hereditary mas- 


ter of the queen’s household in Scotland, chancellor of the university of St. Andrews, a 


trustee of the British Museum, also hereditary sheriff and lord-lieutenant of Argyleshire. 
Besides numerous papers on zoology, geology, etc., he has written The Reign of Law, 
1866 ; Primeval Man, 1869 ; A History of the Antiquities of Iona, (1870), and a volume of 
poems, The Burdens of Belief, 1894. In 1844 he married the eldest daughter of the duke 
of Sutherland (d. 1878), and in 1895, his cousin Ina Erskine McNeill. His eldest son is 
the marquis of Lorne. In the ducal title, A. is now generally spelt Argyll. 


ARGYLE, JoHN CAMPBELL, 2d Duke of, son of the first duke, was b. in 1678, and 
took an important part in the political and military affairs of his time. As royal com- 
missioner in 1705, he had a principal share in bringing about the act of union. As a 
soldier, he distinguished himself under Marlborough at Ramilies, Oudenarde, Lille, 
Ghent, and Malplaquet. Previous to the change of ministry in 1710, A. had been a keen 
whig. He now vecred with the wind of the court, and became a declaimer against the 
duke of Marlborough. As the reward of his apostasy, he was appointed by the tories 
generalissimo of the British army in Spain; but considering himself to have been unhand- 
somely treated by the ministry, he shortly after returned, and finding his influence 
greatly diminished, he again became a whig. His career up to the rebellion of 1715 
was most tortuous and unprincipled, and seriously detracts from his meriturious services 
during that critical period. He was, however, completely successful in quelling dis- 
turbances, and his services were rewarded in 1718, among other dignities, with an Eng- 
lish peerage, and the title of duke of Greenwich. His restless vanity and ambition, 
however, constantly prompted him to political intrigues. In 1721, he again played into 
the hands of the tories, for the purpose of securing the entire patronage of Scotland. In 
1737, he rose into immense popularity in his own country, by his spirited defense before 
parliament of the city of Edinburgh in regard to the Porteous mob. He d. on the 3d. 
Sept., 1745. He was a man of lax principles and selfish character, but possessed of con- 
siderable shrewdness and talent, and noted for his kindness and courtesy in private life. 
The benevolence of his disposition procured him the title of ‘‘the good duke of Argyle.” 


ARGYLE'SHIRE (Airer-Gaedhil, territory of the Gael), aco.in the w. of Scotland, 
cut up into many peninsulas by arms of the sea, and including numerous islands. It is 
bounded n. by Inverness-shire; w and s. by the sea; e. by Perthshire, Dumbarton, Loch 
Long, and Firth of Clyde. Its greatest length is about 115 m.; greatest breadth, about 
55 m.; its extent of coast-line is very great, amounting to 2289 m., owing to the indenta- 
tion of the coast by numerous lochs running inland. Next to Inverness, it is the largest 
co. in Scotland—area, 3210 sq.m., of which 623 are occupied by the numerous islands. 
No part is above 12 m. from the sea or from large inland lochs. The co. is divided 
into the districts of Cantire, north and south Argyle, Lorn, Appin, Cowal, Morven, and 
Sunart. The chief islands are Mull, Islay, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Lismore, and Colonsay, with 
Iona and Staffa. There are upwards of thirty other islands of smaller size. The general 
aspect of A. is wild and picturesque, marked by rugged and lofty mountains and deep 
inland bays. Some fertile valleys exist. The north part is entirely mountainous, and 
presents some of the grandest scenery in Scotland, as Glencoe. The highest peaks are 
(Ord. Trig. Survey) Bidean nam Bian, 3766 ft.; Ben Cruachan, 3698; Buachael Etive, 
3341—all in Lorn; Ben Ima(end of Loch Long), 3319; Ben More (Mull), 3185; Ben Creach 
(Morven), 2790; North Pap of Jura, 2565. The chief bays are (going south)—Loch Moi- 
dart, Loch Sunart, Linnhe Loch, branching off into Loch Eil and Loch Leven, Loch Fyne, 
and Loch Long. There are no rivers of any size. The streams are short and rapid, the 
principal being the Urchay, running through Glenorchy into Loch Awe, and the awe 
connecting that lake with Loch Etive. The inland or fresh-water lochs are Loch Awe 
and Loch Lydoch. The rocksof A. are mica-slate, which predominates on the main-land; 
trap in Mull and Lorn; quartz rock in Islay and Jura; granite around Loch Etive and 
in Knapdale; patches of lias and oolite in many of the isles; and a little old red sand- 
stone w. of Loch Fyne and in South Cantire. Lead-mines occur at Strontian (where 
the mineral strontianite was discovered, and from which the names of the earth called 
sirontia and the metal strontium are derived), at Tyndrum, and in Islay and Coll. A 
copper-mine exists in Islay. The Easdale and Ballachulish quarries supply the best 


677 Aras: 


roofing-slates in Scotland. Coal occurs near Cainpbelton; fine marble in Tiree, etc.; 
excellent granite near Inverary; and limestone in most parts of the county. The fertile 
parts of A. lie along the arms of the sea and the mountain streams. The soil is mostly 
light, sandy, and gravelly loam along the coast and the sides of rivers, and gravelly, with 
a till bottom, on the hillsides. Sheep and cattle rearing are the chief occupations of the 
farmer. More sheep are reared in A. than in any other Scotch co., and nearly a million 
acres are in permanent pasture. In number of cattle, A. yields only to the counties 
of Aberdeen, Ayr, Lanark, and Perth, A. abounds in deer and game. Loch Fyne is 
famed for its herriugs. Loch Awe abounds in salmon and trout. 


In many parts of A. the peasantry are still very poor, notwithstanding that steamers 
now connect every portion of the coast with the commercial center of Scotland. The 
manufactures are unimportant, the chief being whisky, in Campbelton and Islay, and 
coarse woolens for home use. The chief towns and villages are Inverary, Campbellton, 
Oban, Dunoon, Appin, Lochgilphead, and Tarbert. The three former unite with Ayr 
and Irvine in returning one member to parliament; the co. returns another. Pop. 
in 791, 75,003 represented as mostly using the Gaelic language. This exhibits a con- 
siderable decrease since 1831, which has chiefly resulted from emigration. This extensive 
county is divided ecclesiastically into not more than fifty parishes, which contain only two 
royal burghs, Iverary and Campbelton, the former of which is a station of the circuit 
court of justiciary. The principal proprietors are the duke of Argyle, the head, and the 
earl of Breadalbane, a branch of the Campbell family. Among the antiquities of A. 
are the ruins of Iona and Oronsay, and many dws, or circular forts along the coast. In 
Cantire formerly lived the Macdonalds, or lords of the isles, whose power was weakened 
by James III. 


ARIA (Arr), in music, a rhythmical song, as distinct from recitative. The term was 
formerly applied to a measured lyrical piece either for one or several voices; but is now 
commonly applied to a song introduced in a cantata, oratorio, or opera, and intended 
for one voice supported by instruments. ARIETTA, a short melody. ARtIoso, a passage 
in the style of the A., often introduced into recitative. A. Burro, a comic song, etc. 


ARIAD'NE, a daughter of Minos, king of Crete, by Pasiphaé. When Theseus, with 
the offerings of the Athenians for the Minotaur, landed in Crete, A. conceived a passion 
for the beautiful stranger, and gave him a clew by means of which he threaded the 
mazes of the labyrinth, and,was enabled to slay the monster. For this service, Theseus 
promised to marry her, and she escaped with him, but was slain by Diana on the island 
of Naxos.—According to another tradition, A. was left by Theseus at Naxos, where she 
was found by Bacchus returning from his triumph in India, who was captivated by her 
beauty, and married her. At her death, he gave her a place among the gods, and sus- 
pended her wedding-crown as a constellation in the sky. A., as left forsaken by Theseus, 
and as married to Bacchus, has been a favorite subject with artists. 


ARIAL 'DUS, a deacon of the church of Milan, who flourished during the 11th century. He 
took a prominent part in the ecclesiastical contentions of his times. The Catholic church 
in the n. of Italy was then very corrupt, a wide-spread licentiousness, originating from 
the unnatural institution of priestly celibacy, prevailed. Great numbers of the clergy 
kept concubines openly. Such as looked earnestly in those days at this flagrant evil, 
were disposed to consider the strict enforcement of celibacy the only effectual cure, 
Chief among these reformers stood A., whose life was one continued scene of violent con- 
troversy. Although successively sanctioned by popes Stephen X., Nicholas II., and 
Alexander II., he found little sympathy among his brethren, and used to complain that 
he could only get laymen to assist him in his agitation. Having at length succeeded in 
obtaining a papal bull of excommunication against the archbishop of Milan, a fierce 
tumult ensued in the city, whose inhabitants declared against A. and his coadjutors. 
A. now fled to the country; but his hiding-place being betrayed, he was conveyed cap- 
tive to a desert isle in lake Maggiore, where he was murdered by the emissaries of the 
archbishop, and his remains thrown into the lake, June 28, 1065. He was afterwards 
canonized by pope Alexander II. 


ARIA'NA. See ARYAN RACE. 


ARIA'NO, Arianum, a city of south Italy, in the province of Avellino, beautifully 
situated 2800 ft. above the sea, in one of the most frequented passes of the Apennines, 
50 m.n.e. from Naples. It is a bishop’s seat, and has a fine cathedral. The chief manu- 
facture is earthenware. There is a considerable export trade in wine and in butter. A. is 
said to have been founded by Diomed. Roger II. held a parliament here to settle the 
affairs of the province, after his defeat of the allied armies of pope Innocent II. and the 
prince of Capua. In the face of the hill on which the city is built, hundreds of caves 
have been dug, in which many of the poorer inhabitants dwell. Pop. ’81, 14,398. 


A/RIANS. See Arrus, HERESY, HERETICS. 
A'RIAS MONTA'NUS, BeNeEpDicTUus, a Catholic divine noted for his great linguistic 


attainments, was b. 1527, in the village of Frexenal de la Sierra, situated amongst the 
mountains separating Estremadura from Andalusia. He studied first at Seville, and 


Arie 678 


afterwards at AlcalA de Henares, where he distinguished himself by the ardor he mani- 
fested in the acquisition of the oriental languages, Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee. He 
next proceeded on a tour through Italy, France, Germany, England, and the Netherlands, 
in the course of which he obtained a knowledge of various modern tongues. He was 
present at the celebrated council of Trent; but on his return to his own country, he 
resolved to retire into seclusion, and dedicate his whole time to literature. In 1568, how- 
ever, Philip II. persuaded him to repair to Antwerp and superintend the publication of 
the famous edition of the ‘‘ Polyglot Bible,” executed in that city at the suggestion of the 
printer, Christopher Plantin. After four years’ labor, the work was issued under the 
title Biblia Sacra, Hebraice Chaidaice, Grece et Latine, Philippi IT. Regis Catholict Pietate et 
Studio ad Sacrosancte Ecclesiae Usum Chph. Plantinus excudebat. It was received with 
universal applause. The Jesuits, to whom A. was sincerely and strenuously opposed, 
alone attempted to fasten the charge of heresy on the author, who made several journeys 
to Rome to clear himself of the accusation. Philip Il. rewarded him with a pension of 
2000 ducats, besides bestowing on him various other emoluments. He d. at Seville in 
1598. His literary works are very numerous. They relate principally to the Bible and 
to Jewish antiquities; but he also wrote a poem on rhetoric, and a history of nature. 


ARI’CA, a seaport of Tacna, a northerly department of Chili, is in lat. 18° 28’ s., and 
long. 70° 24’ w. Though it has merely a roadstead, it affords safe anchorage to ship- 
ping, and is one of the chief outlets of the trade of Bolivia, being connected with La Paz 
in that republic by a mule-path which leads across the west Cordillera of the Andes. Its 
exports mostly consist of copper, silver, alpaca, wool, and guano. A. has frequently suf- 
fered from earthquakes ; a most destructive one occurred in 1868. In 1880 the Chilians 
took it from Peru, acquiring by the treaty of 1884 the right to the department of Tacna 
for ten years. At the end of that time it was to be decided by popular vote to whom it 
belonged, but the decision was postponed. Pop. about 4000. 


ARICHAT, a seaport of Cape Breton island, in the province of Nova Scotia, with a 
harbor for the largest vessels. It is near the Gut of Canso, the most southerly of three 
channels of communication between the gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic. The t. 
has about 1000 inhabitants, is largely engaged in fishing, and at the head of its harbor a 
lead-mine has recently been opened. 


ARICKAREES. See RICKAREES. 


ARIEGE, or ARRINGE, a river in the s. of France, rises th the department of the east 
Pyrenees, flows through a beautiful vale, and falls into the Garonne near Toulouse.— 
The department of ARIEGE, which lies along the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, formed 
a part of the old co. of Foix, the territory of Couserans, and the province of Languedoc, 
is bounded n. and w. by Haute Garonne, e. by Aude, s. by the republic of Andorra and 
the Pyrenees. It contains some of the highest mountain-summits in France, such as 
Fontargente, 9164 ft.; Serrére, 9592 ft.; Montcalm, 10,513 ft.; Estats, 10,611 ft.; Mont- 
valier, 9120 ft. The department, nevertheless, has a mild climate. Area, 1890 sq.m. 
Pop. °91, 227,491, engaged chiefly in agriculture, pasturage, iron-mines, and the manufac- 
ture of woolens, linen, pottery, etc. The three arrondissements are Foix, Pamiers, and 
St. Girons. Chief towns, Foix, Pamiers, St. Girons. 

A’RIEL, used by Isaiah as a proper name, which he applies to Jerusalem, as ‘‘ victo- 
rious under God.” In Shakespeare’s Tempest, A. is a spirit of the air, in the service of 
the magician ‘‘ Prospero.” 


A'RIES, the Ram, one of the signs of the zodiac, including the first 80 degrees of the 
ecliptic measured from the vernal equinox, or that point where the vernal passage of 
the sun across the equator takes place. The vernal equinox, or, as it is also called, the 
first point of A.,is constantly changing its position among the fixed stars, in conse- 
quence of the precession of the equinoxes, moving westward at the rate of 50".2 annu- 
ally. Itis from this circumstance that the sign A. no longer corresponds with the 
constellation A., which was the case about 2000 years ago, when the ecliptic was divided 
into 12 equal parts called signs, each named after the group of stars through which it 
passed. The present sign A. is the constellation Pisces, about 80° w. of the original 
sign; and although the sun at the vernal equinox will always be at the first point of A., 
yet nearly 24,000 years will elapse before that point will again coincide with the begin- 
ning of the constellation A. 


A'RIL, Arilius, a peculiar covering of the seed in some plants, formed by an expan- 
sion of the funiculus (the cord which attaches the ovule to the placenta), or of the pla- 
centa itself. This expansion takes place after fertilization, and sometimes invests the 
seed entirely, sometimes only partially. In the nutmeg, the A. forms what is called 
mace. In the spindle-tree (ewonymus ewropeus) it forms the remarkable orange-colored 
covering of the seed. 


ARINO’RI MORI. Sce Mort, ARINORI, 


_ ARI'NOS, a river of Brazil, which, after a n.w. course of 700 m., enters the Tapajos, 
itself an affluent of the Amazon, in lat. 9° 30’ s., and long, 58° 20’ w. 

ARI'ON, a celebrated lute-player, a native of Methymna, in Lesbos, about 700 B.c., 
was regarded by the ancients as the inventor of the dithyrambic meter. According to a 
tradition first given by Herodotus, and afterwards decorated by the poets, A. was sent 


A i . 
6 7 9 Ariovistie: 


by Periander, ruler of Corinth, to Sicily and Italy, and at Tarentum won the prize in a 
poetical contest. As he returned laden with gifts in a Corinthian ship, the avaricious 
mariners determined to slay him and seize his wealth; of this the poet-musician was fore- 
warned by Apollo ina dream. He asked for permission to try his skill in music; and 
after playing on his lute, threw himself from the deck into the sea. Here several dol- 
phins, charmed by his music, had assembled round the vessel. On the back of one of 
them the musician rode safely to the promontory of Tenarus, where he landed, and 
journeyed on to Corinth. The sailors who, arriving afterwards, assured Periander 
that A. was dead, were confronted with him, when they confessed their guilt, and were 
crucified. The lute and dolphin were raised among the constellations; and the story 
became a favorite theme with artists. A. W. Schlegel, in one of his best poems, gives 
this story of A. 


ARIOS'TO, Lupovico, one of the greatest of Italian poets, was b. at Reggio, Sept. 8, 
1474, being the eldest son of the military governor of that city. He was bred to the 
law, but abandoned it for poetry. However, at an early period of life, he was com- 
pelled to exert himself for the support of a large family, left as a burden on him at the 
death of his father. His imaginative powers were developed in early life. In 1503, 
after he had written two comedies, with several lyrical poems in Latin and Italian, he 
was introduced to the court of the cardinal Hippolytus d’Este, who employed him in 
many negotiations. Here, in Ferrara, in the space of about 10 years, he produced his 
great poem Orlando Furioso, which was published in that city, in 1 vol. 4to, in 1516, in 
40 cantos. After the death of the cardinal, the duke, his brother, invited the poet to his 
service, and acted to him with great kindness and liberality. In the early part of 1521, 
a second edition of his poems was published, the Orlando Furioso being still in 40 cantos, 
Shortly after, he was commissioned by the duke to suppress an insurrection which had 
broken out in the wild mountain-district of Garfagnana; a task which seems more like a 
punishment than a mark of honor. A., however, succeeded in this arduous undertaking; 
and after remaining three years governor of the quarter, he returned to Ferrara, where 
he lived comfortably, nominally in the service of his patron, but in reality enjoying 
what he highly prized—an abundant leisure for prosecuting his studies. It was at this 
time that he composed his comedies, and gave the finishing touch to his Orlando. At 
length, in the latter part of 1532, that poem made its appearance in a third edition, 
enlarged to its present dimensions of 46 cantos. He now became seriously ill of a pain- 
ful internal distemper, of which, after a few months of suffering, he d. on the 6th of 
June, 1533, in his 59th year, and was buried in the church of San Benedetto, at Ferrara, 
where a magnificent monument indicates the resting-place of hisremains. <A. is described 
as a man of noble personal appearance and amiable character. His Orlando Furioso is 
& romantic, imaginative epic, marked by great vivacity, playfulness of fancy, and inge- 
nuity in the linking together of the several episodes. It takes its name and its theme 
from achivalrous romantic poem by Boiardo, the Orlando Innamorato. That poem treats 
of the wars between Charlemagne and the Saracens, confounded as they .were by tra- 
dition with those of Charles Martel, wherein Orlando, or Roland, stood forward as the 
champion of Christendom. Orlando is the hero of Boiardo’s piece, and falls in love with 
Angelica, a clever and beautiful oriental princess, sent by the Paynim to sow discord 
among the knights of the Christian armies. The story of this lady being left unfinished 
in the Orlando Innamorato is taken up by A., who makes her fall in love herself with an 
obscure juvenile squire, on which Orlando gets furious, and long continues in a state of 
insanity. Besides his great work, A. wrote comedies, satires, sonnets, and a number of 
Latin poems, all more or less marked with the impress of his genius. In 1845, Giam- 
peri, a librarian of Florence, announced that he had discovered at Argenta, near Ferrara, 
an autograph manuscript by A., containing a second epic, Rinaldo Ardito, describing, 
like the Orlando, the battles of Charlemagne and his paladins against the Saracens. The 
manuscript had been mutilated, and contained in a complete form only the cantos 8, 4, 
5, while 2 and 6 were imperfect; and it was stated that the entire poem had consisted of 
12 cantos. The work was published under the title Rinaldo Ardito di L. Ariosto, Fram- 
mentt Inediti Pubblicati sul Manuscritto Originale, Florence, 1846. In genius and style, it 
has been found by critics by no means to accord with the Orlando. Of the Orlando there 
are three several translations into the English language: the first, by Sir John Harring- 
ton, appeared in the year 1634; the second, by John Hoole, in 1783; and the third, by W. 
Stewart Rose, in 1823 and following years. In the last only is there to be found a fair 
representation of the feeling and spirit of the original. 


ARIOVIS'TUS (probably the Latinized form of the German Heer-fiirst, army-prince), 
a German chief, leader of the Marcomanni and other German tribes, was requested by 
the Sequani, a Gallic people, to assist them in a contest against the Au.dui. Having 
gained a victory for the Sequani, A. was so well pleased with their fine country (now 
Burgundy), that he and his followers determined to abide there. Many other Germans 
followed him into Gaul, where he soon collected an army of 120,000 men. The Gallic 
people turned now for help towards the Romans, and Ceesar demanded an interview with 
A., who proudly replied, that ‘‘he did not see what Cesar had to do with Gaul.” After 
another message from Ceesar had been treated in the same scornful manner, the Roman 
forces under Ceesar advanced and occupied Vesontium (now Besancon), the chief city 


pete enti 680 


of the Sequani. A furious engagement took place (58 B.c.), in which Roman discipline 
prevailed over the German forces, which were utterly routed. A., with only a few 
followers, escaped over the Rhine into his own country. His subsequent history is 
unknown. 

ARISPE’, a t. in Sonora, the extreme n.w. department of the Mexican confederation. 
It is situated in the Sierra Madre, the western range of the Rocky Mountains, on the 
banks of the Sonora, which is said to lose itself in an inland lake. Its pop. is estimated 
at 2000. The surrounding district abounds in the precious metals, as also in cotton, 
wine, grain, and live stock. 


ARIS’TA and Arts’TATE. See Awn. 


ARIS’TA, MARIANO, 1802-55, a Mexican general. He commanded at the battle of 
Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, and was defeated by the Americans under Gen. Taylor. la 
1848, he was minister of war, and two years later president of Mexico. In 18538, Santa 
Anna led a successful revolution, as the result of which A. was deposed and banished. 


ARISTZ'US (from a Greek word signifying the dest), an ancient divinity whose wor- 
ship in the earliest times was widely diffused throughout Greece, but whose myth is 
remarkably obscure. According to the common tradition, he was the son of Apollo and 
Cyrene, the latter the granddaughter of Peneius, a river-god of Thessaly. She is said 
to have given birth to A. on the coast of Libya, in Africa, whence the region is alleged 
to have derived its name of Cyrenaica. Hermes placed the child under the protection 
of the Hore, the fosterers of cities, culture, and education. According to another tra- 
dition, A. was the son of the nymph Melissa, who fed the infant with nectar and ambro- 
sia, and afterwards intrusted his education to Chiron. The great diversities in the 
legend were probably caused by the fusion into one of separate local divinities, whose 
functions were similar, and whose histories were, in consequence, carelessly Ccommin- 
gled. After A. left Libya, he went to Thebes, in Boeotia, where he was taught by the 
muses the arts of healing and prophecy, and where he married Autonoé, the daughter of 
Cadmus, by whom he had several children. After the unfortunate death of his son 
Actzeon (q.v.), he went to Ceos, where he liberated the inhabitants from the miseries of 
a destructive drought by erecting an altar to Zeus Jemeus—i.e., the rain-maker. He 
now returned to his native land; but shortly after set out a second time on a voyage of 
beneficence. He visited the islands of the Aigean sea, Sicily, Sardinia, and Magna 
Grecia, leaving everywhere traces of his divine benignity. At last he went to Thrace, 
where he was initiated in the mysteries of Dionysus: and after a brief residence in the 
vicinity of Mt. Heemus, he disappeared from the earth. 

This myth is one of an extremely pleasing character, from the invariable beneficence 
which is attributed to A. It is less disfigured by anthropopathic errors than most of 
the myths of Greek divinities. A. was especially worshiped as the protector of vine 
and olive plantations, and of hunters and herdsmen. He also trained men to keep bee- 
hives, and averted the burning heats of the sun from the open fields. Later mythology 
often identified A. with the higher gods Zeus, Apollo, Dionysus. 


ARISTAR'CHUS or Samos, a celebrated ancient astronomer, of the Alexandrian 
school, who flourished 281-264 s.c. All his writings have perished, ex- 
cepting a short essay on the sizes and distances of the sun and the moon. 
In this he shows the method of estimating the relative distances of the sun & 
and the moon from the earth, by the angle formed by the two bodies at the 
observer’s eye at that moment when the moon is exactly half luminous. 
It will be obvious from a glance at the annexed figure that the three 
bodies must then form a right-angled triangle, of which the moon is at the 
right angle. The angle MES, then, being observed, it is easy to find the ratio 
between EM and ES. This is quite correct in theory; but the impossibility 
of determining when the moon is exactly half illuminated, renders the method 
useless in practice. Besides, in the days of A., there were no instruments 
for measuring angles with anything like accuracy. A. estimated the angle at 
E at 83°, and determined EM to be =, of ES; the truth being that the angle 
at E differs only by a fraction of a minute from a right angle, and that EM, the, 4 __ 
distance of the moon from the earth, is about 74, of ES, the distance of the ~ F 
sun. According to some accounts, A. held, with the Pythagorean school, that the 
earth moves round the sun; but this seems to be a mistake. Vitruvius speaks of A. as 
the inventor of a kind of concave sun-dial. 


ARISTAR'CHUS oF SAMOTHRACE, a grammarian, who lived, about 150 B.c., in 
Alexandria, where he founded a school of grammar and criticism, and educated the 
children of Ptolemy Philopator. His life was chiefly devoted to the elucidation and 
restoration of the text of the Greek poets, especially of Homer. The form in which we 
now have the Homeric poems preserved is in a great measure owing to his judgment 
and industry. The strictness of his critical principles has made his name a general term 
for a severely just and judicious critic. Being afflicted with an incurable dropsy, he 
ended his life by voluntary starvation at the age of 72. The fragments of his writings 
that have been preserved are to be found scattered through the scholia on Homer, first 
published by Villoison (Venice, 1788). 


i * 
681 aeistieaee 


ARIS TEAS, an entirely fabulous character, who may be styled ‘“‘the wandermg 
Jew” of popular tradition in ancient Greece. First we find A. teaching Homer; then, 
some ages afterwards, b. at Proconnesus, an island in the sea of Marmora. It is 
stated that having visited the Arimaspe, the gold-watching griffin, and the Hyperbo- 
reans, he died on his return home; but, soon afterwards, a traveler asserted that he had 
been met and accosted by A. Consequently, neighbors searched the house where the 
body of A. was supposed to be lying, but it could not be found. Seven years afterwards 
he appeared as an author, and wrote a poem entitled Avimaspeia, in three books, giving 
accounts of northern and central Asia, which were copied by Herodotus and others. 
After thus establishing himself as a poet, he vanished again; and after 840 years of 
mystery, reappeared at Metapontum, in the s. of Italy, where he advised the people 
to erect an altar to Apollo, and an altar to ‘‘the everlasting A.,” assuring them that, 
when Apollo founded their city, he (A.), in the form of a raven, had accompanied the 
god, and had assisted in the ceremony. In the early controversy of the Christian 
church, heathens sometimes quoted this tale of A. as a counterpart to the miracles re- 
corded in the New Testament. 


ARISTI'DES, surnamed ‘‘THE Just,” was the son of Lysimachus, and descended 
from one of the best families in’Athens. He was one of the ten leaders of the Athenians 
against the Persians at the battle of Marathon (490 B.c). It had been arranged that each 
leader (or strategos) should hold the supreme command for one day; but A., who saw 
the folly of this want of unity, induced his companions to give up their claims, and 
make Miltiades commander-in-chief, which proved the means of winning the battle. 
In the following year A. was chief archon, and in this position, as in every other, se- 
cured the general respect of the citizens. Some years later, probably because he had 
opposed the plans of Themistocles, that unscrupulous leader brought about the banish- 
ment of A. It is said that when an illiterate citizen, who did not know him personally, 
requested him to write his own name on the voting shell, he asked the man whether A. 
had injured him. ‘‘ No,” said the voter; ‘‘ but Lam weary of hearing him always styled 
‘the Just.’” A. submitted to the sentence with dignity, praying to the gods, as he left 
the city, that the Athenians might not have cause to repent of their decision. Only 
three years later, Xerxes, with an overwhelming force, had invaded Greece. A., hear- 
ing that the Greek fleet was surrounded by that of the Persians, hastened from gina 
to apprise Themistocles of the danger, and offer his aid. After taking a prominent part 
in the battle of Salamis, A. was restored to popular favor, and soon afterwards aided 
greatly in achieving the victory at Platezea, in which he commanded the Athenians. In 
477 B.C., he introduced a change in the constitution, by which all citizens, without dis- 
tinction of rank, were admitted to political offices. As showing the confidence reposed 
in A., it is related that Themistocles having announced that he had a scheme very ad- 
vantageous for Athens, but which he could not disclose in a public assembly, A. was 
deputed to consult with Themistocles on the subject. The plan was to secure the naval 
supremacy of Athens by burning all the vessels of the other Greek states, her allies, then 
lying in a neighboring harbor. A. reported to the people that nothing could be more 
advantageous than the plan of Themistocles, but nothing could be more unjust; and 
the matter was immediately rejected by the people. After a variety of,other public 
services, A. died in old age, and universally respected, 468 B.c., so poor that it is said 
his funeral had to be provided for by the public. He left a son and two daughters, for 
whom provision was made by state bounty. 


ARISTI'DES, Aitius, surnamed THErOopoRwsS, a Greek rhetorician, b. about 117 a.p. 
son of a priest of Zeus. He had a natural taste for rhetoric and public speaking, and 
won such renown for eloquence in Greece, Italy, Egypt, and Asia, that monuments were 
erected to him in several cities. He is said to have been very vain of his attainments in 
oratory. For 13 years he was afflicted with some strange nervous disease, apparently 
hypnotism, or nervous sleep, something like mesmerism. When Smyrna was destroyed 
by an earthquake, in 178, A. was living there, and wrote to the emperor Aurelius an elo- 
quent account of the catastrophe; the emperor responded with substantial aid for the 
sufferers, and for this the grateful Smyrneeans called Aristides the founder of the city, 
and erected to him a bronze statue. The only personal honor which he would receive 
was the appointment of priest of Esculapius, which office he held until his death about 
189 a.p. His works extant consist of orations and declamations, which show no great 
power, and two treatises on rhetoric. 


ARISTI'DES or THEBES, a Greek painter in the time of Apelles, about the middle 
of the 4th c. B.c., and brother of Nicomachus, who was-one of his teachers. He was 
noted for power of expression in his work, one of his finest pictures being that of a babe 
approaching the breast of its mother who was mortally wounded, and whose face shows 
her fear lest the child should find blood instead of milk. His works were bought at 
enormous prices, and one of them was the first foreign painting ever exhibited to the 
public in Rome. He left two sons, Nicerus and Ariston,‘to whom he taught his art. 

ARISTIP'PUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy among the Greeks, 
was the son of Aritades, a wealthy gentleman of Cyrene, in Africa, and was b. in that 
city about the year 424 8.c. Having come over to Greece to attend the Olympic games, 
he heard so much of Socrates, that he was filled with an eager desire to see the sage, and 


4 


Aristobulus. 2 
Aristolochia. 6 8 2 


hurried to Athens, where he became one of his pupils. He remained with Socrates up 
nearly to the last moments of the great teacher, though he does not at any period seem 
to have followed his doctrines or his practice. We know that subsequently he was the 
object of strong dislike, both to Plato and to Antisthenes, the stoic. He passed a consid- 
erable part of his life in Syracuse, at the court of Dionysius, the tyrant, where he 
acquired the reputation of a philosophic voluptuary. That his manners must have been 
at once extremely graceful and accommodating, is clear from the saying of his opponent, 
Plato, who declared that ‘‘ A. was the only man he knew who could wear with equal 
grace both fine clothes and rags.” Diogenes Laertius records a number of his dicta, 
some of which take the form of bons-mots, and indicate a sharp, cutting, lively, and self- 
complaisant nature. A. also lived at Corinth, in intimacy with the famous courtesan 
Lais, but towards the close of his life, he is supposed to have retired to Cyrene. His 
daughter Arete seems to have been a person of superior abilities, inasmuch as her father 
imparted his leading doctrines to her, and she to her son, A. the younger (hence called 
Metrodidaktos, ‘‘taught by the mother’), by whom they are supposed to have been sys- 
tematized. A., in all probability, published nothing during his life. He prided himself 
more upon spending his days in what he conceived to be a philosophical manner, than in 
elaborating a philosophical system for the benefit of the race. 

The Cyrenaic school, all the teachers of which were probably imbued with the spirit 
of A. and merely carried out his doctrines to their legitimate results, professed a great 
contempt for speculative philosophy, and for physical and mathematical knowledge. 
They confined their investigations to morals, and formed an ethical system completely 
in harmony with the gay, self-possessed, worldly, and skeptical character of their mas- 
ter. The chief points of the Cyrenaic system were: 1. That all human sensations are 
either pleasurable or painful, and that pleasure and pain are the only criterions of good 
and bad. 2. That pleasure consists in a gentle, and pain in a violent motion of the soul. 
3. That happiness is simply the result of a continuous series of pleasurable sensations. 
4. That actions are in themselves morally indifferent, and that men are concerned only 
with their results. Wieland in his historico-philosophical romance, Aristipp und einige 
seiner Zevtgenossen (A. and Some of his Contemporaries), presents us with a charming 
picture of the life and opinions of the great philosophical sensualist, who stood out in 
strong relief against the gloom and austerity of Antisthenes and the cynical school. See 
Wendt’s De Philosophia Cyrenaicd (Gott. 1842). 


ARISTOBU'LUS, an Alexandrian Jew who lived under Ptolemeus Philometer about 
175 B.C., and was considered by the early fathers as the founder of the Jewish philosophy 
in Alexandria. He was long considered the author of the Hvegetical Commentaries on the 
Books of Moses which went under his name, but it is now admitted that the work in 
question was the composition of a later period. Only fragments of it remain. It was 
intended to show that the oldest Greek writers borrowed from the Hebrew Scriptures; 
and to support this theory, numerous quotations were professedly taken from Linus, 
Museus, Orpheus, etc., of which the Christian apologists made abundant use. These, 
however, have long been considered forgeries, inasmuch as they do not exhibit a trace of 
the antique Greek spirit, but make the writers speak in the tone and style of the Old 
Testament. See Valckener’s treatise, De Aristobulo Judao (Leyden, 1806). 


ARISTOBU'LUS I., Prince of Judea, succeeded his father, John Hyrcanus, in 106 
B.C. The son took the title of king, the first instance of its assumption among the Jews 
after the Babylonian captivity. He murdered his mother, to whom his father’s will left 
the government, and imprisoned all but one of his brothers, and this one at a later 
period was put out of the way through the influence of Salome, the queen. During 
his reign he subdued the Itrurians and compelled them to adopt Jewish laws. It is 
supposed A the death of A. was hastened by remorse for the crimes which he had 
committed. 


ARISTOBU'LUS or CassANDRIA, probably the same with the Greek historian A., 
330 B.C. ; one of the companions of Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied in his 
Asiatic expeditions. He did not write his history until he was 84 years old, and he 
1 at 90. Subsequent historians, Arrian particularly, made free use of Aristobulus’s 
work. 

ARISTOCRACY (Gr. aristocratia, from aristos, best, and kratos, power) means etymo- 
logically the power or government of the best, noblest, or most worthy; and in the sense 
which it originally bore, A. had reference not to a social class, but to a form of govern- 
ment in which the sovereignty was placed in the hands of a minority of the citizens of 
the state, exclusive altogether of the slave population, which generally existed in anti- 
quity. It is in this sense also that we use it when we speak of the Italian states of the 
middle ages as aristocracies. In order to constitute an A., it was further necessary that 
the minority which composed it should consist of the highest class, in point not of wealth 
alone, but of birth and culture; the government of a minority in numbers simply, being 
known by the more odious name of an oligarchy. Were the whole government of 
England intrusted to the house of lords, even though that body were to become vastly 
more numerous than it is, so long as it did not include half of the whole adult males, and 
were not elective, but hereditary, England would be ruled by an A., and its rulers 
would be aristocrats actually. In this, its political sense, the term A, has never 


IO «6 Avistobulu 
683 Aristolochia 


been acclimatized in England, because the thing which it signifies has always -peen 
unknown. The territorial nobility, though possessing great influence in the government 
of the country, has, at every stage of its career,been controlled either by the crown from 
above or the commons from below; and thus it is that, though more important asa 
social influence than in any other country, the English A. has never assumed the form 
of a ruling-class. When used with reference to English society, the term A. has two 
significations—a narrower and a wider one. According to the first, it is nearly synony- 
mous with nobility. In this sense, it will be treated of under that head, and its relative 
subdivisions. According to the second, it is synonymous with gentry, and includes the 
whole body of the people, titled and untitled, above a certain very indefinite social line. 
Perhaps the nearest approximation which we shall make to a definition of A. in this, its 
proper English sense, will be by adopting that which Aristotle has given not of aristo- 
eratia, but of eugeneia, or good birth. ‘‘ Good birth,” he says, ‘‘is ancient (long inherited) 
wealth and virtue.” (Politic. lib. iv. c. 7.) The question as to the extent to which either 
of these qualities is requisite to constitute a claim to admission into the ranks of the A., 
is one to which probably not two persons, either within or without the pale, would return 
the same answer; but that the absence of either would be a ground of exclusion, is a 
point on which there will be little difference of opinion. No amount of mere wealth 
will, in general confer it either on a tradesman or his immediate descendants (see GENTLE- 
MAN); and scarcely any deeds, however noble, will give it to him who is not the possessor 
of inherited fortune. Neither Burns the gauger, nor Shaw the life-guardsman, has ever 
been regarded as an aristocrat, though nobody denies that the one was a poet, and the 
other a hero. But when the claim to recognition as an aristocrat has been inherited, it 
will scarcely be lost by the individual himself, however adverse may be his worldly 
circumstances, or however ignoble his conduct; and it is not difficult to imagine an 
elevation of moral tone which would confer it even on a beggar. 


ARISTOGEI'TON. See HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGEITON. 


ARISTOLO'CHIA, a genus of plants of the natural order aristolochiacee or asarinee, 
This order, which is dicotyledonous or exogenous, consists of herbaceous plants or 
shrubs, often climbing shrubs, and contains upwards of 180 known species, chiefly 
natives of warm climates, and particularly abundant in the tropical regions of South 
America. The leaves are alternate, simple, stalked, often with a stipule; the flowers axil- 
lary, solitary, hermaphrodite, of a dull color; the perianth at its base adhering to the 
ovary, tubular, sometimes regular, but generally very irregular; the stamens 6 to 12, 
epigynous (or inserted upon the ovary), distinct, or adhering to the style; the ovary is 
generally six-celled, with numerous ovules; the style simple, the stigmas radiating, as 
numerous as the cells of the ovary; the fruit dry or succulent; the seeds with a very 
minute embryo at the base of fleshy albumen.—The genus A. is distinguished by a 
tubular oblique perianth, generally inflated at the base, the mouth dilated on one side, 
and by stamens adherent to the style, so that it is included in the Linnean class gynan- 
dria. 'The species are mostly shrubby, and natives of tropical countries, some of them 
climbing to the summits of the loftiest trees. Several are found in the s. of Europe; 
one only, the common BrrtHwort (A. clematitis), occurs upon the continent as far n. 
as about lat. 50°, and is a doubtful native of England. It is a perennial plant, with 
erect, naked, striated stem—heart-shaped dark-green leaves on long stalks—the flowers 
stalked, and growing to the number of sometimes 7 together from the axils of the 
leaves, the tube of the perianth about 1 in. long, and of a dirty yellow color. It grows 
chiefly in vineyards, hedges, about the borders of fields, among rubbish, and in waste 
places. It has a long branching root, with an unpleasant taste and smell, which, with 
the roots of A. rotwnda and A. longa, two herbaceous species, natives of the s. of Europe, 
was formerly much used in medicine, being regarded as of great service in cases of 
difficult parturition, whence the English name. These roots possess powerful stimu- 
lating properties, and those of the southern species are still used as emmenagogues. The 
root of A. indica is used in the same way by the Hindoos.—A. serpentaria, VIRGINIAN 
SNAKEROOT, is a native of most parts of the United States, growing in woods. It has 
a flexuous stem, 8 to 10 in. high, bearing heart-shaped very acute leaves. The flowers 
are on stalks, which rise from the root; the orifice of the perianth is triangular. The 
root has a penetrating resinous smell, and a pungent, bitter taste. It has long been a 
fancied remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. It possesses stimulant and tonic proper- 
ties. It forms an article of export from the United States to Europe, and bears a high 
price, being highly esteemed as a medicine in certain kinds of fever.—Its reputation 
as a cure for serpent-bites is shared by other species, particularly A. angui'cida and A. 
gua'co (the guaco of Colombia), natives of the warmer parts of America. The juice has 
certainly the power of stupefying, and even of killing serpents; and it is said that a 
number of species are used by Egyptian jugglers, in order to their handling serpents 
with impunity.—Several South American species seem also to possess medicinal prop- 
erties analogous to those of the Virginian snakeroot.—A. sipho, a climbing shrub of 15 
to 20 ft.in height, a native of the southern partsof the Alleghany mountains, is frequently 
planted in the United States, in Britain, and on the continent of Europe, to form shady . 
bowers. It has very large heart-shaped leaves (a foot in breadth), of a beautiful green. 
The flowers hang singly, or in pairs, on long stalks; the tube of the perianth is crooked 


Arist es. 3 
Aristotle. 684 


in its upper part, inflated at the base, and veined with reddish-brown veins, having a 
snrt of resemblance to the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, for which reason the shrub is some- 
times called pipe-shrub, pipe-vine, or Dutchman’s pipe. The tropical species are distin- 
guished for their beauty and the peculiar forms of their flowers. Some of them are 


much prized ornaments of our hot-houses. 
To the natural order aristolochiaceew belongs also the genus ASARUM. 


ARISTOME'NES, a Messenian statesman and general, who commanded the army in 
the second Messenian war. He fought with success from the battle of Dera, 685, until 
668 B.c., when he was finally defeated, and returned to Rhodes, where bis son-in-law was 
one of the reigning princes. His fame lasted through many centuries. 


ARISTOPH ANES, the only writer of the old Greek comedy of whom we possess any 
entire works, was the son of one Philippus, and was b. at Athens about the year 444 
B.c. We know very little of his history. Plato, in his Symposium, relates that he was 
fond of pleasure—a statement which it is easy to credit when we consider the tendencies 
of his profession in all ages. It seems equally clear, however, from the vigorous and 
consistent expression of his convictions in his various works, and from the fear- 
less manner in which he assails the political vices of his day, that he was possessed of an 
honest and independent spirit. He appeared as a comic writer in the fourth year of the 
Peloponnesian war (427 B.c.). The piece which he produced was entitled Daitaleis (the 
Banqueters), and received the second prize. It ridiculed the follies of extravagance, and, 
like all his subsequent works, was pervaded by a contempt of modern life, and an admi- 
ration of the sentiments and manners of the earlier generations. Next year, he wrote 
the Babylonians; in which he satirized Cleon, the so-called demagogue, so sharply, that 
the latter endeavored to deprive him of the rights of citizenship, by insinuating that he 
was not areal Athenian. ‘This, in all probability, gave rise to the various traditions of 
A. having been born in Rhodes, Egypt, etc. Fragments of these plays remain. In 425, 
his Acharnians obtained the first prize. It was written to expose the madness of the war 
then waging between Athens and Sparta, and exhibits the feelings of the ‘‘ peace-party” 
in the former city. It is still extant. In 424 appeared Hippeis, the Knights or Horsemen. 
It was the first which the poet produced in his own name, and evinces the singular bold- 
ness of the author. It is leveled against Cleon, and presents us with a striking picture 
both of a vulgar and insolent charlatan, and of the fickle, cunning, credulous, and rather 
stupid mob over whom he precariously despotizes. It is related of this piece that, when 
no actor would undertake to play the part of the influential Cleon, A. himself imperson- 
ated the demagogue. Unfortunately for the character of Cleon, as well as that of the 
Athenian democracy, these caricatures and misrepresentations of A. have been received 
as historical pictures. How far they are from the truth, has been clearly shown by Grote, 
in his History of Greece. See CLEON. In 423, A. produced the Clouds, which, along with 
the Anights, are the two most famous of his comedies. They exhibit in overflowing rich- 
ness that fancy, wit, humor, satire, and shrewd insight which characterize this greatest 
of all Greek comic writers. The Clouds, however, displays at the same time the weak- 
nesses and limitations of A.’s mind. Its aim was to deride the pretensions of the new 
sophistical school, and to point out its pernicious tendencies. So far well. But A., who 
was no philosopher, demonstrates his own incapacity to appreciate the highest range of 
thought and character, by selecting no less a person than Socrates as the most perfect 
representative of a sophist. A., who was both religiously and politically conservative, 
had apparently no clearer conception of abstract truth than is involved in reverence for 
the sanctities of the past, the old gods, old traditions, old manners, and old sentiments. 
He had an instinctive hatred of innovations, and considered all equally pernicious. As 
he had represented Cleon the reformer as a vulgar innovator and demagogue, ruled by 
the lowest considerations, he makes the innovating views of Socrates also proceed from 
corrupt motives, veiled perhaps with more craft. Alcibiades is caricatured in this bril- 
liant comedy as a wildly extravagant youth, whose career of ruin is accelerated by the 
insidious instructions of Socrates; and a hint is thrown out towards the end of the piece, 
which unfortunately proved to be the ‘‘shadow” of a ‘‘coming event.” <A. represents 
the father of Alcibiades as about to burn the philosopher and his whole phrontisterion 
(subtlety-shop); and there can be little doubt that this dramatic vilification of the 
purest of heathen moralists led to that persecution which, twenty years later, culminated 
in his condemnation and death. In 422 appeared the Wasps, still extant, in which the pop- 
ular courts of justice are attacked; and three years later, in his Peace, he returns to the 
subject of the Peloponnesian war, which is ridiculed with great cleverness. In 414, he 
produced two comedies, Amphiaraus and the Birds, both of which caricature, in the live- 
fiest manner, the Sicilian expedition, then being meditated, but which proved so utter a 
failure. The Lysistrata belongs to the year 411, and exhibits a civil war of the sexes, as 
the monstrous issue of that in the Peloponnesus. In his Plutus and Ecclesiazusa, 
which respectively appeared in 408 and 392, true to his mission as the enemy of innova- 
tion, he assailed the new passion for Doric manners and institutions, and ventured to 
ridicule Plato, in that, however, in which the philosopher is weakest—namely, his polit- 
ical theory. Euripides, also, as the sophist among poets, is severely handled in the Frogs, 
which belongs to the year 405. 

A. wrote 54 comedies, of which only 11 are extant. He is acknowledged to stand far 


685 Aristomenes, 
+9) Aristotle. 


above all his contemporaries or successors of the middle and new comedy in wealth of fancy 
and beauty of language. His choruses sometimes exhibit the purest spirit of poetry: 
and Plato himself says that the soul of A. was a temple for the graces. The ingenu- 
ity which he displays in the mechanical artifices of verse is not less wonderful. Frogs 
are made to croak choruses, pigs to grunt through a series of iambics, and words are 
coined of amazing length—the Hcclesiazuse closes with one composed of 170 letters. It 
only remains to be added, what might naturally be expected, that the personalities i 
which A. indulged descend at times into coarseness and indecency, and that even the 
gods whom he undertook to defend are treated with levity, and placed in the most 
ludicrous lights. 

The comedies of A. have been edited by Brunck (1781-1783), Dindorf (1794-1826), 
Bekker (1829). They have all been translated into German by Voss (Brunswick, 1821), 
and there are several translations of single plays into English. 


ARISTOTELIA. See Maqut. 


ARISTOTLE was b. at the Grecian colonial town of Stageira, on the w. side of the 
Strymonic gulf (now the gulf of Contessa, in Turkey in Europe), in the year 384 B.c. 
He belonged to a family in which the practice of physic was hereditary. His father, 
Nikomachus, was the friend and physician of Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, father 
of Philip, and grandfather of Alexander the great. <A. lost both parents while he was 
quite young, and was brought up under the. care of Proxenus, a citizen of Atarneus, in 
Asia Minor, who was then settled at Stageira. It is to be conjectured that his educa- 
tion, such as it was, would take the direction of preparing him for the family profes- 
sion, and that whatever knowledge and power of manipulation attached to the practice 
of physic at that time would rank among his early acquisitions. In after-life, he occu- 
pied himself largely in the dissecting of animals, and was acquainted with all the facts 
that aad been derived from this source by others before him. It seems probable, how- 
ever, that he early abandoned the intention of following physic as a profession, and 
aspired to that cultivation of universal knowledge for its own sake, in which he attained 
a distinction without parallel in the history of the human race. 

In his 18th year (367 B.c.) he left Stageira for Athens, then the intellectual center of 
Greece and of the civilized world. Plato, on whom he doubtless had his eye as his 
chief instructor, was then absent at Syracuse in that extraordinary episode of his life, 
connecting him as political adviser with the two successive Syracusan despots—Diony- 
sius the elder, and Dionysius the younger—and with Dion. A., therefore, pursued his 
studies by books, and by the help of any other masters he could find, during the first 
three years of his stay. On the return of Plato, he became his pupil, and soon made 
his master aware of the remarkable penetration and reach of his intellect. The expres- 
sions said to have been used by Plato imply as much; for we are told that he spoke of 
A. as the ‘‘intellect of the school.” Unfortunately, there is a total absence of particu- 
lars or precise information as to the early studies of the rising philosopher. He remained 
at Athens twenty years, during which the only facts recorded, in addition to his study- 
ing with Plato, are, that he set up a class of rhetoric, and that in so doing he became 
the rival of the celebrated orator and rhetorical teacher, Isocrates, whom he appears to 
have attacked with great severity. It was in the schools of rhetoric that the young men 
of Athens got the principal part of their education for public life. They learned the 
art of speaking before the dikasteries, or courts of law, and the public assembly, witk 
efficiency and elegance; and incidentally acquired the notions of law and public policy 
that regulated the management of affairs at the time. We can easily suppose that A. 
would look with contempt upon the shallowness—in all that regarded thought or subject- 
matter—of the common rhetorical teaching, of which, doubtless, the prevailing excel- 
lence would lie in the form of the address, being artistic rather than profound or erudite. 
One of the disciples of Isocrates, defending his master against A., wrote a treatise 
wherein allusion is made to a work (now lost) on proverbs, the first recorded publication 
of the philosopher. 

The death of Plato (847 B.c.) was the occasion of A.’s departure from Athens. It 
was not extraordinary or unreasonable that A. should hope to succeed his master as the 
chief of his school, named the academy. We now know that no other man then exist- 
ing had an equal title to that pre-eminence. Plato, however, left his nephew Spensippus 
as his successor. We may suppose the disappointment thus arising to have been the 
principal circumstance that determined A. to stay no longer in Athens; but there are 
also other reasons that may be assigned, arising out of his relations with the Macedo- 
nian royal family at a time when the Athenians and Philip had come into open 
enmity. 

Whatever may be the explanation, he went in his 37th year, after a stay of nearly 
20 years in Athens, to the Mysian town of Atarneus, in Asia Minor, opposite to the 
island of Lesbos. Here he lived with Hermeias, the chief of the town, a man of sin- 
gular energy and ability, who had coaquered his dominion for himself from the Per- 
sians, at that time masters of nearly all Asia Minor. A. had taught him rhetoric at 
Athens, and he became in return the attached friend and admirer of his teacher. For 
three years the two lived together in the stronghold of Atarneus; but by treachery and 
false promises, the Rhodian Mentor, an officer in the Persian service, got possession of 


Arietoxenns. 6386 


the person of Hermeias, put him to death, and became master of all the places held 
by him. A. accordingly fled, and took refuge in Mitylene, the chief city of the neigh- 
boring island of Lesbos. He also took with him Pythias, the sister of Hermeias, and 
made her his wife. In a noble ode, he has commemorated the merits of his friend thus 
lost to him through the treachery of a Greek renegade. His wife, Pythias, died a few 
ears afterwards in Macedonia, leaving him a daughter of the same name. His son, 
ikomachus, to whom he dedicated his chief work on ethies—called, in consequence, 
Nikomachean Ethies—was born to him at a later period of his life by a concubine. 

After two years’ stay at Mitylene, he was invited (in the year 342 B.c., age 42) by 
Philip to Macedonia, to educate his son Alexander, then in his 14th year. What course 
of study Alexander was made to go through, we cannot state. He enjoyed the teaching 
of A. for at least three years, and contracted a strong attachment to his preceptor, 
which events afterwards converted into bitter enmity. The two parted finally when 
Alexander commenced his expedition into Asia (834 B.c.), and A. came from Macedonia 
to Athens, having recommended to the future conqueror, as a companion in his cam- 
paigns, the philosopher Calisthenes, whom he educated along with Alexander. Now at 
the age of 50, he entered on the final epoch of his life; he opened a school called the 
‘‘Lyceum,” from its proximity to the temple of Apollo Lyceius. From his practice of 
walking up and down in the garden during his lectures arose the other name of his 
school and sect, the Peripatetic. It would appear to have been his habit to give a morn- 
ing lecture to select pupils on the more abstruse subjects, and one in the evening of a 
more popular kind to a general audience. He may now be supposed to have composed 
his principal writings; but, unfortunately, there is nothing known of the dates of any 
of them. This crowning period of his life lasted twelve years. After the death of 
Alexander, the anti-Macedonian party at Athens obtained an ascendency, and among 
other consequences, an accusation was prepared against A., the pretext being impiety. 
With the fate of Socrates before his eyes, he chose a timely escape, and in the beginning 
of 822 B.c., took refuge at Chalcis in Eubcea, where, in the autumn of the same year, he 
died, aged 62.__He had long been afflicted with indigestion, and ultimately sank under 
this malady. His tomb is thought to have been discovered by Waldstein in 1890. 

The philosophy of A. differed from that of Plato on many points, especially in the 
fundamental doctrine termed the theory of ideas. The Platonic ‘‘ideas” or ‘‘forms” 
were conceived as real existences, imparting all that is common to the particular facts 
or realities, instead of being derived from them by an operation of the mind. Thus, 
the actual circles of nature derive their mathematical properties from the pre-existing 
‘‘idea,” or circle in the abstract; the actual men owe their sameness to the ideal man. 
A. was opposed to this doctrine throughout, although he always speaks of its author 
with respect, and sometimes with affection. ‘The whole method of A. was in marked 
contrast to the Platonic handling of philosophical subjects: he was a most assiduous 
observer and collector of facts, from which he drew inductions with more or less 
accuracy. Plato, on the other hand, valued facts merely in criticising the views that he 
was bent upon demolishing, and not as a means of establishing sound theories. 

The writings of A. may be said to have embraced the whole circle of the knowledge 
of his time. Many of them are lost; those that remain refer principally to the follow- 
ing departments. 

Astronomy, mechanics, physics, were treated of by him at some length; but here his 
failure was complete, if we look at his writings from the point of view now acquired. 
He was the victim of capricious fancies, based upon doctrines common among his 
contemporaries, accepted by him as principles of reasoning, and conducting him to the 
most unsound conclusions. His theory of the rotation of the sphere, the necessary per- 
fection of circular motion, of the impossibility of a vacuum, and the like, did more to 
confuse than to explain the phenomena of nature. Nor can it be said that the time was 
not ripe for putting these subjects on a rational basis; for he was very shortly followed 
by a series of men, who both observed and reasoned soundly respecting them, and laid 
the foundation of their great subsequent progress—namely, Euclid, Apollonius, Archi- 
medes, Eratosthenes, and Hipparchus. 

The thirteen books called metaphysics contain much profound thought, but are 
obscure and defectively arranged; indeed, neither the actual arrangement of the books 
nor the title which they bear, can be ascribed to A. himself. The subject to which they 
are devoted is ontology—the science of ens, quatenus ens—which he terms philosophia 
prima, and sometimes theology. He distinguishes three branches of theoretical philos- 
ophy. 1. Physics—the study of sensible material particular things, each of which differs 
from every other, and all of which have in themselves the principle of change or 
motion. 2. Mathematics—that of geometrical and numerical entities, known by general 
definitions, susceptible neither of change nor of movement, capable of being considered 
and reasoned upon apart from matter, but not capable of existing apart from matter. 
3. The first or highest philosophy—which studies the essences of things eternal, 
unchangeable, and apart from all that change, movement, and differentiation which 
material embodiment involves. 

The metaphysics, or first philosophy, does in fact deal with the extreme abstractions 
or generalities of all sciences. It is a collection, partly of doubts and difficulties, partly 
of attempted solutions, upon these last refinements of the human mind. It includes 


687 Aristoxenus, 
Arita, 


many valuable comments on the philosophy of Plato and others anterior to or contem- 
_porary with A. The general terms and subtle distinctions which this treatise first 
brought to view, were highly prized throughout all the philosophy of the middle ages. 

He appears in a very different light in his great work on animals. He has here 
amassed a stock of genuine observations, and also introduced a method of classification 
which continues to this day as the most approved groundwork of zoological classifica- 
tion. In this work we see perhaps, in the most advantageous light, the two great 
qualities of his mind, rarely coupled in the same individual—the aptitude for observa- 
tion and logical method. The excellence. shown in his various writings generally 
depends upon one or other of these qualities. 

His Organon or logic is his complete development of formal reasoning, and is the basis 
and nearly the whole substance of syllogistic or scholastic logic. This science he 
almost entirely created. Mr. Grote observes (History of Greece, part ii. chap. xviii.) 
that ‘‘ what was begun by Socrates, and improved by Plato, was embodied as a part of a 
comprehensive system of formal logic by the genius of A.; asystem which was not 
only of extraordinary value in reference to the processes and controversies of its time, 
but which also, having become insensibly worked into the minds of instructed men, has 
contributed much to form what is correct in the habits of modern thinking. Though it 
has now been enlarged and recast by some modern authors (especially by Mr. John Stuart 
Mill in his admirable System of Logic) into a structure commensurate with the vast 
increase of knowledge and extension of positive method belonging to the present day— 
we must recollect that the distance between the best modern logic and that of A. is 
hardly so great as that between A. and those who preceded him by a century—Empe- 
docles, Anaxagoras, and the Pythagoreans; and that the movement in advance of these 
latter commences with Socrates.” 

A considerable portion of his writings relate to the human mind and body. In 
one of these, a short treatise on Memory and Recollection, he gave the first statement of 
the laws of association of ideas. 

His treatises on rhetoric and poetics were the earliest development of a philosophy of 
criticism, and still continue to be studied. The same remark is applicable to his elabo- 
rate disquisitions on ethics. | 

Perhaps one of his greatest works is his Politics, based upon a collection made by 
himself of 158 different constitutions of state, and some say that he had arranged and 
digested as many as 360 constitutions. Here we see the spirit of the inductive observer, 
which indeed is no less apparent in the works mentioned in the last paragraph. By 
many he is regarded as the founder of political science, and several principles now 
accepted were first expounded by him. His analysis of the state and government into 
their elements is of great value and his classification of governments into monarchies, 
aristocracies, and democracies is still followed, though the mixture of forms at the 
present time, has deprived it of much of its former usefulness. The essence of his 
doctrine is summed up in his famous phrase, ‘‘ Man is a political animal,’’ which means 
that nature intended man to live in society and that his moral and mental development is 
dependent upon social environment. Another familiar principle which Arigtotle was the 
first to set forth, is that in the abuse of the principle at the basis of each form of govern- 
ment, lies its greatest danger. For example, the extreme of democracy verges on anarchy, 
and a monarchy is often in danger of becoming a tyranny. Slavery, he thought, was 
based on nature. Some men were born to rule others, the latter being naturally incapa- 
ble of self-government. It was therefore the part of justice to conquer and reduce to 
slavery those races which were unfit to govern themselves. The same idea which is at 
the basis of this principle of natural slavery, appears in his view of the political status 
of woman, whom he held to be fixed by nature in a condition of inferiority to man. 
His theory of the ideal state is wholly opposed to the communism which characterizes 
Plato’s Republic. He does not believe in permitting the absorption of the individual 
and family by the state. He prefers as a form of government a monarchy in which the 
ruler is wise and an aristocracy which is really a government by the best. These are 
more capable of realizing ideal government than a system in which wealth or numbers 
is paramount. Of politics in their international aspect he has little to say and confines 
his view to the internal welfare of a single state. In 1890, a papyrus in the British 
Museum was found to contain a treatise by Aristotle on the Constitution of Athens. It 
has been edited by Kenyon with notes and a translation (1891). 


ARISTOX’ENUS, of Tarentum, a pupil of Aristotle’s, and one of the oldest writers 
upon music, flourished about 330 years B.c. He was extraordinarily active and versatile 
in his literary studies, and is said to have composed upwards of 450 treatises on music, 
history, and philosophy. On the death of Aristotle, he fully expected to be appointed his 
successor, and is said to have been deeply mortified when Theophrastus was preferred ; 
but this statement is discredited by many. He founded a school of musicians, who were 
called after him, Aristoxeneans, and whose distinguishing characteristic was that they 
judged of the notes in the diatonic scale exclusively by the ear, while the Pythagoreans 
determined these mathematically. Except his E/ements of Harmony, in three books, which 
we still possess, only a few fragments of his writings survive in later authors. 


peste 688 


ARITHMETIC is the science that treats of numbers (Gr. arithmos). It is sometimes 
divided into theoretical and practical; the former investigating the properties of numbers 
and their combinations, the latter applying the principles so established, in the form of 
rules, to actual calculations. Some restrict the term A. to this art of reckoning, assign- 
ing the investigation of the principles to analysis. 

Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, A. made little progress, owing to their clumsy 
modes of notation. Few of their writingson the subject have come down to us; the 
most important are those of Euclid (7 to 10 B. of the Hiements), Archimedes, Diophantus, 
and Nicomachus. After the introduction of the decimal system and the Arabic or 
Hindu numerals (see NUMERALS), about the 11th c., A. began to assume a new form; but 
it was not till the 16th c. that the double rule of three, or compound proportion, was 
discovered, and decimal fractions were introduced. The invention of logarithms in the 
17th c. is the last great step in advance that the art has made. Passing over the 
elementary operations of addition, etc., the chief heads, such as Fractions, DECIMALS, 
PROPORTION, LOGARITHMS, etc., will be noticed in their proper places. 


ARITHMETICAL MEAN is that number that lies equally distant between two others; 
thus, the A. M. between 11 and 17 is 14, which is found by taking half their sum. 


ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION is a series of numbers that increase or diminish by 
a common difference, as 7, 10, 18, 16, 19, 22; or 12, 103, 9, 74, 6. To find the sum of 
such a series, multiply the sum of the first and last terms by half the number of terms. 
The series of natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., form an A. P., of which the difference 
is 1. 

ARITHMETICAL SIGNS are arbitrary marks or symbols used to denote the operations 
to be performed on numbers, or the relations existing between them. a. gr., 7-+ 5 
indicates that 7 and 5 are to be added together; 7 — 5, that 5 is to be subtracted from 7; 
7° that 7 is to be raised to the fifth power; 7+ 5 = 15 — 8, that when 7 and 5 are added 
together, the result is egwal to the difference between 15 and 3. The same signs are also 
used in algebra; and an enumeration and explanation of them may be found in almost 
any treatise on arithmetic or algebra. 


ARIUS, the celebrated founder of Arianism, was a native of Libya, and is generally 
supposed to have been b. shortly after the middle of the 3dcentury. About the year 306 
A.D., Alexandria was thrown into confusion by the violence of its religious disputes, and in 
these A. was largely mixed up. At first, he took part with Meletius, bishop of Lycop- 
olis, in upper Egypt, a man who was strenuously opposed to certain notions of disci- 
pline entertained by Peter, bishop of Alexandria; but afterwards he became reconciled 
to the latter, who made A. a deacon. The reconciliation, however, was brief. A. once 
more took the part of Meletius, and was excommunicated by Peter in consequence; but 
the iatter dying soon after, Achillas, his successor, restored A. to his office, and even 
advanced him to the dignity of a presbyter, 313 a.p. His new function required that 
he should interpret the Scriptures, and, as he possessed an abundance of natural gifts, 
united with great learning, it is not wonderful that his preaching should have become 
popular, and his peculiarities of opinion been vehemently embraced. The first time, 
however, that A. was brought into collision on a point of doctrine with his ecclesiastical 
superiors, was in 318 A.p. Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, and successor of Achillas, 
having ina public assembly of clergy, while speaking of the Trinity, said that it con- 
tained one single essence, or indivisible unity of substance, A. alleged that such a con- 
ception was impossible to the human mind, and accused Alexander of Sabellianism— 
i.e., of destroying the distinction of persons. The dispute grew hot, and a conference 
which was held to settle it only embittered the disputants. In maintaining his ground, 
ii. went beyond his first statement of the absolute distinctness of person between the 
Father and the Son; he maintained that the Son was not co-equal or co-eternal with the 
Father, but only the first and highest of all finite beings, created out of nothing by an 
act of God’s free will, and that he ought not to be ranked with the Father. 

A. was successful in securing the adherence of large numbers both of the clergy and 
laity in Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 821 a synod of bishops was held at Alexan- 
dria. These deposed and excommunicated A., and active measures were taken to let 
this decision be known over all the Christian churches; Alexander himself wrote num- 
erous letters (two of which are still extant), exhorting the bishops not to receive the 
“heretic.” In consequence of these violent steps, the breach was widened between 
both parties. To escape persecution, A. retired to Palestine, where he wrote a letter to 
his friend Eusebius, who was bishop of Nicomedeia, a city of Bithynia, and not far from 
Constantinople. Eusebius, one of the most influential Christians of his time, warmly 
sympathized with him; wrote in his behalf to Paulinus, bishop of Tyre, and others; 
absolved him from the Alexandrian synod’s excommunication; and in 323 convened 
another synod in Bithynia, which pronounced favorably on A. He even enlisted Con. 
stantine on the side of the latter, to this extent at least, that the half-pagan emperor 
addressed admonitions to both Alexander and A., assuring them that the point in dis. 
pute was a trifling one, and ought not to provoke a serious quarrel. While A. was 
residing at Nicomedeia, he wrote a theological work in verse and prose, called Thaleia, 
some fragments of which remain, and indicate an earnest and philosophic mind, but at 
the same time contain expressions which could not but pain a believer in the divinity of 


689 yet bp 


Christ. The Thaleta is said to have been sung by the Arian neophytes, who thus 
kindled the passions of their adversaries, and increased the virulence of the contest. 
The comedians, who were pagans, took advantage of the occasion to ridicule the 
Christian religion in the theaters. The officers of the emperor in several cities wished 
to repress this profane temerity, but the interference only created greater confusion. 

It now became impossible for the emperor to remain neutral or indifferent, with 
safety to himself, or to the tranquillity of the empire. Hosius, bishop of Corduba, whom 
he had appointed mediator betwixt Alexander and A., took part with the former, and 
reported unfavorably of A. The result was, that Constantine, in order, as he thought, 
to effect a final settlement of the question, convoked the memorable council of Nicewa 
(Nice, q.v.), in Bithynia, 825 a.p. Three hundred and eighteen bishops from almost all 
parts of the Christian world, but especially from the east, were present, besides numbers 
of priests, deacons, and acolytes. A. boldly expounded and defended his opinions. He 
declared in the most unambiguous manner that the Son of God was created out of 
nothing; that he had not always existed; that he was not immutable or impeccable; that 
it was through his free-will he remained good and holy; that if he had chosen, he could 
as easily have sinned as not; in a word, that he was a mere creature and work of the 
Deity. He further affirmed that the Son of God was not of the same substance with the 
Father; that he was not the ‘‘ Word” or ‘‘ Wisdom,” properly speaking; and that the 
Scriptures only attribute these names to him as they do to other created intelligences. 
These propositions were listened to with great calmness by the bishops, but the inferior 
clergy, or at least a majority of them, manifested the most violent opposition. The 
document containing his confession of faith was torn to pieces before his face. Argu- 
ments, however, of a more rational kind were also employed. Alexander was ably 
seconded by the young deacon, Athanasius, the equal of A. in eloquence, and in the 
power of his logic. It was principally by the reasonings of Athanasius that the council 
was persuaded to define, in the most precise manner, the doctrine of the Godhead—viz., 
the absolute unity of the divine essence, and the absolute equality of the three persons. 
All the bishops subscribed it except two, Theonas of Marmarica, and Secundus of 
Ptolemais, who had the heroism (for it must be considered such) to follow the banished 
A. into Ilyricum. 

An imperial edict was now issued commanding the writings of A. to be burned, and 
threatening with capital punishment all who should be convicted of concealing them. 
This change in the emperor’s sentiments as to the importance of the doctrine at issue is 
attributed by some writers to his recognizing the will of heaven in the harmonious con- 
sent of so many bishops. A more probable explanation is, that he anticipated the utmost 
social confusion from the collision of opinions, and resolved to crush that which was at 
once the youngest and the weakest, hoping thereby to remove the ground of disturbance. 
He was mistaken, however. At Alexandria, the Arians continued in a state of open 
insurrection, and began to league themselves with other condemned sects, for the pur- 
poses of mutual defense. The great influence of Eusebius was also exerted on behalf 
of the exiled heretic, as wéll as that of Constantia, the sister of the emperor, who had 
herself embraced Arian tenets, and in 328, permission was granted him to return from 
lllyricum. Constantine was very gracious, perhaps because he thought the chances of 
peace being restored to the community were now greater, for it had been represented to 
nim by Eusebius that the doctrines of A. did not essentially differ from those of the 
Nicene council. In 330 a.p., A. had an interview with the emperor, and succeeded in 
convincing him that Eusebius had only spoken the truth. In the confession of faith 
which he presented, he declared his belief that the Son was born of the Father before all 
ages, and that as the ‘‘ Word,” he had made all things both in heaven and earth. The 
emperor was satisfied, and sent orders to Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria, te 
receive A. into the communion of the church. This Athanasius refused to do, and a 
series of tumults was the consequence. Eusebius was greatly irritated. He called a 
synod of bishops at Tyre, in 335 4.D., which proceeded to depose Athanasius. The 
emperor was even prevailed on to remove the latter to Gaul, though he alleged as his 
reason that he wished to deliver him from the machinations of his enemies. In the 
same year, another synod met at Jerusalem, which revoked the sentence of excommuni- 
cation uttered against A. and his friends. Still the majority of the Christians of Alexan- 
dria clung to the doctrines of Athanasius, and resolutely resisted every effort to establish 
the new opinions among them. Disappointed in his expectations, A., in 336 A.D., pro- 
ceeded to Constantinople, where he presented the emperor with another apparently 
orthodox confession of faith; whereupon orders were issued to Alexander, bishop of 
Constantinople, to administer to Arius the holy communion on the Sunday following. 
This was considered a grand triumph by Eusebius and his friends, and when the day 
arrived, they escorted A., as a guard of honor, through the streets of the metropolis, 
When about to enter the temple in which it was intended that he should be received 
with solemn pomp, he retired a moment to relieve nature, but fainted, and died of a 
violent hemorrhage. His disciples declared that he had been poisoned, while the ortho- 
dox devoutly affirmed that God had answered the prayers of Alexander. 

A. was exceedingly handsome, but the harassing cares of a life spent in a continual 
struggle with his adversaries are said to have given him a worn and haggard look. His 
manners were graceful and modest; he was noted for even an ascetic abstinence, and the 


resets 690 


purity of his moral character was never challenged by a single enemy. A. is said to have 
composed songs for sailors, millers, and travelers, in popular measures, for the purpose 
of spreading his peculiar tenets ; but no traces of these survive. 

After the death of A., his followers rallied round Eusebius, now bishop of Constanti- 
nople (338), from whom they were styled Eusebians. The reconciliatory middle party of 
Eusebius of Ceesarea (d. 340 A.D.), who wished to end the great controversy by abstaining 
from allstrict dogmatic assertions on the matter, soon dwindled into insignificance between 
the two contending parties. Constans, who ruled the west after the death of Constantine 
(337), and Constantius, in the east, made an essay toward reconciliation, but it failed at 
the synod of Sardeis (847), where the occidental bishops gathered themselves round 
Athanasius in support of the homooustan doctrine (identity or sameness of substance), while 
in a separate council at Philippopolis, the oriental bishops asserted the homoioustan doc- 
trine (implying merely simdlarity of substance). Slight as might appear the verbal differ- 
ence between the two parties, the bitterness of the controversy was intense, and pervaded 
almost all departments of public and private life. Constantius having, by the death of 
Constans (350) and conquest over Magnentius (358), gained dominion over the west, the 
Arian cause, which he favored, triumphed at the synod of Arelate or Arles (858), and at 
that of Milan (855). These victories, however, were more apparent than real. The 
Nicene doctrine had still strong support on its side, and was strictly maintained by the 
banished Athanasius and his friends, while the Antinicseans, soon after their triumph, 
were divided into at least three parties. The old Arians, also styled Anomeeoi, or Heter- 
ousians, asserted, in the boldest style, their doctrine of ‘‘ distinct substances.’’ The 
semi-Arians (a large majority in the eastern church) maintained the homoiousian doc- 
trine of similar substances. A third party held the same doctrine with some qualification. 
Morally, the victory was leaning to the side of the Niceans. Julian the apostate 
(361-3863), in his hatred of the Christian religion, left all parties at liberty to contend as 
they pleased with one another, so that they did not interfere with his plans. Jovianus 
and his followers in the west, Valentinianus I., Gratianus, and Valentinianus II., extended 
full toleration to both parties. Arianism, at last, was virtually abolished in the Roman 
empire, under Theodosius in the east (879-395), and Valentinianus II. in the west. 
Among the German nations, however, it continued to spread through missionary efforts. 
Bishop Ulfilas, the translator of the Bible into the Meso-Gothic language, had been the 
means of converting the west Goths to Arian Christianity as early as 348 ; and they ad- 
hered to it until the synod of Toledo in 589. The east Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, the 
Sueviin Spain, and the Longobards also adopted Arianism ; but in all these instances 
the Nicene doctrine ultimately prevailed, most slowly among the Longobards, who re- 
tained the Arian creed until 662. The Arian controversy has never excited any great 
interest in modern times, though in England it was revived for a time by the writings of 
the learned Dr. Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), and also by Whiston, who d. in 1752. More 
recently, a part of the Arian doctrine, the denial of “‘ the eternal sonship,’’ was broached 
in the Wesleyan Methodist society by Dr. Adam Clarke and a few followers ; but it was 
soon suppressed by the conference. Pure Arianism can hardly now be said to exist. It 
has gradually lapsed into Unitarianism. See UNITARIANS. 


ARIZONA, a s.w. territory of the United States ; between lat. 31° 387’ and 387° n. ; 
long. 109° 3’ and 114° 25' w. ; bounded on the n. by Nevada and Utah; on thee. by 
New Mexico ; on the s. by Mexico (Sonora) ; on the w. by California and Nevada, from 
which it is separated by the Colorado river; length, 870 m.; breadth, 350 m.; gross area, 
113,920 sq. m. Its popular name is ‘‘the Apache State.”’ 

Long before its discovery by white men, A. was inhabited by a superior race, whose 
ruined cities, aqueducts, and fortifications are numerous in the valleys and cafions, and 
show that the population was large. In 1539 padre Marco de Nizan, with a companion, 
left the city of Mexico to explore the country now included in A. and New Mexico, being 
stimulated by rumors of its mineral wealth and of its populous ‘‘ Seven cities of Cibola.” 
The repert brought back was so favorable that in 1540 Vasquez de Coronado led an 
expedition thither, visiting the Moqui villages and New Mexican pueblos, and exploring, 
it is believed, as far n. as lat. 40°. The first colony was established about 1596. In 1680 
the Spanish were driven out of the country, but by 1695 had recovered nearly all of it, 
and about that date the mission of San Xavier was founded, and the presidio of Tulquson 
(Tucson). By 1720 a line of Jesuit missions and of ranches, presidios, and mining 
stations extended southward from Tucson, including the mission of St. Xavier, still 
existing, and the town of Tubac. Most, if not all, of the Indian tribes were visited by 
the Jesuits or the Franciscans, but no thorough exploration was made, and in 1775 the 
18 missions in what is now A. were all south of the Gila river. The hostility of the 
Apaches and other tribes prevented further advance, and outbreaks in 1802 and 1827, 
added to the disorder attending the Mexican revolution, led to the abandonment of the 
mines and ranches, and of the settlements, excepting Tucson and Tubac. In 1824 some 
trappers from Kentucky crossed A., by way of the Gila, to the Pacific coast—a route that 
was followed by emigrants to California in 1849. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
signed Feb. 2, 1848, A., then included in New Mexico, became the property of the U. 8., 
except the tract s. of the Gila, which was a part of the Mexican state of Sonora, and was 
not acquired till Dec. 30, 1858. (See GapspEN Purcuasg.) In J uly, 1861, the U. 8. 
troops withdrew, leaving A. exposed to the raids of Indians and renegade Mexicans. In 


AREA AND POPULATION OF ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO DE 
COUNTIES. 


(ELEVENTH CENSUS: 1899.) 


ARIZONA, 

Area in | Area in 

Square | Population. || Square | Population, 

Miles. Miles. 
ADACHDG.y ce sccn cans ees 21,050 4,281 EMMA eet ccdsessec feces 10,596 12,673 
Cochise....... eos sanse te 6,004 i. 95G2 HimDAle tes ae Coste ceee vi eO,c0U 4,251 
SSID So. ste cas ieotre cre va o's 3,212, 2.021 |; Yavapai. .cccccces cee} 29,200 8,685 
Graham eorc@@e +t 2e02eeee2 08 6,152 5,670 Yuma ee@een- 288 888206808 10,186 2,671 
Maricopa. e@eeeevee ee ere 9,892 10,986 es 
DIGHAVG isis atets occ ate dtvcets 11,332 1,444 pEOtAl acres cease asics « 112,920 59,620 

NEW MEXICO, 
Area in Area in 
Square | Population. Square | Population. 
iles. iles, 


—_— oo ee tee, | ee ee 


Bernalillo...........+.) 8,628 20,913 ||San Juan. .....0.--.-.| 6,008 1,890 


*Chaves . sacoutiecl ite since av once San Miguel...........| 13,246 24,204 
Chie ee 6,600 7,974 |ISanta Fé. ..ccsccccecs}u.2,292 248,062 
Dotia TAs. ctescesset) 9,092 UD 1OTRISIotiac stn eccheseeet asia sl LO 3,630 
yl OL anes ey a fe ath) Adee SOCOITO! veces secs es ces 15,476 9,595 
Grant ..... daericercese REO OUU DOG al LRORaeeae eespe es seme e 2300 9,868 


EU Dincoln® ccaasateecee tl eOaue 7,081 || Valencia... .....-ccess 8.900 13,876 
Mora te eeeeree 4,000 10,618 (= ee Seer 
Rio Rio Arriba...... Suen Mace 7,150 11,534 Total. oss Petar ee ile, 460 153,593 


cece ean Pea ele Sd is pl act ie a a bedi ee a, a ee eo eaters ill eked ah Rk a ay A ane de bals y ses ta shed Stab 


*Act creating Chaves and Eddy counties had not gone into effect on June 1, 1890. 


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1863, Feb. 24, the territory of A. was organized with 4 cos., and in this year a tract of 
12,225 acres w. of the Colorado was set off to Nevada. 

The greater part of A. consists of broad plateaus, elevated from 3000-7000 ft., and 
traversed by mountain chains, having in general a n.w. and s.e. direction. The most 
rugged portions are in the n.w. and s.e. corners, Among the central ranges are the 
Gila, Apache, Black Mesa, Sierra Prieta, and San Francisco, the last name lifting its 
main peak (Humphrey’s) to a height of 12,561 ft. With an average elevation in the n.e. 
of 5000 ft., the surface gradually descends toward the s.w., and toward the Mexican 
border sinks to a basin not over 2000 ft. above the sea, though even this region contains 
some mountains. The plateaus everywhere are dotted with mesas (table-lands with pre- 
cipitous sides) and with buttes and eminences worn by storms or running water into 
fantastic shapes. Of volcanic peaks, which are numerous, the San Francisco mountains 
form the principal group. Eastern A. has many park-like and very beautiful valleys. 
The only navigable river, the Colorado (q.v.), has as its chief tributaries the Little Colo- 
rado and Gila, and between the two receives only two small streams. The canons of 
the Gila and Colorado-Chiquito, or Little Colorado, the latter 2000-8000 ft. deep in one 
place, are scarcely less wonderful, though shorter, than the great chasm through which 
the Colorado flows. Hot and mineral springs are common. There are extensive lava 
beds in the n. Silver and gold are found in nearly every district. Other mineral prod- 
ucts are copper, lead, iron ore, zinc, nickel, platinum, cinnabar, antimony ; anthracite, 
bituminous, lignite and coking coal; rock salt, borax, agate, and malachite. The 
fauna include the grizzly and cinnamon bear, cougar, peccary, mountain sheep, ante- 
lope, two species of deer, squirrel, golden eagle, vulture, wild turkey, heron, and cross- 
bill ; also the rattlesnake and horned toad. -The climate is dry and healthful, but very 
hot, especially in the s.w. Prescott has a mean yearly temperature of 65 49°. The 
heaviest rains fall in July-Aug. and in Jan.—Feb., and the mean annual fall is 20 in: 
The Jand available for agriculture lies mainly in the central, e. and n.e., but large sec- 
tions elsewhere have been redeemed by irrigation. Wheat, corn, oats, alfalfa, and all 
fruits and vegetables of the temperate and semi-tropic zones are produced. Cotton, 
sugar-cane, tobacco, hemp, and rice grow in the warm valleys; and among fruits are 
the apple, plum, peach, orange, fig, olive, and grape. The agricultural productions in 
1896 were wheat, 333,500 bush., hay, 103,501 tons. Stock-raising and the fattening of 
hogs are important industries. In 1896, 12 railroads were operated with a total mileage 
of 1295. 

The leading religious denomination is the Roman Catholic, the Jesuits having es- 
tablished missions and schools, and worked for the conversion of the natives as early as 
1687. In 1896 the school enrollment was 12,883 children. There were the University 
of Arizona at Tucson, a normal college at Tempe, high schools at Florence, Prescott 
and Tucson, a reformatory for criminal offenders at Flagstaff, an intercollegiate school 
at Phoenix, an insane asylum at Phoenix, and a penitentiary at Yuma. The Indians 
numbered 38,000 and occupied five reservations. ‘The value of the metallic output was: 
gold, $5,200,000; silver, $1,105,855; copper, $7,121,033; and lead, $531,375. Phoenix, 
the capital, is pleasantly located in the Salt River Valley. Much has been done in this 
section by irrigation, and large orange groves and vineyards are the result. Tucson, the 
largest city, is in the Santa Cruz Valley, and has a large trade with Sonora. Pres- 
cott is in the rich mining region near the centre of the state; it has a delightful 
climate, being nearly 6000 feet above the sea level. Clifton, in the extreme eastern 
part, is in the midst of some of the richest copper deposits in the world. Globe, north 
of Tucson, and Bisbee, in the extreme southeastern corner, are both noted for their 
copper Wore Tombstone, also in the southeastern corner, is in the midst of rich silver 

eposits. 

The Governor and executive officers are appointed by the President. The legislature 
meets biennially, and comprises a council of twelve members, and a house of twenty- 
four members, elected by the people. There is a Supreme court of four judges, 
appointed by the President. The registration of votes is required. Woman suffrage 
exists in a limited way. The legal rate of interest is seven percent. Judgments out- 
law in five years; notes in five years, and open accounts in three years. Wilful neglect, 
drunkenness, cruel treatment, abandonment for six months, are the chief causes for 
divorce: required residence, six months. The principal Indian tribes are the Moqui 
and Zuni (cliff-dwellers) and Navajos in the n. e.; the Pimas and Maricopas on the 
Gila; the Papagoes near Tucson; the Mohaves on the Colorado; the Yumas near Fort 
Yuma, and the Hualapais near the grand cafion. In 1896, the Apache, Mohawk and 
Yuma Indians on the San Carlos reservation ceded to the government part of their 
lands containing valuable coal fields. The total pop. of A., 1880, was 40,440. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 59,620. There are 12 cos. The largest cities (pop. 1890) are Tucson, 5150; 
Phoenix, 3152; Prescott, 1759; Yuma, 1773, and Tombstone, 1875. 


ARK, a term in the Bible for three objects: Noah’s A., the A. of bulrushes in which 
Moses was laid, and the A. of the Covenant (see ARK OF THE COVENANT). Noah’s A, 
was not a ship, but more like a barge, intended not to sail, but only to float. Its shape 
was that of a parallelogram, 300 cubits long, 50 wide, and 30 high; but the length of the 
cubit is unknown, and it is impossible to ascertain the dimensions of the craft. Dr. 
Robinson concludes that it was an oblong house of three stories, with a flat or slightly 
inclined roof, a door in the side, and one or more windows in the roof. Many nations 


692 


Arkansas. 


have the common tradition of the preservation of their ancestors in an A. or some vessel 
which would float on the water. The A. of bulrushes was really of papyrus reed, of 
which Pliny says the Egyptians ‘‘ weave boats ;” such boats were light and noted for 
swiftness. The slime, with which the A. of B. was covered, was for the purpose of 
keeping out the water. 

ARKANSAS, as. central state and the 12th in order of admission ; between lat. 33° 
and 36° 30’ n. ; long. 89° 45’ and 94° 40’ w.; bounded on the n. by Missouri ; on the e. 
by Missouri, and separated from Tennessee and Mississippi by the Mississippi river ; on 
the s. by Louisiana ; on the s.w. by Texas ; and on the w. by Indian territory ; length 
from n. to s. about 242 m.; av. breadth, 225 m.; land area, 53,045 sq.m. or 33,948,800 
acres; water area, 805 sq.m. It is popularly called ‘‘ the Bear State.” 

Hisrory.—The name A., pronounced Ar’-kansaw, was that of an Indian tribe found 
by the first explorers within the limits of the present state. About 1685, Frenchmen who 
had come with or followed Bienville settled at Arkansas Post. A. formed a part of 
Louisiana territory till 1812 ; then was included in Missouri territory till March 2, 1819, 
when it was organized as A. territory, including Indian territory. In 1836, June 15, it 
became a state. In 1861, Feb. 8, the state officers seized the arsenal at Little Rock; on 
April 23, Fort Smith, and on April 24, the arsenal at Napoleon, A convention met on 
May 6, and passed the ordinance of secession, 69 to 1. The confederates were defeated 
at Pea Ridge or Elk Horn, March 6-7, 1862, and at Prairie Grove, Dec. 7. Helena was 
occupied by union forces, and in 1863, Jan. 11, Arkansas Post was captured, as was 
Little Rock, Sept. 4. In 1863, Oct. 30, union delegates from 20 cos. met at Fort Smith 
to take steps to reorganize the state government, and in 1864, Jan. 8, a larger convention 
met at Little Rock, when a constitution was formed, which was accepted by the people, 
March 14-16, by 12,177 to 226 votes, but was not accepted by congress. Under the re- 
construction act of 1867, A. and Mississippi were constituted the 4th military district, 
and by order of Gen. Ord a registration of voters was made, and delegates were elected 
to a constitutional convention. This met, Jan. 7. 1868, at Little Rock, and framed the 
present constitution, which was ratified, March 13, by a small majority. On June 22d 
the state was readmitted to the union. In April, 1874, an armed collision occurred be- 
tween the adherents of the candidates for governor ; federal aid was invoked, and Pres. 
Grant formally recognized Baxter, Republican, as the lawful governor. In June the 
people voted to hold a convention to revise the constitution of 1868 ; accordingly a new 
one was framed, and the organic law of the state restored, in the main, toits antebellum 
state. This constitution was ratified Oct. 13 by a majority of 53,890 votes out of 103,504 cast. 

Topocrapuy.—The surface in thee. is level, broken by swamps and small lakes, and 
along the Mississippi subject to overflow. Thecentral portion is rolling ; inthe w. and 
n. w. are the Ouachita, Boston, Ozark, and other ranges (1500-2000 ft.) ; isolated peaks 
approach 8000 ft. Besides the Arkansas (q.v.), the chief rivers are the St. Francis, Big 
Black, White, Ouachita, and Saline. The Red River forms the s. w. boundary for a short 
distance ; the St. Francis, part of the boundary between A. and Missouri. The Big 
Black, 350m. long, is navigable for about 100 m.; White River, 600 m., is navigable for 
small steamboats for 260 m. Hot and mineral springs are numerous. The celebrated 
Hot Springs of Arkansas in Garland County, southwest of Little Rock, have a world- 
wide reputation for rheumatism and similar diseases. They are owned by the United 
States government, and comprise about one hundred springs, varying in temperature 
from 93° to 160° Fahr. The government has established a large Army and Navy Hospi- 
tal here for disabled officers and soldiers. 

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.—The principal formations are the lower Silurian in the 
n,; the sub-carboniferous, overlaying this, on the s., itself passing under the coal 
measures ; the cretaceous in the s.w. ; and the tertiary (marl beds and eocene lime- 
stones), overlaid by quaternary sands and clays. A deposit of semi-bituminous coal, 
covering an area of 12,000 sq.m., extends from the w. border of the state, eastward, over 
12cos. Whetstone rocks, from which the finest grade of whetstone and razor-hones are 
made, cover a large area in Garland and adjoining counties. The manganese ore found 
in this state is the most valuable in the Union, being especially adapted to the manu- 
facture of Bessemer steel. Marble, equal to the Tennessee marble, occurs in large quan- 
tities. There are found also antimony, iron ore, lead, alabaster, copper, granite, free- 
stone, kaolin, lignite, mar], oilstone, mineral ochres, slate, rock crystal, silver, gold, and salt, 

ZooLtogy.—The fauna include the deer, Texan wolf, bear, panther, wildcat, raccoon, 
peccary, beaver, wild hog, and coyote ; the eagle, hawk, wild turkey, grouse, quail, and 
paroquet ; the shad, bass, pickerel, wall-eyed pike, perch, and catfish ; the moccasin 
snake, rattlesnake, and alligator. 

_ Borany.—The uplands of the Mississippi and St. Francis produce the black walnut, 
hickory, ash, elm, white oak, gum, maple, pecan, haw, and sassafras ; the lands annually 
overflowed, the gum, oak, hickory, etc. ; the deep swamps, ash, elm, hickory, cypress, 
water oak, and willow. Inthe Arkansas valley are found the red cedar, cotton-wood, 
maple, willow, red, pin, and chestnut oak, mulberry, and papaw. Among other trees 
and shrubs are the butternut, Spanish oak, tulip-tree, persimmon, holly, laurel, palmetto, 
and osage orange. 

SOIL AND CLIMATE.—In the uplands of the n.e. part of the state, a light sandy soil 
predominates ; in the lowlands subject to overflow a black friable soil called ‘‘ buckshot.” 


AREA AND POPULATION OF ARKANSAS BY COUNTIES. 


(ELEVENTH CENSUS : 1890.) 


Area in 

Square | Population, 

Miles. 
ARRAUBSSE css oss vnetins 1,062 11,432 
ROU faa sw ane. 04 o's pies 927 13,295 
DSARUCT wise we oidea'e 0.0 ins 545 8,527 || 
GM SGT Er ae Oe Soteutee ft 891 27,716 | 
TUES Be cae he oe wna e's 672 15,816 
PAGO Vicrs wie cect es ssc TOO ee ak 
CalnGuives 2s aunt ue co's 575 7,267 
COMPPOIL Ss alc er cress «'s 659 17,288 || 
ASIGGEL aire aie cee es 760 11,419 
BYES yy oy a re a 905 20,997 
SHUG Yulee ace aie et gee Neate 376 568 12,200 
SIE UUINGs cae ckelec sis: ore 558 7,884 
Cleveland reste ccc aos 693 11,362 
CSGiitin Dice e nee a | 825 19,893 | 
OTEWAY og stateless eae 493 19,459 
(STaIPUGAU: «esss ccs aces 668 12,025 
CTA WIOIU  !ouc sighs ese 582 21,714 
CUTIELETICOIS otic oa wore 51 614 13,940 
Crosss are GA gh bee 672 7,693 |: 
WIHUGE eva cece eee oes 676 9,296 
TIGR eels. « cisote teva os 733 10,324 | 
MITC Wares is se seree wos 202 17,352 
RRUIRNEr... soos 6 NPE 623 18,342 
PTT te te lie-s o wio ows 672 19,934 
UTI LOU atetaseie sic bile & i sere 649 10,984 | 
RPATIAT eC cele abs be s sins! che 622 15,328 
CATA ss ve crs ba en pee 617 7,786 
UCIEEDUS stew acar sets cs 591 12,908 


IPEM DSLCAG = se weea a's « 742 22,796 
EIQUO DIU. wecsca ees oo 626 11,603 
HOWSTOs s st cae eece ee 629 13,789 


Independence......... 736 21,961 
IZATUL ose crs ces 547 13,0388 
VACKSON s cwinc ent eee as 619 15,179 
WEILOTSON: c2.a vee ceute s 840 40,881 
WOnNSON,. «ds> oe does ae 612 16,758 
Eatayette.s: ccsceacse 497 7,700 
TGAWIEDCOvs «so ace Sores 574 12,984 


RGR icle's's sh 0% Os 0 eae cen 606 18,886 


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20,774 
19,263 
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OOPYRIGHT, 1891, BY DODD, MEAD & COMPAN™: 


iat HIBRARY 
CONYERSHTY OF ILLINOIS 
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693 Arkansas, 


In central, n. and n.w. A. much red loam occurs, and many portions are too sterile for 
any ee but grazing. The higher lands of the Arkansas valley, from Indian territory 
to Little Rock, are composed of a dark sandy loam ; while below the city a sandy, some- 
times clayey soil borders the river, joined on the s. by black, sandy, and buckshot soils, 
the richest in the state, and yielding from 2000-8000 Ibs. of seed cotton per acre. The 
bottom lands of the Red River valley contain a black sandy loam, or red, sticky clay. 
A yellow loam is characteristic of some of the southern cos. Except in the swampy 
districts, the climate is pleasant and healthful; mean summer temperature, 79.33° ; 
winter, 43°.. The snowfall is light, and prolonged droughts are unknown ; av. annual 
rainfall, Fort Smith, 40.36 in. ; Washington, 54.50. 

AGRICULTURE.—The lowlands of the east and south, especially the river valleys, are 
remarkably fertile, producing over 950,000 Ibs. of tobacco and 830,000 bales of cotton 
annually. On the long stretches of prairies between Little Rock and Memphis are 
raised great numbers of live-stock, valued at $34,021,940. The hilly section of the south- 
west is also adapted to cattle-raising, as well as to fruits and the cereal crops. The farm- 
ing lands of the uplands produce immense crops of corn, wheat, and oats, valued about 
$88,000,000 annually, and in recent years fruit-growing has received much attention, 
especially in the northwest, where apples, peaches, grapes and other small fruits of the 
finest varieties are most successfully grown. Other important exports in the state are 
lumber, sweet potatoes, hay, sorghum and molasses, honey and wine. 

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS IN 1896. 


Corn, 29,723,854 bush., value $10,997,826 Potatoes, 1,468,274 bush., value $778,185 — 
Wheat, 1,260,720 ‘ - 895,111 Hay, 187,632 tons, ‘* 1,414,745 
Oats, 5,075,456 ‘ UC 1,573,391 * Tobacco, 1,327,500 lbs., oe 146,025 
Rye, 22,940 * % 16,058 


MANUFACTURES. —The manufactures of the state are small and insignificant as com- 
pared with the amount of raw material, much of which is now shipped to other states. 
The principal manufactures are brick and tile, cotton-seed oil and cake, flour, lumber, 
foundry and machine-shop products, saddlery and harness. Over $60,000,000 capital is 
invested, of which the flour and lumber mills employ a large percentage. 

CoMMERCE.—The foreign commerce is carried on chiefly through the port of New 
Orleans. The annual export of cotton is nearly $30,000,000. From the forests come 
about $20,000,000 worth of lumber annually, large quantities of which go to Europe, 
while vast shipments of yellow pine, known as ‘ Georgia pine,’’ go to the northern 
states. The many navigable rivers are favorable to domestic commerce. 

BAanxks.—In Oct., 1896, there were 9 national banks (capital $1,220,000, reserve 
$489,123), and 21 state banks (capital $888,682, resources $2,961,423, surplus $413,368). 

RAILROADS.—The first railroad in the state was not completed when the Civil War 
broke out in 1861, but in 1896 there were over 2500 miles of track. The Missouri-Pacific. 
system has a number of lines running in different directions through the state. The 
St. Louis and Southwestern Railway system, known as the ‘‘ Cotton Belt Route,’’ and 
whose main line crosses the state diagonally from northeast to southwest, has also a 
number of branches. The St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, crossing the north- 
western section of the state, has a large and increasing trade; this road passes through 
the Boston mountains by means of long tunnels and galleries. 

RELIGION, EDUCATION, ETC.—The leading denominations are Baptist, Methodist, 
Presbyterian, Union, and Roman Catholic. In 1895 there were 448,941 children of school 
age; 299,292 pupils enrolled in public schools; 5,254 school buildings; 6,920 teachers; 
public school property valued at $2,113,123; and expenditure, $1,291,108. For normal 
training there were 5 public and 3 private schools. The institutions for higher educa- 
tion included the Arkansas Industrial University at Fayetteville; Shorter University, 
Arkadelphia; Little Rock University, Little Rock; Arkansas College, Batesville; Arkan- 
sas Cumberland College, Clarksville; Hendrix and Central Baptist Colleges, Conway; 
Philander Smith College, Little Rock; Ouachita Baptist College, Arkadelphia; Baptist 
College, Mountain Home; Franklin Female College, Ozark; Buckner College, Witcher- 
ville; Subiaco College, Spielerville; Searcy College, Searcy; and Arkansas Female Col- 
lege, Little Rock. The institutions for the colored race were Shorter University (Af. 
Meth.); Arkadelphia Academy (Bapt.); Arkansas Baptist College; Philander Smith 
College (Meth.); Arkansas Normal College, Pine Bluff (non-sectarian); and Southland 
College, Southland (Friends). In 1896 there were 250 periodicals, 26 daily and 198 
weekly; and 1,742 post-oflices. 

GOVERNMENT, ETC.—The capital is Little Rock. One year’s residence in the state, 
six months in the county, and thirty days in the township, village or ward entitles one 
to vote. Registration of voters is prohibited in this state by constitutional provision. 
Elections are held every two years on the first Monday in September. New ballot laws 
based on the Australian system went into effect in 1891. There are thirty-two State sena- 
tors, each elected for four years, and one hundred representatives, each elected for two 
years; they receive $6 per day and .20 mileage. The legislature meets biennially. All 
state officers are elected for two years. 

The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court with five judges, each elected for six 
years; a chancery court and sixteen circuit courts. Each county has a probate and a 
county court ; each township two magistrates’ courts. The legal rate of interest is six 
per cent. ; ten per cent. is allowed by contract. Judgments outlaw in ten years, notes 
in five years, and open accounts in three years. The principal causes for divorce are, 
wilful desertion for one year, habitual drunkenness, and conviction of felony or other 
infamous crimes. 

A. has two senators and five representatives in Congress. The electoral votes 


Ark Se 
Arloncen 6 9 4 


have been cast as follows: in 1836 and 1840, for Van Buren and Johnson, 3; 1844, Polk 
and Dallas, 3; 1848, Cass and Butler, 3; 1852, Pierce and King, 4; 1856, Buchanan and 
Breckenridge, 4; 1860, Breckenridge and Lane, 4; 1864, no vote; 1868, Grant and 
Colfax, 5; 1872 (6 votes not counted) ; 1876, ‘Tilden and Hendricks, 6; 1880, Hancock 
and English, 6; 1884, Cleveland and Hendricks, 7; 1888, Cleveland aud Thurman, 7; 
1892, Cleveland and Stevenson, 8; 1896, Bryan and Sewall, 8. 

The National Guard contained (1897) 945 officers and men, chiefly infantry; the total 
force liable to military duty was 205,000. 

FrInances.—In June, 1896, the recognized bonded debt and overdue interest thereon 
aggregated $4,438,995, about one-half of which was held by the United States Govern- 
ment, against which the state had claims. Assessed valuation (1895), $173,758, 764. 

Pusuic InstiruTions.—The state institution for the blind, that for deaf mutes, 
and the penitentiary are situated at Little Rock. 

PoPULATION.—In 1810, 1062, white; 1820, 14,255; 1840, 97,574; 1860, 485,450 — 
111,115 slaves; 1880, 802,525—210,666 colored; Indians, 195; foreign born, 10,350; 
males, 416,279. Pop. 1890, 1,128,179. There are 75 cos.; for pop. 1890, see census 
tables vol. XV. Largest cities, 1890, are: Little Rock, 25,874; Fort Smith, 11,311; 
Hot Springs, 8086; Eureka Springs, 3706; Helena, 5189, and Texarkana, 3528. 

ARKANSAS, a co. in eastern Arkansas, on the Arkansas and White rivers; 1062 sq. m. ; 
pop. ’90, 11,432. Co. seat, De Witt. 

ARKANSAS CITY. A town in Cowley county, Kansas, at the junction of the Arkansas 
river and Walnut Creek, 268 miles southwest of Kansas city and 14 m. s. of Winfield. 
It was settled in 1870. It has good railroad connections by the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fé, Missouri Pacific, and the St. Louis and San Francisco railroads. <A canal 
takes water from the Arkansas, four miles above the city, and furnishes ample water- 
power for manufacturing. Flour, lumber, chairs, windmills, mattresses, and other arti- 
cles are produced, and the city has most of the trade of the Indian agencies and military 
posts in Indian territory. It has churches, banks, newspapers, public schools, and cor 
tains the machine shops of the A. T. & S. F. railroad. Pop. 1890, 8347. 

ARKANSAS’ RIVER, next to the Missouri the largest affluent of the Mississippi. It 
is 2000 m. long, rising in the Rocky mountains on the borders of Utah, and joining the 
**father of waters” in lat. 33° 54’ n., and long. 91° 10’ w. Notwithstanding this, how- 
ever, the A. is navigable for steamboats, during nine months of the year, to a distance 
of 650 m. from its mouth. 


ARK’'LOW, a t. in the s.e. corner of Wicklow co., Ireland, in lat. 48° 40' n., and long. 
4° 38’ w., at the mouth of the river Avoca, which is crossed here by a bridge of 19 arches. 
Near the town is Shelton abbey, the seat of the earl of Wicklow. Pop. ’81, 4777, 


ARK OF THE COVENANT, ARK oF THE TESTIMONY, or ARK OF JEHOVAH, one of 
the most important parts of the furniture of the tabernacle. which, by divine direction, 
the Israelites constructed in the wilderness, and afterwards of the temple built by Solo- 
mon at Jerusalem. A description of it is to be found in Exodus xxv., in the command 
given to Moses for its construction; and also in Exodus xxxvii., from which it appears 
that it was achest of shittim-wood (very generally supposed to be the wood of a species 
of acacia, but by some regarded as more probably that of the wild-olive), overlaid with 
gold within and without, two cubits and a half in length, one cubit and a half in breadth 
and in height—that is, according to the common estimate of the length of the cubit, 3 ft. 
9 in. inlength, and 2ft. 8in. in breadth and height—the lid being formed entirely of pure 
gold, with a crown or raised border of gold round about. Within the ark was deposited the 
“testimony,” consisting of ‘‘ the two tables of the law,” i.e., the stone tablets upon which 
the ten commandments were inscribed. The golden lid of the ark was called the mercy- 
seat or propitiatory ; above it were the cherubims (see CHERUB), made of the same piece of 
gold with it, and between them the place of the Shechinah or manifestation of the divine 
presence. The ark had also golden rings, through which passed staves of shittim-wood, 
overlaid with gold, for carrying it in the journcyings of the Israelites, concerning which 
very particular rules were laid down (see Numbers iv.). Whilst being carried from one 
place to another, it was covered first with a ‘‘covering of badgers’ skins,” and above 
this with ‘‘a cloth wholly of blue;” and in the tabernacle and temple it was put into the 
‘‘most holy place,” into which the high-priest alone was to enter upon the ‘‘ day of 
atonement.” ‘The ark was called the A. of the C., because it was the appointed symbol 
of the presence of God as the God of Israel, and of his covenant with his people. The 
things of the Jewish dispensation being regarded as typical, and the Jewish religion as 
essentially one with the Christian, the ark is commonly regarded as a type of Christ; 
the excellency and unchangeableness of the moral law, as indicated by the place assigned 
to it within the ark, which, however, sprinkled with the blood of typical sacrifice, was 
interposed between it and men, who, having transgressed it, were exposed to its curse; 
and the mercy-seat, in like manner sprinkled with the blood of sacrifice, was interposed, 
as it were, between the law and God, who is represented in the Old Testament as 
“dwelling between the cherubims,” and thence shining forth as the God of mercy, favor- 
able to hisworshipers. A complete harmony is thus made out between these Old Testa- 
ment types and Christian theology. 


ARKO'NA, the n.e. promontory of the island of Riigen, in the Baltic, almost the most 
northern extremity of Germany. 


695 mee 


ARK’WRIGHT, Sir RicHarp, celebrated for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was 
b. at Preston, in Lancashire, Dec. 23, 1782. Of humble origin, the youngest of 13 
children, and bred to the trade of a barber, his early opportunities of cultivation were 
exceedingly limited. In 1760, he gave up his business as a barber in Bolton, and became 
adealer in hair. A secret process for dyeing hair, said to have been discovered by him- 
self, increased considerably the profits of his trade. Very little is known regarding the 
first movements of his mind in the direction of mechanical invention. His residence in 
the midst of a cotton-spinning population naturally led him to take an interest in the 
processes used in that manufacture. That the development of his mechanical ingenuity 
was not, however, due to circumstances, is sufficiently proved by the fact that his first effort 
was an attempt to discover the perpetual motion. Having no practical skill in mechanics, 
he secured the services of a watchmaker, named Kay, to assist him in the construction 
of his apparatus. About 1767, he seems to have given himself wholly up to inventions 
in cotton-spinning. In the following year he removed to Preston, where he set up his 
first machine, the celebrated spinning-frame, consisting chiefly of two pairs of rollers, 
the first pair moving slowly in contact, and passing the cotton to the other pair, which 
revolved with such increased velocity as to draw out the thread to the required degree of 
fineness. No previously invented machinery had been able to produce cotton thread of 
sufficient tenuity and strength to be used as warp. An invention, indeed, by Mr. Charles 
Wyatt of Birmingham, which was patented in 1738, but never succeeded, deprives A. of 
the honor of having been the first to use rollers in spinning; but there is no reason to 
believe that he owed anything to this previous attempt. The first suggestion of the idea, 
he said, was derived from seeing a red-hot iron bar elongated by being made to pass 
between rollers. At this time A. was so poor that he needed to be furnished with a suit 
of clothes before he could appear to vote at an election as a burgess of Preston. Soon 
after, he removed to Nottingham, to escape the popular rage, which had already driven 
Hargreaves, the inventor of the spinning-jenny, out of Lancashire. Here he fortunately 
fell in with Mr. Jedidiah Strutt of Derby, the celebrated improver of the stocking-frame, 
who entered into partnership with him, in conjunction with his partner Mr. Need. In 
1769, A. set up his first mill, driven by horses, and took out a patent for his invention. 
In 1771, he set up a larger factory, with water-power, at Cromford, in Derbyshire. The 
remarkable capabilities of his mind were strikingly evinced in the management of the 
great business which now demanded his undivided attention. Without personal experi- 
ence, and with no model to guide him, he introduced a system of management so 
admirable that it was afterwards universally adopted, and has never been materially 
improved. In 1775, he took out a fresh patent for various additional improvements in 
machinery. The success attending these undertakings stimulated rivals to invade his 
patent; and to such an extent did other cotton-spinners use his designs, that he was 
obliged, in 1781, to prosecute at once nine different manufacturers. The first action 
against Col. Mordaunt, backed by a strong combination of Lancashire manufacturers, 
was lost, solely on the ground that his description in his specification was not sufficiently 
clear and distinct. The other actions were abandoned; and, in the following year, A. 
published a pamphlet containing a statement of his case. In a new trial, in 1785, he 
obtained a favorable verdict. The whole question, however, was brought finally before 
the court of king’s bench, a few months after, when A.’s claim to the inventions pat- 
ented was for the first time called into dispute. On the doubtful evidence of a person 
named Highs, or Hayes, combined with that of A.’s old assistant Kay, the jury decided 
against him, and his patent was annulled. This was but the formal outcome of an oppo- 
sition which had from the beginning marked out A. as an object of hostility. The manu- 
facturers at first combined to discountenance the use of his yarn. When the yarn was 
made into calicoes, and parliament was petitioned to lessen the duty on that cloth, they 
strenuously opposed the measure, but in vain. Popular animosity was also excited 
against the man who abridged labor, but in reality increased its sphere; and on one occa- 
sion, a large factory belonging to A. was destroyed in the presence of a powerful military 
and police force, without a word of interference from the magistrates. The energy and 
good sense of A., however, triumphed over all opposition; and at the time of his death, 
in 1792, the value of his property amounted to about half a million sterling. In 1786, he 
was appointed high-sheriff of Derbyshire; and on the occasion of presenting an address 
to the king, congratulating him on his escape from the knife of the maniac Margaret 
Nicholson, he received the well-merited honor of knighthood. <A severe asthma had 
pressed upon him from his youth; and a complication of disorders, the result of his 
busy sedentary life, terminated his honorable career at the comparatively early age of 60. 

ARLES (anciently, Arelate), one of the oldest towns in France, situated on the left 
bank of the principal branch of the Rhone, after it has divided into a delta, in the depart- 
ment of Bouches du Rhone. Pop., ’86, of the municipality, 23,491 ; of the town, 15,560. 
A. carries on a considerable trade. It has manufactures of silk, hats, tobacco, brandy, 
etc., and formsa market for the productions of the surrounding country. It also possesses 
a college, a naval school, a public library, and a superb museum of antiquities in natural 
history. The marshes which rendered the district so unhealthy for a long time, have 
been considerably drained, and a canal has been formed which connects it with the south 
coast. Railways also bring it into easy communication with Marseilles, Avignon, Nimes, 
Montpellier, etc. Under the Romans, it was the seat of a prefect; afterwards, for 


Dee pak 696 


some time, the residence of the Gothic king, Eurich; and, in 879, was the metropolis of 
the kingdom of Arelate (see BurGuNDy). In the early Christian times, several important 
synods were convened here (314, 354, 452, and 475 a.p). Among the antiquities of A. 
are a magnificent amphitheatre, which could contain between 20,000 and 30,000 specta- 
tors; the ruins of a theater, also of a palace of Constantine the Great; an obelisk of 
granite, dug up from the mud of the Rhone in 1389; a burial-place (the Elysian Fields), 
ased by the Romans; and a medieval cathedral, in the old Roman style, with a splendid 
portal arch. 


ARLINCOURT, Vicror, Viscount d’, 1789-1856 ; a French author. He wrote Charle- 
magne, ou la Caroleide, an epic poem; and Le Solitaire, a novel; both successful. 


ARLINGTON, a town of Middlesex co., Mass., on the Boston and Maine railroad, 6 m. 
n. w. of Boston. Market-gardening and ice-cutting are leading occupations. A. has @ 
public library, banks, churches, and some manufacturing business, including piano 
cases, ice tools, picture frames and drugs. ‘Till 1867 it was called West Cambridge. 
Pop. °90, 5629, 


ARLON (anc. Orolanwm), at. of Belgium, the capital of the province of Luxemburg, 
24m. w.n.w. from Luxemburg. It is a neat and prosperous town, and has a consider- 
able trade in corn, woolen stuffs, leather, iron, etc. It has frequently suffered the rav- 
ages of war. The French pillaged it in 1798, after a victory won in its neighborhood 
over the Austrians. Pop. 8300. 

ARM, the upper extremity of the human body, consists of two portions — the A.., strictly 
so called, and the forearm; the former having one bone, the ; 
humerus, which moves freely by a globular head upon the 
scapula, forming the shoulder-joint; and the latter having 
two bones, the radius and ulna, which move on the lower end 
of the humerus, forming the elbow-joint, and below, with the 
carpus, forming the wrist. 

The humerus is attached by a loose capsular ligament to 
the scapula, allowing great freedom of motion; and were it 
not for the muscles, would be frequently dislocated, but it is 
supported by muscles on all sides except underneath or 
opposite the armpit, into which the head of the bone is often 
driven. ‘The roundness of the shoulder is due to the head of 
the humerus, so that any displacement is accompanied by a 
flattening, which at once suggests the nature of the accident. 
On the shoulder there is a large triangular muscle, the 
deltoid, which lifts the A. from the side. At the back isthe 
triceps, which extends the forearm; in front aretwo muscles 
which flex or bend it — the biceps, and the brachialis anticus; 
and on each side below are muscles passing to the forearm 
and hand; while on each side, above the great muscle of the 
back (latissimus dorsi) and that of the chest (the pectoralis 
major) are inserted on each side of a groove, wherein lies one 
of the tendons of the biceps (q.v.). The motions of the ulna 
are flexion or bending effected by the biceps, and extension 
or straightening by the brachialis anticus and the triceps, 
its projections being received in these movements into 
corresponding depressions on the humerus. The move- 
ments of the hand are principally due to the radius, 
the head of which rolls upon the ulna, thereby turn- 
ing the palm downwards (pronation), or restoring the 
palm upwards (supination), these movements being effected 


: x . HuMAN ARM. 
by muscles, two for each movement, which, taking their gy, deltoid muscle; d, coraco 


fixed points from the humerus and ulna, pull the radius prachialis muscle; r, r, tri- 
round on the latter. The elbow-joint is ginglymoid or ceps; e, 7, extensors of wrist 


ince-]i “ 5 j : and long supinator of the 
hinge-like, and therefore has strong lateral ligaments; but hand: Jere fexdr Ge seers 


it is extremely liable to dislocations, often accompanied by and radial and ulnar sides of 
fracture, especially in the young. The accident being the wrist, and J, palm of the 
followed by severe inflammation, the joint is very apt to hands Ob DPE wee de ee 
stiffen, thereby seriously (see ANKYLOSIS) deteriorating from Faces 0, biceps. 
the usefulness of the limb; it is, therefore, unadvisable to 
Keep the limb too long in any one position after such an injury. This joint is also very 
liable to disease; but as this is confined to the ends of the bones, the small portions of 
the latter affected can be readily cut out, and the arm be restored to usefulness and 
mobility in a few weeks. 

The upper extremity is supplied with blood by the brachial artery, tke continuation 
of the axillary trunk. The veins collect into large superficial trunks, which unite at 
the bend of the elbow, at which situation one is frequently selected for venesection, and 


then pass on to the axillary, on the outside by the sephalic vein, on the inner side by 
the basilic. 


> u Arlincourt 
697 Armada 


The nerves pass down as large cords by the side of the artery, and diverge from it to 
their ultimate distributions; the musculo-spiral soon passing round at the back to appear 
on the outside, and become the radial and posterior interosseous nerves; the ulnar 
running behind the internal condyle, for which it has obtained the term “funny 
bone,” from the electric-like thrill which passes along the arm when the nerve is struck 
or pressed. The median, as its name implies, keeps a middle course with the artery. 

In wounds of the forearm, the bleeding is often excessive, but may be at once con 
trolled by pressure on the brachial artery, on the inner side of the biceps. ; 

The arm affords excellent illustrations of some of the principles of mechanics. The 
insertion of the muscles so near, as will be seen, to the fulecra or centers of motion, 
involvesa loss of power in the usual sense of the word; there is, however, a corresponding 
gain in velocity at the end of the lever; and for most of the purposes to which the hand 
, is put, agility is of far greater moment than dead strength. 

4 


ARM. In maritime language, besides the obvious application to weapons of warfare, 
this term is applied to each extremity of a bibb, or bracket, attached to the mast of a 
ship for supporting the trestle-trees. The same name is also given toa part of the anchor. 
See AncHor.—In military language, the infantry, the cavalry, the artillery, and the 
engineers are each called ‘‘an A.” of the service—equivalent to branch or department. 


ARMA'DA, a Spanish word signifying simply an armed force, but applied especially 
to the great Spanish fleet which invaded England in 1588. The king of Spain, Philip 
II., had resolved to strike a decisive blow at the Protestant interest, by conquering Eng- 
land, which Pope Sixtus V. had made over to him. The ports of Spain, Portugal, and 
other maritime dominions belonging to him, had long resounded with the noise of his 
preparations, and the most eminent Catholic soldiers from all parts of Europe flocked to 
take a share in the expedition. The marquis of Santa-Croce, a sea officer of great reputa- 
tion and experience, was destined to command the fleet, which consisted of 150 
vessels, of greater size than any that had been hitherto seen in Europe. The duke 
of Parma was to conduct the land forces, 20,000 of whom were on board the ships 
of war, and 34,000 more were assembled in the Netherlands, ready to be transported into 
England; so that, as no‘doubt was entertained of success, the fleet was ostentatiously 
styled the invincible A. Nothing could exceed the terror and consternation which seized 
allranks of people in England upon the news of this terrible A. being under sail to invade 
them. A squadron of not more than thirty ships of the line, and those very small in 
comparison, was all that Elizabeth had to oppose it by sea; and it was considered 
impossible to make any effectual resistance by land, as the Spanish army was composed of 
men well disciplined and long inured to danger. But although the English fleet was 
much inferior in number and size of shipping to that of the enemy, it was much more 
manageable, while the dexterity and courage of the mariners were greatly superior. 
Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of great valor and capacity, took upon him, as lord 
high admiral, the command of the navy; Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, the most 
renowned seamen in Europe, served under him; while another squadron, consisting of 
40 vessels, English and Flemish, commanded by lord Seymour, lay off Dunkirk, in order 
to intercept the duke of Parma. Such was the preparation made by the English; while 
all the Protestant powers of Europe regarded this enterprise as the critical event which 
was to decide forever the fate of their religion. In the meantime, while the Spanish A. 
was preparing to sail, the admiral, Santa-Croce, died, as likewise the vice-admiral, 
Paliano; and the command of the expedition was given to the duke of Medina Sidonia, 
a person utterly inexperienced in sea affairs; these unexpected circumstances served, in 
some measure, to frustrate the design. Some other accidents also contributed to its 
failure. Upon leaving the port of Lisbon, the A. next day met with a violent tempest, 
which sank some of the smallest of the ships, and obliged the rest to put back into the 
harbor. After some time spent in refitting, the Spaniards again put to sea, where they 
took a fisherman, who gave them inteiligence that the English fleet, hearing of the dis- 
persion of the A. ina storm, had returned to Plymouth, and that most of the mariners 
were discharged. From this false intelligence, the Spanish admiral, instead of going to 
the coast of Flanders, to take in the troops stationed there, resolved to sail directly to 
Plymouth, and destroy the shipping laid up in the harbor. But Effingham was very 
well prepared to receive him, and had just got out of port, when he saw the Spanish A. 
coming full sail towards him, disposed in the form of a half-moon, and stretching seven 
miles from the one extremity to the other. The English admiral, seconded by Drake, 
Hawkins, and Frobisher, attacked the Spaniards at a distance, pouring in their broadsides 
with admirable dexterity. They did not choose to engage the enemy more closely, 
because they were greatly inferior in number of ships and guns, as well as in weight of 
metal; norcould they pretend to board such lofty vessels without manifest disadvantage. 
In this action, however, two Spanish galleons were disabled and taken. As the A. 
advanced up the channel, the English still followed and infested its rear; and as their 
ships continually increased from different ports, they soon found themselves in a capacity 
to attack the Spanish fleet more nearly, and accordingly fell upon them while they were 
taking shelter in the port of Calais. To increase their confusion, Howard selected eight 
of his smaller vessels, which, after filling them with combustible materials, he sent one 
after another, as if they had been fire-ships, into the midst of the enemy. The Spaniards, 


dillo. 
y Remi 698 


taking them for what they seemed to be, immediately bore off in great disorder; while 
the English, profiting by their panic, captured or destroyed about twelve ships. The 
duke of Medina Sidonia, being thus driven to the coast of Zealand, helda council of war, 
in which it was resolved that, as their ammunition began to fail, as their fleet had received 
great damage, and as the duke of Parma had refused to venture his army under their 
protection, they should return to Spain by sailing round the Orkneys, as the winds were 
contrary to their passage directly back. Accordingly, they proceeded northward, and 
were followed by the English fleet as far as Flamborough Head, where they were terribly 
shattered by astorm. Seventeen of the ships, having 5000 men on board, were after- 
wards cast away on the Western isles and the coast of Ireland. Of the whole A., 53 ships 
only returned to Spain, and these in a wretched condition. A medal was struck by Eliza- 
beth bearing the inscription Deus flavit, et dissipati sunt, ‘‘God blew and they were 
scattered.” 

ARMADIL'LO, Da'sypus, a genus of mammalia of the order edentata (i.e., toothless}— 
not, however, truly toothless, but having feeble teeth destitute of true roots, and set 
apart from each other, and so that those of the one jaw fit into the interstices of those of 
the other. The number of the teeth is different in different species. The muzzle is 
elongated, and the tongue smooth and slender, with a glutinous saliva, adapted to the 
capture of ants and other insects, after the manner of the ant-eaters, but not long and 
extensile, like theirs. The limbs are short and strong, as are also the claws, and the 
animals have a great aptitude for digging and burrowing, by means of which they seek 
to shelter themselves from enemies—burrowing in sand or soft earth with such rapidity 
that it is almost impossible to dig them out, and indeed it can only be done by persever 
ing till they are exhausted. But that which peculiarly distinguishes the A., and in whick 
this genus differs from all the other mammalia, except the chlamyphorus (q.v.), is the bony 
armor with which the body is covered, and which consists of polygonal plates not 
articulated, united on the head to form a solid covering, and similarly to form solid 
bucklers over the shoulders and the haunches; and between these, disposed in transvurse 
bands, which allow of freedom of motion to the body, similar bands in most species 
protecting also the tail. Armadillos feed not only on insects, but on vegetable and 
animal food of almost every kind, which by decomposition or otherwise has acquired a 
sufficient softness. Some of them prefer vegetable food, others delight chiefly in carrion. 
They are all natives of the warm and temperate parts of South America, in the woods 
and pampas of which they are found in immense numbers. They are timid and inof- 
fensive, although, when they are incautiously assailed, injury may be received from their 
claws. Their flesh is esteemed a delicacy, particularly that of the species which feed 
chiefly on vegetable food. The largest species is fully 3 ft. long, exclusive of the tail; 
the smallest not above 10 in. The species are numerous, and the genus has been divided 
into a number of sub-genera, which some naturalists elevate into genera, naming the 
family loricata (i.e., mailed). To this family belongs also the genus chlamyphorus, also 
South American. Fossil remains of gigantic extinct armadillos have been found in the 
pleistocene strata of South America, forming the genus glyp'todon of Owen, so named 
from the fluted teeth. 


ARMADIL'LO is also the scientific name of a genus of crustacea of the order zsopoda of 
Cuvier. This is one of the genera usually included under the popular name of wood- 
louse, and one of which (porcellio) is very generally known by that of slater. The arma- 
dillos derive their name from the scaly armor of their body, in which an analogy is found 
to the mailed quadrupeds of South America. They have, in a remarkable degree, the 
power of rolling themselves into a ball, when alarmed, so as to expose nothing but the 
plates of the back, and have thence received the name of pill beetles. Like some of the 
other closely allied ¢sopoda, they were at one time reputed to possess medicinal virtues, 
now accounted merely imaginary. They were not only used ina dried and pulverized 
state, but they are said to have been actually swallowed entire as pills. A. vulgaris is 
not uncommon in damp places, under stones, etc., in Britain. See illus., CRUSTACEANS, 
ETCSPVOLILVE 

ARMAGED’DON, the name given to the whole or part of the great plain of Esdrae- 
fon, which was famous among the Israelites for two great. victories—of Barak over the 
Canaanites, and of Gideon over the Midianites; and for two serious disasters—the death of 
Saul in battle with the Philistines, and the death of Josiah during an Egyptian invasion. 
The battles of Gilboa and Megiddo, of Kishon and Jezreel, were fought on this plain. 
In all history A. has been a famous battle ground from the time of the wars between 
Assyria and Egypt down to Napoleon’s eastern campaign; thence the seer in the book of 
the Revelation used the name as symbolical of the scene of ‘‘the great day of the Al- 
mighty,” or of the tremendous final conflict between good and evil. 


ARMAGH’, a small inland co. in Ulster, Ireland; bounded n. by Lough Neagh, e. by 
Down, s. by Louth, w. by Monaghan and Tyrone. Its greatest length is 32 m., and breadth 
20. Area, 5124sq.m., about four fifths being arable, anda 86th partin woods. The sur- 
face is hilly in the s. and undulating in the center, attaining in Slieve Gullion, in the s.w., 
the height of 1893 feet. The other chief heights are the Newry mountains, 1385 ft.; the 
Armagh-breague hills, 1200; and Muliyash, 1084. The country bordering upon Lough 


A dillo. 
699 a me nahere 


Neagh is low and boggy, and the Louth plain extends into the s. end of A. The princi 
pal rivers navigable in their lower parts are the upper Bann, flowing out of Down n.w. 
for 11 m. before it enters Lough Neagh; and thé Blackwater, which in its lower part 
separates A. from Monaghan. The rocks of A. are lower silurian in the s. and middle of 
the co.; the trap of Antrim with the underlying greensand around Portadown; carbonif- 
erous limestone in the basins of the Blackwater, and its tributary the Callan; granite in 
the mountains of the s.e. ; and tertiary strata bordering Lough Neagh. The soil is fer 
tile except about 27,000 acres of bog and other waste land. The county contains 313,035 
acres in all, the chief crops being oats, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and flax. Large num- 
bers of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs are raised. The n. and central parts of A. exhibit 
a dense population, low hills cultivated to the tops, hedgerows, orchards, and thickly- 
scattered farm steadings. The co. is mostly in the diocese of Armagh. It returns three 
members of Parliament —two for the co., and one for the city. The chief towns are 
A., Lurgan, Portadown, and Newry. Pop. ’91, 148,289 —a large decrease since “71. 


ARMAGH’, the capital of the co. of A., in a carboniferous limestone district in the 
n.w. of the county. It is situated around and on a gentle eminence, hence its original 
name, Ard-Magha, ‘‘the high field.’’ It is built of limestone. The cathedral is built of 
red sandstone, and is cruciform — 184 by 119 ft. — and is supposed to occupy the site of 
that erected by St. Patrick in the 5th century. A Gothic Roman Catholic cathedral 
occupies the principal height to the n., and the primatial palace that to the s. There is 
a fever hospital for forty patients, maintained by the late primate, and a lunatic asylum 
for four counties. A. is the seat of the archiepiscopal see of the primate and metropoli- 
tan of all Ireland, who, before the disestablishment of the Irish church, had an income 
of £12,087 a year. Pop. in ’71, 8946, of whom 4691 were Roman Catholics, 3020 Episco- 
palians, 918 Presbyterians, and the rest of other denominations. The chief manufacture 
is linen-weaving. A., from the year 495 to the 9th c., was the metropolis of Ireland, the 
native kings living at Eamania, 2 m. to the w. of the city. It was then renowned as a 
school of theology and literature —its college being the first in Europe. After the re- 
formation, it suffered severely in the conflicts between the English and Irish ; and it 
contained only three slated houses in 1765, but since then has been rebuilt, and con- 
tained in 1891 a population of 8305. 


ARMAG'NAC, Ager Aremonicus, the old name of a district in the s. of France, which 
at one time seems to have extended from the valleys of the Pyrenees to the Garonne. It 
is now included in the departments of Hautes Pyrénées and Gers. The remarkably 
fertile land, producing grain and the best descriptions of wine, and also favorable for 
pasturage, is cut up into an extraordinary number of small estates, and divided among 
numerous petty proprietors. The principal branch of trade is the distillation of the 
brandy known in commerce as eau d’ Armagnac, which rivals those of Cognac and Saint- 
onge. The ancient capitai is Lectoure, on the river Gers, with abt. 3000 inhabitants. 
To the s. of it lies Auch, the chief t, of the department of Gers. Pop. ’91, 11,700. The 
people are noted for their simplicity, strength, and bravery ; but, on the other hand, they 
are extremely credulous and ignorant. Formerly, their services were highly valued in 
times of war. The A. family, descended from the old Merovingian king, Clovis, played 
an important part in French history. 


ARMAG'NAC, BernarD VII., Count d’, constable of France, leader of the ‘‘ Armag- 
nacs” in 1407. He took possession of Paris, and ruled so oppressively that the populace 
rose, June 12, 1418, and murdered him with all of his faction whom they could reach. 


ARMAG'NAC, JEAN V., Count d’, b. about 1420, grandson of Bernard ; a notoriously 
passionate and wicked man. He publicly married his own sister, who had been engaged 
to Henry VI. of England. Charles VII. took away his possessions, but they were restored 
by Louis X1., a service repaid by A. in joining the ‘‘league for the public good” against 
the king. He was driven into Aragon, and his estates forfeited, but the king’s brother 
secured them again for him. He was at last captured by the king’s soldiers, who put him 
to death (1475), and, according to tradition, compelled his wife to drink of some drug 
that killed her and her unborn child. 


ARMAMENT is a general name for the weapons of war employed in sea and land bat- 
tles; all the weapons‘ collectively being called the A. of a ship or an army. 


ARMAND, CHARLES, Marquis pr LA Rovarig, 1756-93; a French soldier, who left 
France in consequence of fighting a duel about an actress, and volunteered in the Amer- 
ican army, receiving the rank of colonel. He fought at Red Bank, also at Camden, under 
Gates, whose conduct he severely censured. He was at Yorktown, and was made briga- 
dier-general in 1783. Returning to France, he was in the revolution, and was imprisoned 
in the bastile; but was afterwards a royalist leader in Brittany and Anjou. He d. soon 
ae the execution of Louis XVI., it is said from nervous disease occasioned by the shock 
of that event. 


ARMANSPERG, Jos. Lupw., Count of, formerly president of the government in 
Greece, was b. in lower Bavaria, 1787, and early embraced an administrative and diplo- 
matic career. On the accession of king Louis to the throne, A., who had already occu- 
pied several important posts, was summoned to Munich, where, rapidly rising from one 
dignity to another, he at length became minister of finance and of foreign affairs, In 

1.—23 


Armatoles. 700 


Armenia. 


apacities roved active and successful ; but he drew upon himself the hatred at 
aoe ea ik strenuous opposition to the claims of Bathes as well as by his 
attempts to identify himself with the decidedly liberal party. The consequence was 
that, in 1831, he lost his post, and in the same year was appointed ambassador to Lon- 
don, but preferred retiring to his family estate. However, he could not resist the king’s 
repeated request that he would undertake the formation of his sons government in 
Greece, and accordingly, accompanying young king Otho, A. landed at Nauplia in Jan., 
1833. For four years he was at the head of public affairs, and Greece derived many 
benefits from his administration ; but the heat of party strife and court intrigues led to 
his dismissal, and he left Greece in Mar., 1837. He died in 1853. 


ARMATO'LES, a body of Greek militia, first formed under the reign of sultan Selim I. 
about the beginning of the 16th century. They wereintended to preserve the fertile plaing 
from the ravages of the klephts (mountain robbers of Thessaly), who had never been 
entirely conquered by the Turks. The A. themselves were originally klephts, but 
received their more honorable designation when the porte had metamorphosed them into 
a sort of military police. The safety of the public roads was intrusted to their care. 
The whole of northern Greece was divided into sixteen districts (capitaineries), each 
placed under the supervision of a chief of these militia, who, however, had himself to 
receive orders from a Turkish pasha or Greek bishop. But although the A. frequently 
suppressed the brigandage of the klephts, they still regarded them in the light of broth- 
ers, inasmuch as they had a common origin and faith; both detested the oppressors of 
their country; and the sentiment of patriotism overruled every other consideration. This 
sympathy at last appeared to the Turks so dangerous that they grew alarmed, and desired 
to substitute for the A. the Mohammedan Albanians, who were the implacable enemies 
of the Greeks, which resolution did not a little to hasten the insurrection which the 
porte ever dreaded. The moment it broke out, the A. pronounced themselves in favor 
of the national cause, and in the war of independence that ensued, distinguished them- 
selves by their brilliant exploits. 


ARMATURE (armatura, armor; Ger. anker). The term A. is applied to the pieces 
of soft iron that are placed at the extremities or poles of magnets to preserve their mag- 
netic power. When magnets are allowed to remain any length of time without such 
appendages, in consequence of the disturbing influence of terrestrial magnetism they lose 
considerably in strength; but when they are provided with them their magnetism is kept 
in a state of constant activity, and thereby shielded from this disturbance. The reason 
of this is found in two facts well known in the science of magnetism—viz., that when a 
piece of soft iron is brought into contact with the extremity of a magnet, it is itself 
induced to become magnetic; and that the unlike poles of two different magnets power- 
fully attract each other. Referring to the figure, the north pole, N, of the horseshoe 
magnet, NHS, acting on the armature, sn, induces it to become a mags 
net, having its south pole, s, next to N, and its north pole, n, at the 
opposite extremity. The pole, 8, by virtue of its magnetic affinity, 

owerfully attracts the north pole, , thus formed, and adds its own 
nducing influence to heighten the magnetic condition previously 
induced in the armature by the pole N. The A., from the combined 
action of both poles of the horseshoe magnet, is thus converted into a 
powerful magnet, with its poles lying in an opposite direction to that 
of the primary poles. The original magnet is, in consequence, brought 
into contact with one of its own making, the exact counterpart of 
itself—a condition highly favorable to the maintenance of its strength. 
It is due to the same mutual attractions that a much larger weight can 
be suspended from the A. thus placed, than what the single poles can 
together sustain. Bar magnets may be armed in the same way by lay- 
ing them at some distance parallel to each other, with their unlike 
poles towards the same parts, and then connecting their extremities by 
two pieces of soft iron. When a magnet, such as a compass-needle, is free to take up 
the position required by the magnetism of the earth, the earth itself plays the part of an 
armature. An A. is also the revolving part of adynamo. See MAGnets. 


ARMED SHIP, a merchant ship taken into the service of a government for a particular 
occasion and armed like a ship of war. During the war of the Revolution there were 
very few men-of-war belonging to the United States ; the very large majority of vessels 
were private craft fitted up for the special purpose of preying upon the British com- 
merce. In all the wars in which this country has been engaged, armed ships turned 
into war vessels have done a great deal of service. Particularly was this the case during 
the civil war, when the government found there were but few regular men-of-war, and 
that it was necessary to arm almost every available merchant vessel to aid in maintain- 
ing the blockade. 


ARME'NIA, a high table-land on the southern slope of the Caucasus, stretching down 
towards Mesopotamia. It has had different boundaries in the various centuries of its 
history. It is the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the world, the 
Armenians, who belong to the Indo-Germanic family of nations. Their oldest records 
contain nothing certain beyond the facts that, in ancient times, they were governed by 


701 Armatoles, 


Armenia, 


independent kings, but afterwards became tributary to the Assyrians and Medes. That 
dim period which wavers between myth and history begins, in the case of A., about the 
middle of the 6th c. B.c., when King Dikran, or Tigranes I. of the Haig dynasty, restored 
the independence of the kingdom. The last king of this dynasty was slain in battle 
against Alexander the Great, who conquered the country. After Alexander’s death, A. 
passed through several changes of fortune under the Seleucidee, who appointed governors 
over it. Of these, two—Artaxias and Zariadres—made themselves independent of their 
sovereign, Antiochus the great, during the time when he was engaged in his contest 
with the Romans, 223-190 B.c. They divided the province into two districts—Artaxias 
taking A. Major (that part of the country lying e. of the Euphrates), and Zariadres A. 
Minor (the part to the w. of that river). The dynasty of Artaxias did not reign long; 
for about the middle of the 2d c. B.c., we find A. major in the possession of a branch of 
the Parthian Arsacid, of which the most powerful king was Tigranes the great, who 
added to the conquests made by his predecessors in lower Asia and the region of the 
Caucasus, Syria, Cappadocia, and A. Minor; defeated the Parthians, and took from them 
Mesopotamia and other countries. He lost all these territories by his war with the 
Romans, into which he was led by his father-in-law, Mithridates, king of Pontus, in 63 
B.c. After this, the assaults of the Romans from the west, ever growing more and more 
vigorous, and those of the Parthians from the east, hastened the downfall of A. Major. 
The successors of Tigranes became dependent, partly on the one nation and partly on 
the other, while internally the nobles broke through the restraints of a feeble monarchy, 
and claimed the privileges of petty kings. Under Trajan, A. Major was for a short time 
a Roman province. Its subsequent history exhibited an unbroken series of tumults and 
wars, of violent successions to the throne, despotic reigns, and rapid decay. In 282 4.p., 
the province was conquered by the Sassanides, who held possession of it 28 years, until 
Tiridates III., the rightful heir, was restored to the throne by Roman assistance. 

It was about this time that Christianity became the religion of A., which was thus 
the first nation to embrace the new religion. Tiridates himself had been converted by 
St. Gregory the illuminator as early as about 300 4.p. The old religion of Armenia had 
for its basis the doctrines of Zoroaster, with a curious intermixture of Greek mythology, 
and of ideas peculiar to the country. It is certain that the Armenians worshiped, as 
their mightiest gods, Aramazt and Mihir (the Ormuzd and Mithras of the old Persians); 
but they had also a kind of Venus, whom they styled Anaitis, and several other deities, 
to whom they offered animal sacrifices. This change of creed, however, made no im- 
provement in the political circumstances of the falling state. The Byzantine Greeks on 
one side, and the Persians on the other, regarded A. as their prey; and in 428, Bahram 
V.of Persia made A.a province of the empire of the Sassanides, and with the deposition 
of Artasir the dynasty of the Arsacidée was brought to a close. The rule of the Sassan- 
ides in A. was marked chiefly by their sanguinary but unsuccessful attempts to extirpate 
Christianity. In 632, the unhappy country was subjected to another form of despotism 
under the Arabian caliphs, and suffered terribly during their contest with the Byzantine 
emperors. In 885 a.p., Aschod I., of an old and powerful Armenian family, ascended 
the throne, with the permission of the caliphs, and founded the third Armenian dynasty— 
that of the Bagratide. Under them A. was prosperous till the 11th c., when divisions 
and internal strife began to weaken the country; till at length the Greeks, having mur- 
dered the last monarch of the Bagratidee, seized a part of the kingdom, while the Turks 
and Kurds made themselves masters of the rest—only one or two of the native princes 
maintaining a perilous independence. In 1242, the whole of A. major was conquered 
by the Mongols, and in 1472 became a Persian province. Afterwards the western part 
fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan, Selim IT. 

The fate of A. Minor was hardly better. The dynasty founded by Zariadres prevailed 
to the time of Tigranes the Great, sovereign of A. Major, who conquered the country 
about 70 B.c. Afterwards A. minor was subjugated by the Romans, and made a Roman 
province. On the division of the empire into eastern and western, it became attached 
to the former, and shared in all its changes of fortune until near the close of the 11th cen- 
tury. At this time A. minor—which had long been a place of refuge for many who had fled 
from the rage of the Turks and Persians in the sister province—was again raised to in- 
dependence by Rhupen (a refugee from A. major, and descendant of the Bagratide), 
His successors’ extended their dominion over Cilicia and Cappadocia, and took a prom- 
inent part in the crusades. This dynasty ruled prosperously until 1374, when A. 
minor was conquered by the Egyptian sultan Schaban. Since that time, A., with the 
exception of the parts which Russia has won in the present century from Persia, and 
which are better governed, has remained subject to the despotism of the Turks and 
Persians. Notwithstanding this, the Armenians have steadily preserved their nation- 
ality, both in its physical and moral lineaments; their faith; and even—though only a 
relic of their ancient culture—a higher civilization than their conquerors. The political 

_storms which devastated the country during the middle ages, and the persecutions of 
'the Turks, have driven many of the inhabitants from their homes. This is the reason 
why we find them scattered over all Asia and Europe. In Hungary, Transylvania, and 
Galicia they number 10,000. They are very numerous in Russia, but most of all in Asia 
Minor, and in the neighborhood of Constantinople, where they number 200,000. ~ 
The greater part of A. isan elevated table-land. Its area is estimated at 90,000 sq.m; 


Armenian, >) 
Armiftelt. 702 


pop. about 2,000,000. It is watered by the rivers Kur, Aras, Joruk, Euphrates, and toa 
slight extent by the Tigris. The lakes which lie within this mountainous region are Van, 
Urumiyah, and Sevan. The Armenian plateau, on the eastern side of which the volcanic 
range of Ararat lifts itself, forms the central point of several mountain-chains, such as 
Taurus and Antitaurus, the mountains of Kurdistan, and those which run n. to the 
Black sea. It exhibits numerous traces of having been subject to volcanic agency, and 
even yet—as was shown by the severe earthquake of the summer of 1840, and by the 
total destruction of Erzerum in 1859—possesses an internal volcanic activity. The 
climate in the higher regions is hot in summer and cold in winter, but in the valleys 
it is more temperate. The country labors under a great scarcity of wood, and in some 
parts is sterile, through a deficiency of water ; in other parts the soil is extremely fertile. 
The number of the inhabitants of pure Armenian origin is reckoned at nearly 1,000,000, 
but there is a large admixture of Turcomans, Greeks, Jews, Kurds, etc. The Armenians 
belong physically to the finest variety of the Indo-Germanic race. Their intellectual 
capacity is also remarkable, as is shown both by their literature, and their singular dex- 
terity in business. Still, long centuries of oppression have exerted a withering influence 
on their native strength of character. The n.e. portion of A., about one third of the 
whole, was wrested from Persia in 1828, and is under the Russian scepter. About a 
sixth part to the s.e. still belongs to Persia. The western portion, comprising two 
thirds of the Armenian area, is Turkish. After the war of 1877-78 between Russia and 
Turkey, the Berlin conference sanctioned the cession to Russia of a strip of A., includ- 
ing Kars and Ardahan ; and the sultan engaged to carry outin A. much-needed reforms, 
guarantee the Armenians security against the Circassians and Kurds, and undertook to 
report to the European powers the measures adopted ; but he never kept his word, and 
in fact permitted the Armenians to be oppressed in the most frightful fashion. In 
1895, the Turkish outrages in Armenia became so terrible as to lead the signatories of the 
Treaty of Berlin to assemble a great fleet off the Dardanelles and to demand reforms of 
the sultan; but the mutual jealousies of powers prevented any decisive action. See 
ABDUL-HAMID II. and TURKEY. 
ARME/NIAN CHURCH, Christianity appears to have been introduced into Armenia as 
early as the 2d century. It was for the first time firmly established, however, about the end 
pf the 3d c. by the apostolical exertions of Bishop Gregory (q.v.), who converted Tiridates 
(see ARMENIA). The Bible was translated into the Armenian language in the 5th century. 
After this period great animation prevailed in the A. C. Numbers flocked to the colleges at 
Athens and Constantinople. In the ecclesiastical controversy concerning the twofold 
nature of Christ, the Arménian Christians held with the Monophysites (q.v.); refused to 
acknowledge the authority of the council of Chalcedon; and constituted themselves a 
separate church, which took the title of Gregorian trom Gregory himself. For several 
centuries a spirit of scientific inquiry, especially in theology, manifested itself among 
them to a far wider extent than in the other eastern churches. Their greatest divine is 
Nerses of Klah, belonging to the 12th c., whose works have been repeatedly published. 
The most recent edition was issued in Venice, 1833. The Gregorians have continued 
to entertain a deeply rooted aversion to the so-called orthodox church. The Roman 
Catholic popes at various times, especially (1145, 1841, 1440) when the Armenians 
accepted the help of the west against the Mohammedans, tried to persuade them to 
recognize the papal supremacy; but for the most part only the nobles consented to do so, 
while the mass of the people clung to their peculiar opinions, as we see from the com- 
plaint of pope Benedict XIJ., who accuses the A. C. of 117 errors of doctrine. There is 
a sect of United Armenians in Italy, Poland, Galicia, Persia, Russia, and Marseilles. 
Since the formation of this body in 1885, vigorous and constant attempts, succored 
especially by French influence, have been made to secure the acknowledgment of the pope 
as the head of the Roman Catholic portion of the A.C. When this end seemed nearer 
attainment than ever before, the Ultramontane utterances of their representatives, Mgr. 
Hassun, at the ecumenical council at Rome, 1870, in favor of infallibility, created such 
a reaction at home as has greatly strengthened for the present the cause of the old Gre- 
gorian party. The recent humiliation of France has further weakened the cause of the 
pro-papal party. In theology the A. C. attributes only one nature to Christ, and holds 
that the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone; the latter doctrine, however, being held 
by it in common with the ‘‘ orthodox Greek church,” although contrary to the theology 
of the western churches. With respect to the ‘seven sacraments,” it entertains the 
peculiar notion that at baptism one must be sprinkled three times and as often dipped; 
that confirmation is to be conjoined with baptism; that the Lord’s supper must be 
celebrated with pure wine and leavened bread; that the latter, before being handed 
round, must be dipped in the former; and that extreme unction is to be administered 
to ecclesiastics alone, and that immediately after (and not before) their death. It believes 
in the worship of saints, but not in purgatory. It exceeds the Greek church in the 
number of its fasts, but has fewer religious festivals. These, however, are more 
enthusiastically kept. Divine service is held in Turkey chiefly by night. Mass is cele- 
brated in the old Armenian language; preaching is carried on in the new. Its sacer- 
dotal constitution differs little from the Greek. The head of the church, whose title is 
catholikos, resides at Etshmiadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of Russian 
Armenia. To this place every Armenian must make a pilgrimage once in his life. 
The monks of this church follow the rule of St. Basil. The Wartabieds form a peculiar 


i . 
7038 Armfelt. 


elass of ecclesiastics ; they live like monks, but are devoted exclusively to learning. See. 
ular priests must marry once, but none are at liberty to take a second wife. See illus., 
Priests, Monks AND Nuns, vol. XII. 


ARME'NIAN LITERATURE. Previous to the introduction of Christianity by Gregory 
(800 a.p.), the Armenians had adhered to the Assyrian or Medo-Persian system of culture; 
but excepting a few old songs or ballads, no remains of that early period exist. After 
their conversion to Christianity, the Greek language and its literature soon became 
favorite objects of study, and many Greek authors were translated into Armenian. 
(See Wenrich De Auctorum Gracorum versionbus Arabicis, Armeniacis, etc. Leipzig, 1842.) 
The Armenian language has an alphabet of its own, consisting of 36 letters, introduced 
by Miesrob in 406. The most flourishing period of A. L. extends from the 4th to the 14th 
century. The numerous Armenian theological writers and chroniclers of this era supply 
materials for a history of the east during the middle ages which have hitherto been too 
much neglected. These Armenian writers generally copied the style of the later Greek 
and Byzantine authors; but in adherence to facts and good taste, they are superior to the 
general order of oriental historians. In the 14th c., literature began to decline, and few 
remarkable works were afterwards produced; but since the time of their dispersion, the 
Armenians have preserved recollections of their national literature; and wherever they 
are found—in Amsterdam, Lemberg, Leghorn, Venice, Astrakan, Moscow, Constanti- 
nople, Smyrna, Ispahan, Madras, or Calcutta—the printing-office is always a feature in 
their colonies. The most interesting Armenian settlement is that of the Mechitarists 
(q.v.), on the island of San Lazaro, near Venice. 

The Bible translated into Armenian (the Old Testament from the text of the Septua- 
gint) by Miesrob and his scholars (411 A.pD.), is esteemed the highest model of classic 
style. Translations of several Greek authors, made about the same time, have been 
partly preserved, and contain some writings of which the originals have been lost— 
namely, the Chronicle of Eusebius; the Discourses of Philo; homilies by St. Chrysostom, 
Severianus, Basil the great, and Ephraim Syrus. Several old geographical and _histori- 
cal works have been preserved. Among philosophical and theological writers may be 
mentioned: David, the translator and commentator of Aristotle, Esnik, and Joannes 
Ozniensis. The Vite Sanctorum Calendarti Armeniact (Lives of Armenian Saints, 12 
vols. Ven. 1814) contains many notices of the history of Armenia. In poetry and fiction, 
A. L. is poor. Somal, in his work entitled Quadro della Storia Litteraria di Armenia 
(Venice, 1829), gives a general view of the contents of A. L. The Armenian belongs to 
the Indo-Germanic group of languages, but has many peculiarities of structure. It is 
harsh and disagreeable to the ear. ‘The old Armenian, the language of literature, is no 
longer a living tongue; while the new Armenian, split up into four dialects, contains 
many Turkish words and grammatical constructions. 


ARMENTIERES. a t. of the dep. of Nord, France, on the Lys, 8m. from Lille. The 
t. is well built, and is active and prosperous, having manufactures of cotton, linen, and 
hemp, and a considerable trade in grain. Pop. 26,200, 


ARME’RIA. See THRIFT. 


ARM’FELT, Gusrar MAvrivTz, acelebrated Swede, whose public life was characterized 
by striking vicissitudes of fortune, was the eldest son of Baron Armfelt, and b, at Juva, 
in the government of Abo, on the 1st of April, 1757. Having, as an officer of the royal 
guard, displayed great activity and zeal in opposing the machinations of the nobles, who 
were at that period disaffected towards Gustavus III., the latter appreciated the value of 
his services, and appointed him to a post in the service of the crown prince. During the 
war between Sweden and Russia (1788-90), in which he was commander of one of the 
three divisions of the Swedish army, he displayed remarkable courage and spirit, and 
advanced still higher in the good graces of the monarch. He defeated a Russian force at 
Summa, near Fredrikshamm; and as military representative of Gustavus, had the honor 
of concluding a peace at Verela on the 14th of Aug., 1790. On the 16th of Mar., 1792, 
Gustavus was assassinated. His wound, though mortal, did not instantly deprive him 
of life, and he employed the brief interval that elapsed before his death in drawing up @ 
codicil to his will, by which the regency was intrusted to the king’s brother, Charles, 
duke of Sudermania, during the minority of Gustavus IV., A. being named governor 
of Stockholm, and member of the council appointed to advise with the regent. The 
duke of Sudermania, however, could not brook the idea of a check being placed upon 
his liberty of action, and found means to destroy the codicil, the conditions of which he 
never intended to observe. A. soon became conscious that his influence was rapidly 
evaporating. He was rarely permitted to see the young king; and at last, after a secret 
interview with young Gustavus, departed as ambassador to Naples in July, 1792. While 
in Italy, he entered into correspondence with certain parties in Sweden for the purpose 
of overthrowing the regency, and inducing the states to proclaim Gustavus IV. of age. 
The correspondence was discovered. A. fled to Poland, and afterwards to Russia. He 
was condemned, during his absence, for high treason, and stripped of his goods and 
titles, while one of his associates, the beautiful Countess Rudensk6ld, was subjected to 
the most brutal punishment, being publicly declared ‘‘ infamous,” exposed on a scaffold 
for some hours, and imprisoned in a house of correction for life. A. expressed his 
horror of such an atrocity in language sufficiently emphatic, yet, at a later period, he did 


Armida, i 
Arniioe’ (04 


not scruple to accept office under Charles, on his election to the throne. In 1799, 
Gustavus IV. received the crown at the age of eighteen, and A. was restored to all his 
honors. In 1805, he was appointed governor-general of Finland; and in 1808 he com- 
manded the Swedish army raised for the invasion of Norway; but his plans were so 
completely frustrated, that he was compelled to witness the invasion of Sweden by the 
successful Norwegians, and was in consequence recalled and dismissed by the king. In 
the following year a revolution took place, Gustavus was deposed, the duke of Suder- 
mania elected in his place, and A. was appointed president of the military council. But 
shortly after, being implicated in the poisoning of the prince of Augustenburg, he was 
obliged to fly to Russia, where he lived during the remainder of his life in high honor. 
The title of count was conferred on him, he was made chancellor of the university of 
Abo, president of the board of Finnish affairs, and member of the Russian senate. He 
d. at Tzarskee Selo on the 19th Aug., 1814. 


ARMIDA, one of the most prominent female characters in Tasso’s Jerusalem Deliv- 
ered. As the poet tells us, when the crusaders arrived at the holy city, Satan held a 
council to devise some means of disturbing the plans of the Christian warriors, and A., 
a very beautiful sorceress, was employed to seduce Rinaldo and other crusaders. 
Rinaldo was conducted by A. to a remote island, where, in her splendid palace, 
surrounded by delightful gardens and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot his vows, and 
the great object to which he had devoted his life. To liberate him from his voluptuous 
bondage, two messengers from the Christian army—Carlo and Ubaldo—came to the 
island, bringing a talisman so powerful that the witchery of A. was destroyed. Rinaldo 
escaped, but was followed by the sorceress, who, in battle, incited several warriors to 
attack the hero, and at last herself rushed into the fight. She was defeated by Rinaldo, 
who then confessed his love to her, persuaded her to become a Christian, and vowed to 
be her faithful knight. The story of A. has been made the subject of an opera both by 
Gluck and Rossini. 


ARMIES, armed forces under regular military organization, employed for purposes of 
national offense or defense. An army may comprise the whole military men employed 
by the state, or only a portion under a particular commander. When an armed force is 
under no constituted authority, and imperfect in its organization and discipline, it can- 
not be said to be worthy of the name of an army, and may be little better than a horde 
of banditti. Of this nature are the filibustering expeditions (see FILIBUSTERS) in which 
certain portions of the citizens of the United States at one time engaged. Through long 
ages of experience, the principles of military organization, and the laws to which A. 
are specially amenable, have gradually reached a high degree of perfection. The primi- 
tive wars among barbarous people are always stealthy, depending on the forest and the 
wilderness for their tactics, and considered successful if an enemy can be attacked 
unawares, despoiled, and carried into slavery. After a time, war advances to the posi- 
tion of an art, and is conducted by men who have received a certain training. An 
army becomes an instrument not only for vanquishing enemies, but for seizing 
countries. Even then the highest position of an army is not reached; for the defense of 
a country requires more military skill, perhaps, and a better organization of troops, than 
an attack. 

In the several historical articles in this cyclopedia relating to the chief nations of 
ancient and modern times, the wars in which these nations engaged are succinctly 
noticed as elements in the life of each nation; but it seems desirable, in the present 
place, as a means of rendering intelligible certain minor details scattered through the 
work, to give a brief description of the chief points in which the A. of different states 
or countries have differed in constitution. 


ARMIES, Ancient—Hyyptians.—The most extraordinary conqueror among the 
Egyptians, Sesostris, or Rhamses, lived 16 centuries before the Christian era; and 
although the evidence for his deeds of valor is very questionable, there is reason to 
believe that the organization of his A. can be pretty accurately traced. His father, 
Amenophis, laid the foundation for the military glory of Sesostris. When the latter 
was born, Amenophis caused all the male children who were born on the same day as 
his son to be set apart as a special body, to be reared for a military life; they were 
taught everything that could strengthen their bodies, increase their courage, and develop 
their skill as combatants and leaders; and were to consider themselves bound as the 
chosen dependents or companions of the young prince. In due time Sesostris became 
king of Egypt; and then he formed a sort of militia, distributed as military colonists, 
each soldier having a portion of land to maintain himself and his family. When this 
militia had been drilled to military efficiency, Sesostris headed them as an army for 
military conquest in Asia, and placed the chosen band above mentioned as officers over 
the different sections of the army. 

Persians.—In the great days of the Persian empire, the flower of the army consisted 
of cavalry who were distinguished for their bravery and impetuosity of attack. The 
infantry were little better than an armed mob. The war-chariots, too, though calculated 
to strike terror when dashing into hostile ranks, were available only on level ground. 
As to the numbers of men composing the great Persian A., the statements are too wild 
to be trustworthy. Allowing for all exaggeration, however, it is certain that the Persian 


= A id 
705 Riven 


A. were very large. When Darius was opposed to Alexander the Great, his army was 
eet down at various numbers—from 750,000 to 1,000,000 men. The king was in the 
center, surrounded by his courtiers and body-guard; the Persians and Susians were on 
the left; the Syrians and Assyrians on the right. The foot-soldiers, forming the bulk of 
the army, and armed with pikes, axes, and maces, were formed in deep squares or 
masses; the horsemen were in the intervals between the squares, and on the right and 
left flanks; and the chariots and elephants in front. 

Lacedemonians.—The Greeks introduced many important changes in A., both in the 
organization and in the maneuvers. Every man, in the earlier ages of the country at 
least, was more or less a soldier, inured to a hard life, taught to bear arms, and expected 
to fight when called upon. The leading men in each state paid attention to organization 
and tactics in a way never before seen. It was not standing A., but a sort of national 
militia, that gained Marathon, Platea, and Mycale. So far as concerned the arrange- 
ment of A., the Lacedemonians invented the phalanx (q.v.), a particular mode of 
grouping foot-soldiers. This phalanx consisted of eight ranks, one behind another; the 
front and rear ranks being composed of picked men, and the intermediate ranks of less 
tried soldiers. ‘The number of men in each rank depended on the available resources 
of the commander. These men were mostly armed with spears, short swords, and shields. 

Athenians.—The Athenians made a greater number of distinctions than the Lacede- 
monians in the different kinds of troops forming their A. They had heavy infantry, 
constituting the men for the phalanx, and armed with spears, daggers, corselets, and 
shields; light infantry, employed in skirmishes and in covering the phalanx, and armed 
with light javelins and shields; a sort of irregular infantry, who, with javelins, bows and 
arrows, and slings, harassed the enemy in march, and performed other services analo- 
gous in some degree to those of sharpshooters in a modern army. It is recorded that 
Miltiades, the Athenian hero at Marathon, invented the ‘‘ double-quick march,” to increase 
the momentum ofa phalanx when rushing on the enemy. 

Macedonians.—Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, having the sagac- 
ity to see that he could not vanquish his neighbors so long as he adopted the same for- 
mation and tactics as themselves, set about inventing something new. He resolved to 
have a standing army instead of a militia; to have at command aset of men whose trade 
was fighting, instead of citizens who were traders and soldiers by turn. Asa further 
change, he made the phalanx deeper and more massive than it had been among the Lace- 
demonians. He brought into use the Macedonian pike, a formidable weapon 24 ft. in 
length. With a phalanx sixteen ranks in depth, four rows of men could present the 
points of their long pikes protruding in front of the front-rank, forming a bristling 
array of steel terrible to encounter. Besides these heavy infantry, there were light troops 
marshaled into smaller bodies for more active maneuvers. Philip organized three kinds 
of cavalry—heavy, armed with pikes, and defended by cuirasses of iron-mail; light, 
armed with lances; and irregular. 

Thebans.—This nation introduced the army-formation of columns, much deeper than 
broad, or having more men in file than in rank. A new kind of tactics was introduced 
in accordance with this formation; the movement being intended to pierce the enemy’s 
line at some one point, and throw them into confusion. 

ftomans.—These able warriors initiated changes in army matters, which had a wide- 
spread influence on the nations of the civilized world. About the period 200 B.c., every 
Roman, from the age of 17 to 46, was liable to be called upon to serve as a soldier; the 
younger men were preferred; but all were available up to the middle-time of life. They 
went through a very severe drilling and discipline, to fit them alike for marching, fight- 
ing, camping, working, carrying, and other active duties. Every year the senate decreed 
the formation of legions, or army corps, deputing this duty to the consul or preetor. 
Magistrates sent up the names of eligible men, and tribunes selected a certain number 
from this list. See Lecion. The Roman legion, in its best days, had many excellent 
military qualities—great facility of movement; a power of preserving order of battle 
unimpaired; a quick rallying-power when forced to give way; a readiness to adapt itself 
to varying circumstances on the field of battle; a formidable impetuosity in attack; 
and a power of fighting the enemy even while retreating. The heavy infantry were armed 
with javelins, heavy darts, pikes, and swords; the lighter troops with bows and arrows, 
slings, and light javelins; while the defensive armor comprised shields, cuirasses, hel. 
mets, and greaves. 

Those ancient nations which had no distinctive features in their A. need not be 
noticed here. 


ARMIES, Mepiavaut. Thedownfall of the Roman empire marked the dividing-point 
between ancient and medieval times in military matters, as well as in other things that 
concern the existence of nations. The barbarians and semi-barbarians who attacked on 
all sides the once mighty but now degenerate empire, gradually gained possession of the 
vast regions which had composed it. The mode in which these conquests were made 
gave rise to the feudal system (q.v.). What all had aided to acquire by conquest, all 
demanded to share in proportions more or less equal. Hence arose a division of the con- 
quered territory; lands were held from the chief by feudal tenure, almost in independent 
sovereignty. When European kingdoms were gradually formed out of the wrecks of 


706 


Armies. 


the empire, the military arrangements put on a peculiar form. The King could not main- 

tain astanding army, for his barons or feudal chieftains were jealous of allowing him 

too much power. He could only strengthen himself by obtaining their aid on certain 

terms, or by allowing them to weaken themselves in intestine broils, to which they had 

always much proneness. Each baron had a small army composed of his own militia or 

retainers, available for battle at short notice. The contests of these small armies, some- 

times combined and sometimes isolated, make up the greater part of the wars of the 
middle ages. Of military tactics or strategy, there was very little; the campaigus were 

desultory and indecisive; and the battles were gained more by individual valor than by 

any well-concerted plan. 

One great exception to this military feudality was furnished by the erwsades (q.v.). So 
far as concerns A., however, in their organization and discipline, these expeditions effected 
but little. The military forces which went to the Holy Land were little better than 
armed mobs, upheld by fanaticism, but not at all by science or discipline. Numbers 
and individual bravery were left to do the work, combination and forethought being dis- 
regarded. 

i much greater motive-power for change, during the middle ages, was the invention 
of gunpowder. When men could fight at a greater distance than before, and on a sys- 
tem which brought mechanism to the aid of valor, everything connected with the mili- 
tary art underwent a revolution. Historically, however, this great change was not very 
apparent until after the period usually denominated the middle ages. The art of mak- 
ing good cannon and hand guns grew up gradually, like other arts; and A. long con- 
tinued to depend principally on the older weapons—spears, darts, arrows, axes, maces, 
swords, and daggers. 

During the greater part of the 14th and 15th centuries, the chief A. were those main- 
tained by the Spaniards and the Moors on one European battle-ground, by the English 
and the French on another, and by the several Italian republicsona third. In those A., 
the cavalry were regarded as the chief arm. ‘The knights and their horses alike were 
frequently covered with plate or chain armor; and the offensive weapons were lances, 
swords, daggers, and battle-axes. A kind of light cavalry was sometimes formed of 
archers on smaller horses. Astoarmy formation, there was still little that could deserve 
the name; there was no particular order of battle; each knight sought how he could best 
distinguish himself by personal valor; and to each was usually attached an esquire, abet- 
ting him as a second during the contest. Sometimes it even happened that the fate of a 
battle was allowed to depend on a combat between two knights. Noattempt was made, 
until towards the close of the 15th c., to embody a system of tactics and maneuvers for 
cavalry; and even that attempt was of the most primitive kind. Nor was it far other- 
wise with the foot-soldiers; they were gradually becoming acquainted with the use of 
firearms; but, midway asit were between two systems, they observed neither completely; 
and the A. in which they served presented very little definite organization. 


ARMIES, MODERN. AFGHANISTAN.—NO reliable statistics can be procured for the 
exact strength of the Afghan army. In 1896 it was estimated at 50,000. In 1890, 20,000 
were stationed in and about Kabul, including six mule batteries of artillery, two field 
batteries, an elephant battery, 40 squadrons of cavalry, and 8,000 infantry. At Kabul 
there is an arsenal at which cannon and small arms are manufactured under the super- 
intendence of English officers. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.—In 1894 the army comprised 37 generals, 685 infantry offi- 
cers, 507 cavalry, 167 artillery and 2 engineers; the privates numbered 6,498, but in 1896 
the total effective was placed at 15,302. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.—The following table shows the strength of the Austro- 
Hungarian army on a peace footing in 1895:— 


Officers. Men. Total. 
Army — 
Bbah eee cele eel ee Ue eteccels terete cree mite mee eletereie cie are 2,606 4,301 6,907 
Sanitary Troops Mcev Ment steets coh pice nie tciators piclemte cleiticcte 81 6,858 6,919 
Matablishwmiortswccset ams ate there cic coe es 2,332 7,512 9,844 
Tnfantiy. (sees teen t ec packer emer comes canoe 9,153 181,937 191,090 
Cavalry.....cece Rics'ced Ueeiee Paneer dees cco ee 1,982 46,864 48,846 
Artillery — 
Fiald 27.5 (i\whees aac eitce eins ree hv eee otis eee tes erate 1,323 26,011 27,334 
WOFGreas's sa cre iovien rare oe ee a Eaer eee ee 420 7,746 8,166 
Pioneers, Ot6. citi acciwetuaas ae Carecds aeiee Cote cue eee ee 584 10,049 10,633 
Tain ssa: Fe Lay Make aha eae ee He nee 388 3,486 3,874 
Austrian Landwehr — 
TNGSUEFY oats vemcareb nec ce mecae bein ee Melee eet retin 1,770 16,773 18,543 
Cave lyy ioe oi fa eda whee tee nee Aer CoE ee etn eens 236 1,882 2,118 
Hungarian Landwehr — 
Infantry:eumee tees wivis Sat slero/e 6 wie lbiore <etniieleleieie talon c oitte = eleriare 2,340 14,094 16,434 
Oavalry aris spncae nee cces coc atorc eaten he ee 230 3,314 3,544 
Lotalicy shen 'ievn Fe sMeen wien a Gee ees esata RIOR LAER 23,445 330,807 354,252 


_ 
( 0 i Armies, 


In case of war the number of men who would be obliged to serve in the Landsturm is 
over 4,000,000, while the actual strength of the army on a war footing is placed at 
45,238 officers and 1,826,940 men. 

Bre.teium.—The following table shows the strength of the Belgian army on a peace 
footing in 1895: — 


Officers. Rank and File. Total. 

Infantry. ....s.seceses 4 es ebeaWawemenas 1,927 27,885 29,812 
Cavalry fect ies Sue OaU Ie Fe le 6604 ccc cds ve cwusweinaive 376 5,820 6,196 
“Artiliany Sie mtnORNGs 6 2c 5 nce. scene ccecanstave 4€9 8,501 8,970 
TOUGINGONM ee TREC Pes ws os cc nswccccccccesecptnecse 95 1,637 1,732 
GOTIGGLMENIG Maen me arse asin ole ov sens vsicsieeels,cc uci sie 60 2,462 2,522 
Cri Giatetre eT OPE A sews cee sb ced gah bien wnewiphias 578 2,343 2,921 

CINE 5 oc cc scceccedecsvouseas cers cnes 3,505 48,648 52,153 


For this army there are 7,200 horses and 200 guns, and for the gendarmerie 1,636 horses. 
In time, of war the total strength is 163,082 men, 3,505 officers, 14,000 horses and 240 
guns. Besides the standing army there is a ‘‘ Garde Civique’’ numbering 42,752 men, 
organized as far as possible in the communes, and having as part of their duties the 
maintenance of the integrity and independence of the territory; but the field of its 
activity is confined to communes having over 10,000 inhabitants and to fortified places. 

BRAZIL. — Obligatory service was introduced in 1875, but exemption from military 
service may be obtained by either personal substitution or on payment of a small sum 
to the government. The duration of service is six years in the active army and three 
years in the reserve. Efforts have been made for reorganizing the service, but the work 
is not yet complete. The peace effective of the army is reported as 4,000 officers and 
25,000 men for 1895. The gendarmerie numbered 20,000 men, The infantry included 
40 battalions with one transport company and one depot company. The cavalry com- 
prised 16 regiments and the artillery 5 regiments of horse and 9 regiments of foot; there 
were also two pioneer battalions of engineers. In case of war this force can be doubled. 

BritisH Empire. — The regular army of the United Kingdom, exclusive of India, 
consisted in 1895 of 7,501 commissioned officers, 1,044 warrant officers, 15,020  ser- 
geants, 3,682 drummers, trumpeters, etc.,,and 127,156 rank and file, a total of 155,403 
of all ranks. This is composed of the following staff, regiments and miscellaneous 
establishments: — 


Non-Commis- 


BRANCHES OF THE MILITARY SERVICE. Officers. sioned Officers, | Rank and File. 
Drummers, etc. 


GENERAL AND DEPARTMENT STAFF. 


General Stalttr cas <a sapncisess sient ssicels ele BACO OS Bishi GoCDIaele 332 124 5 
PALIN VeACCOUNCAN UN sic rinteleiciela eieiiare Sine tssts Wieior car ial edhe whe. peace ae 209 oe a 
Ohaplains*?Departimentsec: cance. Cersion cisleniels Fees auc eels 88 os HE 
MoedicaliDepartimont:< 22% wes cie\sisie.¢ accis si ecee vibe cele tc sieee 619 1 Ar 
Veterinary, Departm entice cla. sialeacateateieslenie oor asia eevee 68 6 1 

POGAL SCAMS i. pate vs sce'sa sa ape gehen ss case ghost rots 1,316 131 6 

REGIMENTS. taper an? 

Cavalry, including Life and Horse Guards................ 553 1,371 11,396 
RoyaltArcillery sect ties ool ye cteoreesetqeriaenn ce wet aan ots ce 856 2,095 20,393 
Lita eA Uneaten Moon oy Hewok Jmol Semicon a 4 oopasee tne aee 592 1 Ny. 5,621 
Infantry, imcluding” Hoot Guard. sacs. ice « sees sirens refers sls 2,804 6,642 79,208 
Woloniali ops ga7 gw eplee areiayeielys ta ate Oats eet ae olen ter 158 373 4,696 
apartment Corps see creiers relerehsterckelevelateteceieicetors eae stetelscielsvereiets 139 1,291 2,937 
ATM Y DEEVICE- COLE: tisinc' ss Sat unm are cae e Be gies ts mets 245 914 2,730 

Total Regiments...........+...- au cin ifs Aeye ae ene 5,347 13,921 126,981 
Staff of Yeomanry, Militia, and Volunteers................ 599 6,194 10 
Miscellaneous Establishments, total ...................... 239 500 159 

Total Regitlar Army .. 0206 .:scaue deuce eee u sy daus 7,501 20,746 127,156 


The European army in India consisted in 1895 of 77,492 officers and men; besides the 
regular army there are four classes of reserve, namely, the Militia, the Yeomanry Cay- 
alry, the Volunteer corps and the Army Reserve force. With these the total available 
military force in 1895-96 was 718,821. 

BULGARIA AND EASTERN ROUMELIA.—The army, which was reorganized in 1895, 
contains on a peace footing about 39,320 officers and men, and on a war footing about 
175,000. 

CHILE.—The strength of the army is not by law allowed to exceed 9,000 men, dis- 
tributed among 5 regiments of artillery, 9 of infantry, 8 of cavalry, and a corps of engi- 
neers. There are four generals of division, 6 of brigade, 18 colonels, 40 lieut.-colonels, 


Armies. 708 


and 555 inferior officers. Besides the regular army there is a National Guard composed 
of citizens, which in 1894 numbered 51,090 men. Steps have been taken to reorganize 
this guard, requiring every citizen between the ages of 20 and 40 to serve. 

CHInA.—No reliable statistics are procurable to show the extent of the Chinese mili- 
tary force. The following statistics are taken from the Statesman’s Year Book for 
1896:—The Eight Banners, including Manchus, Mongols, and the Chinese, numbered 
323,800. Of these 100,000 are supposed to be reviewed by the Emperor at Peking once a 
year. The Ying Ping, or National Army, numbers 6,459 officers and 650,000 privates. 

The war with Japan disclosed a wretched condition in the discipline and equipment 
of the army. ‘The best fighting force in that war was the Black Flag Troops, who were 
said to number 50,000 men. After these were the Eight Banner men and the Army of 
Manchuria; the latter were estimated at 180,000. The Army of Turkestan is employed 
in keeping order in the western provinces, and the number of men varies considerably. 

CoLoMBIA.—The strength of the national army is determined by Act of Congress 
each year. The peace footing is 5,500. In case of war the Executive can raise the 
army to the strength which circumstances may require. 

Costa Rica.—Costa Rica has an army of 600 men and 12,000 militia, but on a war 
footing can command 34,000 militia, as every male between 18 and 50 is bound to serve. 

DENMARK.—The army consists of all the able-bodied men of the kingdom who have 
reached the age of 22 years. They are liable to service for eight years in the regular 
army and its reserve, constituting the first line, and for eight years subsequent in the 
extra reserve. The forces of the kingdom comprise 31 battalions of infantry of the line, 
with 11 of reserve; 5 regiments of cavalry made up of 16 .quadrons; 2 regiments of field 
artillery of 12 batteries, and 4 of reserve; 5 battalions of garrison artillery of six com- 
panies each, and 1 regiment of engineers. The total peace strength in 1895 was 751 
officers and 10,000 men; war strength 1,352 officers and 45,910 men; with the Citizen 
Corps the total war strength is about 60,000 men,—this is exclusive of the extra reserve, 
only called out in emergencies, and numbering 16,500 officers and men. 

EcuApor.—The standing army is 5,541 officers and men divided into one brigade of 
fortress and one brigade of field artillery, 4 battalions of infantry, 2 columns of light 
infantry, and a regiment of cavalry. 

Eaypr.—All Egyptian subjects are liable to military service,—6 years in the army, 
5in the police, and 4in the reserve. In the regular force there are 13 infantry battalions, of 
which 8 are Egyptian and 5 Soudanese; artillery, 7 batteries; cavalry, 1 regiment. The 
total effective strength is about 17,000 men. 

FrRANCE.—According to the Statesman’s Year Book for 1896 the-peace strength of the 
French army was 598,263. The following table shows the subdivisions of the army and 
their relative strength :— 


FRANCE. ALGERIA. TUNIs. TOTAL. 
Men. Men. Men. Men. 
(Officers. ) (Officers. ) (Officers. ) (Officers. ) 
General Staitesn, tects stesccieitateictes » cleleieunein 4,113 368 86 4,567 
(3,405) (276) (65) (3,746) 
MUTATE CHOOLS der tecieter reer susiets oielaisteles ate 3,255 rein Sac 3,255 
; (380) (Ganee)) (Soe) (380) 
Unclassed amidst the Troops............. 1,945 798 113 2,856 
(1,699) (564) (110) (2,373) 
ARMY CoRPs. 

LG nA, Geo poancadod Snodmemodosdotanct 315,988 36,629 8,744 361,361 
(11,845) (855) (256) (12,956) 
AOMINISULACLVE «dleislels clereletellleleielslniaieiisieieiete 11,844 3,538 494 15,876 
(coer (Cagm) (SS) Pep), 
AVAIL tee aretatsicte atsieralsielcrle aces sinielcteleeatalereiets 67/488 7,866 1,853 77,201 
(3,489) (359) (86) (3,934) 
ATbUTOLY «arava Wiss aaa Sele asian ae 78,512 2,533 854 81,899 
; (3,880) (50) (17) (7,323) 
ENQincerssidstecrisscvesuscenesphacemaes 12,016 801 325 18,142 
2 (459) (12) (4) (475) 
UPA foes oct hs pes eee eee Baa aerate 8,462 2,832 951 12,245 
(361) (39) (12) (412) 
TotalArmy Corpse avicceicleeieiiecciteutic tite 494,304 54,199 13,221 561,724 
(20,034) (1,315) (375) (21,724) 
Total Active Army ......sseececeseceuees 503,617 ~ 55,365 13,420 572,402 
; (25,518) (2,155) (550) (28,223) 
Gendarmerie?) ace js. Sidkt eaten BADE aakie 21,535 1,122 154 22,811 
623 31 (3) (657) 
Garde Républicaine: . sa. astenclem ences < $050 ‘ oe ) tee 3,050 
(83) (ao) (.---) (83) 
Grand /Totali.'s; aie <atersa\e tse Hatta safe eeieaise ¢ 528,202 56,487 13,574 598,263 
(26,224) (2,186) (553) (28,963) 


a ee ee eS eee 
Since the war of 1870 there has been a great improvement in the French military 
service, and in spite of the demand for the reduction of the burdens of military duty this 


709 Armies, 


improvement has continued. In 1897 the Minister of war demanded that the peace 
footing of the army should be raised to 550,000 and refused to accept the reduction pro- 
posed by the Budget Committee. The conditions of service have several times been 
modified. On July 15, 1889, exemptions were abolished and the period of service was 
extended to 25 years, an increase of 5 years over the period previously required; but the 
time to be served with the colors was reduced to three years. The Law of 1892 added 3 
years to the time of service in the reserve, reducing by the same amount the time to be 
spent in the Territorial reserve. Under existing statutes the requirements of service 
are as follows:—3 years in the Active army, 10 in the reserve of the Active army, 6 
years in the Territorial army and 6 in the reserve of the Territorial army. 

GERMANY.—The German army in 1897 was composed of 21 army corps, each army 
corps being considered a unit and independent in itself. In each corps there are two 
divisions of infantry, a cavalry division of 4 regiments and 2 horse artillery batteries, 
2 cavalry regiments attached to the infantry divisions, a reserve of artillery containing 
6 field batteries, 1 mounted battery, 1 battalion of pioneers and 1 of train. 

It is enacted in the constitution of 1871 that ‘‘ every German is liable to service — and 
no substitution is allowed.’’ Every German capable of bearing arms must serve in the 
standing army for six years; two of these years must be spent in active service and the 
remaining four years in the reserve army. After this he serves in the Landwehr for 
twelve years. Service begins’ at the age of 20, and the number of young men fit for 
service who reach this age annually averages 360,000. Owing to the limitation of the 
peace footing of the army, only a certain number, who are chosen by lot, join the army; 
the remainder are drafted into the Ersatztruppen, a kind of reserve, in which the 
period of service is twelve years. The Army Act of Oct. 1, 1895, increased the annual 
levies by about 60,000 men, reducing the period of service of the infantry from three to 
five years. Young men of superior education are permitted under certain conditions 
to substitute one year’s service at their own expense for the long period of service 
regularly required. Of these one-year volunteers about 8,000 join annually. Besides 
the reserve forces above mentioned there is the Landsturm, to be called out only in case 
of an invasion of German territory. 

All able-bodied men from 17 to 45 years, who are not in the standing army or reserve 
are required to serve in the Landsturm. 

The following table, taken from the Statesman’s Year Book for 1896, shows the peace 


strength of the army in 1895-96:— ¢ 
PEACE Foorine. Officers. Rank and File. 
INANE Yon Vid) EVORIMONEAW aa io stata 4610 sfeleye siatele » clelcitis e's o/eye! biefeisia eisjelsfa'e ¢ wid be! ole, eis 11,774 3€3,432 
Rifles, 19 Battalions. .... ee ate Bake ciae aspera stele teleic-aistheae cies demeite naa ahs 410 12,027 
Bezirkekommandossncol wnistiece auc eiesclacaerels cae <aielsii eee dae sabeaicneise seo e's 734 5,413 
Surgeons, Instructors, etc..........e+eeee A GOERS ISIORU TIL GHEIO Oboe bar nk hae Big 2,714 
SWE MINAS ogSg yan alto eOBaOo malate cia telautobal sare ckeethcae's ecie stele’ e's 12,918 383,586 
a Vale ey Ot Ear TINOMi a ae(ss Sanu eae Mh ae Vee as'ele ecard Oh 6.08 Cute mmel aa bit leila 2,352 65,499 
ec Ppecialipervices, Including OMmMicers, ... ce ae «cigs aloes sclelo sees eecsss te 828 
HieldvArtillery, 43 Regiments . )6.05. sc as cone oes ciewcie cscs se cajclowls oaieia sie cs 2,671 58,424 
We sé Special Services, including Officers. ........ 2022 cccecessooes Sok 809 
Foot Artillery, 17 Regiments and 1 Battalion... ...............sseeeseee eee 869 22,857 
a sé Special Services, including Officers.. ......-...-....-seeeseee ey es 132 
Pioneers, 23 Battalions, 3 Railway Regiments, 1 Balloon Detachment, 1 Rail- 

way Battalion, and 3 Railway Companies. .......--. +--+ sees cece cree eee: 729 19,018 
Special! Pionese Servicessnctasicas vos ov iste sla’ Ate Sis aa suttnnces ctamioacteleliceksteis's a & 124 
Train, 21 Battalions...........++. Sitar taieisies state atote ele) dolojajolehsioysis e's veiels) sialalsisieie's 307 7,631 
Special Train Services... .. 5. .oe ccc ccc core cece cece eerste coc scsvcene ee 69 
Special MOLMAMONS tee ac eee elles clscles <oicsticice vise aiclels scvisisieiee sesieiicicvosns 486 2,896 
Non-Regimental Officers, €t0...... ce. ccee cece rece eens cone cece sees cesecees 2,286 243 
AWA ind: BA nodon SAD COCO unkG doo OU aOdDdr Tadao OnE co SS nOnnDn ab DGD Baan 22,618 562,116 


GREECE.—Military service is incumbent upon all males above the age of 21. The 
standing army comprises 10 infantry regiments, 3 cavalry regiments, and 3 regiments of 
field artillery. The strength of the army in 1895 was reported as follows: — 


BRANCHES OF THE MILITARY SERVICE. Officers. Re ae olaniee! Total. 

Wine (iG oa be ES eee ORRAR Ualeh cde 4 aa Sdeeeet 204 36 240 
MUPMOFY Pend lov cicees voce ck cuet st eeehst ute eU eee tea: 857 15,182 16,039 
AO RAAT rover rem, be lei. 1 e 93 1,053 1,146 
RGR EM OR oral ons i ole dS oisin gem Coes pisahhee sae are ee 222 2,065 2,287 
TI IMEEM Ma Telate 9 <is)¢stsis oe <,4/6)5,5) 5.0/0) 9.01912, «ial ele eleteiaielatalereeinieie cis fe 101 1,112 1,213 
GEMEMTIESOTVICOR TTS conics slccccre cates ecce Cee cemeteries 206 295 501 
IMAM VROOLIOOLS 5h ates cicrers oye c's oes 8 vse videe cle ts'e'es's ce nels e cis 54 168 222 
SEMEN rer 3s. voc omen nde d'dade Bonpmenan. cen atte 143 3,086 3,229 

Total..... Ae RT Rebates by ia 1,880 22,997 24,877 


The strength of the army on a war footing was estimated at 100,000 men. The reserve 
numbered 104,500 and the so-called territorial army about 146,000 men. The organiza- 
tion, however, is very deficient. 


Armies. 7 it 0 


GUATEMALA. — The army of Guatemala, the cost of which is about one-tenth of the 
total public expenditure, consisted in 1894 of 7000 officers and men. The active army 
had 50,718, and the reserve 34,000 men. 

Harri. — After the reorganization Act of 1878 the army consisted nominally of 6,828 
men, chiefly infantry. Besides this there is a special ‘‘Guard of the Government,” 
numbering 650 men, commanded by 10 generals, who also act as aides-de-camp to the 
President of the Republic. 

IraLy. — Universal liability to military service forms the basis of the organization of 
the Italian army. A certain portion of all the young men who have completed their 
twentieth year is levied annually, and, as in the German army, young men of superior 
education are allowed to serve as one-year volunteers on certain conditions, that is, on 
payment of acertain sum. The army is divided into three classes, namely, the Perma- 
nent Army, the Mobile Militia and the Territorial Militia. It consists of twelve army 
corps, each corps containing two divisions and each division from two to five military 
districts. 


The following is the strength of the army according to the official statements in 
1896: — 


PERMANENT ARMY. MiniTia. 
On Unlimited Mobile and Alt 
Under Arms. WT ata: gavdinia TaAnd. Territorial. 
OFFICERS 
Effective. .....+ sleersisiavcleisina viet saealerae Raph ra.duad 14,431 eae 76 5,636 
Halts Payee csc riaitssraeiceiae sinleateelerets aioiaieralsterae 200 ach sisi S450 
Supplementary ses ccs cons ce sater sisthieiate/tieereies ae As 6,036 4,309 
Auxiliary iu t¢c0ss sb esse Gecanncteeens seman sees 1,075 wees 
Reserve .....seeee deuseincacuiocintrs slalsieveleaeniaatsls ees 6,579 
Total .OMcerscncecns con eee accuee esac. 14,631 . 6,036 5,460 12,215 
TROOPS. 
Carabineers..9..e.scecsceccece APR sere 23,639 5,094 1,229 15,188 
Infantry..2); Wasa eices sinters oiteeae nmicninte dtinciasc 97,026 260,094 299,637 493,291 
Borsaglierisssc.seccecsss elecoloteeceterete's siete cia crtievee 12,646 31,887 34,842 41,990 
Alpine Troops cijese cece see aialealensinisierlarcletslersiorate 9,058 27,235 31,429 31,827 
Military Districts icmsecccecsidicecicee cis eres cate 8,940 122,734 eats Says c 
Unassigned sassiids scone sis cencivaestitsecceadeccs sues ree 25,018 1,371,682 
Cavalry ey @eoeees-ceceecereerreseevete 23,289 19,707 eos 49,399 
Artillory csesss owas + Pade e sed eee se hen CO net 30,016 92,208 58,699 53,682 
Engineerd 55 ca cceee tht tie netoe ene tatiees ret 7,376 23,885 15,330 11,947 
Military SCchOOIS ins siis's ese ce retreine etre cee aie 1,334 eases ees wae 
Sanitary Corps Ges entidevetp cess ci cern eee 2,375 9,238 9,120 14,024 
Commissariat....ceeee SBIOOHHICtOU SDB BODstvor 1,865 4,961 2,904 3,096 
Invalid and Veteran Corps .......seseeseecees 181 secs iaters tees 
Penal Establishments and Disciplinary 
Companion 3s <ccssteheceucosanseusense cess 2,307 ones sees 
Guards (Policemen, etc.) ......cccccceccscecces La ou 4,395 10,179 
DepotiorsHorses testes cscs ciscicceie re ccc cree ss 408 sen sees 
Central Depot, African Troops ....ccccesecees ace bone metals sees 
Railway and Telegraph Service ......eseeseees oe Cree wees 21,529 
Total Troops. .....+.+- Rewer eet pore eee 220,460 597,043 482,603 .| 2,117,834 
Grand (Potala sesciecees ssete cine maces es COOOL 603,079 488,063 2,130,049 
3,456,282 


reat also a special African corps containing 211 officers and 5,888 men (4,393 natives) 
IM Lovo. 

JAPAN.—AI] males 20 years old are liable to serve in the standing army for seven 
years, of which three must be spent in active service and the remainder in the reserve. 
After leaving the army they form part of the landwehr for another five years, and every 
male from 17 to 40 years of age not in any of the above classes must belong to the 
landsturm. The standing army is composed of an Imperial Guard and six divisions. 
The Imperial Guard in 1893 had 325 officers and 7,312 men. The six divisions numbered 
2,531 officers, 48,140 men. With the Jesso Militia the peace effective in 1893 was 3,615 
officers and 65,098 men. The reserve was 94,676 and the landwehr 106,053. After the 
war with China, plans for a reorganization of the army were set on foot, and it was 
expected that by 1901 77,000 men would be added to the service. 

Mrxico.—The army in 1895 consisted of 23,730 infantry, 11,069 cavalry, 2,304 artil- 
lery and train; total, 37,103. The fighting strength of the army was estimated at 132,000 
infantry, 25,000 dragoons, and 8,000 artillery. Every Mexican capable of bearing arms 
is liable to military service between the ages of twenty and fifty. 

5 Morocco, — The Sultan’s army, which is quartered at the capital, is composed of 

,000 Askar or disciplined infantry and 400 cavalry. Besides these there are a few 
batteries of field guns and 2,000 irregular cavalry. 

; yaar NETHERLANDS.—The regular army on a war footing consisted in 1895 of 46,039: 
injantry, 3,132 cavalry, 1,632 engineers, 16,080 artillery; total about 68,000 men (not. 


7 1 1 Armies. 


officers), including special services. The peace effective amounted only to 20,222 men 
and 1,766 officers. 

NorwaAy.—The Norwegian army consists of three divisions: the Line, the Land- 
vern, and the Landstorm. In 1894 the army numbered 30,000 men with 900 officers, 

Prersta. — No figures of recent date can be given for the Persian army; but accord- 
ing to the latest official returns it numbered 105,500 men, including 5,000 artillery, 54,700 
infantry, 25,200 cavalry, and 7,200 militia. The standing army, however, numbered but 
24,500. By order of the Shah these forces are raised by conscription. 

PeRv.—Infantry, 1,500; cavalry, 500; artillery, 500; gendarmerie, between 2000 and 
3000. 


PortuGAL.—There is universal liability to service for young men of 21 years of age, 
with certain exceptions. In 1893 the strength of the army on a peace footing was 
34,172 of all ranks; on a war footing the total number was 150,000 men, and 4,000 
officers. Besides these forces there is a Colonial army numbering about 9,000 men. 

RouMANIA.—The permanent army in times of peace is 3,000 officers, and 48,500 men. 
The territorial army numbered, according to the latest official statistics, 81,845 men. 
The army consists of four army corps, an independent division at Dobrogea and an 
independent cavalry division. 

Russra.—Since 1874 military service has been rendered obligatory for all men from 
their 21st year. Out of about 870,000 men reaching their 21st year annually, about 
275,000 are taken into the active army, the remainder going into the Ist or 2nd reserves. 
The Russian army on a war footing, according to the figures for 1894, was 2,552,496 of 
all ranks. 

The army may be divided into three classes, the European Army, the Army in 
Asiatic Dominions, and the Army of Finland. The figures for the European Army in 
the year 1892 on a peace footing are as follows: — 


Men. 
EUROPEAN ARMY. Officers. (Combatants and 
Non-Combatants.) 


General Staff and Chief Command... : .......cccccscccccercces egies. 1,920 


8314 Infantry Battalions (52 Riflemen).. .........ssesscecces venccces 16,081 403,708 
121 Reserve Battalions 
26 Fortress Infantry Battalions “"°""**T Tt tote etre tet rete tees eees 4,865 87,945 
566 Cavalry Squadrons (210 Cossack Hundreds)........... dct Ala 4,022 100,605 
65 Squadrons of Second Reserve ‘* Cadres” .... 2.2 e.20 cece cccceees 351 8,422 
Slat HN GIG) IS era Tel base Rb e ob RQe CDA MOO MOTE TC MEeR dana ice ede Nsyastsivecre’: 2,296 68,021 
37 Reserve and 2 Second Reserve (zapas) Batteries.............. eaters 429 7,668 
ZOOPHoruresss Artillery Companies. sce clisicis iets) s ve cieicic¢ cle aleleeciala ees 650 23,500 
ne Sel ay Companies........ aieiele sheterereiete:s yok Eousheken danesasr 705 16,197 
1 Fortress Sappers 
TOE eO On eaniat Pr aan hare EM ty RN 115 2,823 
20 Telegraph, 6 Engineers’, and 3 Balloon Parks..... me aaitintaniatustesias 107 1,290 
20 Train *“* Cadre’? Companies... ........sssee sista ale state cletsie cis efsie-e 75 1,995 
§ Gendarmes’ Squadrons..............seeeeee aero seta rantate satiate 18 270 
116 Detachments of Frontier Guards, etc...... svisisiatelatsl tera Sicieis sais seate 860 28,500 
Total Huropeam ATMYccc vceccieisic socsivicleccccs scans ccles seca case 30,574 750,944 


SERVIA.—On a peace footing in 1893 the standing army numbered 580 officers and 
12,112 men; on a war footing there would have been 105,575 troops in the 5 territorial 
divisions, 15,065 independent troops, and 27,302 depot and Ersatztruppen; total of the 
regular army, 148,022. Both bands of the popular levy amounted to 837,823. 

S14M.—There is a small standing army, and every male inhabitant from the age of 
21 is obliged to serve for 3 years as a recruit and afterwards 3 months in each year; 
there are, however, many exemptions. The army is estimated at from 10,000 to 12,000 
men available, but only 5000 are under arms. A good many officers are Europeans, 

SpAin.—Under the military law of 1885 the Spanish army consists of a permanent 
army, first, or active reserve; second, or sedentary reserve. All Spaniards over 20 years 
of age are liable to be drawn for the permanent army, but can procure exemption by 
the payment of 1500 pesetas. The following is the strength of the regular army: — 


PERMANENT. War. 

- Officers. Men. Men. 
Generalsirccss. oo 5 BBG COBOROAAY: pie eizieis’e aio jeimataiets ate siete 240 ere secs 
DUAL ee temisaeiae ab s'oe'e cc ecle.ce 4 9's elerslsteleiere aista, watataressieteis ate orate 232 Saeed ones 
Infantry........ eeaewaa’s slcese e 4 chaletga vonsiae Se oh clones 6,088 45,679 124,063 
SEIS oO SO Coco BBCODE ODOOROIIE Dt COCOC OCU OOM NOCHE 1,360 13,139 17,156 
Artillery........ Bisleclsisinle cine 0.0.00 ccicase seissisie de.yes ceseccens 963 8,386 12,166 
Engineers....... «ccc cece cc cescccceseseeceseveces cccceces 425 3,399 11,027 
Administration eet eer ee ee ee eeereereereeeeeeeeeereereeeeeeeeeeeee eeer eee 11,140 
Sanitary, etc....... Meiteipcetaia’s ait,siclels » sioteieele els e'a sia ais esiae sale qT 226 483 
TGOtalis eieteen ts > seer. Peo eo oe eee Oe eH HEH HOHE OSSO HOES] 9,315 70,829 176,035 


SWEDEN.—The army is composed of the following classes of troops: the Varfvade, or 
enlisted troops; the Indelta, paid and kept by the Landowners; the Varnpl.gtige or 


Armies. 7 12 


conscription troops. The strength of the permanent army on a peace footing, exclusive 
of the last class, according to the reorganization of 1892, was as follows: — 


ee 


Non-Com- Men (exclu- ene Field 
PERMANENT ARMY. Officers. missioned | Musicians. sive of Militar Total. ane 
Officers. Musicians). ranreg d f 
| 
Gonoeralsec celeb eelerwai 9 adie aaa ete as ais 9 | 
General Staff and Staff- 
College c=. <.2 wits 39 2 AGOF weet 185 226 | De Be 
Infantry ......cesseees 1,232 1,132 1,280 23,612 199 27,455 aide 
Cavalry..ccccesececeee 232 210 152 4,615 60 5,269 Baiets 
AYtillory: aise siesta eine 298 2b5 167 3,272 141 4,133 | 240 
Engineers: «<2. .sessse0 afr 58 21 821 13 990 | soars 
Trai sects teen sk conse 66 124 24 522 36 172 
Ota rceietel- steies oils 1,953 1,781 1,644 32,842 634 38,854 | 240 
Reserve 1894 ........-.- 589 421 36 1,046 


SWITZERLAND.—Every citizen of the Republic of military age, not exempt on account 
of bodily defect or other reason, is liable to military service. There are three classes of 
troops: The Elite, consisting of men able to bear arms, from 20 to 32; the Landwehr, 
comprising all men between 33 and 44; and the Landsturm, which can only be called out 
in time of war, consisting of all citizens not otherwise serving, between 17 and 50. 

In 1895 the strength of the Swiss army was as follows: — 


Elite. Landwehr. Landsturm. 

SUMO I WM NG Sonoma ides unimnads dey oQdodaacGdeG sac 12 sale 
Staiis Of Div. andy s SeCtlons wep om selete eee clei aialelotele etetelels 66 50 BAS): 
Infantriypy-ceatince ee acess Me tspticteeis is aici ame tetetetetcistetetatalaleietete 100,353 57,507 58,014 
MC AVALTY,. 5-0 crore aislsia's v'e aiejore s\lsiclasleveie.e: siete sisie's » fo/s eines elpie ele leteretere 8,458 3,136 att 
Artillery tecmtrtttctscisls creictetaectereltcicmicls sete icister tite sities 20,549 12,497 3,210 
EON GINCOLS 3k oie) e14 = elec o elels,e wlnteloelaye lose arias e aiainisls ajets ceeceee 6,603 3,472 Sct 
PIONGOLS eehic oie istelateiss casera cine Pa ete en ete ele ete tore atateme slalelele 2 gene eats 104,525 
Sibalb in vid MEOH oH e ago ono aNt eaduoogaanonoodabuaace cccce nen eae 104,614 
Sanitary, TLOOPs os.. 202 2c sccearce sesvessesuncves cee cecoee 4,661 3,178 Hol 
IAdminightativeLLYOODps. eeieeuieliciscitelsis sic sleletcters ARGH OGL padaC 1,568 723 
Velocip., Judicial Officers, etc........ cm eehapeereietett te AOSGOOGHE 379 39 

PO Gall yaa cpes  sicletereiete (cle leinrinia?s sa /fete.o aletateiohelaials oecnose: 137,649 80,602 270,363 


TURKEY.—Military service is obligatory upon all Mussulmans over 20 years of age. The 
Turkish Empire is divided into 7 army districts, each the seat of an army corps. Accord-” 
ing to the latest official figures the total army strength in time of war was 700,260 men. 

UNITED STATES.—The authorized enlisted strength of the army is 25,000 men. There 
are three major-generals, 6 brigadier-generals of the line, 25 regiments of infantry, 10 of 
cavalry, 5 of artillery, and an engineer battalion, recruiting parties, Indian scouts, ete. 

On June 30, 1896, the U. S. army consisted of 2,171 officers and 24,784 enlisted men, 
aggregating 26,955. See UNITED STATES, INFANTRY, CAVALRY and ARTILLERY. 

Uruauay.—Uruguay has an army of 3455 officers and men, including 4 battalions 
of infantry, 4 regiments of cavalry and 1 of artillery. The national guard is 20,000 strong. 
There is an armed police force of 3,200 men, and an active civilian force of 3,264. 

VENEZUELA.—The army in 1895 numbered 4000 men in the regular service. There 
is also a national militia in which every citizen from 18 to 45 must be enrolled. Wars 
have been chiefly carried on by the militia, which at times has numbered 60,000. 


ARMIL'LARY SPHERE (armiila, a ring), an instrument intended to give a just con- 
ception of the constitution of the heavens, and of the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
as seen by an observer on the earth. It consists of a number of rings fixed together so 
as to represent the principal circles of the celestial sphere, and these are movable round 
the polar axis within a meridian and horizon, as in the ordinary celestial globe. It was 
by means of such rings furnished with sights that Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and other an- 
cient astronomers made many of their observations, and we find even Tycho Brahé mak- 
ing most of his planetary observations with the help of such an instrument. ‘The A. 8. 
is, however, now only used as an aid to instruction in astronomy, and in this respect is 
generally supplanted by the celestial globe. The object aimed at in the A.8. will be 
better understood by reference to the celestial globe represented in the diagram. Sup- 
posing the observer on the earth to be in the center of the sphere, the earth on which he 
stands shuts out from his view the lower half of the heavens, or the part lying below the 
horizon HH. The hemisphere above him may be regarded as divided into two equal 


r 


; Armillarv. 
7138 Arminius. 


portions, an eastern and a western, by the meridian MM, which passes through the pole 
P, and the zenith Z, of which the eastern 
half is shown in the figure. The north 
pole is supposed to be elevated above 
the horizon, and its elevation is meas- 
ured by the arc NP, or the height above 
the n. point; and the heavens ap- 
pear to rotate round an axis PQ, of 
which P is one extremity; the south 
pole, Q, the other extremity, being be- 
low the horizon. The meridian MM, 
and the horizon HH, are the only circles 
which maintain a fixed position with 
regard to the observer. Of the other 
leading celestial circles, the equator or 
equinoctial LL, extending from the e. 
to the w. point of the horizon, the trop- 
ics of Cancer and Capricorn, respective- 
ly BB and CC, and the arctic circle AA, 
although rotating with the stars, main- 
tain the same position with regard to 
the horizon; while the ecliptie, KK, is 
constantly changing its inclination and 
position towards it. Circles which ex- 
tend from pole to pole, cutting the 
equator at right angles, are called 
circles of declination. The circle which 
passes through the vernal equinox ¥ 
(see ARTES), is denominated the equi- 
noctial colure ; and that passing through the summer solstice O (see SOLSTICE), the solstitial 
colure. Thecircles just named, together with the antarctic circle, are represented by 
corresponding rings in the A. 8. If S bea star, the following are the names given to 
the arcs which determine its position with regard to these circles: ¢ V, right ascension; 
SV, declination; SP, polar distance; SZ, zenith distance; XS, altitude; (XN + 180°), 
azimuth reckoned from the south pole westward. 


ARMIN'IUS, Jacosus, the founder of Arminianism, was b. at Oudewater (Old Water) 
in 1560. His real name in Dutch was James Harmensen; but in accordance with the 
prevailing custom amongst scholars in those days, he Latinized it. His father wasa 
cutler, and died when A. wasa child. After a preliminary education at Utrecht, he 
commenced (in 1575) a course of study at the newly-founded university of Leyden, 
where he remained for six years, and where he seems to have acquired a high reputation, 
for the Amsterdam merchants undertook to bear the expense of his further studies for 
the ministry, on condition that he would not preach out of their city unless permitted 
to do so. In 1582, he went to Geneva, and received the instructions of Theodore Beza, 
the most rigid of Calvinists. Here he made himself odious by the boldness with which 
he defended the logic of Peter Ramus, in opposition to that of the Aristotelians of 
Geneva, and in consequence had to retire to Basle, whither his fame must have preceded 
him, for he was offered by the faculty of divinity in that university the degree of doctor 
gratis, which, however, he did not venture to accept, on account of his youth. At Basle 
he studied under Gyrneus. He subsequently (1586) traveled into Italy. On his return 
to Amsterdam (1588), he was appointed minister. Shortly after this, he was commis- 
sioned to defend the doctrine of Beza, regarding predestination, against the changes 
which the ministers of Delft had proposed to make on it. A. carefully examined both 
sides of the question, but the result of his study was, that he himself began to doubt, 
and at last came to adopt the opinions he had been commissioned to confute. Some 
time after this change of view, he came, in the course of his expositions, upon the epistle 
to the Romans, the most explicitly doctrinal in the New Testament, and the 8th and 
9th chapters of which have always been considered the strongholds of Calvinism. His 
treatment of this epistle excited much dissatisfaction, and involved him in sharp disputes 
with his orthodox brethren. Still his views were, as yet, either ambiguously or vaguely 
expressed, or, at least, had not attained to that clear consistency they subsequently 
acquired, for in 1604 he was made professor of theology in the university of Leyden. 

The greatest enemy of A. was Francis Gomar, his colleague in the university of Ley- 
den. In the course of the year 1604, the latter attacked his doctrines, and from that 
hour to the end of his life, A. was engaged in a series of bitter disputes with his oppo- 
nents. The odiwm theologicum was never exhibited in more unmingled purity. Arminius 
asserted, in substance, that God bestows forgiveness and eternal life on all who repent 
of their sins and believe in Christ; he wills that all men should attain salvation, and 
only because he has from eternity foreseen the belief or unbelief of individuals, has he 
from eternity determined the fate of each. On the other hand, Gomar and his party, 
appealing to the Belgic confession and the Heidelberg catechism, maintained, that God 


Arminius. ; lorpa ws 
Armor. ‘ ie: 


had, by an eternal decree, predestinated what persons shall, as being elected to salvation, 
be therefore awakened to repentance and faith and by grace made to persevere therein; 
and what persons shall, as being rejected (reprobati), be left to sin, to unbelief, and to 
perdition. See PREDESTINATION, PERSEVERANCE OF SAINTS. 

While these fierce disputes were continuing, A., who was not destitute either of 
friends or influence, was created rector magnificus of the university, but resigned the 
honor on the 8th of Feb., 1606, having held the office only for one year. All the pulpits. 
in Holland now fulminated against him. At length, in 1608, A. himself applied to the 
states of Holland to convoke a synod for the purpose of settling the controversy; but, 
worn out with care and disease, he died, on the 19th of Oct., 1609, before it was held, leaving 
seven sons and two daughters by his wife, Elizabeth Reael, daughter of Laurent Reael, 
a judge and senator of Amsterdam. 

There can be no doubt that A. himself was much less Arminian than his followers. 
He had not matured his opinions sufficiently to elaborate a complete system of anti- 
Calvinistic doctrine, though it is perfectly certain that the conclusions at which his. 
disciples arrived—as stated in the famous ‘‘ Five Articles’—are the logical and legitimate: 
results of his teaching. He always complained, however, that his opinions were mis- 
represented; but this is invariably the fate of controversialists, and the penalty of contro- 
versy. A. was an extremely good man, as even his enemies allow; his abilities were 
also of a high order; his thinking is clear, bold, and vigorous; his style remarkably 
methodical, and his scholarship respectable, if not profound. 

After the death of A., his followers gained strength, and boldly asserted their views, 
but still remained in a minority. In 1610, they presented to the assembled states of the 
province of Holland a ‘‘remonstrance”—from which they were styled ‘‘ Remonstrants” 
—which contained the following propositions: 1. That God had indeed made an 
eternal decree, but only on the conditional terms that all who believe in Christ shall be 
saved, while all who refuse to believe must perish; so that predestination is only condi- 
tional. 2. That Christ died for all men, but that none except believers are really saved 
by his death. The intention, in other words, is universal, but the efficacy may be 
restricted by unbelief. 38. That no man is of himself able to exercise a saving faith, but. 
must be born again of God in Christ through the Holy Spirit. 4. That without the 
grace of God, man can neither think, will, nor do anything good; yet that grace does 
not act in men in an irresistible way. 5. That believers are able, by the aid of the Holy 
Spirit, victoriously to resist sin; but that the question of the possibility of a fall from 
grace must be determined by a further examination of the Scriptures on this point. 

This last point, left as an open question, was decided by the Remonstrants in the 
affirmative soon afterwards (1611). Whereupon the Gomarists (Calvinists) put forth a 
strong ‘‘ counter-remonstrance,” asserting plainly absolute predestination and reproba- 
tion. After several fruitless discussions, the states of Holland, in Jan., 1614, acting 
under the advice of Oldenbarneveld, a senator, and the learned Hugo Grotius, issued an 
edict of full toleration for both parties, prohibiting at the same time the continuance of 
the controversy. The counter-remonstrants (or Calvinists) refused to submit to this 
edict, and the strife soon became so furious, that in 1617, or soon afterwards, the Armin- 
ians found it necessary to guard themselves from personal violence by appointing a 
safeguard of militia-men ( !Vwardgelders). The controversy now merged in the strife of 
party politics. The ambitious Maurice of Orange took advantage of the passions of the 
majority to crush his opponents of the republican party, whose leaders were adherents 
of the Arminian doctrines. Several Arminians were put to death—among them the aged 
senator Oldenbarneveld, May 13, 1619—while Grotius and others were imprisoned. In 
these circumstances, the synod of Dort was held (1618-1619), attended by selected repre- 
sentatives from the Netherlands, England, Scotland, the Palatinate, Switzerland, Nassau, 
Hast Friesland, and Bremen. From this convocation (Jan. 14, 1619), the 18 Arminian 
pastors, with the learned and eloquent Simon Episcopius at their head, were excluded. 
The doctrines of the counter-remonstrants were embodied in 93 canons; the Belgic con- 
fession and the Heidelberg catechism were confirmed as authorities for the reformed 
churches of the Netherlands; and 800 Arminians (chiefly preachers) were expelled from 
office. In consequence of this decision, the defeated party sought shelter in France, . 
Holstein, England, etc. Afterwards, under Frederick-Henry, the stadtholder after 
Prince Maurice (1630), they were again tolerated in Holland, and in 1634 Episcopus 
opened his theological college in Amsterdam. 

Since that time, the remonstrants (or Arminians) in Holland have inclined more and 
more towards freedom of thought on religious questions, and independence in church 
government. The rejection of all creeds and confessions; the free interpretation of the 
scriptures; a preference of moral to doctrinal teaching; Arian views respecting the 
Trinity; the virtual rejection of the doctrines of original sin and imputed righteousness, 
aad the view of the sacraments as merely edifying forms or ceremonies; all these and 
other points of belief display the same tendency which is found in their church polity. 
Their annual conference on ecclesiastical affairs is composed of ministers and lay-depu- 
ues, and takes place in June, alternately at Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The number of 
remonstrants is now only about 5000, and is still decreasing. In 1809, they had 34 con- 
gregations with 40 preachers in Holland; but in 1880, only about 20 congregations. The 
largest society of Arminians is in Rotterdam, and numbers only 600 members. 


| LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


ee 


ANCIENT ARMOR.—I (Egyptian), 4,6 (Roman) Coats of mail, 2. Tournament in the ; 


AD ve . 
Qe: haa 


ZS 


— 


4. Lance-guards. 5. Knee-guards. 6. Lance-hook. 7. Tourney-shield. 8. Helme 
lances. 13-23. Weapons of 13th Century : 13. Knightly garb, end of 13th century. 
mark (cimierd) and shaloon. 18. Helmets. 19. Lances. 20. Scale gauntlets. 21: 
11th century. 5, 8. Grecian and British helmets. 7, 12. German lance-heads. 
17, 18 (Danish) arm-shields. 19, 20. Battle-axes. 22, 23. German shields. 24, 25, 


caida 
nee 


rh 


Se 
| SS54AZ 
= —e G 


1 


cA i 
Ha res 
cat 
hake 
Wisi 
u i 


Piresitue 


| cf 
aN OAT EAU 
, 


a 


leentury. 3-12. drmor of the 16th Century: 3. Tourney-armor built up from war-armor. 
9. Horse-helmet. 10. Right and left gauntlet. 11. Blunt lances for tourneys. 12. Battle 
4. Shields. 15. Swords. 16. Ends of bawdrick, or baldrick. 17. Helmet with distinctive 
purs. 22. Shield and helmet, used in the beginning of the 12th century. 23. Spur, end of 
9, 11. Swords (different nations). 21. Scabbard. 14, 15, 16. Grecian and Roman shields. 
Knives. | 27. Grecian quiver. 


LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


715 Arusrien 


Although the Arminians are thus dwindling away as a distinct body, their tenets 
respecting predestination have been adopted with greater or less modification by several 
other Christian denominations (see Meruopists, BAprists); as well as by multitudes of 
the individual members of those churches whose formularies are Calvinistic (see CAL- 
VINISM). They are also very prevalent in the church of Rome. 


ARMIN'IUS. See HERMANN or HERMAN. 


ARMISTICE, a suspension of hostilities between two armies, or two nations at war, 
by mutual agreement. It sometimes takes place when both are exhausted, and at other 
times when an endeavor to form a treaty of peace is being made. A particular example 
will best illustrate the nature of an A. On the 25th of Feb., 1856, the representatives of 
England, France, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Turkey, and Russia, met in congress at 
Paris, to consider the terms of a treaty of peace which should terminate the war at 
that time going on between five of the above-named powers. The British nation was 
very unwilling to suspend hostilities during the sitting of the congress—partly on 
account of the numerous failures of diplomacy in the preceding year, and partly because 
Russia was suspected of only wishing to gain time. It was agreed, however, at the first 
sitting, in conformity with the laws of nations and the usages of war, that an A. should 
be declared, to be announced by telegraphic message to the commanders in the Crimea, 
and to last until the 31st of March. During that period of about one calendar month, 
the hostile armies were to remain strictly at peace, but the fleets of the allies were to 
continue their blockade of Russian ports. The information reached the generals late 
on the 28th of Feb. On the morning of the 29th, a white flag was hoisted in the Rus- 
sian camp outside Sebastopol; several Russian officers assembled around it; and a glit- 
tering cavalcade of British, French, and Sardinian officers proceeded thither. The 
accredited officers compared notes, found the terms of the A. clear, agreed on a boundary- 
line between the hitherto hostile forces, and formally gave pledges for a cessation of 
fighting. The courtesy of civilized nations at once succeeded to the horrors of war; the 
Russian commander gave a magnificent entertainment to the allied commanders, and was 
entertained in turn; the soldiers ‘‘ fraternized” by little gifts of tobacco, and ludicrous 
attempts at conversation, across a small stream which formed part of the boundary-line; 
and a few British officers were permitted to make excursions into the interior of the 
Crimea. The A. ended on Mar. 31, not by a renewal of hostilities, but by the signing of 
a treaty of peace. 


ARMITAGE, Epwarp, an English historical painter, b. May 20, 1817. He was 
educated in Germany and France, and was a pupil of Delaroche in 1837. In 1848 he 
gained the first prize for cartoons, and in 1847 a prize for oil painting. His more note- 
worthy frescoes are in St. John’s (Roman Catholic) church in London, and in the new 
houses of parliament. He died May 24, 1896. 


ARMITAGE, THOMAS, D.D., b. England, 1819; came to America in 1838, and entered 
the ministry of the M. E. church. Ten years later he became a Baptist, and he was 
settled over a Baptist church in New York, retiring 1889. He was active in the organi- 
zation of the American Bible Union, and a strong advocate of the revision of the Bible, 
with a view to bringing out what he thought the correct interpretation of the words 
which relate to be ptism. He died Jan. 20, 1896. 


ARMOR. All available materials that offer some resistance to edge or point have, at 
various epochs and among various peoples, been put to use for this purpose, as thick 
skins, garments of linen or of silk stuffed with vegetable fibre, or made of many thick- 
nesses of material, thin platesof horn or metal, sewed to some textile fabric, and lapping 
over one another like scales, etc. Usually the headpiece was the first piece of armor to 
be made in solid metal. The Greeks had a solid cuirass from a very early period. This 
with the helmet and the greaves constituted the whole armor of the heavy-armed Greek 
warrior of historic times. The legionary was, in general, similarly armed, sometimes 
wearing only one greave. Chain-mail was introduced in the armor of the Roman 
soldiery. The Norman invaders of England wore a conical helmet with a nasal or 
strong projecting piece of iron coming down over the nose, and long gowns of stuff to 
which were sewed rings or plates of metal, and the leaders had leg-coverings of similar 
make. 

A century later chain-mail was in commonuse. The knights of the time of Richard 
1. of England wore a long hauberk of chain-mail reaching to the knee or below, with 
long sleeves closed at the ends so as to form gloves, and with openings in the sides 
through which the hands could pass ; hose of the same make, either covering the feet 
or worn with shoes of strong leather ; or sometimes long hose of leather, laced or 
buckled like modern leggins. A hood, called the camail, covered the head and descended 
to the shoulders, and upon this rested the iron helmet, either of conical form or rounded. 
By the time of Henry IY. and his invasion of France (1411) the knight was completely 
clothed in armor of plates, chain-mail being used at the junction of the limbs with the 
body, at the elbow and knee-joints, and for a hood covering the top of the corselet. In 
1453, about the time the English were driven out of France, the suit of armor reached 
its complete development, being forged of thin steel to fit the body and limbs, weigbing 


lad 
Armorer, 
Armor-plates. ‘ 16 


not over 60 or 70 pounds in all, and allowing of free movement. The armor worn in 
jousts and tournaments was very different after the 12th century from that worn in war, 
being heavier, and neither allowing the knight to dismount without assistance nor afford- 
ing him adequate protection if. dismounted. In spite of the adoption of fire-arms 
armor, though not investing the whole body, continued to be worn by officers and men 
in war times until the close of the 17th century, in the wars of Louis XIV., and, indeed, 
survives to this day in the helmets and cuirasses of certain corps of cavalry. ; 

In modern times armor is generally used to denote the metallic sheathing intended 
as a protection against projectiles for a ship of war, or the exposed face of a fortifica- 
tion. It is also the name given iron wires or pipe enclosing insulated electric wires. 
Submarine armor is a water-tight covering worn by a diver. The essential part of the 
armor is the metal helmet large enough to permit free movement of the head within, 
provided with windows for outlook, and connected with a breastplate which prevents 
any compression of the lungs. The remainder of the suit is of india-rubber. Pure air 
is pumped through a tube opening into the helmet, and is projected against the windows, 
removing the moisture which condenses upon them; it then becomes diffused, and is 
breathed, the impure air passing out through a similar tube. Weights are attached to 
the waist and leaden soles to the shoes. A ladder is used to descend part way,and a signal 
line kept constantly in the hands of attendants serves as a means of communication. 


ARMORER, Formerly a maker of or an expert in armor, hence, one who had the 
care of the arms and armor of a knight or man-at-arms, and equipped him for action. 
In modern use the armorer is the custodian or manufacturer of military arms, and has 
the supervision of any collection or equipment of arms. In the British army an 
armorer is attached to each troop of cavalry and to each company of infantry to clean 
the arms. Aboard a man-of-war the armorer and armorer’s mate did the blacksmith 
work of the vessel, but in late years the armorer is a petty officer and one of the gun- 
ner’s gang, his duties being the care of the arms used by the ship’scompany. Aboard 
ship each man is not responsible for the care of his weapon, asis the case with soldiers. 


ARMOR TCA, the country of the Armorici, i.e., ‘‘the dwellers on the sea” (Celt. a7, on 
or near, and mor, sea), the name by which the people occupying the coast of Gaul 
between the Seine and the Loire were known to Cesar. At a later period the name A. 
was confined to the country afterwards styled Britannia Minor, or Bretagne (q.V.). 


ARMOR PLATES, The modern system of the employment of armor-plating is the 
practical realization of plans suggested years ago by Marsenne and others. In 1842 Mr. 
Balmano, of New York, proposed that war-ships should be clad with several thicknesses 
of iron plate, riveted one upon another, the plates being individually % of an inch thick. 
Soon afterwards, Mr. Stevens, of Hoboken, a ship-builder, made further suggestions on 
the same subject, and other practical men kept the matter before the attention of the 
authorities of the various countries. In 1854 the French sent several floating batteries to 
the Black Sea clad with iron plates; and the English admiralty hastily imitated their 
example, producing eight very slow and unmanageable batteriesin 1855 and 1856. This 
was followed by numerous suggestions for placing armor upon the entire wooden fleet. 
In 1860 the French sent La Gloire to sea, a timber-built 90-gun three-decker, altered to 
a 40-gun corvette, and clad with 44 inch iron plates. This set the English government 
at work about the creation of an armor-clad navy. Many problems had to be solved: 
whether to case old wooden ships with armor ; to build and case new wooden ships; or 
to build new vessels of which the hull as well as the armor should be of iron. These 
gave rise to the additional problems of how near the bulwarks should the armor-plates 
come, how near the bottom of the vessel, how near the stem and stern, what thickness, etc. 
Experiments at enormous cost have been conducted by the various governments for the 
past thirty years, and others are in progress to determine the conditions of the utmost 
practicable resisting power in ship armor, and the utmost practicable destructive power 
in ship artillery, the result being at first an increase in the thickness of the armor and an 
additional weight to the guns, followed by a change of material from iron armor to 
steel armor, and from muzzle-loading guns to breech-loaders. 

Plates were at first produced mainly by hammering, several thicknesses of iron being 
welded one upon another at a white heat by blows of a ponderous hammer ; but it is 
now customary to roll them, and instead of using a number of thin plates, to have one 
thick one. The distinguished constructing engineer, Dupuy de Lome, of the French 
navy, designed the Glotre to resist the effect of shell-fire, and a complete layer of com- 
paratively thin iron over the wooden hull was sufficient to resist penetration from the 
rifled guns of the period. The Warrior, built in England in May, 1859, followed, but 
her protection was less extensive. They were far-sighted enough, however, to build the 
hull of their new vessels of iron, thereby prolonging their lives, so to-day many can be 
brought to meet the new conditions of resisting detonating-shell fire. Then the French 
built the Magenta, of wooden hull covered by 4.7 inches of iron armor. The Italians 
ordered in 1860 two completely armored cruisers in France, the Terrible and Formidabile, 
French types ; hulls and armor of iron. The order for the first Spanish ironclad was 
Siven in the same year—iron broadside armor ona wooden hull. The Italian vessels 
were of 2600 tons displacement, and their armor was 5.53 inches thick, the heaviest so 
far attempted. In giving the names and sketches of the vessels of the principal naval 


rod 1 _ Armorer, 
(4 Armor-plates, 


powers, those that are types of the naval construction of their day are alone selected, no 
attempt being made to include all of the vessels of any one navy built during a specified 
year. (For numbers of vessels of various navies see NAVIES, MODERN.) 

In 1861 the Monitor and New Jronsides were ordered in the United States (for further 
information in relation to U. 8, ironclads see latter portion of this article), the latter of 
the broadside type. The effect of the action between the Monitor and Merrimac in 1862 
is shown by the class of vessels ordered in Europe in 1863, and in Russian construction 
for succeeding years. The Minotaur, built by England in 1861, was a monster vessel of 
10,690 tons displacement, hull of iron, with armor 5.5 inches running entirely around 
the vessel at the water-line and including her battery deck. In the latter part of 1861 
the Russians changed the plans of the wooden frigate Petropaulovsk, then building, and 
gave her a complete water-line belt and casemate of iron 4.5 inches thick. In 1862 the 
Italians built the Marta Pia, the only new type vessel, both hull and armor of iron, the 
latter 4.33 inches thick being about the water-line and casemate, the departure from 
existing types being the introduction of separate gun positions for bow and stern guns. 
In 1863 placing the guns in armor-plated turrets was tried by England in the Royal 
Sovereign, Which had four turrets covered with 5.5 inches of armor. This was one of 
the last wooden hulls in England that had iron armor plating. The French in the 
Taureau had the water-line armor belt 5.9 inches thick carried well forward to include 
the ram bow, and placed the guns in separate positions, surrounding them by 4.7 inches 
of armor. Italy in the Ajfondatore, does away with casemate armor, but thickens that 
at the water-line to 5 inches, and places her guns in separate positions, using 5.9 inches 
of armor to protect them. Russia changes the material of her hulls from wood to iron, 
and adopts the low freeboard monitor type in the Smertch, giving the platform 4.5 
inches of armor-plating and the two turrets 6 inches, the thickest armorso far used. The 
Germans ordered from England their first armored vessel in 1863, the Arminius, of the 
monitor type. In1864, Italy, in the Venezia, increases her water-line plating 5.9 inches, 
placing it over a wooden hull, reintroduces the casemate, covering it with 4.7 inches of 
armor, and has only a forward gun ina turret. The Russians continue in the Admiral 
Lazareff the monitor type, and while doubling the displacement of vessels built the 
previous year, keep the armor at the same thickness. In 1865, France, in the Alma, 
introduces separate gun positions amidships and above the casemate, but does not 
increase the armor, and builds the hull of wood, as does Italy in the Palestro. The latter 
vessel has a displacement of over 6000 tons, and her water-line armor is increased to 8.7 
inches. She also introduces a divided casemate, leaving the midship portion above the 
water line unarmored, but protecting the ends with 6 inchesofarmor. In 1866 England 
builds the Hercules of iron, gives her a strong ram bow, covers the water line with a 
broad belt of 9 inches of armor, and places her guns in a central casemate protected by 
6 inches of iron plating. The same year she builds the Monarch, which combines several 
of the ideas already adopted. The central casemate has two turrets mounted above it 
covered with 10 inches of armor ; there is a separate armored gun position forward, and 
the water-line armor-belt of 7 inches thickness is very much narrower than that of the 
Hercules. The French carry out in the Océan the idea of the central gun positions 
mounted over the casemate, but instead of the guns being inside the turrets they are 
mounted on top en barbette, a practice they have followed in the Taureau and Alma, 
and the plating of these gun positions is continued at 4.7 inches thickness, the water- 
line plating being increased to 7.9 inches. The Russians in the Admiral Tchitchakoff, 
content themselves with the monitor type, reducing the number of turrets to two, and 
using 6 inches of armor throughout. The Audacious, built by the English in 1867, has 
two tiers of guns in central casemates, one above the other, covered by 86 inches of 
plating, the water-line belt of 8 inches of armor not being raised either at the bow or 
stern. In the Friedland, France for the first time adopts the iron hull, using 7.9 inches 
of armor, and greatly strengthening the ram bow; she carries light guns about the 
upper deck, placing heavy guns in unarmored barbettes above the casemate, the guns 
in which are protected by 7.9 inches of armor. 

Thus far it will be noted that all the vessels have a complete water-line belt, the 
increase in thickness from 4.5 inches to over 8 inches being given at the expense of area 
in battery armor, the English concentrating in a central casemate, the French protect- 
ing the smaller guns in the same manner, but placing the heavy guns in barbettes with 
larger firing arcs, and giving greater attention to the ram bow. The Italians have sepa- 
rate protected gun positions. The turret type of vessel appears in almost all of the 
English ships built within the next ten years) the Alezandra being the last central case- 
mate ship the armor thickness is increased to 12 inches and her ram bow is greatly 
strengthened. Itis now apparent that as the value of heavy guns has increased the 
secondary battery has been sacrificed in order to give these heavy guns commanding 
ares of fire. The increase in the thickness of the armor for gun positions and water-line 
protection led to shortening the belts, protecting only the vitals of the ship, and resort- 
ing to armored deck protection and water-tight compartments for the ends—changes 
that are apparent from the Teméraire in 1873 to the Inflexible in 1874, the Conqueror and 
Colossus in 1879, The last two have hulls built of steel and use compound armor of an 
extreme thickness of 18 inches. The French during this decade, 1869 to 1879, continue 
to adhere to the complete water-line belt, but at the expense of gun protection. In 1872 


718 


Armor-plates, 


in the Redoubtable, they introduce steel into the hull, using both it and iron, and in 1877 
in the Indomptable, they first use compound armor 19.7 inches thick, jumping up the 
following year, in the Améral Baudin, of 11.300 tons displacement, to 21.60 inches. 
The heavy guns are well above the water in armored barbettes of a maximum thickness 
of 17.7 inches, with ammunition tubes, giving protection to the carriage and to the load- 
ing of the gun. To minimize the chances of destruction of the whole main battery, 
these heavy guns are placed in as widely separated positions as possible, the secondary 
batteries, comprising a number of 14 to 16 centimetre guns, are carried. In this same 
period the Italians gave up their separated gun positions ; in the Duilio and Dandolo 
11.607 tons displacement, they have two turrets covered with 17.72 inches steed armor 
on a central citadel, and dispense with a secondary battery. The water-line belt of 21.3 
inches thickness is shortened and the ends have a protective deck. The hulls are of iron 
and steel, and the use of the latter for armor now, 1873, makes its first appearance. 
Three years later the short armor-belt in the above-named ships is given up in the Jtalia 
and Lepanto, of 15.360 tons, where the floating power is dependent upon a cellular raft 
over a protective deck ; the four 16.97-inch guns are carried in an armored central bar 
bette of 19 inches compound armor (here first introduced, 1876) with armored ammuni- 
tion tubes 17.8 inches thick. The secondary battery distributed about the unarmored 
deck is composed of sixteen 6-inch guns. The Italians were the first to perceive the 
necessity of a large displacement, in order to properly fill the requirements of a first- 
class battle-ship in regard to offense, defense, speed, and cruising power ; thatis, to carry 
the necessary weights of guns, armor, machinery, and coal; as well as the first to use 
steel and compound armor. The Russians after building the Petr Veliki, in 1869, with 
double turrets, water-line, and casemate iron armor on a wooden hull and the General 
Admiral after the French type of complete water-line belt and barbette guns, introduced 
no especially distinctive types in the ten years ending in 1879. After this, however, a 
reaction towards gun-protection is shown in the Tchesma class, where the six heavy guns, 
still in barbette, are mounted on disappearing carriages in a triangular central redoubt. 
The complete water-line belt is given up, and the ends are protected with an armored 
deck three inches thick. In some of their new constructions on the Black Sea they re- 
turn to turrets, while on the Baltic a type represented by the Alerander I/., built in 
1884, is the favorite, in which to meet the demands for resistance to detonating shell, 
the isolated armor on gun positions is reduced to 10 inches for the larger gun and 6 
inches for the smaller, while the water-line belt is continued at 14 inches. The Italians 
in the Lauria class, builtin 1881, revert to the partial belt, with armored desks for water- 
line protection, and fo: the heavy guns in barbette they have a strong central redoubt 
carrying 19.7 inches of armor-plating. The secondary battery protection is deemed un- 
important. Their latest class is the Re Umberto changed from the original plans of 1884 
to what were finally adopted in1888. There is a strong central redoubt with heavy guns 
at either end in barbette, a powerful secondary battery casemate being amidships and 
heavy armor-piated decks protecting the ends of the waterline. The floating power is 
maintained by a very effective cellular protection, which extends down to the bilge, 
forming, practically, a triple hull. This is the first, departure from the net to hull defense 
against torpedos. 

The French in the decade just closed adhered to the armor-plating at the water line, 
the Marceau in 1880 and the Hoche the following year carrying 17.7 inches. A change 
In gun protection is noticeable in the latter from that shown by her sister ship of the 
previous year, as the barbette, with its light shield, is changed to a completely covered 
barbette or modified turret. Each of the heavy guns is carried in a separate armored 
position over an armored redoubt ; an arrangement of the primary battery rather costly 
in weight of armor. In these new vessels the guns are mounted in pairs in end turrets, 
the latest_ design, the 7réhouart, of about 10,500 tons giving up barbettes entirely for 
turrets. In 1888, after thirty years, the appearance of the detonating shell presents the 
same problem as that solved by the designer of the Gloire and the name of the vessel 
built that year was very aptly selected, Dupuy de Léme. Armor completely covers all 
but the extreme forward part of the water line, where the protective deck is depended 
upon ; both heavy guns and a number of lighter ones are at the forward and after ends 
with an armored position amidships. The English started in 1880 with the Collingwood, 
a barbette ship with 12 inches of armor on the barbettes, ammunition tubes protected by 
16 inches of armor, but provided no protection immediately below the barbettes. There 
is a 2.0-inch protective deck, but the armor-belt for water-line defense, although 18 inches 
thick, is quite Short. This typical ship of the ‘‘ Admiral class” was followed by an en- 
larging of the dimensions. These vessels carry a secondary battery of six 6-inch guns. 
In 1881 the Impérieuse and Warspite were built on a model that shows the influence of 
the French vessels of the Marceau type. Their thickest armor was 10 inches on the 
water-line belt, covering somewhat less than half the vessel’s length amidships. The main 
paitery is mounted In three separated positions, one forward, a second amidships, and 
the third aft. Three inches of armor protect the ammunition hoists and a similar thick- 
ae forms the protective deck. The Trafalgar and Nile in 1886 present a superior type 
> battle-ship, There Is a 20-inch armored redoubt amidships having turrets carrying 

8 inches of armor-plating at either end, the upper portion of the redoubt is 4 inches in 
thickness and protects the secondary battery of 4.72-inch rapid-fire guns. That portion 


fit 9 Armor-plates, 


et the water line not covered by the armor depends on a curved steel deck for protec- 
tion, 

In the latest designs of English battle-ships, the irresistible logic of events has forced 
the displacement above 14,000 tons ; the water-line defense is of the same character as 
on the Trafalgar, the maximum thickness somewhat reduced ; but to make room fora 
larger secondary battery, the heavy gun positions are moved farther apart, and this com- 
pelled separate redoubts under each pair of guns, instead of the Trafalgar’s central cita- 
del. The end protection of the secondary battery is the same, 5inches, and a 5-inch. 
steel belt is run between the redoubts, thereby giving protection against detonating shell 
beneath four of the ten guns. Thereis no armor abreast the secondary battery, but each 
gun is protected by a separate closed shield or turret. Few if any of the vessels with 
complete or partial water-line belts have these of sufficient depth to give proper protec- 
tion when rolling ; this defect is minimized, of course, in the large types of from 13,000 
to 15,000 tons displacement which do not roll appreciably in any seaway that permits 
ordinary vessels to work their guns. Another defect is the incomplete protection given 
to the chase of the heavy and important guns, even against light projectiles from rapid- 
fire guns that can disable them quite easily. In the original monitors the turrets com- 
pletely enclosed the guns, except when ready to fire ; in the Zemeraire the short barbette 
guns presented no difficulty to the use of a disappearing mount. With the introduction 
of the long, high-powered guns the protection was not extended, and is complete only 
for the carriages and loading arrangements. More or less has been said in the above 
descriptions of recently constructed vessels in relation to detonating shell, and measures 
of protection that their introduction has rendered necessary. So far these shell have 
not been able to keep intact long enough to penetrate any but the lightest armor, the 
English meeting them with 5 inches and the French with but 4 inches of steel side 
armor, while even in unarmored cruisers the gun shields or turrets are not over 4 to 4.5 
inches thick. 

The United States built during the civil war a large number of monitors, the New 
Tronsides, the Galena and various other vessels of war more or less covered with armor- 
plating. The Confederates, beginning with the old wooden steam frigate Merrimac, 
which they cut down and covered with armor, continued to build ironclad rams until 
toward the close of the struggle. With several of these the United States vessels had 
some very spirited encounters. Since the introduction of armor there has been no sea 
fight that has been of greater moment than that which took place in Hampton Roads, 
Virginia, on March 9, 1862, between the Monitor and the Merrimac ; it revolutionized 
ship-building and created a great demand abroad for the Monitor type of ironclad. 
The single-turreted Monitor was greatly improved upon, and larger and more heavily 
clad vessels were designed. Double turrets were also introduced, and monitors of 
shallow draught were built for river service. When the civil war closed there was a 
large number of ironclads of various types that were either sold or broken up, until, in 
1881 there were but 24 remaining, not one of which was protected with even the modern 
armor of that date. There are now but 13 single-turret monitors left, and 5 double- 
turreted, these latter, however, although retaining the same name, are by no means 
like the originals. The single-turreted vessels vary in displacement from 1875 to 
2100 tons displacement, and have side armor—laminated type—about five inches thick. 
The turret armor being between 10 and 11 inches in thickness. Of double turreted 
monitors there are five, one of which, the Puritan, is of 6000 tons, the other four being 
of 3815 tons. These vessels have been entirely rebuilt from what they were originally, 
and when completed will be very efficient coast defense vessels. For example, the 
Puritan will carry a battery of four 12-inch rifles in covered barbettes, and six 4-inch 
rapid-fire guns, two on sponsons in the superstructure between the barbettes, and four 
on top, in the four corners. The barbette armor is 14 inches and the side armor tapers 
from 14 inches toward the ends. The Texas is a battle-ship carrying 12 inches of armor 
at the water line. An armored redoubt runs diagonally across on main deck enclosing 
and protecting bases of turrets and their machinery, this, as well as the armor on the 
turrets (en échelon) is 12 inches thick. The conning tower has the same protection. 
The ammunition tubes have 6-inch, and tube from conning tower down to protective 
deck 3-inch, protection. The protective deck, 3 inches thick, covers the armor belt and 
curves down forward and abaft it to stem and stern. The main battery is two 12-inch 
and six 6-inch rifles, speed, 17 knots, displacement 6300 tons. The armored cruiser 
Maine has her 10-inch guns mounted in barbette turrets en échelon, the 6-inch guns are 
two in recessed bow ports, two similarly placed in quarter ports, and two on super- 
structure deck in broadside. The protection consists of an armor-belt 180 feet long, 
having a thickness-of 12 inches. Above it are oval redoubts carrying 10 to 11.5 inches 
of armor. The conning tower is 10 inches thick, and a 4.5-inch tube runs down from 11 
to the protective deck. This deck is 2 inches thick over the belt and 4 inches where it 
slopes down aft between its ends ; forward and abaft the belt the deck is 2 inches thick. 
The Monterey, building in San Francisco, is of the low freeboard monitor type, built 
on the bracket system, and like the two above-named vessels has a double bottom and 
numerous water-tight compartments. The estimated speed is 16 knots at a displacement 
of 4000 tons. She is to carry two 12-inch rifles in a forward barbette, two 10-inch in the 
after barbette, and like all the modern vessels a numerous secondary battery of rapid- 


720 


Armor-plates, 


fire and machine-guns. A compiete belt of armor 138 inches thick runs around ths 
vessel at the water line, 14 inches cover the forward barbette, and 113 inches the after. 
8-inch sloping shields protect the heavy guns. A complete protective deck has a thick. 
ness of 3 inches over the vitals and 2 inches at the ends, the conning tower having 1@ 
inches of armor. A first-class armored cruiser of 8150 tons is under construction, and 
is designed to make 20 knots an hour. She will carry six 8-inch and twelve 4-inch rifles 
in her main battery. The hull is to be protected by a vertical belt 8$ inches thick over 
the machinery space, and by a steel protective deck 2.5 to 6 inches thick from stem to 
stern. Within the armor.belt and above the protective deck, a copper dam 34 feet wide, 
for water-excluding material, is to extend the whole length of the vessel. 

Three sea-going coast-line battle-ships designed to carry 17 inches of armor for a 
length of 164 feet and to be of 8500 tons displacement have been begun. An armor 
deck 22 inches thick will be worked over the deck, with a submerged deck 3 inches 
thick running from the armor bulkheads to the ends of the vessel. The main gun 
positions are two in number, one forward and the other aft on the midship-line, each to 
contain two 13-inch rifles; armor 17 inches thick worked on a backing of 6 inches, will 
protect these positions. The secondary battery of four 5-inch guns will be in 83-inch 
thick barbettes on the upper deck, also protected by gun shields 3 inches in thickness. 
Their engines are to develop 7500 horse-power and a speed of 15.8 knots. Their length 
is 314 feet, beam, 68 feet, draught, 234 feet. The other vessels building are not armor- 
clads, the ‘‘ Ammen” ram excepted. She is to have no guns, but depends on her 
ramming qualities. Her armor tapers from 6 inches to 24 inches. She has a curved 
upper deck and when ready for action is submerged much deeper than under ordinary 
circumstances. Her conning tower has 18 inchesof armor. Herspeed will be 17 knots. 
Following the adoption of iron in 1860 as a metal for protecting vessels, came numbers 
of experiments conducted at an enormous cost, to determine the best quality of that 
metal to use. 

In 1865 a committee in England reported as the conclusion to which their experi- 
ments had determined them, that the best material for ship’s armor was wrought iron of 
the softest and toughest quality. The perfecting of machinery at the rolling mills made 
it possible to roll much larger and thicker plates, so that instead of a number of thin 
plates bolted together as was the method used in this country, one thick plate was made 
to answer. The Italian admiralty tested on an unprecedented scale the relatively 
defensive properties of iron and steel armor in 1876, and decided on the adoption 
of steel-faced armor or compound armor. This kind of armor was thought to 
possess these advantages: that the front plate being of steel resists perforation better 
than iron, breaking up or rendering unavailing projectiles, while the steel and iron 
plate does not crack as would steel alone. England again had extensive experiments, 
and three years later she adopted compoundarmor. France took up the same, then tried 
steel, and afterwards returned to compound. The Cammell and the Brown plates on 
the compound principle were the chief dependence in England, and at various competitive 
tests, during the first efforts made to produce reliable steel, these plates gained numerous 
victories. 'The French (at Le Creusot) were working away at steel, and in 1886 scored 
some excellent results. The gun used was 9.45 inches calibre, the projectile was chilled 
cast-iron weighing 317 pounds, the powder charge 71 pounds; the plate being about 9.5 
inches thick. At the end of the trial, four rounds, no portion of the plate was broken 
off or detached, all bolts remained intact, and the backing was uninjured. The plate 
was badly cracked in four directions. The projectiles broke up, the heads of the third 
and fourth stuck in the plate. In January, 1887, a second lot of very satisfactory plates 
was tried with results quite like the above. In June, 1886, Saint Chamond compound 
plates were subjected to four shots from a 7.5 inch gun, firing a 165 pound shot with 54 
pounds of powder. The result was the cracking of the plates in rear of the last two 
shots fired. The plate was, however, in good enough condition to stand other similar 
projectiles before being knocked to pieces. In April, 1886, a Cammell plate made ona 
new patent, was specially hardened on the face to withstand penetration, and in addition 
to the usual iron backing, it was further strengthened by a third strake of soft iron. 
Three rounds were fired from an 18-ton muzzle-loading gun at a range of thirty feet 
with a charge of 70 pounds, and a chilled iron projectile of 400 pounds. No damage 
was done the plate with the exception of bruising its face. The struggle between 
armor and projectile was continued during the following year on a grand scale, as well 
as the trials between the different types of armor. With the improvement of the steel 
projectile the steel face of compound armor was gradually hardened, untilit contained (in 
1887) 40 per cent. more carbon than formerly. Some all-steel manufacturers experimented 
with plates having an especially hard face plate, 14 to 2 inches in thickness, secured to the 
main body by bolts, On October 20, 1887, a target in England was faced with a 16- 
inch compound plate (Brown’s) and was fired at with a 714-pound Holtzer projectile. 
The plate was broken in two parts and cracks were developed all over its surface. The 
shot after passing through the plate perforated the ten feet of solid backing, and was 
finally arrested by an old armor-plate in the rear. When removed the projectile was 
found to be Intact, and so little deformed that apparently it could have been fired again. 
A similar projectile was fired against a Cammell plate set at an angle of 45°. The 
striking velocity of the projectile corresponded to an energy of 17.500 foot tons. The 


foe is Armoreplates. 


head and part of the body were embedded to a depth of 7 or 8 inches, when the projectile 
hroke up In March, 1888, two 6-inch Holtze1 shells were fired against a Brown 9-inch 
compound plate. The first shell perforated the plate without further injury than a 
slight cracking in the head ; the second failed to get through. During the same month, 
near Paris, two rounds, with Holtzer projectiles weighing 95 pounds, were fired against 8 
5.5-inch Creusot plate. The first shot caused three long but unimportant cracks which 
the second enlarged and also caused a new one. Two 8-inch shells of the Firming pat- 
tern were fired against a 12-inch compound Brown plate, both of which perforated the 
target. In Russia, in July, 1889, a St. Chamond (French) projectile weighing 714.5 
pounds was fired against a Wilson compound plate which it fractured. A Krupp 304- 
pound projectile fired the same year from an 8.27-inch gun with 1038.6 pounds of powder 
against a Cammell compound plate 15.5 inches thick, badly shattered and cracked the 
plate. Austria at this same time made some experiments to test the comparative 
resistances of the Krupp cast-steel and the Leobersdorfer chilled cast-iron armor at long 
range, the result being considered by the Austrians in the light of a decided victory for 
the armor of domestic manufacture. In the trials at Portsmouth, England, in 1888, a 
Cammell compound plate 10.5 inches thick, having between 0.9 and 1.0 per cent. of 
carbon in its face was the target. Against this three Holtzer 6-inch armor-piercing 
shells and two Palliser shells were fired with a charge weighing 48 pounds. The Holtzer 
shells remained sticking in the target, producing superficial cracks ; the Palliser shells 
were broken up completely. The plate showed itself to be of the highest quality. An 
all-steel Cammell plate that underwent a similar trial, though cracked in places retained 
its position on the backing and was in a fair state of preservation <A Vickers all-steel 
plate having .84 per cent. of carbon, fired at under similar conditions to the above, 
developed the following striking features: Although the projectiles penetrated, they all 
rebounded several feet from the target, giving proof of its wonderful elasticity. A 
Brown steel plate was bulged slightly at the back. The deepest bruise was but 8 or 9 
inches deep, showing that the effect upon the hull of the ship it protected would be 
almost nz2. In May, 1890, another trial was had with a Cammell compound plate, the 
gun being of 6-inch calibre, and the projectiles two Palliser chilled heads and three 
hard steel Holtzer shells. The angles of the armor were first assailed, and after it had 
been thus thoroughly tested, a fifth round, with a steel shot, was directed at the centre. 
The chilled headed projectiles were reduced to little more than dust by collision with 
the steel face, while the French (Holtzer) projectiles were considerably splintered, the 
heads remaining embedded in the plate. At the fifth round the projectile touched the 
backing. A few cracks were produced in the plate, but it was evident that under the 
prescribed test the screw of a ship would have been protected against shell fire. Com- 
petitive trials of four compound armor-plates took place in November, 1889, off Heldee, 
North Holland. Three of the plates were manufactured on the Wilson system by Cam- 
mell, St. Chamond, and Marrel, respectively, and the fourth on the Ellis system by 
Brown. These plates were 9 feet long, 6 feet, 11.06 inches wide, 11.02 inches thick, and 
were placed side by side on the deck of a large barge. Each plate weighed about 12.5 tons. 
The gun used was a Krupp 11.02-inch, firing a projectile weighing 566.6 pounds, with 
121.3 pounds of powder. ‘The trial resulted in favor of the English-made plates. Both 
French plates were originally somewhat weakened by the greater number of bolts used 
in securing them to the backing; St. Chamond used 30, Marrel 20, Cammell 12, and 
Brown 8. Now a new alloy makes its appearance and we find nickel introduced with 
the steel. Early in 1890 the United States advertised for armor to be subjected to com- 
petitive trial, and giving the following as the dimensions of the target: 8 feet high by 6 
feet wide and 10.5 inches thick. These plates were to be supported by backings exactly 
similar, and were to be submitted to five shots from an American 6-inch gun. No 
American firms were found ready to compete, and the only plates represented were two 
sent by Schneider & Co., of Creusdot, France, and one by Cammell & Co., of Sheffield, 
England. One of the Schneider plates was all steel, containing a very small amount of 
carbon, and the other was an alloy of steel with something less than five per cent. of 
nickel. The Cammell plate was compound armor of hard steel on wrought iron. 
The targets were about 28 feet from the muzzle of the gun, the trial taking place in 
September at the Annapolis Naval Proving Grounds, The projectiles weighed 100 
pounds and were Holtzer chrome steel fired with 44.5 pounds of powder, and having a 
striking energy of about 3350 foot-tons. The effect of four shots upon the all-steel target 
was merely local. Each shot went entirely through the steel, but no cracks resulted. 
In the nickel target the first shot went through the plate and broke into pieces, causing 
no cracks whatever. The second shot went 44 inches beyond the farther side of the 
target and remained in the hole; the third did the same, going about an inch further ; 
the fourth acted like the first. The Cammell plate was pierced and badly cracked, two 
of the shot were broken in fragments. The fifth shot at each target was fired froma 
8-inch gun, the charge of powder was 85 pounds, and the projectiles, made by the 
Firming process, weighed 210 pounds. The striking energy was 5500 foot tons. The 
all-steel target broke the shell into three pieces, all of which were ejected from the hole, 
which was 16inches deep. The cracks extended through the centre hole to each corner 
making an almost regular letter X. The fifth shot at the centre of the nickel steel 
target broke up into very small pieces, except the head, which remained embedded in the 


Armory. 7 a 2 


Armstrong. 


plate. The latter showed no crack whatever. In view of the results, the Navy Depart- 
ment decided to adopt the nickel-steel alloy for the armor of its new battle-ships. — Ex- 
periments of a similar nature in Denmark and Russia have confirmed the superiority of 
nickel-steel. England in 1890 commenced extensive experiments with all-steel, com- 
pound, nickel-steel, and other alloys before deciding to renounce compound armor, of 
which she has been so many years the great advocate. In 1895 the Carnegie Company 
furnished some plates which the U. 8. ordnance department found impossible to pene- 
trate or crack. A 17 in. Harveyized plate was reheated and rolled down to 14in. The 
surface carbonization was then completed, and the surface sprayed with ice-water to 
produce chilled hardening. This showed a much higher resistance than any plates 
previously tested. 

ARMORY may mean a storehouse for arms; but the name is also often applied to a 
collection of ancient armor and weapons—such as those in the Tower of London, in Sit 
Samuel Meyrick’s mansion at Goodrich court on the Wye, and in Warwick castle. 

In the United States an armory is usually a storehouse for arms used by militia com- 
panies or regiments, and often comprises a drill-hall, regimental offices, etc. 


ARMS, or weapons of offense, may be divided into two great classes—those that act 
by means of gunpowder, and those that do not. Ofarms that act otherwise than by 
explosion, the greater part have been in use from the earliest times; they include the 
bow and arrow, sling, pike, spear, lance, dart, javelin, dagger, axe, mace, spiked or 
knotted club, scythe for chariots, dirk, bayonet, sword, cutlass, etc., together with such 
artillery as the ballista, catapulta, and battering-ram. Weapons depending on the use of 
gunpowder are of two kinds—those that can be held in the hand, and those that are too 
heavy to be portable. In the first class, we find the names of the hand-cannon, hand. 
gun, arquebus, haquebuts, demi-haque, matchlock, wheel-lock, firelock, currier, suap- 
haunce, caliver, esclopette, petronel, dragon, hand-mortar, dag, tricker-lock, carbine, 
fusil, fowlingpiece, blunderbuss, pistol, musket or musquet, musketoon, rifle, etc. In 
the second class, more usually included under the name of artillery, we find the springel, 
war-wolf, bombard, cart-of-war, culverin, demi-culverin, serpentine, falcon, saker, ‘can- 
non, howitzer, petard, carronade, mortar, rifled cannon, war-rockets, etc. The more 
important of these are briefly noticed under the proper headings. It is needless, perhaps, 
to add that nine tenths of these are utterly obsolete. 

The surveyor-gen. of the ordnance in the British army has the duty of providing and 
keeping efficient the arms in use by the regular and auxiliary forces, and of maintaining 
an ample reserve in the royal arsenals. Each regiment makes a report on these subjects 
yearly. If the commanding officer of a regiment ascertains that a new supply of arms is 
needed for the men under him, ora supply of anything in relation to the arms, he indents 
upon the controller of the district for the supply required; which is forthwith made by 
that officer, subject, however, to a pecuniary fine upon the regiment, if the arms have 
not lasted a fair time. 


ARMS, ARMORIAL BEARINGS, or ENnstens, are the names given to such devices as 
when painted on a shield form a coat. These terms in popular speech include all the 
accompaniments of a shield—viz., the crest, helmet, and, where such exist, the sup- 
porters, etc. See these terms, and HERALDRY. 


ARMS, AssuMPTIVE. See HERALDRY. 
ARMS, BREECH-LOADING. See BREECH-LOADING ARMS. 
ARMS, SERGEANT AT. See SERGEANT-AT-ARMS. 


ARMS, STAND oF, a complete set of arms for one soldier, consisting of a musket, 
bayonet, cartridge-box, and belt with or without a sword. 


ARMSTEAD, Henry Huau, R.A., b. London, 1828; sculptor, among whose works 
are many of the allegorical groups on the Albert Memorial, London; the statues of 
Paul, David, and Moses, on the reredos in Westminster Abbey, etc. 


ARMSTRONG, a co. in w. Pennsylvania, on both sides of Allegheny river; 615 sq. m.; 
pop. 790, 46,747. It has a rough and hilly surface, but good lands in the river valleys. 
The products are salt, iron, coal, and limestone. Two railroads border or intersect it. 
Co. seat, Kittaning. 

ARMSTRONG, a co. in n. Texas, formed 1876. Area, 900 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 944. Co. 
seat, Claude. 


ARMSTRONG, Str ALEXANDER, was born in Ireland and educated at Trinity College, 
Dublin, and the University of Edinburgh. He served in the English navy for many 
years, and published A Personal Narrative of the Discovery of the Northwest Passage (1857) 
and Observations on Naval Hygiene. We was Director-General of the Medical Department 
of the Navy from 1869 to 1880, 

ARMSTRONG, DAVID H., b. in Nova Scotia in 1812; after filling several local offices 
in St. Louis was, 1877, appointed U. S. senator from Mo. as a democrat, to fill the 
vacancy caused by the death of Lewis V. Bogy. His term expired in 1879. 

ARMSTRONG, Grorar FRANCIS, was born in Dublin, 1845, and there educated. He 

has been professor of English Literature in Queen’s College, Cork, and in Queen’s Uni- 


(28 Armstrong. 


versity, and has published Poems (1869); King Saul (1872); King David (1874) ; King 
Solomon (1876) ; A Garland from Greece (1882) ; and Mephistopheles in Broadcloth (1888). 


ARMSTRONG, GkORGE FREDERICK, was born in England in 1842, and educated at 
Cambridge. Developing a strong taste for mechanics, he studied engineering, and 
was Professor of Engineering in the School of Applied Science, McGill University, 
Montreal, from 1871-1876. He was then called to a similar chair in the Yorkshire Col- 
lege of Science, Leeds, and in 1885 became Regius Professor of Engineering in the 
University of Edinburgh. He is a member of many learned societies, and the author 
of numerous papers and addresses. 

ARMSTRONG, JoHN, an eminent physician and medical writer, was b. 8th May, 1784, 
at Ayres Quay, near Bishop-Wearmouth, where his father was the superintendent of 
some glassworks. He studied medicine at the university of Edinburgh, and in June, 
1808, took the degree of M.p. He commenced practice at Bishop-Wearmouth, and in 
1811 was chosen physician to the infirmary at Sunderland. In 1816, he published a work 
on Typhus, which greatly extended his reputation. His researches concerning the causes 
and phenomena of febrile diseases having made his name well known in the metropolis, 
he was induced, in Feb., 1818, to remove to London, where his practice became exten- 
sive, and he was elected physician to the fever hospital. In 1821, in concert with Mr. 
Edward Grainger, he established a medical school in Webb street, Borough, where he 
lectured on the practice of physic. He also delivered a course of lectures on materia 
medica. In 1826, he joined Dr. Boot and Mr. E. Bennett in establishing a new school of 
medicine in Dean street, Soho, but shortly after relinquished his connection with it. 
He d. of consumption, 12th Dec., 1829, aged 45. Exclusively devoted to the duties of 
his profession, Dr. A. was very successful in the elucidation of medical science. His 
works are numerous, and he contributed various papers to the medical journals. [Ilis 
lectures, inserted in the Lancet in 1825, were published in a separate form after his 
death, with the following title : Lectwres on the Morbid Anatomy, Nature, and Treatmen:é 
of Acute and Chronic Diseases, by the late John Armstrong, M.D. Edited by Joseph Rix— 
one of his pupils. (London, 1834, 8vo.) 


ARMSTRONG, Joun, d. 1725-95; leader of the successful expedition in 1756 against 
the Indian allies of the French at Kittaning, Penn. In the revolutionary army he was a 
brig.-gen. at Fort Moultrie, and commanded the militia at Brandywine and German- 
town. He served twice in the continental congress, 1778-80 and 1787-88. 


ARMSTRONG, Joun, 1758-1848 ; an American soldier and writer. While a student 
he volunteered, was soon made aide-de-camp to Gen. Mercer, and was with Gates in the 
Burgoyne campaign, leaving the service with the rank of major. He wrote the Newburgh 
Letters, setting forth the hardships of the revolutionary soldiers in respect to pay. He 
was attorney gen. of Pennsylvania; United States senator from New York, 1800-4; 
minister to France, 1804-10 ; brigadier-gen. in the war of 1812; and secretary of war, 
1813-14. He was charged with inefficiency in consequence of the capture of Washing- 
ton, and resigned, Sept., 1814. He published a History of the War of 1812, Memoirs of 
Montgomery and Wayne, a Review of Gen. Wilkinson’s Memoirs, and partially prepared a 
history of the revolution. 

ARMSTRONG, RICEARD, D.D., 1805-60; b. Penn. He graduated from Dickinson 
college in 1827, studied theology at Princeton, and in 1832 went to the Sandwich islands 
asa missionary. In the Hawaiian government he was minister of instruction, presided 
over the board of education, and acted as privy councilor. 


ARMSTRONG, Ropert, a general in the United States army during the Seminole 
War in Florida. He was born in Tennessee in 1790, and died at Washington, in 1854. 
He was an esteemed friend of President Jackson. 


ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPMAN, b. 1839 in Hawaiian islands, where his father was 
a missionary of the Am. board, and where he began his collegiate course at Oahu coll., 
completing it at Williams coll., Mass. He was chief clerk of the department of public 
instruction in Hawaiian islands and editor of Hae Hawaii ; was cap. and maj. 125th reg. 
N. Y. vols., 1862-3 ; lieut. col. of the 9th and col. of the 8th U S. colored troops, 1863-5 : 
rose to brev. brig. gen.; was superintendent of a district of 10 counties in e. Va. in the 
freedmen’s bureau, 1866-68; and in 1868 was appointed principal of the Hampton nor- 
mal and agricultural institute (q. v.). His constant endeavor was to show the best 
methods of educating the negro and Indian races in this.country, adopting to that end 
a system of combined labor and study, to give them the means of self-support, develop 
manual skill, and promote manliness and self-reliance. His work for the neglected 
races produced most beneficial results. He died May 11, 1893. 

ARMSTRONG, SamvuE. T. (1784-1850), a well-known bookseller of Boston, Mass., whe 
at different times was mayor of that city, and governor of the state (1886). 

ARMSTRONG, Lord W1LL1AM GEORGE, noted for various mechanical inventions, egpe- 
sially in artillery and in water-power machinery, was b. in 1810 at Newcastle, where his 
father was an eminent corn-merchant, and in 1851 filled the office of mayor. A. was 


wre 

eee 724 
educated at the school of bishop Auckland; but his peculiar mental powers were chiefly 
cultivated by the opportunities which his father’s tastes gave him. at home, of acquaint- 
ing himself with chemistry, electricity, and mechanics. Though the natural bent of his 
- mind was to some profession in which these sciences would have been available, he 
readily yielded to his father’s wishes, and was articled to Mr. Armourer Donkin, an 
eminent solicitor in Newcastle, who, at the expiration of his time, adopted him as a part 
ner. A high sense of duty enabled A. to give his excellent general powers of mind to 
business; but he devoted much of his leisure to his favorite pursuits, and his inventive 
faculty was constantly active. About 1888, observing one day a little stream descending 
along a height near Newcastle, and driving but a single mill, he thought to how much 
more purpose it might be applied hydraulically, and thus was led into a course of exper- 
imenting, which resulted in his producing a much improved hydraulic engine, of which 
a description was given in the Mechanics’ Magazine for April 18, 1840. Following up 
this invention with a view to practical applications, he gave to the world, in 1845, a 
hydraulic crane, which has proved to be of eminent utility in raising weights at harbors 
and in warehouses. The discovery of electricity in steam by a workman at a fixed 
engine on the Cramlington railway in 1840 had meanwhile led A. into a new path, and in 
1842 he brought to perfection an apparatus for producing electricity from steam, which 
was soon after introduced into the Polytechnic Institution in London. ‘The evolution of 
the electricity depending in reality on the friction sustained by the small quantity of 
water which accompanies the steam in its discharge, the great merit of A.’s invention in 
this case lay in the form he gave the orifice through which the steam passed. This and 
other inventions brought him into prominent notice; he was elected a member of the 
royal society in 1846; and, shortly afterwards, in conjunction with some friends, com- 
menced the Elswick engine-works, in the suburbs of his native town. This establish- 
ment is upon a large scale, at first chiefly employed in producing hydraulic cranes, 
engines, accumulators, and bridges, for use in Great Britain, the continent, and India, 
but now embracing also works for the production of ordnance. 

In 1854, while war was raging in the Crimea, the war office was solicited by many 
inventors to make trial of new forms of cannon and projectiles. Mr. Armstrong, one of 
the number, attracted the attention of the authorities, and was employed to make explo- 
sive apparatus for blowing up the ships sunk at Sebastopol. This led him soon after- 
wards to consider improvements in ordnance, and he devised a form of breéch-loading 
cannon, combining many peculiarities in structure and action. He received encourage- 
ment to make a few field-pieces on his new method. He made lengthened experiments 
on the strength of iron and steel, on the relative merits of cast and wrought iron, on the 
best number of grooves in rifling, on the best pitch or twist for these grooves, on the 
most convenient modes of loading at the breech of the gun, on the mechanism for lessen- 
ing the recoil, on the best form and structure of shot and shells, and on the fuses best 
suited for igniting the shells during their flight. 

Most of the early experiments were made with guns throwing 6-lb. and 18-lb. shot 
and shells, and subsequently 32-lb. shells. The last-named gun was built up piecemeal, 
to avoid flaws or faults, and to insure strength, lightness, and durability. It was made 
in 3-ft. lengths. Bars of wrought iron, 2 in. wide, were heated to whiteness, twisted 
spirally round a steel bar or core, and welded; other bars were twisted over these in a 
similar way, but with an opposite turn of the spiral; a third and perhaps a fourth were 
added, according to the thickness and strength needed. Another heating to whiteness 
preceded a thorough welding of ail the layers of bars by a steam-hammer. The ends of 
two of these 3-ft. pieces were then nicely trimmed and adjusted, placed in contact, and 
bound together by the enormous pressure of a wrought-iron ring shrunk on while at a 
white heat. By varying the number and length of these sections, a gun of any length 
could be made. The core was then removed, and the bore of the gun rifled by exquisite 
machinery. The rifle-grooves were so small and close as to be upwards of 40 in number; 
their pitch or twist such as to make a complete circuit in a gun 10 ft. long. The breech 
of the gun was wholly distinct, and constructed in a different way; it could be drawn 
backwards by unscrewing, and had a hole through its center for introducing the shot or shell 
and the charge. At first, the inventor adopted a steel interior for his gun; but after- 
wards relied on the toughest wrought-iron. The projectile employed with this gun might 
be solid shot, shell, case-shot, or canister-shot; but the shell was that to which most 
interest is attached. It was about 3 diameters in length; and thus a 82-Ib. shot or sheil 
could be fired from a gun of much smaller caliber than if it were spherical. The shell 
was built up of about 50 separate pieces of cast-iron, very accurately fitted, and enve.- 
oped in an iron sheath. Outside of it were two bands of lead, soft enough to be forced 
into the rifled grooves of the gun, and thus to acquire the rotatory movement by which 
the straightness of flight is so much insured. 

The actual results obtained by a gun such as is above described are almost incredible. 
An ordinary long 32-pounder weighs 57 cwt.; Armstrong’s 32-pounder weighs 26 cwt. 
The former requires 10 lb. of powder as a charge; for the latter 5 lb. will suffice. The 
former will send a shot or shell 3000 yards; the range of the latter exceeds 9000 yards. 
The fuses attached to the shells are so exquisitely adjusted that the shell can be made tc 
burst either directly on leaving the gun, or half-way on its path, or when it strikes an 
object; in the last-named case, even a sack of shavings will afford the necessary concus 


= Armstrong 
(25 Army. : 


sion; and yet, so close is the structure, that an uncharged shell has been fired com- 
pletely through 9 ft. of solid oak, without the pieces separating. A.’s elaborate experi- 
ments were made chiefly with a 6-pounder, 12 in. caliber, and so light that two men 
could carry it (without its carriage); this small gun could reach 1500 yards with won- 
derful accuracy of aim, and had a range of 3000 at a certain elevation. 

When A. had spent much of his time and thoughts during four years on this sub- 
ject, the government, supported by the strongly expressed opinions of artillery officers 
of all ranks, proposed to secure the result of these experiments for the nation. A. 
offered to the government, without any stipulation, not only all his past inventions, but 
also all such as he might hereafter discover. This led to arrangements which the min- 
isters in parliament characterized as liberal and patriotic on his part; and the terms thus 
suggested were accepted. An office was created for him, that of chief engineer of rifled 
ordnance, for seven years provisionally; and a certain amount of salary was determined 
on, in consideration at once of his past inventions and of his future services. He was 
knighted by the queen in 1858. 

The peculiar connection, partaking in some degree of the nature of a partnership, 
between the government and the Elswick firm, underwent changes from time to time, 
and was brought to a close in 1863. During its continuance, guns of gradually increas- 
ing power were made on A.’s system; 3, 5, and 12 pounders; then 18, 20, 32, and 40 
pounders; then rapidly increasing in caliber, until at length a 600-pounder was pro- 
duced, weighing upwards of 20 tons. The coil system of construction, the adoption of 
a large number of rifle grooves, and the use of the beautifully formed segment shell, 
were continued; but A. made variations in the combination of steel and iron, and 
adopted muzzle-loading for many of his larger guns. Elaborate experiments made by 
the war office led to a conclusion that the A. breech-loader has many disadvantages for 
large ordnance. Notwithstanding its range, accuracy, power of working in a small 
space, easiness to clean, and safety to the gunners while loading, it is neither so cheap 
nor so simple as the muzzle-loader; it is difficult to handle, complicated, apt to get out 
of order, and not so useful for general purposes. The comparative cheapness has had 
much to do with the preference of the war office for the Woolwich gun, a muzzle-loader. 
A.-supplies and has long supplied many foreign governments with his guns, chiefly of 
large caliber. The manufacture is of the highest order, effected through the medium 
of machine tools of exquisite construction; but the practical utility of the gun, as com. 
pared with the Whitworth, Palliser, and other kinds, is still matter of controversy. 

The great reputation and commercial success of A. depend on his skill as a con. 
structor of water-power machinery. Early in his career, in 1847, when a plan was 
adopted for supplying Newcastle with water, he suggested that the power derived from 
the descent of the water through pipes from the reservoir should be utilized for work- 
ing hydraulic cranes on the quay, and for various mechanical purposes in the town; 
this was done with marked success. The system has rapidly grown; until, at length, 
the A. hydraulic machinery is largely adopted in England and abroad for raising, lower- 
ing, hauling, and other purposes in connection with railways, canals, docks, piers, har- 
bors, lock-gates, manufactories, warehouses, etc. The fabrication of the machinery 
employs a very large number of hands at Elswick, where the works are carried on by a 
joint-stock company. A., who belongs to several scientific societies, was in 1863 elected 
president of the British association; he was instrumental in bringing about the appoint- 
ment of the coal commission in 1866. In 1887, on the occasion of the queen’s jubilee, Sir 
Willian was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Armstrong. He has also re- 
ceived a number of foreign orders of knighthood. 


ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM JESSUP, D.D., 1796-1846; b. N. J.; an American Presby- 
terian clergyman. He was pastor of the first Presbyterian church in Richmond, Va., 
1824-34 ; afterwards secretary of the American board of commissioners for foreign mis- 
sions until his death. His life and sermons have been published. He lost his life by 
the wreck of the steamboat Atlantic on Long Island sound. 


ARMY. See Armies, MODERN. 


ARMY ADMINISTRATION. The fiscal arrangements of the United States army are 
conducted by the Secretary of War, or in his absence by the Assistant Secretary through 
the several staff departments. The military establishment is under the orders of the 
General commanding the army in that which pertains to its discipline and military 
control. All orders and instructions relating to military operations, or affecting the 
military control and discipline of the army given by the President and Secretary of 
War, are promulgated through the General commanding the army. 

The military geographical departments are established and their commanders assign- 
ed by direction of the President, and are as follows: Department of the East, Depart- 
ment of the Platte, Department of Dakota, Department of Missouri, Department of 
Texas. Department of California, of Arizona and of the Columbia. Department com- 
manders are expected to determine controversies arising within the limits of their jurisdic- 
tion, to decide questions referred to them on appeal, and to attend to the administration 
of ali the military affairs. Their staffs are formed of aides-de-camp, an assistant adjutant- 
general, an inspector, a judge advocate, a chief quartermaster, a commissary of sub- 


Army. 726 


Arnaud, 


sistence, a medical director, a chief paymaster, an engineer, an ordnance officer and an 
inspector of small-arms practice. 

The supply, payment, and -ecruitment of the army, and the direction of the expen- 
ditures of the appropriations for its support, are by law intrusted to the Secretary of 
War, who exercises control through the bureaus of the War Denartment. 

The Adjutant-General’s Department has charge of the military correspondence, the 
issuing of orders, the muster end pay rolls, the returns of troop records, personal re- 
ports and the details of the fieid officers to superintend the recruiting service and com- 
mand the recruiting dépdts. ‘The Inspector-General’s department has to inspect every 
branch of military affairs and report with strict impartiality all irregularities. The 
following are some of the subjects on which they have to report: as to the zeal and abil- 
ity displayed by commanding officers ; as to whether the officers are properly instructed 
and efficient ; as to whether the number of men in the ranks at inspection corresponds 
with returns; as to the discipline, military appearance and behavior of troops, the 
nature and frequency of drills, the uniformity and fit of the clothing. The inspection 
of money accounts of disbursing officers and the inspection of property for condemna- 
tion, also come under this department. 

The Judge Advécates Department has charge of legal matters affecting the army. 
Such are courts-martial, courts of inquiry and military commissions. 

The Quartermuster’s Department is charged with the duty of providing the means of 
transportation of every character which may be needed in the movement of troops and 
the material of war. It has the care of barracks, quarters, and furniture, the allowance 
of quarters, fuel, stores, lighting, stationery, purchase and care of public animals, for- 
age and straw, clothing, camp and garrison equipage, telegraphing, telegraph accounts, 
and so forth. 

The Subsistence Department provides for the distribution and expenditure of the 
money appropriated for the subsistence of the army, and for the purchase, issue and 
sale of subsistence supplies. This department is authorized to provide for sale to 
officers and enlisted men, articles composing the ration and such other articles as may 
be designated by the Inspectors-General of the army. 

The Pay Department has charge of the supply and distribution of funds for the pay- 
ment of the army and all other financial duties pertaining to the department. Claims 
for travel allowance and the deposit of savings are also in charge of this department. 

The Medical Department is in charge of the Surgeon-General, who performs all the 
administrative duties and directs the purchase and distribution of all medical and hos- 
pital supplies, supervised by the Chief Medical Purveyor. 

The Hospital Corps consists of hospital-stewards, acting hospital-stewards, and 
privates. All hospital services in garrison and in the field are performed by its 
members, who are all regularly enlisted for and permanently attached to the medical 
department. 

The Corps of Engineers’ duties comprise reconnoitring and surveying for miiitary 
purposes, the selection of sites and formation of plans and estimates for military de- 
fenses ; the construction and repair of fortifications and their accessories of every de- 
scription ; the planning and superintending of defensive or offensive works of troops in 
the field; the examination of routes of communications for supplies and for military 
movements ; and the construction of military roads and bridges; and also the exe- 
cution of river and harbor improvements assigned to it. It collects, arranges, and pre- 
serves all correspondence, reports, memoirs, estimates, plans, drawings, deeds, titles, 
ae models which concern or relate in anywise to the several duties above enumer- 
ated. 

The Ordnance Department procures by purchase or manufacture the necessary sup- 
plies of ordnance and ordnance stores, establishes and maintains dépots for their storage 
and protection, and distributes them when needed. 

The Signal Bureau attends to the construction, maintenance, and operation of mili- 
tary-telegraph lines, with the procurement, preservation, and distribution of the Signal 
Service supplies, the supervision of instruction in military signaling and telegraphy. 

The functions of the Signal Office included, until 1891, the preparation of weather re- 
oorts and local forecasts, but in that year this duty was assigned to the Department of 
Agriculture. See MmeTrEoroLoey, S1gnaus, SIGNAL SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. ° 


ARMY AGENT, In the British army, a financial agent who transacts the monetary 
affairs of a regiment, paying the officers in behalf of the government, settling effects and 
credits of soldiers, ete. 


ARMY ESTIMATE. The chiefs of the various branches of the war department 
make up an annual statement of their requirements and the amount of money necessary 
to carry out their plans. These are all submitted to the Secretary of War, who in his. 
report to the President embodies the requests of his subordinates, with his own com. 
ments thereupon. The President sends the estimates to Congress and the House of 
Representatives draws up what is called the Army Appropriation bill, which then goes to- 
the Senate for its action. Among the items of the appropriation bill are salaries for 
employees in the various offices of the war department, public buildings and grounds: 
in Washington, furniture, repairs, rent, stationery, pay of the army, signal service, sub-. 
sistence, quartermasters’ supplies, barracks andl quarters, transportation, shooting gal- 


(20 ana 


leries, arsenals and ordnance stores, powder, shell, cannon, fortifications, military acad- 
emy, military posts, harbor and river improvements, national cemeteries, civil sur- 
veys, artificial limbs, appliances and support of destitute patients, war claims, and the 
erection of monuments. 


ARMY REGISTER, an official publication by the secretary of war, published from the 
adjutant-general’s office the first of each year. It contains a list of the officers of the 
army divided into corps to which they belong, ard giving the place of birth of each 
officer, the state from which he was appointed, whether he entered the service from civil 
life or from the military academy, the date of such entry, and the rank held at the time ; 
also the dates of the various commissions held in the permanent establishment and in 
the volunteer service, together with the highest assignable brevet rank. There {s a list 
of retired officers and aides-de-camp to general officers ; the officers and professors of 
the military academy and the first five cadets of each class. The lineal rank and the 
relative rank of officers is given, as well as the officers who have been commissioned 
for distinguished services, who have received the thanks of Congress and who have 
held staff appointments other than under commission, and on whom brevet rank has 
been conferred. The casualties during the year are given as well as military com- 
mands and posts, armories, arsenals, recruiting, engineer and ordnance dépéts. The 
organization and pay of the army, with the militia force of the United States, are also 
included, together with the students at universities, colleges and so forth and the honor 
graduates of the artillery school and the infantry and cavalry school. 


ARMY SCHOOLS, In the U. 8. Army the schools are known as post schools and the 
instruction of enlisted men is considered to be a military duty. Zealous and efficient 
officers are detailed for this duty that it may be put on a footing commensurate with 
its importance. At posts where there is a chaplain the instruction falls to him, and the 
commanding officer also gives the matter his personal attention. School-teachers when 
required are also detailed from the enlisted men in proportion not to exceed one to every 
fifteen men. Assistant adjutants-general of the department, under the direction of the 
department commander, have a general supervision of the schools, and make fuil reports 
annually as to condition and progress, setting forth specifically any cases of failure or 
neglect on the part of post commanders to take proper interest in or facilitate the 
operations of the schools. Inspection of the schools is also made by the officers of the 
Inspector-General’s department, who examine into the system of instruction, and endeav- 
or to bring about uniformity in the methods. At posts where the number of children 
present will admit of it, and where there are no convenient educational privileges, 
schools are maintained, at which the attendance of officers’ children is optional, and those 
of enlisted men compulsory. The children of citizens living near the post are allowed 
to attend, and, if able, they are expected to pay a small rate therefor. Parents supply 
ee necessary books, except in the cases of enlisted men, when the Government furnishes 
them. 


ARMY, UniTEeD States. See Unirep STATES. 


ARMY-WORM is in the northern states the larva of a noctuid moth, heliophila uni- 
punctata. It grows to nearly 2 in. in length; its appearance varies with the suc- 
cessive moultings, as is common with caterpillars, but when grown it is dark gray 
marked with three yellow stripes above, and a broader one of the same color along each 
side. The moth is light chocolate brown, bearing a white dot in the center of each 
fore-wing. Two generations appear each summer; occasionally in so great numbers as 
to cause serious damage. Their ravages may be checked in a measure by surrounding 
ee field where they are found by a double furrow, or a ditch, and crushing those that 

all in. y 

The southern army or cotton worm, aletia argiliacea, is amuch more troublesome 
visitor. The larva is a semi-looper, yellowish green; the segments of the body are orna- 
mented with black dots, appearing as warts under the microscope, some of them support- 
ing hairs. In some specimens a dorsal line is visible. 


ARNASON, JON, b. at Reykjavik in Iceland, 1819. He devoted much time to the 
study of the antiquities and literature of Iceland, and in 1849 became custodian of the 
national library at Reykjavik. He published biographical and historical works, but his 
fame rests chiefly on his Jceland Popular Tales and Adventures, 1862-64. Died in 1888. 


ARNAUD, HEnrI1, 1641-1721 ; historian of the Vaudois, pastor and painter; a native 
of Piedmont. Encouraged by the English revolution and the enthronement of William 
_III., and probably with pecuniary assistance from England, A. undertook to bring back 
to their native valleys the Vaudois expatriated by Victor Amadeus of Savoy. In Sept., 
1689, he led about a thousand of the exiles into the valley of the San Martino, though 
opposed by a superior force; but being in danger of attack by 20,000 troops, he retired 
to the high table-land of the Balsille, making such fortifications as he could. Here he 
was assaulted, May 2, 1690, by 22,000 French, whose failure was so complete that A. 
Jost not a man, while the French were almost decimated. A. did not risk another fight, 
but withdrew to Angona, and, just when final capture seemed assured, he learned that 
war was begun between France and Piedmont, and that the Piedmontese king had 
suddenly become a friend of the exiles, ready to receive them. The Vaudois were at 


lw Ay 

Arnauld, ( 28 

i i s until the war of the Spanish succession began, when A. and his 
ait aid ia erie against France; but when that was over, the king of Piedmont 
again leagued with France against them, and_ 3000 Vaudois were expelled, findin 
an asylum in Wiirtemberg. A. was invited to England by William III., but preferre 
to remain pastor among his exiled countrymen at Schonberg, where he wrote his 
Histoire de la Glorieuse Rentrée des Vaudois dans leurs Vallées, dedicated to queen Anne, 


ARNAULD, ANGELIQUE, a daughter of Robert Arnauld d’Andilly, was b. on the 28th 
Nov., 1624. From her earliest years she exhibited an extraordinary force and resolute- 
ness of character, and excited much anxious speculation concerning her future career 
among her relatives. When not quite twenty years of age, she became a nun at Port 
Royal des Champs, where she had been educated by her aunt, Marie Jaqueline Angél- 
ique Arnauld, sister of the great Arnauld. Nine years after, she was made subprioress; 
and on removing some years later to Port Royal de Paris, she held the same office. 
During the persecution of the Port Royalists, A. A., by her piety and courage, sustained 
the spirit of the sisterhood. The whole family, male and female, were determined Jan- 
senists, and none more so than mother Angélique de Saint-Jean (her conventual name). 
She had much to endure, but she met misfortunes with earnest intrepidity. A royal 
order was issued to break up the nunnery. The police arrested the inmates, who were 
dispersed in various convents throughout France, and constant efforts were made by the 
Jesuits to induce them to sign the ‘‘ formulary of Alexander VII.” A. A. was alone 
exempted from listening to their arguments and solicitations, her ‘‘ obstinacy” being 
supposed invincible. At length, by command of the archbishop of Paris, the nuns 
were restored to Port Royal des Champs; but for some years they were subjected to a 
strict surveillance by soldiers, who watched all their movements, and allowed them no 
intercourse with persons out of the convent. In 1669, however, was issued the edict of 
Clement IX. for the peace of the church, which was a kind of compromise on this 
vexed question of Jansenism and Jesuitism. The nuns received back the privileges of 
which they had been stripped, and constituted their society anew. A. A. was again 
elected prioress. In 1678, she was made abbess. The next year, her protectress, the 
Duchesse de Longueville died, and the persecution recommenced by the prohibition to 
receive any more novices. Still Angélique did not despair. She consoled the nuns, and 
exerted all her influence with persons in power, but with little effect. At last she sank 
under a complication of griefs, and expired on the 29th of Jan., 1684, leaving behind her 
as bright and beautiful a memory as any of her countrywomen. She was learned with- 
out being pedantic, pious without bigotry, and gentle to others in proportion as she was 
severe to herself. A. A. wrote several works, the most valuable of which is Mémoires 
pour servir dla Vie de la Mére Marie Angélique Arnauld de Sainte Madeleine, Réformatrice 
de Port Royal. See Martin, Angélique Arnauld (1876). 

ARNAULD, ANTOINE, the greatest advocate of his time in France, was b. at Paris in 
1560. He was descended from an ancient family of Auvergne, which had distinguished 
itself both in civil and military affairs. A.was not less remarkable for his eloquence 
than for his probity. His zealous defense of the university of Paris against the Jesuits 
in 1594 won for him a wide celebrity. It was reprinted in 1717. He published another 
work against the society of Jesus, and several tractates of an earnest political character. - 
The Jesuits accused him of being a Huguenot, but the accusation was unfounded, for 
he had no personal predilection in favor of Protestantism as a distinct religious system. 
He had several children, who formed the nucleus of the Jansenists and Port- Royalists. 
He d. 29th Dec., 1619. 


ARNAULD, ANTOINE, known as ‘‘the great A.,” the twentieth and youngest son of 
the preceding, was b. at Paris, Feb. 6, 1612. Although originally intended for the bar, 
he could not conceal his dislike of the legal profession, and was in consequence dedicated 
by his mother to the service of the church. Entering the Sorbonne, he became a pupil 
of Lescot, the confessor of Cardinal Richelieu, and afterwards bishop of Chartres. Les- 
cot initiated him into the scholastic theology ; but his attention having been drawn to 
the writings of Augustine, he soon conceived an admiration for that profoundest of the 
early Christian thinkers which he ever after retained. It was Augustine, he himself 
admitted, who first showed him the great difference between the two states—that of a 
nature whole and sound, and that of a nature corrupted by sin. In 1641, the Sorbonne 
wished to receive him into their society, on account of his extraordinary piety and 
talents, but Cardinal Richelieu opposed this. In the following year he was ordained a 
priest, and in 1643 he published a work entitled De la Fréquente Communion, which was 
received in the most favorable manner by all except the Jesuits, who had taken alarm at 
the virtues of A., and were already attempting to defame one whom they instinctively 
felt to be a reproach to their order. Asa consequence of this publication, he was now 
admitted ‘* of the society” of the Sorbonne. A. not only replied to the aspersions of the 
Jesuits in his avertissement, but also sent forth a work which was the prelude to a long 
and fierce contest with his adversaries, T héologie Morale des Jésuites (Moral Theology of 
the Jesuits). But the hatred of the latter was not confined to literary libels ; they advised 
the chancellor of the Sorbonne to carry the dispute to Rome, whither A. would be 
obliged to follow and defend himself. In this scheme, however, they were defeated. 

A, now buried himself in seclusion for 21 years, during which period, however, his 


729 


Arnauld, 


en was almost continuously active. In 1644 appeared his 7radition del Hglise sur la 

eniténce (Opinion of the Church on the Doctrine of Penitence). It was a reply to the 
attacks whicb the Jesuits had made against his Mrequent Communion. A. was still 
entangled in the disputes which arose out of this treatise, when he became involved in 
another controversy that colored the whole of his subsequent career, and may be said to 
have won for him his pesition in history. This was the great Jansenist controversy. 
In 1640 had appeared a posthumous work of Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, entitled Augus- 
tinus; seu Doctrina Sancti Augustini de Humane Nature Sanctitate, digritudine Medicina, 
adversus Pelagianos et Massilienses. It laid down with a rigor equal to that of Calvin the 
doctrines of predestination, the corruption of human nature, and the depravity of the 
will. It was specially intended as a counteractive against the lax principles and morality 
of the Jesuits, many of whom, and especially their great champion, Molina, entertained 
extreme Pelagian views of the freedom of the human will, which they had cunningly 
interwoven into their ‘‘scarlet-colored” web of ethics. The work, in the meantime, was 
condemned by Pope Urban VIIT,, on the ist of Aug. 1641. A., who quickly appre 
hended its vital importance in the existing state of things, boldly ventured to defend it 
against the censures of the papal bull. He published several pamphlets, closing with a 
first and second Apologie de Jansénius. It is to the honor of the religion of A., however, 
that it was not always controversial. Whenever a moment of armistice was permitted 
him, he occupied it in writing such works as Mewrs de  Hglise Catholique, La Correction, 
La Grice, La Vérité de la Religion, De la Foi, de ? Hspérance, et de la Charité, and the 
Manuel de Saint Augustine. He also varied these occupations by translating into Latin 
his Frequent Communion, and by the composition of his Nove Odjectiones contra Renat, 
Descartis Meditationes, and several smaller tractates. In addition to his literary labors, 
he undertook the direction of the nuns of Port Royal des Champs, a convent of which 
his sister, Marie Jaqueline Angélique Arnauld, was abbess. In this retreat he was sur- 
rounded by many friends, thirsting like himself for the quiet pleasures of study, some of 
whom have left their mark is the world, such as Pascal, Nicole, etc. Here they wrote 
in common numerous excellent works. <A. executed parts of the Grammaire Générale 
Raisonnée, Hléments de Géométrie, and L’ Art de Penser. In 1649, the Jansenist contro- 
versy broke out more fiercely than ever. The Augustinus of the bishop of Ypres was 
again attacked and condemned by the Sorbonne and the pope. A. replied in his Cons¢d- 
érations. In 1650 appeared what he conceived to be his best work, L’ Apologie powr les 
Saints Péres. For the next half-dozen years he was engaged in constant and painful dis- 
putes; yet, in spite of the polemical character of his life, the impression of his piety and 
earnestness was deepened in the mind of the nation; and on reading some of his compo- 
sitions, even Alexander VII. is reported to have praised the author, and to have exhorted 
him for the future to despise the libels of his adversaries. During the strife he published 
La Concorde des Hvangiles and L’ Office du Saint-Sacrement. In 1655-56, for prudential 
reasons, he left his retreat at. Port-Royal; about the same time he was expelled from the 
sorbonne and the faculty of theology. 

In 1656, the war with the Jesuits was renewed—not, however, by A.in person. An 
unknown knight with closed visor had ridden into the lists—the great Pascal. Under 
the nom de plume of Louis de Montalto, he discharged his scorpion wit against the Jesuits 
for about a year and a half in the Provincial Letters. A. furnished him with materials; 
but, in 1658, he took the field ¢1 propria persond, by publishing his Oing crits en faveur 
des Curés de Paris contre les Casuistes relichés. In 1662 appeared La Nowvelle Hérésie (of 
the Jesuits); in 1669, the first volume of his Morale Pratique (of the Jesuits), the last of 
which was not published until the year of his death. 

A., who was a sincere Catholic after his fashion, next had a theological controversy, 
properly so called, with the reformed minister Claude, the consequence of which was his 
volume Du Renversement de la Morale de J. C. par la Doctrine des Calwinistes touchant la 
Justification (1672). In 1675, he returned to the subject in his Jmpiété de la Morale des 
Calvinistes. Some years previous to this, A. had enjoyed the peace of Clement IX., 
which put a stop for the time to the Jansenist controversy. He had been presented to 
the papal nuncio and to the grand monarque, both of whom flattered him highly; but 
the Jesuits, who could not breathe freely in his presence, used their utmost efforts to 
prejudice Louis against him, and at last the king issued an order for his arrest. <A. hid 
himself for some time, but finally withdrew into Belgium. He felt his exile keenly, 
though honored by many learned and influential persons, and could not rest in one city, 
but wandered from place to place, ever displaying the same astonishing vigor of mind 
and the same polemical tendency. It is strange that this man, who was celebrated 
amongst his friends for equanimity and gentleness of heart, should have been so bitter 
in his controversies, even with his friends, for he wrote not against his enemies only, 
but against Pascal, Domat, Nicole, his protector, Pope Innocent XI., and his old friend 
Pére Malebranche. So earnest was he for the truth—which earnestness had no doubt 
been greatly intensified by persecution and controversy—that he could never thoroughly 
realize the idea that there might be truth on the other side also. Hed. at Brussels, 8th 
Aug., 1694. His works, which amount to upwards of 100 volumes, were published at 
Paris, 1775-83. 

ARNAULD, Henri, 1597-1694 ; bishop of Angers. He abandoned the bar for the 
pulpit, and in 1645 was mediator between Innocent X. and the Barberini (a powerful 


Arnauld. 730 


Arnim, 


family, one of whom was a cardinal), and for his success a medal was made and a statue 
set up in his honor. In 1649, he was made bishop, and became a strong Jansenist, being 
one of the prelates who refused to sign an acceptance of the bull against that heresy. 
He was remarkable for close attention to duty, limiting his sleep to five hours. His 
Negotiations at the Court of Rome furnishes five volumes of curious information and 
gossip. - 

ARNAULD, JAcQuELINE Mari (usually called by her name in religion, MARIE 
ANGELIQUE DE SAINTE MAGDELEINE), b. 1591; second daughter of the celebrated 
advocate, Antoine Arnauld. In her 9th year she assumed the dress of a novice; and, 
concealing her age, her father induced the pope to nominate her abbess of Port Royal 
when she was a little over 11 years old. At first she dislik-d her situation, but a sermon 
in 1608 fully converted her, and she passed at once to the severest convent discipline. 
She speedily became famous for piety, and when Madame d’Estrees, abbess of Maubis- 
son, was removed for gross misconduct, Angélique received charge of the convent. In 
1623, she returned to Port Royal, and three years later the community removed to the 
house known as Port Royal de Paris, where she fulfilled a long cherished desire in 
resigning her dignity of abbess. She was afterwards superior of a new religious com- 
munity in Paris; then prioress at Port Royal, where her sister Agnes was abbess; and in 
1648, she, with a few companions, did much kindness to the poor who were oppressed 
by the civil wars. She d. in 1661, just before the storm of persecution reached her 
home. 


ARNAULD, Ropert p’ANDILLY, the eldest son of Antoine Arnauld, the advocate, 
and brother of the great Arnauld, was b. at Paris in 1588. He was a person of con- 
siderable consequence at the French court, where his influence was ever exerted benefi- 
ciaily. Balzac spoke very highly of him. At the age of 55 he quitted the bustle of the 
world for the solitude of Port-Royal des Champs, where he devoted himself to religious 
history and biography. His chief works are translations, such as those of the Confessions 
of St. Augustine, and of the History of the Jews, by Josephus. The latter work is esteemed 
more elegant than accurate, however. In 1668 appeared his translation of the Lives of 
the Holy Fathers of the Desert, and of several Saints ; and in 1670, that of the works of St. 
Theresa. He was likewise the author of some pieces of religious verse. He d. 27th 
Sept., 1674. 


ARNAULT, Vincent ANTOINE. 1766-1834 ; a French dramatic author. In 1797, the 
first council sent him to the Ionian islands on diplomatic business, and for a time he 
lived in Venice. That city suggested Les Vénitiens, produced in 1799, and favorably 
received, particularly by Napoleon, before whom A. gave lectures on the old city of the 
doges. He was advanced by Napoleon to offices in the academy and the university. 
Besides his early tragedies, Marius a Minturnes, Lucrece, and Les Vénitiens, he wrote 
works in prose, poems, fables, and Vie Politique et Militaire de Napoléon, and assisted 
in the Nouvelle Biographie des Contemporaines. 


ARND, or ARNDT, JonHANN, a German Protestant divine, b. at Ballenstadt, in 
Anhalt, in 1555, became Lutheran pastor at Quedlinburg, Brunswick, and elsewhere, 
and d. at Celle, Hanover, in 1621. Asaman he was remarkable for his piety and active 
benevolence; but he is chiefly known for a work entitled True Christianity (Wahres 
Christenthum), which was translated into most European languages, and is yet popular 
in Germany. Its object is ‘‘ edification”—the promotion of practical religion; and it is 
written with great warmth and unction, and in a strain of piety bordering on mysticism. 
It has been called the Protestant 4 Kempis, and its author the Fenelon of the Protestant 
church. There is an English translation by W. Jaques (Lond., 1815, 2 vols.). 


ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, professor in the university of Bonn, and for half a century 
one of the leading political writers of Germany, was b. in the island of Rigen in 1769. 
He gave up the clerical profession, for which he was at first intended, and, after traveling 
over a great part of Europe, became, in 1806, professor of history in Greifswald. Here, 
among other writings, he published his History of Serfdom in Pomerania, for which he 
was formally denounced and accused by several nobles. In his Spirit of the Times 
{Altenb., 1807), he attacked Napoleon with such boldness, that, after the battle of Jena, 
he had to take refuge in Stockholm. Returning under a feigned name, he resumed his 
functions at Greifswald in 1810; but war becoming imminent, he resigned the following 
year, and became an active co-operator with the minister Von Stein, and other patriots, 
in throwing off the foreign yoke. His numerous fugitive writings, full of energy and 
fire, contributed not a little to rouse and sustain the spirit of Germany for the war of 
liberation. His best poems belong to this period, and several of them have become 
national songs. (A new selection, Leip., 1850.) His song, What 7s the German Father- 
land? is sung wherever German is spoken. In 1818, he was made professor of modern 
history in the new university of Bonn, but became involved in 1819 in the prosecutions 
for what were called ‘‘demagogic movements,” and was suspended. Though acquitted 
on trial, he was made to retire, retaining his salary. After twenty years’ suspension, he 
was restored in 1840. His writings are numerous: we may mention his Beschreibung 
und Geschichte der Schottliind. Inseln, etc. (Leip., 1826); a collection of his fugitive 
Schriften fiir und an meine lieben Deutschen (3 vols., Leip., 1845); and Hrinnerungen aus 


| 731 sre 


dem aiissern Leben (8d ed., Leip., 1842). He was elected a member of the German 
national assembly in 1848, but seceded from it along with the whole Gagern (q.v) party 
in 1849. He powerfully supported the party who advocated a constitutional hereditary 
monarchy, and took a prominent part in the appointment of the archduke John as 
regent, and in the fruitless deputation to Berlin to offer the empire to the king of Prussia. 
After the dissolution of the Frankfort assembly, A. did not cease in his fugitive writings 
to advocate the views of the German national party. Hed. 29th Jan., 1860. 


ARNDTS von ARNSBERG, Karu Lupwie, 1803-78 ; bs Arnsberg, Prussia; prof. of 
jurisprudence in Bonn, Munich, and Vienna universities, and a noted writer on the same 
subject. He favored warmly Austria’s claims for admission to the German empire, and 
used his influence to that end in 1848, when in the national assembly. He was knighted 
by Austria in 1871. His best-known works are the Lehrbuch der Pandekten and the Juris- 
tische Encyclopddie und Methodologie. 


ARNE, Tuomas AvuGusTINE, doctor in music, one of the best and most genial of Eng- 
lish composers, was b. in London, 1710, and received his early education at Eton. His 
father, who was an upholsterer, intended to educate him for the bar; but the love of 
music was too strong to be restrained. Young A. became skillful as a violin-player, 
forming his style chiefly on the model of Corelli; and his zeal in the study of music 
induced his sister (afterwards celebrated as Mrs. Cibber) to cultivate her excellent voice. 
He wrote for her a part in his first opera, Rosamond, which was first performed with 
great success in 1733. Next followed his comic operetta, Tom Thumb, or the Opera of 
Operas ; and afterwards his Comus (1738), which displayed greater cultivation of style. 
He married a singer, Cecilia Young (1740); and after a successful visit to Ireland, was 
engaged as composer to Drury Lane theatre, and wrote many vocal pieces for the Vaux- 
hall concerts. The national air, Rude Britannia, which was originally given in a popu- 
jar performance, T’he Masque of Alfred, was of his composition. He composed also two 
oratorios, Akel and Judith, a number of operas, including Comus, on Milton’s text, 1788, 
and Artaxerxes, in the Italian style, 1762. His genius was better adapted to simple 
pastoral melody than to great dramatic compositions, and he wrote many glees, catches, 
canons, and songs, and music to Garrick’s Ode to Shakspere for the Jubilee at Stratford- 
on-Avon in 1769. His son, Michael, 1741-86, was also a composer. He d. in London, 
1778. 

ARN’HEIM, or ARNHEM, the Roman Arenacum, capital of the province of Guelder- 
jand, in Holland, with a pop. of (95) 54,180, is situated on the right bank of the Rhine, 
which is here crossed by a bridge of boats. It has a considerable transit-trade between 
Amsterdam and Germany. The environs of this strongly fortified town are exceedingly 
picturesque. Among its most remarkable buildings are the Reformed Dutch church, 
which contains monuments of the dukes of Guelderland; and the town-house, noted 
for the grotesque adornment of its front, which has gained it the name of Duivelshuis. 
There are several paper-mills in the neighborhood. Here Sir Philip Sidney d. tn 1586, 
after the battle of Zutphen. In 1813, A. was taken by storm by the Prussians, under 
Gen. Bulow, and the way thus prepared for the occupation of Holland, 


ARNHEM. See ARNHEIM. 


ARNICA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order composite, sub-order corym- 
bifere. The flowers of the ray are female and ligulate, those of the disk hermaphrodite 
and tubular. The receptacle is naked; the pappus hairy. The root, leaves, and flowers 
of the mountain A. (A. montana), sometimes called mountain tobacco, are much valued. 
in medicine, and administered in various forms as a stimulant in paralytic affections, 
typhoid fevers, and other diseases. They are also applied with much benefit to bruises, 
to promote the re-absorption of extravasated blood. They contain a peculiar volatile oil, 
a resin, an extractive matter, and an alkaloid (arnicina). The root is perennial and 
crooked, the stem about 2 ft. high, simple or little branched, with few leaves, bearing on 
the summit a head of flowers of a dark golden yellow, often 2in. in breadth. It flowers 
from June to Aug., forms an ornament of mountain meadows in Germany and Switzer- 
land, and is found upon the continent as far s. as Portugal, and as far n. as Lapland. 
This word is probably a corruption of ptarmica. 


ARNIGIO, BARTOLOMMEO, an Italian poet who was born at Brescia, in 1523, and died 
there of the plague in 1577. 


AR'NIM, Evizaseru von, better known as Bettina, wife of Ludwig Achim von Arnim 
(q.v.), was b. in 1785, at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. From her childhood excitable and 
eccentric, an early and profound impression was made upon her mind by the suicide 
of her friend, the canoness von Gunderode. The next great event of her life was her 
devoted attachment to, and intimacy with, Goethe, at that time a man of nearly 60. 
Their correspondence, entitled Goethe's Letters to a Child, was published in 1835, and 
translated by Bettina into English. Her letters are poetical, graceful, and fascinating, 
though often careless and extravagant, and abound in graphic sketches of men of the 
time. Goethe turned many of these letters into verse. Bettina’s later works were semi. 
political in their character, and, like her earlier, full of fantastic beauty. She lived toa 
good old age, dying in 1859. 

T.—24 


Arnm. ff 82 


Arnoftd, 


ANIM, Gisena von, a German authoress, daughter of Bettina. vom A. and wife of 
Hermann Grimm, She is known by her dramatic works. 


ARNIM, Harry, GRAF von, a German statesman, born at Moitzelsitz, 1824, ambassa~ 
dor to Rome in 1864, and to France in 1872. Am opponent of Bismarek s policy, he 
incurred the hostility of the government, and was sentenced to imprisonment on the 
charge of stealing and publishing state documents. He was further sentenced in 1876 
on a charge of lesa majestas, but remained outside of the empire and eseaped imprison- 
ment, He died at Nice in 1881. 


AR'NIM, Karu Orro Lupwic von, a well-known writer of travels amd other works,, 
was b. at Berlin, 1779. After studying at Halle and Gottingen, he traveled at different 
times over the most of Europe, and was employed on the embassies at Stockholm and 
London. His Flichtige Bemerkungen eines fliichitigen Reisenden (Passing Remarks by a 
Passing Traveler, 6 vols. , Berl. , 1837-50) is recommended for its clear, elegant style, as 
contrasted with the lumbering and involved writing of the ‘‘academic” school. A. 
also wrote in English Napoleon’s Conduct towards Prussia (Lond., 1814), amd published 
German National Melodies, with German and English text (Lond., 1816). He was the 
author of a play and several poems. He d. in 1861. 


AR'NIM, Lupwie AcHIM von, a fantastic but original German writer of romances, 
was b. in Berlin, Jan. 26, 1781. After devoting some years to the study of the physical 
sciences, he began his career as an imaginative author with Ariel’s Revelations, a romance 
which, though based on the principles of the new poetic sehool which had then risen in 
‘Germany, indicated, nevertheless, that the author could strike out a way of his own. 
His travels through Germany afforded him an opportunity of catching the peculiarities 
of popular life in its various provincial manifestations. He was especially interested in 
the old popular poetry, and stirred up among his countrymen a warmer sympathy for 
it by the publication, along with Clemens Brentand, of Ze Boy’s Wonderhorn (Heidel- 
berg, 1806-8). In 1809 appeared the Winter Garden, a collection of novels; in 1810, the. 
romance entitled The Poverty, Riches, Guilt, and Repentance of the Countess Dolores; in 1811, 
Halle and Jerusalem, the Sports of a Student, and the Adventures of a Pilgrim, in which. 
last his humor took avery saucy turn. In 1817, he published the Crown Guardians, a. 
work characterized by its originality, richness of fancy, and vivid portraitures. The 
later years of his life were spent partly in Berlin and partly at his estate near Dahme, 
where he d. Jan. 21, 1831. 


ARNIM, or ARNHEIM, Jowann GrorG, Baron von, 1586-1641 ; a diplomat and 
general in the thirty years’ war. He was in the Swedish army under Gustavus Adol- 
phus, but, though a Protestant, Wallenstein, in 1626, induced him to join the imperial 
side, and to become his close friend and ally. After Wallenstein’s dismissal, A. went 
over to the elector of Saxony, and led the left wing of the Saxon and Swedish armies in 
the battle of Leipsic. Upon Wallenstein’s restoration, in 1632, the old friends were 
opponents in the field; but as little was done by either, they were suspected of playing 
into each other’s hands. Wallenstein was assassinated in 1634, and A. began active 
operations, gaining a great victory at Liegnitz; but after the peace, not deeming himself 
properly honored by the elector, he retired to his castle, where he was taken by the 
Swedes and imprisoned in Stockholm. He escaped, but died very suddenly while raising 
an army to revenge his wrongs. 


ARNO, next t» the Tiber the most considerable river of central Italy, rises on Mt. 
Falterona, an offset of the Apennines, at an elevation of 4444 ft. above the level of the 
sea, and 25m. n. of Arezzo. It flows through the deep and fertile valley of Casentino, 
in a s.e. direction; enters the richly cultivated plain of Arezzo, where it receives the 
water of the Chiana; then flows in a n.w. and n. course through the upper valley of the 
A. (Valdarno), one of the most delicious parts of Tuscany; afterwards it receives the 
Sieve, its largest tributary, and turns its course toward the w., flowing past Florence, 
Empoli, and through the t. of Pisa. The whole length of its course is about 140 miles. 
In old times, the embouchure of the A. was at Pisa; now it is about 4 or 5 m. 
distant, in lat. 48° 41'n., and long. 10° 15’ e. It is navigable for barges as far up as 
Florence, but in the summer season even this frequently becomes impossible. 

ARNO'BIUS, called AFER, and sometimes ‘‘ the elder,” an early Christian writer, 
about the first part of the 4th c., a native of Numidia, in Africa. He was a teacher of 
rhetoric, and at first an opponent of the Christians, but was converted in his early years. 
His fame rests chiefly upon his great treatise in seven books entitled Adversus Gentes, in 
which he answers the complaint against the Christians, that the calamities and disas- 
ters of the time were due to their impiety, and had come upon men since the establish- 
ment of the Christian religion. A.’s views were tinged with gnosticism and dualism. 


ARNOLD, or ARNALD, or Brescia was a native of that t., and was distinguished by 
the success with which he contended against the corruptions of the clergy in the early 
part of the 12th century. He was educated in France under Abelard, and adopted the 
monastic life. By his preaching, the people of his native place were exasperated against 
their bishop, and the fermentation and insurrectionary spirit spread over a great part of 
the country, when he was cited before the second Lateran council, and banished from 
Italy. He retired to France, but experienced the bitter hostility of St. Bernard, who 


738 resent 


denounced him as a violent enemy to the church. He thereupon took refuge in Zurich,. 
where he settled for several years. Meanwhile his doctrines exerted a powerful influ- 
ence in Rome, which ended in a general insurrection against the government, whereupon 
A. repaired thither, and endeavored to lead and direct the movement. He exhorted the: 
people to organize a government similar to the ancient Roman republic, with its consuls, 
tribunes, and equestrian order. But they, provoked by the treachery and opposition of 
the papal party, and disunited among themselves, gave way to the grossest excesses. 
The city, indeed, continued for 10 years in a state of agitation and disorder. Lucius 
II. was killed by the populace in an insurrection in 1145, and Eugenius III., to escape a 
similar fate, fled into France. These violent struggles were subdued by pope Hadrian 
IV., who, feeling the weakness of his temporal authority, turned to the spiritual, and 
resorted to the extreme measure of laying the city under excommunication, when A., 
whose party became discouraged and fell to pieces, took refuge with certain influential 
friends in Campania. On the arrival of the emperor, Frederick I., for his coronation, 
in 1155, A..was arrested, brought to Rome, tried, hanged, his body burned, and the ashes 
thrown into the Tiber. 


ARNOLD, BENEDICT, known in the annals of the American revolution as ‘‘ the trai- 
tor,” was descended from a prominent Rhode Island family, and was born in Norwich, 
Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. He received a fair education, but being ambitious and reckless, 
twice left his home and joined the provincial troops on the northern frontier. In 1762 
he established himself at New Haven, as bookseller and druggist, embarked in the West 
India trade, prospered, and in 1767 married Margaret Mansfield, a lady of good family, 
who died in 1775. On receipt (Apr. 20, 1775) of the news of the battle of Lexington, 
Arnold led a military company to Cambridge, and proposed an expedition to capture 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and was commissioned as colonel to raise troops in 
western Massachusetts, but was obliged to join as a volunteer, the expedition under 
Ethan Allen, already on the way thither. Prevented by the Connecticut authorities 
from taking command of Ticonderoga after its capture, he armed a vessel and with a 
few troops took St. Johns, together with a royal sloop and several bateaux. Jealous 
persons in Connecticut prompted the Continental Congress to question his capacity and 
conduct, and while planning the capture of Canada, he was superseded, but was selected 
by Washington to head an expedition against Quebec. Late in 1775 he led 1100 men 
through the forests of Maine, enduring great hardships, and on Dec. 3 was joined by 
General Montgomery. In the daring but unsuccessful assault, Dec. 31, in which Mont- 
gomery fell, Arnold broke his leg, but recovering, took command at Montreal, Congress 
having made him brigadier-general. In June, 1776, he retreated by way of Lake Cham- 
plain, and was immediately selected to construct and command a fleet to control that 
important body of water. In Oct., at Valcour bay, he attacked a British fleet twice the 
size of his own ; held his position till night and then, aided by the darkness, stole with 
his crippled flotilla between the enemy’s lines and escaped. 

In spite of Washington’s confidence in Arnold, the latter’s enemies influenced Con- 
gress, and in 1777 five of his inferiors in rank were made major-generals, a slight which 
his sensitive and ambitious nature could not forgive, yet at Washington’s request he did 
not resign. The British having invaded Connecticut, he joined the militia raised to 
repel them, and at the battle of Ridgefield showed remarkable courage, barely escaping 
death. Congress now elected him a major-general, but still denied him his proper rank. 
He co-operated with Washington in opposing the advance of Howe toward Philadelphia, 
and was appointed to act with General Schuyler in checking the progress of Burgoyne 
through eastern New York. He raised the siege of Fort Schuyler (Stanwix), and at the 
battle of Bemis’ Heights, Sept. 19, 1777, was recklessly prominent, but General Gates, 
who by intrigue had superseded Schuyler, became jealous of Arnold ; a quarrel ensued, 
and Arnold was deprived of hiscommand. When the second battle of Saratoga occurred 
(Oct. 7), Arnold defied the efforts of Gates to keep him in the background, and rushing 
into the fight, was among the foremost leaders in the final assault which resulted in the 
capture of Burgoyne’s army. A wound in the leg, received on that occasion, laid him 
up in the hospital at Albany for several months, and during that time Congress grudg- 
ingly gave him the rank he had so long claimed. In May, 1778, he joined the camp at 
Valley Forge, but being unfit for active service, was placed in command of Philadelphia 
after the British retired. , Here he married, Apr., 1779, Peggy (Margaret) Shippen, a 
beautiful and cultivated woman, youngest daughter of Edward Shippen, a loyalist, and 
afterward chief-justice of the state. Moving in fashionable society and living extrava- 
gantly, Arnold naturally incurred criticism, and to this the executive council of Penn- 
sylvania added definite charges of arbitrary exercise of military authority and of favor- 
itism to tories. At his request a court-martial was appointed, but nearly a year elapsed 
before it was held (Jan., 1780), when he defended himself without counsel and was 
acquitted of intentional wrongdoing, but was sentenced to be reprimanded by Wash- 
ington, who, while rebuking Arnold, urged him to regain the esteem of his countrymen ; 
but this disgrace, added to the injustice of Congress and the feeling that his sacrifices 
of health and property were unappreciated, led Arnold to reconsider the overtures of 
treason made some months, if not years, before. In Aug., 1780, he took command of 
West Point, which through a correspondence with Major André (q.v.) he offered to 


Arnold. 734 


ritish, and to consummate the plan, Arnold and André met at wadnight 
ety supa ortho Hudson (Sept. 21); but the capture of André Sept. 28, frustrated the 
scheme, and Arnold fled to the British sloop of war, Vulture, sending back a letter to 
Washington, in which he declared that love of country had actuated him. In a letter to 
Clinton he assumed the responsibility of André’s act, and, according to a report current 
in the British army, even offered to give himself up to save André’s life. In an address 
“To the Inhabitants of America,” issued soon after, Arnold tried to justify himself by 
declaring that, considering the exhausted state of the country and the willingness of 
Great Britain to grant redress, war was no longer excusable, and that the alliance with 
France was both useless and dangerous, adding that he had determined to surrender his 
arms and command for a purpose ‘‘ as grateful as it would have been beneficial” to his 
country ; and that he was ‘‘ only solicitious to accomplish an event of decisive impor- 
tance, and to prevent as much as possible, in the execution of it, the effusion of blood.” 
In an appeal to the continental army, he implored its members not to be the dupes of 
Congress or of France, but to desert, and join the corps of cavalry and infantry he was 
about to raise. Having been made a brigadier-general in the British army, Arnold in 
Dec. headed a naval expedition against Virginia, but did little besides destroying prop- 
erty along the James river, and burning Richmond. In 1781 he led another expedition 
against Connecticut, which resulted in the burning of New London and the massacre of 
the surrendered garrison of Fort Griswold. In Dec. 1781 he sailed for England with 
his family, who were pensioned by the government. He himself received £6315 (about 
$31,575) for his alleged losses in joining the British, was kindly treated by the royal 
family, and at the king’s request prepared a plan for reconciling the colonies ; but 
received either neglect or abuse from the political parties, and failing to get a position 
in the army, was forced to take up his old trade of merchant. The years 1787-91 
were chiefly spent at St Johns, New Brunswick, where he carried on trade with the 
West Indies, but he returned with his family to London in the summer of 1791. On the 
breaking out of the war between England and France he was exposed to great risks in 
prosecuting his West India trade, and on one occasion was captured by a French ship, 
but escaped with his customary daring. The government still refusing to give him 
active service in the army, he strove by fitting out privateers against France to recover 
his lost fortune, but unsuccessful, weighed down by debt, and despised by two conti- 
nents, he sank into a state of melancholy, and died, June 14, 1801, regretting, tradition 
says, his treason. 

His wife, who appears to have been guiltless of any complicity in his treason, and 
who had great strength of character, died in 1804. By his first wife Arnold had three 
sons, and by his second wife, several children. His eldest sons received commissions in 
the British army, and the second, James Robertson, who inherited his father’s daring 
and military ability, rose to be a lieutenant-general, was made aide-de-camp to King 
William IV., and was created a knight. Others of Arnold’s children held honorable 
positions, and one of his grandsons, Captain William Traill Arnold, a brave fighter, was 
ety in the Crimean war. See lives by Sparks and by Isaac N. Arnold (Chicago, 

80). 


ARNOLD, Epw1y, Sir, an English author, b. 18382. He taught school 1: Birmingham, 
and was president of a Sanskrit college in India, resigning in 1860. His work has been 
chiefly in periodical literature, though he has produced Griselda, a drama; Poems, Nar- 
rative and Lyrical ; EKducation in India ; a translation of the Huterpe of Herodotus ; and 
a metrical translation of The Hitopades’a, from the Sanskrit. After his return to Eng- 
land he published a History of Lord Dathousie’s Administration, and another volume of 
poems He was a correspondent of the London Telegraph during the civil conflict 
in the United States, sympathizing entirely with the northern states, and predicting their 
triumph, At the death of Thornton Hunt he became chief editor of the Telegraph. 
While at this exacting work he found time to translate a volume of Grecian poems, and 
to produce his most remarkable work, The Light of Asia, a production notable for its 
exquisite poetry and lofty philosophy, and the vividness and reality with which the 
scenery, climate, manners, and people of Hindustan, as they were 2000 years ago, have 
been portrayed. Its full title is The Light of Asia ; or, The Great Renunciation ; being 
the Life and Teachings of Gautama (as told in verse by an Indian Buddhist). He has since 
published Pearls of the Faith (1882); Indian Idylis (1883); The Secret of Death (1885); 
Poems, National and Oriental (1888); The Light of the World (1891); The Tenth Muse and 
Uther Poems (1895); East and West (1896), and other works. He was made a companion 
of the Star of India in 1877; a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire in 1888, and 
ace te | Hee ys by the Sultan of Turkey and other Oriental rulers. He read in the 

eh ee 86 Re. < 

ARNOLD, JOHANN, a miller of Neumark, who lived in the time of Frederick II. of 
Prussia, and gave rise to a remarkable legal process. He complained to the king that 
his landlord, by making a pond, had taken away water from the mill; that he (A.) had 
therefore refused to pay rent for the mill, of which he held a lease; but had been con- 
demned to pay by the unanimous decisions of two legal courts. The king took up the 
case, and regarding it as an oppression of the poor, reversed the decisions of the courts, 
dismissed his high-chancellor, imprisoned several other officers of justice, and gave or- 
ders that restitution should be made to the miller. Soon afterwards, the king died, and 
under Frederick William IT., the case was more coolly investigated ; the condemned per: 
sons were exonerated, and the miller was recompensed by the state. 


735 Arnold. 


ARNOLD, JonATHAN, 1741-98 ; an American surgeon in the revolution. He was a 
member of the first colonial assembly of Rhode Island ; served medically in the patriot 
army ; and was a member of the continental congress, in 1782-84. 


ARNOLD, MATTHEW, a noted English poet, the eldest son of the late Dr. Arnold, of 
Rugby, was b. 24th Dec., 1822, and educated at Winchester and Rugby. In 1840 he 
was elected scholar of Balliol college, Oxford; in 1844 he obtained the Newdigate prize; 
and in 1845 he was elected a fellow of Oriel college. In 1851 he was appointed one of 
her majesty’s inspectors of British schools. From 1857 to 1867 he was professor of 
poetry at Oxford; in 1859-60 was sent to the continent by the English government as 
assistant to the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of education in France, 
Germany, and Holland. In 1865 he again visited the continent on a like mission. A. 
held the honorary degrees of Edinburgh and Oxford, and an Italian order. 

Mr. A. was first known as a poet of classic taste and exquisite purity of imagination, 
but in his later years he almost exclusively betook himself to prose. His chief pro- 
ductions in verse are, Poems (1853), containing, among other fine pieces, Sohrab and Rus- 
tum, Tristram and Yseult, Balder, and Merope (1858), an attempt to naturalize in English 
literature the form of the Greek drama; New Poems (1867), and a corrected version (3 
vols., 1885). His prose writings are very numerous. Among his prose works are his 
lectures on Translating Homer (1861); Report on Education in France, Germany, and 
Holland (1861); A French Eton or Middle-class Education and the State (1864); Hssays on 
Criticism (1865); Lectures on the Study of Celtic Literature (1867) ; Schools and Universi- 
ties of the Continent (1868); Culture and Anarchy, an Essay in Political and Social 
Criticism (1869); and Higher Schools and Universities in Germany (1874). In St. Paul 
and Protestantism (1870), and still morein Literature and Dogma (1872), he startled the 
public by his piercing and audacious application of literary criticism to religion. Among 
his later works were God and the Bible (1875); Last Hssays on Church and Religion 
(1877) ; Mixed Hssays (1879); Irish Essays, and Others (1882); Isaiah of Jerusalem (1883); 
Discourses in America (1885); General Grant, an Estimate (1887); Civilization in the 
United States (1888). Two volumes of his letters were published in 1895. 

In Oct., 1883, he visited this country as a lecturer, remaining with us until March, 
1884, His lectures were on ‘‘ Emerson,” ‘‘ Numbers,” and ‘‘ Literature and Science.” 
The latter two were received with comparative calmness, in spite of the fact that the 
lecture on “‘ Numbers attacked” our favorite doctrine of the rule of majorities ; but the 
lecture on ‘‘ Emerson,” refusing him the title of a great poet, a great writer, or a great 
philosopher, caused great commotion in literary circles in New England, and provoked 
indignant replies. He died, April 16, 1888. 


ARNOLD, SAMUEL, 1740-1802 ; an English composer ; educated under Dr. Nares in 
the Chapel Royal, and at 20 years of age appointed composer at Covent Garden 
theatre. Here, in 1765, he produced she Maid of the Mill. In 1776 he became 
composer to the Haymarket; in 1783 was appointed composer to the king, and ten 
years afterwards organist in Westminster Abbey, where he was buried. Among his 
works are Inkle and Yarico, Rosamond, The Battle of Hexham, The Mountaineers ; and 
in sacred music, The Cure of Saul, The Prodigal Son, Abimelech, and The Resurrection. 


ARNOLD, THoMAs, D.D., head-master of Rugby school, and the author of a History 
of Rome, was b. June 18, 1795, at west Cowes, in the Isle of Wight. In 1803 he was 
sent to Warminster school, in Wiltshire, but was removed in 1807 to the public school 
of Winchester, where he remained till 1811, when he was elected a scholar of Corpus 
Christi college, Oxford. In 1815 he was elected fellow of Oriel college, and he gained 
the chancellor’s prize for the two university essays, Latin and English, for the years 
1815 and 1817. Asa boy, we are told he was shy and retired; as a youth, disputatious, 
and somewhat bold and unsettled in his opinions; but before he left Oriel, he had won 
the good opinion of a college which at that time boasted of such names as Copleston, 
Davison, Whately, Keble, Hawkins, and Hampden. He took deacon’s orders in 1818, 
and the year after settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he occupied himself in pre- 
paring pupils for the university. In 1820 he married Mary, youngest daughter of the 
Rev. John Penrose, rector of Fledborough, in Nottinghamshire, and sister of one of his 
earliest school and college friends, Trevenen Penrose. About ten years were spent in, 
this quiet and comparatively obscure life; he was preparing himself for the arduous 
post he afterwards occupied; he was maturing his opinions, and he had also already} 
commenced his great literary undertaking, the History of Rome. It was a period which 
he himself was accustomed to look back upon with some feeling of regret. © His letters 
at this epoch reveal to us a fine ambitious spirit bending cheerfully to the task of tuition, 
more useful than glorious; they also prove to us that those views of a religious and 
political character which afterwards distinguished him, were being matured in the 
privacy of Laleham. ‘‘I have long had in my mind,” he thus writes to a Mr. Black- 
stone, ‘‘a work on Christian politics, or the application of the gospel to the state of 
man as a citizen, in which the whole question of a religious establishment, and the edu- 
cation proper for Christian members of a Christian commonwealth, would naturally find 
a place. It would embrace also an historical sketch of the pretended conversion of the 
kingdoms of the world to the kingdom of Christ in the 4th and 5th centuries, which I 
look upon as one of the greatest tours dadresse that Satan ever played. . . . . L 
mean that by inducing kings and nations to conform nominally to Christianity, and thus 
to get into their hands the direction of Christian society, he has in a great measure suc 


Arnold. "36 


Arnould. 


ceeded in keeping out the peculiar principles of that society from any extended sphere 
of operation, and insuring the ascendency of his own.” He here expresses, in a some- 
what sportive and familiar manner, the great principle which he afterwards contended 
for with so much earnestness, that there should be a Christian laity, a Christian legis- 
lature, a Christian government; by which he did not mean a system of laws or govern 
ment formed in the manner of the Puritans, out of texts of Scripture, rashly applied, 
but imbued with the spirit of the New Testament, and of the teaching of Christ. ; 

It was at Laleham also that A. first became acquainted with Niebuhr’s History of 
Rome. This was an era in his life. It produced a revolution in his historical views, 
and his own History of Rome became modeled almost too faithfully on that of the great 
German. : ; 

From Laleham he was called to undertake the arduous duties of the head-mastership 
of Rugby school. On these he entered Aug., 1828. Our space does not permit us to 
dwell upon the details of that system of public education which he perhaps carried to its 
perfection. We can only take notice of the high tone, moral and religious, which he 
preserved amongst the boys. He had the tact to make himself both loved and feared. 
He guided with great dexterity the public opinion of the school. “ In the higher forms,” 
says his biographer, ‘‘any attempt at further proof of an assertion was immediately 
checked. ‘If you say so, that is quite enough; of course I believe your word;’ and there 
grew up in consequence a general feeling that it was a shame to tell A. a lie—he always 
believes one.” On one occasion, when he had been compelled to send away several boys, 
he said: ‘‘It is no¢ necessary that this should be a school of 800, or 100, or of 50 boys, but 
it 7s necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen.” 

But the school was very far from occupying the whole energies of A. The History 
of Rome went on; he took part in all the great questions of the day, political and 
theological. In politics he was a whig, without being fettered—as we need hardly say— 
by the ties of party. In the theological discussions of the day, he was chiefly dis- 
tinguished by the broad views he had adopted of the nature of a Christian church. Ag 
already intimated, it was his leading idea that a Christian peopie and a Christian chureh 
ought to be synonymous expressions. He would never tolerate that use of the word church 
which limited it to the clergy, or which implied in the clergy any peculiar sacredness, or 
any traces of mediatorial function. The priest was unknown to him in the Christian 
community; this placed him at once in antagonism to the high church party; and even 
clergymen of the low church complained that he did not set sufficient value on their 
sacred order. But all men, of whatever party, admitted and admired the zeal with which 
he taught that the full spirit of Christianity should permeate the whole of our civil or 
political life. If he seemed to lower the altitude of the clergy, it was only because he 
would raise the general level of the laity. He was convinced that ‘‘the founders of our 
present constitution in church and state did truly consider them to be identical, the 
Christian nation of England to be the church of England; the head of that nation to be, 
for that very reason, the head of the church.” It may be doubted whether this is quite 
historically correct; but it certainly presents a noble theory to the imagination. 

In domestic life, Dr. A. was most happy; here he was distinguished by unfailing 
cheerfulness and amiability. In 1832, he purchased Fox How, a small estate between 
Rydal and Ambleside, and it was in this charming retreat that he enjoyed in the vaca- 
tions, amongst the family circle, his own uninterrupted studies. Fox How has become 
a Classical spot to every tourist. 

For a brief time he held a place in the senate of the London university; he resigned 
the seat on finding that he could not introduce some measures which he had at heart, 
In the year 1842, he received from lord Melbourne the offer of the regius professorship 
of modern history at Oxford. This appointment he accepted with peculiar gratification. 
He delivered some introductory lectures, which were heard with enthusiastic interest; 
and it was his intention, on his retirement from Rugby, to enter with zeal upon the 
duties of his professorship. But this and all other literary enterprises were cut short by 
a sudden and most painful death. The last vacation was at hand, the journey to Fox 
How was to be taken in a few days, when he was seized with a fatal attack of spasm of 
the heart. Few biographies end more abruptly or more mournfully; but the sufferer met 
his death with perfect fortitude and the full hope of a Christian. He died June 12, 1842. 
His principal works are five volumes of sermons ; the History of Rome (8 vols.), broken off 
by his death at the end of the second Punic war ; and an edition of Thucydides. See Life 
and Correspondence of A,, by Rev. A, P. Stanley, M.a., dean of Westminster (1881). 


ARNOLD, THomAs, b. in 1823; bro. of Matthew, author of English Literature from 
Chaucer to Wordsworth, and joint editor, with the Rev. William Addis, of the Catholic 
Dictionary, 1884, He was at one time professor in Dublin University. 


ARNOLD, THomAs KERCHEVER, 1800-53; an English clergyman and author of books 
on the study of languages. In 1838 appeared the first of his elementary series for 
Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and several modern tongues, which was followed by school 
classics, all of which became popular in both England and the United States. 


ARNOTT, NEIL, M.D., was b. in 1788 at Arbroath, but his family home was Dysart, 
near Montrose, Scotland. He was educated at the grammar school of Aberdeen, and 
subsequently at Marischal college in the same city, where he had the advantage of study- 


ing natural philosophy under Prof. Copland, one of the most successful expounders 


187 Arnonta, 


of mechanical science then living. A. made choice of medicine as a profession ; and 
after going through the medical course at Aberdeen, he went to London in 1806, where 
be became the pupil of Sir Everard Home, surgeon of St. George’s hospital. After 
spending some years in the naval service of the East India company, he settled in 1811 as 
a medical practitioner in London. In addition to his extensive general practice, A. was 
appointed, in 1815, physician to the French embassy, and afterwards to the Spanish 
embassy. In 1836, Dr. A. was appointed a member of the senate of the university of 
London, then established by government. He was afterwards elected a fellow of the 
royal society, and then of the geological society. In 1837, he was named a physician 
extraordinary to the queen. 

In 1823-24, Dr. A. was induced to deliver a course of lectures on natural philosophy 
in its applications to medicine. The substance of these lectures formed the basis of his 
Elements of Physies, or Natural Philosophy, General and Medical, published in 1827. Of 
numerous new applications of physical science to medical practice, and to the alleviation 
of human suffering in general, invented by Dr, A., may be mentioned the water-bed (q.v.). 
But it is in connection with improvements in the warming and ventilating of houses 
that the name of Dr. A. is most extensively known. In 1888, he published a treatise on 
Warming and Ventilating; and in 1855, another On the Smokeless Fireplace, Chimney-valves, 
etc. The ‘‘ Arnott stove” and ‘‘ Arnott ventilator,” which, with characteristic philan- 
thropy and disinterestedness, Dr. A. refrained from patenting, are noticed under 
WARMING AND VENTILATION. In 1861, he published A Survey of Human Progress, full 
of interesting and enlightened views on improvement generally. In 1864, appeared Part 
1. of the long-promised revision of the Physics; this was followed by Part II., which con. 
tains the subjects of optics and astronomy for the first time, and also an interesting 
supplement entitled Arithmetic Simplified. A.’s last publication was a small work on 
national education. He d.in London Mar. 2, 1874. In the year 1859, he expressed a 
wish toafriend to make acontribution to Marischal college, Aberdeen, in aid of a course 
of lectures on natural philosophy, to be available to young men not regular students of 
the university. The union of the two Aberdeen colleges interfered with the project: 
and a few years later he gave £1000 to the ~nited university, to provide a scholar- 
ship in natural philosophy. This was followed by the same gift to each of the other 
three Scottish universities, and, for Aberdeen, a further gift of £500 to the mechanics’ 
institution. In London, Mrs. Arnott had already given £1000 to each of two colleges for 
young ladies, to constitute scholarships for natural philosophy.. In 1872, Dr. A. inti- 
mated through Dr, Lyon Playfair that he meant to repeat his gift to the Scottish univer- 
sities; but, in consequence of a fall, his faculties had been permanently impaired, and 
he was no longer capable of continued thought or decision. An attack of cold in 1858 
had permanently affected his hearing; but otherwise, his last years were characterized 
by his usual flow of spirits. 


ARNOT'TO, ARnaTro, ANNOTTA, ANNATTO, or Roucov, also known on the continent 
of Europe by the name of ORLEHAN, is a red coloring matter, which is obtained in South 
America and the West Indies from the reddish pulp surrounding the seeds of the Arnotto- 
tree (biva orellana) by washing, maceration, fermentation, and subsequent evaporation, 
It appears in commerce in cakes or balls of 2 to 4 lbs. weight, wrapped up in leaves, 
externally brown, internally of a pale blood-red or yellowish-red color, and which have 
a peculiar animal smell and an astringent taste. Pure A. seldom appears in the market. 
It is obtained by the mere rubbing off and drying of the red pulpy pellicle which covers 
the seed; but that which is thus obtained is very pure, and occurs in small round or 
angular lozenges. The Indians rub this coloring matter into the skin of their whole 
body, thus intending both to adorn themselves, and to obtain protection against the bites 
of mosquitoes. Amongst us, A. is used in medicine for coloring plasters, ointments, 
etc.; and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich color to cheese. It is 
also used in dyeing, although it does not produce a durable color. It is employed to 
impart an orange tint to simple yellows. It is an ingredient in some varnishes. It dis- 
solves in alkalies, producing a brown solution, from which it is precipitated yellow by 
acids. It imparts little color to water, but dissolves in alcohol; alum and sugar of lead 
throw down a brick-red precipitate from the alcoholic. solution. In South America, A. 
is very extensively mixed with chocolate, not only for the sake of the color, but also for 
the improvement of the flavor.—The genus diva belongs to the natural order flacour- 
tiaceze (q.v.), and is distinguished by complete flowers with simple stigma, a hispid calyx 
of five sepals, and a two-valved capsule. The A. shrubis a native of tropical America, 
but has been introduced into other warm countries. -It grows to the height of 7 or 8 ft., 
and has heart-shaped pointed leaves, and large flowers of a peach-blossom color, which 
grow in loose clusters at the extremities of the branches. The capsules are oblong, and 
contain 30 to 40 seeds enveloped in red pulp (the A.). The seeds are said to be cordial, 
astringent, and febrifugal. The roots are used in broth. They have the properties of 
A. in an inferior degree. 


ARNOULD, Sopuin, 1744-1803; a French opera singer. She was the daughter of a 
hotel-keeper; with a good education, fine voice, and attractive face and form, aided by 
natural wit, she gained the favor of Madame de Pompadour and other women of the 
court, and first appeared on the stage at the age of thirteen. She drew around her many 


Arnould 738 


Arpino. 


: : i d Helvétius, and had 
of the leading men of the time, even such as Rousseau, Diderot, an , 
a ETRE Tanel career for more than 20 years. One of her sons was a colonel, and was 


epee b. L ine, 1819; daughter of an actor. She 
: Y. JEANNE SYLVANIE, b. Lorraine, ; daughte an actor. 
aiaial Lhe pore si eppact ee ; made her debut at the Thédtre Frangais, 1884, soon 
after becoming an associate of the Comédie Francaise, of which she became a Pensionual ss 
abt. 1846, retiring, 1876. During her career she personated over 180 characters. She 
married, 1845, M. Arnould, a dramatic writer, who d. 1854. Pe i 
BERG, one-of the three departments of the Prussian province of Westphala 
ao venting an area of 2900 sq.m., and a pop. (1890) of 1,342,677. With the exception 
of the valley of the Lippe, the whole department belongs to the highlands of the lower 
Rhine. Only in a few of the valleys 1s there good arable soil ; on the other hand, there 
is a great deal of good timber, more than a third of the whole area consisting of forests. 
But the principal resources of the district are its subterranean riches, in coal, iren, lead, 
silver, etc. Its abundant water-power has also led to the establishment of numerous 
factories, mills, etc. ARNSBERG, the chief t. of the department, is situated on the Rhur, 
44 yn, s.e. from Munster; pop. 6733. It has several manufactures, such as linen, broad- 
cloth, potash, etc. In the orchard below the castle is still pointed out the spot where 


the famous Femgerichte (q.v.) of A. was held. 


ARN’STADT, the chief t. in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, is situated 
in a picturesque country on the banks of the Gera, 12 m. s. of Erfurt, and has a pop. (1895) 
of 13,595. It is one of the oldest Thuringian cities, its existence being traceable as far 
back as 704 4.p. Formerly it was the chief emporium for the trade in fruit and timber 
between the fertile lowlands and the Thuringian forest region, but isnow a manufactur- 
ing town, employing a very considerable number of hands in weaving, glove-making, 
brewing, pottery, etc. A rich vein of rock-salt has been recently discovered in the 
neighborhood of the t., and a new copper-minme opened. 


ARNS’'WALDE, or ARENSWALDE, a t. in the province of Brandenburg, 41> mise; 
{rom Stettin ; pop. about 7000. It is noted for the manufacture of linen and woolen goods, 
chemicals, and church bells. 


AR’/NULF, or ARNULPHUS, a king of Germany, great-grandson of Charlemagne. 
About 894 a.p., he captured Rome, where the Pope crowned him as emperor. He d. 
in 899, and his son succeeded him as Louis IY. 


A’ROLSEN, a t. in Waldeck, on the Aar, 12m. n. from Waldeck; pop. 1890, 2620. It 
has many works of art, and a fine library. Kaulbach, the painter, was born here. 


AROMA, a term sometimes employed to designate those substances the extremely mi- 
nute particles of which are supposed to affect the organ of smell so as to produce partic. 
ular odors, and frequently as synonymous with odor. The particles diffused throughs 
the atmosphere, and affecting the olfactory nerves—if the theory of particles of matter 
so diffused be correct—must indeed be extremely minute, as odoriferous substances such 
as musk, the smell of which is felt at a considerable distance, continue to diffuse their 
odor, and according to this theory, these particles, for years, without sensible diminu- 
tion of weight. See Noss, etc. The term A. is usually employed only with reference 
to particular kinds of odors, not easily defined or distinguished in words. ‘Thus, we 
speak of the A. of roast-meat, and of the A. or aromatic smell of hyssop, mint, and other 
plants. Aromatic smells are very characteristic of some natural orders of plants, as 
labiate (mint, etc.) and composite (milfoil, etc.). They have been very generally supposed 
to depend upon essential oils, but resins are often equally aromatic. 


AROMATICS constitute a class of medicines which owe their properties to the essen- 
tial oils, to benzoic and cinnamic acids, to volatile products of distillation, or to odorous 
glandular secretions. The plants that contribute to this class of medicines are those 
which yield essences, camphor, or odorous resins, and amongst the families which yield 
the most important aromatics are the labiate, umbelliferse, lauracese, myrtacese, auran- 
tiaceze, coniferse, scitaminesx, orchidee, etc. In some cases, the aromatic matter is 
diffused throughout all parts of the plant, but it is usually condensed in particular 
organs, such as the root, in the case of ginger and galanga; or the bark, in the case of 
cinnamon, canella, and cascarella; or the tlowers, as in the case of cloves; or the fruit, 
as in the case of anise and vanilla; or the wood, as in the case of sandal-wood and aloes- 
wood; or the leaves, as in the case of most of the labiatze, umbellifere, etc. 

A. may be arranged in the following sub-classes: (1) Those in which the active prin- 
ciple is an essential oil, as the oil of thyme, lavender, cajeput, neroli, fennel, etc. (2) 
Those containing camphor, or an allied body, such as artificial camphor obtained from 
turpentine. (8) Bitter aromatics, in which there is a mixture of a-bitter principle and 
an essential oil, as chamomile, tansy, wormwood, etc. These are tonics and verm1- 
fuges. (4) Those of which musk is the type, such as civet and amber; and certain plants 
with a musk-like odor, such as malwa moscata, mimulus moschatus, and hibiscus abelmos- 
chus. (5) Those containing a fragrant resin, as benzoin, myrrh, olibanum, storax, and 
the balsams of Peru and tolu, which possess stimulant properties. (6) Lastly, those 
which are artificially produced by destructive distillation, as tar, creosote, benzol, or 
the various empyreumatic oils. 


v4 39 Arnould. 


Arpino, 


As a general rule, these substances act as diffusible stimulants of more or less power, 
and as antispasmodics, while those in which a bitter principle is present act as vermi- 
fuges and tonics. The whole class were formerly regarded as possessing disinfectant 
and antiseptic properties, and there is no doubt that some, as coal-tar, creosote, etc., 
strongly possess this property. In this country we usually associate aromatics with 
Other medicines; but in France aromatic infusion, lotions, baths, etc., are much pre- 
scribed. It will suffice to give the composition of aromatic infusion as an illustration. 
Take equal parts of the leaves of sage, ordinary and lemon thyme, hyssop, origanum, 
wormwood, and mint. Infuse 50 parts of these leaves in 100 parts of boiling water. 


AROMATIC VINEGAR differs from ordinary vinegar (which is acetic acid diluted 
with water) in containing certain essential oils which impart an agreeable fragrance. It 
is generally prepared by adding the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary, and acorus 
calamus (and sometimes camphor) to crystallizable acetic acid, or by distilling the acetate 
of copper in an earthen retort and receiver, and treating the liquid which passes over 
with the fragrant oils mentioned above. <A. VY. is a very pleasant and powerful per- 
fume; it is very volatile, and when snuffed up by the nostrils is a powerful excitant, 
and hence is serviceable in fainting, languor, headache, and nervous debility. A. V. is 
generally placed on a sponge in a smelling-bottle or in a vinaigrette; it. can also be pur- 
chased as a liquid in vials; and a drop or two allowed to evaporate into a sick room 
overpowers, but does not destroy, any unpleasant odor. The liquid must, however, be 
cautiously dealt with, as it is a very corrosive substance. 


ARO’NA, a t. in Piedmont, on the w. shore of lake Maggiore, with a dockyard on 
the lake, gymnasium, hospital, and a number of churches, in one of which is an altar- 
piece by Gaudenzio Vinci; pop. 3448. The town has trade with Germany and Switzer- 
land. There is astatue here to count Carlo Borromeo, who was born in the now ruined 
castle in 1538, and canonized for piety and benevolence. It is of bronze and copper, 
110 ft. high, including the pedestal of 44 ft. It is hollow, and four persons can stand 
in the head, where they get an extensive view through the eyes. 


ARONIA. See CRAT@AGUS 


AROOS’TOOK, a river which, rising in the n. of Maine, falls into the St. John in New 
Brunswick, after a course of about 120m. It possesses an historical interest from its 
connection with the long-agitated question of then.e. boundary between British America 
and the United States. 


AROOS’TOOK, aco. in the extreme n.n.e. of Maine, bordering on British America; 
6700 sq.m.; pop. 790, 49,589. The surface is rough, and there are several mountain- 
peaks. The St. John river forms the eastern boundary, and is navigable for light 
vessels. There are also the Aroostook, the Mattawamkeag, and several smaller streams, 
with many lakes and ponds. Most of the region is still covered with primeval forests. 
Co. seat, Houlton. 


AROUVET. See Vourarre. 


ARPAD, the national hero of Hungary, was the son of Amos, the leader under whom 
the Magyars first gained a footing in Hungary. He was chosen duke on his father’s 
death in 889, and by a course of incessant and mostly successful warfare with the Bul- 
garians, Wallachians, Moravians, etc., extended the first conquests of the Magyars on 
all sides. He also made more than one successful incursion into Italy about 900, and 
returned laden with booty. He died in 907, leaving his son in possession of the supreme 
command. The A. dynasty became extinct in the male line with Andreas III. in 1301. 
A. yet lives in the popular songs of the country, and his history, even in the oldest 
chronicles, is mixed up with a deal of legendary matter. 

ARPAD. See ARAD. 

ARPEG’GIO, in music, a chord of which the notes are given, not contemporaneously, 
put in succession. From any one chord, several forms of A. may be produced. _Bass- 
chords thus treated form an Alberti bass, so named from Domenico Alberti (1780-1740), a 
popular singer and player, who often played the bass in this style. 


ARPENT is the-old French land-measure, corresponding to our acre. The name is 
from the ancient Gallic ardpennis, which was identified by Columella with the Roman 
actus, or half jugerum. Ordinarily an A. may be reckoned as five sixths of an acre; 


but the precise comparative value of the three most in use will be seen in the following 
table 


French hectares. 


Acre, English imperial or statute. ................++.0+- 0.40466 
Arpent, of Paris...) 20. nce es da see cence sc ee neces 0.32400 
i G'OPCOMNATICE ass cenit etal s ele in ate Wielelel sels! cine sca) 0.48400 
ie COMIMOD. So. oe eee eee i oa aereclo eas as ow. 0.40000 


ARPI'NO, the Arpinwm of the ancients, a t. of southern Italy, the birthplace of Cicero 
and Caius Marius, is situated in the province of Caserta, 65 m. n. by e. of Naples. It stands 
on the lower ridge of a lofty hill, some 6 m. to the left of the river Garigliano, the 
ancient Liris. The old t., in early Roman times, was built on the top of a steep rock, 
forming part of the territory of the Volscians. Many remains of the ancient structures 
are still to be seen, especially a cyclopean wall, which runs along the northern brow of 


Arqua. 740 


Arraignment. 


the hill occupied by the present t., and extending to the ancient citadel. About the 
year 188 B.c., the citizens received the freedom of the city of Rome, with all its privi- 
leges, and Arpinum, during the later years of the republic, was a flourishing municipal 


town. 

Manufactures of woolen cloth, parchment, paper, and leather are carried on. The t. 
has a charming appearance from the highly picturesque character of the surrounding 
woods and mountains. Iron, white marble, variegated red marble, and marble of a 
yellowish color, are got in mines and-quarries in the neighborhood. Population about 
12,000. 


AR QUA, a village in the province of Padua, Venice, 12 m. s.w. of Padua, in the 
heart of the Euganean hills. Pop. 1200. Petrarch’s furniture is still preserved in the 
house in which he died here (July 18, 1374), and his monument of red marble is to be 
seen in the churchyard. 


AR’ QUEBUS, or Har’QuEBUS, was the first form of hand-gun which could fairly be 
compared with the modern musket. Those of earlier date were fired by applying a 
match by hand to the touch-hole; but about the time of the battle of Morat, in 1476, 
guns were used having a contrivance suggested by the trigger of the arbalest or cross- 
bow, by which the burning match could be applied with more quickness and certainty. 
Such a gun was the A. Many of the yeomen of the guard were armed with this weapon, 
on the first formation of that corps in 1485. The A. being fired from the chest, with the 
butt in a right line with the barrel, it was difficult to bring the eye down low enough to 
take good aim; but the Germans soon introduced an improvement by giving a hooked 
‘form to the butt, which elevated the barrel; and the A. then obtained the name of the 
haquebut. Soldiers armed with these two kinds of weapon were designated arquebusiers 
and haquebutters—the former were common in the English army in the time of Richard 
III., the latter in that of Henry VIII. 


ARRACA'CHA, Arracacha esculenta, a plant of the natural order wmbellifere, a native 
of the elevated table-lands in the neighborhood of Santa Fé de Bogota and Caracas, and 
of regions of similar climate in other parts of tropical America. It is much cultivated 
in its native country for its roots, which are used as an esculent. The root divides 
into a number of parts, which resembles cows’ horns or large carrots. When boiled, 
they are firm and tender, with a flavor not so strong as that of a parsnip. The plant 
is very like hemlock, and has a similar heavy smell. Humboldt, indeed, referred it to 
the genus coniwm (hemlock), but it has since been made the type of a new genus. ‘The 
flowers are in compound umbels, and are of a dull purple color. The A. wasat one time 
very strongly recommended as a substitute for potatoes; it was introduced into Britain 
through the exertions of the horticultural society, and its cultivation perseveringly 
attempted; but it has been found unsuitable to the climate of Britain and of other parts 
ot Europe, where it has been tried, perishing on the approach of the frosts of winter 
without having perfected its roots. The dry weather of summer is also unfavorable to 
it. The climate of the s. of Ireland resembles that of its native regions more than any 
other in the British islands. It seems to require a very regular temperature and constant 
moisture. ‘There are probably some parts of the British colonies in which the A. would 
be found a very valuable plant. In deep loose soils, it yields a great produce. It is 
generally propagated, like skirret, by offshoots from the crown of the root. By rasp- 
ing the root and washing, a starch, similar to arrowroot, is obtained.—There is another 
species of the same genus, A. moschata, a native of the same regions, the root of which 
is uneatable, 


_ AR’RACK, Rack, or Rak, is the East Indian name for all sorts of distilled spirituous 
liquors, but chieflyfor that procured from toddy or the fermented juice of the cocoa and 
other palms, and from rice. The palms in other tropical countries furnish a fer- 
mented beverage similar to the toddy of India, and in a few instances also it is distilled, 
but arrack essentially belongs to India and the adjacent countries. The cocoa-nut palm 
(cocos nucifera) is a chief source of toddy or palm-wine, and is obtained from trees rang- 
ing from 12 to 16 years old, or in fact at the period when they begin to show the first 
indication of flowering. After the flowering shoot or spadix enveloped in its spathe ig 
pretty well advanced, and the latter is about to open, the toddy-man climbs the tree and 
cuts off the tip of the flower-shoot; he next ties a ligature around the stalk at the base 
of the spadix, and with a small cudgel he beats the flower-shoot and bruises it. This 
he does daily for a fortnight, and if the tree is in good condition, a considerable quantity 
of a saccharine juice flows from the cut apex of the tlower-shoot, and is caught in a pot 
fixed conveniently for the purpose, and emptied every day. It flows freely for fifteen or 
sixteen days, and less freely day by day for another month or more; a slice has to be 
removed from the top of the shoot very frequently. The juice rapidly ferments, and in 
four days is usually sour; previous to that it is a favorite drink known in India by the 
natives as callu, and to the Europeans as toddy. When turning sour, it is distilled and 
converted into A., known better to the Hindus by the name of naril, and by the Cinga- 
lese as pol or nawasi. A similar spirit is made pretty largely from the magnificent fan- 
leaved palm, borassus flabelliformis, and also from the so-called date-sugar palm, areuga 
succharifera. Large quantities of arrack are made from fermented rice prepared as 


A ° 
741 Arraignment, 


malt—both in India, Ceylon, and Batavia; in the last-mentioned place sugar and molasses . 
are also added to the rice. 

It is probable that the use of arrack is more widely diffused among the human race 
than the produce of the vine (wine and brandy) and of barley (whisky, beer). The date- 
palm of the Sahara, the oil-palm of west Africa, and the cocoa-nut palm of the Pacific 
islands are made to yield it. 

The unscientific method of preparing these alcoholic spirits renders them generally 
very distasteful to European taste, the process of rectification being rarely, if ever, 
employed. Some carefully prepared samples of great age, however, find favor, and are 
used in making punch and other drinks, not only in India and Java, but small quanti- 
ties also find their way to Britain, for the gratification of palates trained in India. 'The 
cocoa-nut tree is especially valuable for this industry, because it bears twelve times in the 
year after it once begins, and cont:nues to do so for as much as 40 years. It is the rule, 
therefore, to prevent undue exhaustion of so valuable a tree, to discontinue the collec- 
tion of juice at intervals, and allow the natural process of fruit-bearing to go on: in this 
way it is usual to divide the year between the two crops. Of late years a considerablé 
amount of rum has been produced in the East Indies from the sugar-cane, and the molas- 
ses yielded by it. This is often called arrack by the natives, and leads to errors as to the 
statistics of the latter material. 'The word saki, used by the Japanese for rice spirit, 
seems only an alteration of raki or arrack. An imitation A. is prepared by dissolving 
benzoic acid in rum, in the proportion of 20 grains of the former to 2 lbs. of the latter. 


AR’RAGONITE, a mineral essentially consisting of carbonate of lime, and so agreeing 
in chemical composition with calcareous spar (q.v), but differing from it 1n the form of 
its crystals, of which the primary form is a rhombic prism with angles of 116° 16’ and 
63° 44’, the secondary forms being generally prismatic and pyramidal. The effect of 
heat on them shows another difference, A. being reduced to powder by a heat in which 
calcareous spar remains unchanged. Such differences between minerals of the same 
chemical composition appeared very improbable, and when Stromeyer, in 1813, detected 
the presence of a little carbonate of strontia in A., they were immediately ascribed to 
this as their cause; but it has since been shown not only that the quantity of strontia is 
very small, variable, and therefore to be regarded as accidental, but also that the differ- 
ences between the two minerals may be accounted for by difference of temperature when 
crystallization was taking place. A. appears to be the product of acrystallization taking 
place at a higher temperature than that in which calcareous spar is produced; and accord- 
ingly it is frequent in volcanic districts and in the neighborhood of hot springs, as at 
Carlsbad, It is frequentiy found in trap-rocks, as in Scotland. It derivesits name from 
the province of Aragon in Spain. It sometimes occurs stalactitic. Its crystals are some- 
times prisms shortened into tables, sometimes they are lengthened into needles. Twin 
crystals (macles) are very common. Satin spar is a variety of it, in which the crystals are 
of a fine fibrous silky appearance, and combined together into a compact mass. J?los 
Jerri (i.e., flower of iron) is a name given toa coralloidal variety which sometimes occurs 
in iron mines. 


AR’RAH, a t. in the district of Shahabad and the presidency of Bengal, in lat. 25° 31’ 
n., and long. 84° 43’ e. It is situated in a fertile country, and contains, according to the 
eensus of 791, a pop. of 47,000. It is on the route between Dinapore and Ghazeepore, 
25 m. w. of the former, and 75 e. of the latter. During the mutiny of 1857, A. became 
in variety and intensity of interest second only to Cawnpore, Deihi, and Lucknow, con- 
nected as it was with a heroic defense, a heavy disaster, and a brilliant victory. The 
defense was that of an isolated house, for eight days, against 3000 Sepoys, with 2 field- 
pieces, the garrison consisting of less than 20 whites, all civilians, and 50 Sikhs, whose 
fidelity perhaps was doubtful till proved by trial. The disaster was the nocturnal sur- 
pie in the jungle of a detachment almost entirely European, sent to the relief of the 

eleaguered dwelling—the loss having been 290 out of 415. The victory was won by a 
force of 172 men, 12 of them mounted volunteers, and 3 guns, over a host numbering 
nearly 20 to 1. In fact, A., happily with the exception of the cold-blooded massacre of 
women and children, presented, in miniature, nearly all the phases of the most formida- 
ble and eventful insurrection on record. For a detailed account of these events, see 
Chambers’s History of the Indian Revolt. 


ARRAIGNMENT, in the practice of the criminal law in America, means calling a pris- 
oner by his name to the bar of the court to answer the matter charged upon him in the in- 
dictment. And having the presumption of innocence in his favor, it is the law, and so laid 
down in the most ancient books, that, though charged upon an indictment of the highest 
nature, he is entitled to stand at the bar in the form and in the garb of a freeman, without 
irons or any manner of shackles or bonds, unless there be evident danger of his escape, 
or of violence at his hands. When arraigned on the charge of treason or felony, the pris- 
oner is called upon by name to hold up his hand, by which he is held to confess his iden- 
tity with the person charged. This form, however, is not an essential part of the pro- 
ceedings at the trial, and it is sufficient for the prisoner, when arraigned, to confess his 
identity by verbal admission or otherwise. When thus duly arraigned, the indictment 
is distinctly read over to the accused in the English tongue, and he then either confesses 
the fact—that is, admits his guilt—or he puts himself upon his trial by a plea of not 


Arran, 742 


Arrest, 


guilty. Formerly, one of the incidents of the A. was the prisoner standing mute, as it 
was called—that is, refraining from, or refusing, a direct answer to the indictment; in 
which case the court proceeded to inquire whether the silence was of malice on the part 
of the prisoner, or was produced by the visitation of God, and to deal with him accord: 


ee areding to Sir Matthew Hale, the term A. is derived from arraisoner, ad rationem 

mere, to call to account or answer, which in ancient French law would be ad-resoner, 
or, abbreviated, a-resner. See TRIAL, INDICTMENT, INFORMATION, PROSECUTION, PLEA, 
VERDICT, NOT PROVEN. 


ARRAN, an island in the mouth of the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, about 5 m. s.w. of 
Bute, 13 w. of Ayrshire, and 4 e. of Cantire, from which it is separated by Kilbrennan 
sound. It is of an oval form, about 20 m. long and 12 broad; area, 165 sq.m., about 
15,000 acres, or a seventh part, being cultivated. Pop. ’91, 4824. The general aspect 
of A. is mountainous and heathy, and in the n., the jagged peaks are singularly grand. 
Around the coast is a low belt of ground, with lofty cliffs on the s. and s.w., from which 
the country rises abruptly. The highest point is Goatfell (in Gaelic named Gaoth Bheinn 
or Beinn Ghaoith, ‘‘Wind mountain’), an obtuse pyramid, 2865 ft. high, and a promi- 
nent feature of the island. From its sides slope the romantic glens of Rosa and Sannox, 
and at its base to the s.e. opens Brodick bay, at the head of which lay, until lately, Bro- 
dick village. ‘The houses which composed it have now been removed, and a new village 
has sprung up on the opposite side of the bay, called Invercloy, where there is a spacious 
hotel. To thes. of this, round a bluff headland, is Lamlash bay, the chief harbor of 
A., and the best on the Firth of Clyde, sheltered by Holy Island, once the seat of a 
monastery. A picturesque mass of columnar basalt, 900 or 1000 ft. high, succeeds. 
Further s. lies Whiting bay, near which are two cascades 100 and 50 ft. high respec- 
tively. At the s.e. point of A. is Kildonan Castle, opposite which is the small isle of 
Pladda, crowned by a light-house. Large caverns occur in the cliffs of the s. and s.w. 
coasts. In one of these, the ‘‘ king’s cave,” in the basaltic promontory of Druimodune, 
Robert the Bruce hid himself for some time. Shiskan vale, opening into Druimodune 
bay, is the most fertile part of A. Loch Ranza, a bay in the n. end of A., runs a mile 
inland, and is a herring-fishing rendezvous. There is daily communication with A. 
Jar a of steamboats from the Clyde, the ports touched at being Brodick, Lamlash, 
and Corrie. 

The geology of A. is almost unique, and displays a greater succession of strata than 
any other part of the British isles of equal extent. The s.e. half of A. consists of Devo- 
nian sandstone, extending from the e. coast 4 or 5 m.inland, and running s.w. from 
Brodick beyond the center of the island; and of trap-rocks and carboniferous strata, 
which occupy the middle and western portions. The n.w. half consists of a central 
granite nucleus, including Goatfell, bordered on the w. by a tract of mica-slate, and on 
the n., e., and s. by lower silurian rocks, which, again, have a run of devonian sand- 
stone on the e. and south. Lias and oolite lie on the mica-slate. There are only rivu- 
lets in A., and one of them tumbles over a precipice 300 ft. high. Some level parts in 
the s. half of A. are fertile. The chief crops are oats and potatoes. Cattle, sheep, fish, 
and oats are exported. The greater part of A. belongs to the duke of Hamilton, whose 
seat is Brodick Castle. A. forms part of the county of Bute, and contains two parishes. 
Many antiquities occur, such as cairns, unhewn obelisks, monumental stones, and Druid- 
ical circles. Several stone coffins were found ina cairn 200 ft. in circumference. Loch 
Ranza castle, now in ruins, was once a residence of the Scots kings. See Landsborough’s 
Arran, ete. (1875). 


ARRAN, SoutH Istes or. These are three small islands lying n.e. and s.w. across 
the entrance to Galway bay, about 4 m. off the w. coast of Ireland, and 27 w. of Galway 
city. They form the barony of A., and give the title of earl to the Gore family. Total 
area, 11,287 acres. The principal or w. island, Inishmore, is 7m. long and 2 broad; 
Inishmaan, or ‘‘ Middle isle,?* comes next; and then Inishere to the southeast. They 
have a small population, two-thirds of which inhabit Inishmore. The islands consist of 
the carboniferous limestone of the bed of Galway bay, and rise to the height of 100 to 
200 ft. on the w. side, ending in cliffs facing the Atlantic. The soil is exceedingly sandy, 
but most of the land is rudely cultivated. The chief crops are rye, oats, and potatoes. 
Most of the inhabitants engage in fishing, but a good many depend on kelp-burning. 
They are subject to famines from parching rainless west winds in August destroying the 
potato-crop. These islands contained at one time 20 churches and monasteries. Inish- 
more was the center of these, still known as Aran-na-naomh, or ‘‘ Arran of the Saints.’’ 
Many pilgrims still visit the old shrines and relics scattered through the islands. St. 
Kenanach church, built in the 7th ¢., still exists, all but its stone roof, as well as the 
stone oratories and little beehive stone huts of the monks of the 6th and 7th centuries. 
There are nine circular cyclopean fortresses of unhewn uncemented stones (portions of 
the walls still being 20 ft. high), supposed to have been built in the 1st ec. by the Fir-Bolg 
or Belge. The largest of these, Dun-Aengus, on a cliff in Inishmore, 220 ft. high, is 
one of the most magnificent barbaric monuments in Europe. 


fod “ 
(48 pale 


ARRANGING, a term in music which means the adapting of a piece of music so aa 
to be performed on an instrument or instruments different from those for which it was 
originally composed, as when orchestral or vocal compositions are set for the piano- 
forte, or the reverse. An arrangement is often a mere lifeless transposition of the 
original, the only guiding principle being the mechanical possibility of performance. 
Of this kind are most of the piano-forte arrangements of the orchestral works of Mozart, 
Beethoven, etc.—partly from the arranger working merely for hire, and partly from a 
mistaken reverence for, and fear of altering, the original. It is different when an 
arranger, who thoroughly comprehends the spirit of the original, takes advantage of the 
peculiar means of expression afforded by the new form of presentation, to reproduce as 
much as possible the original effects. In this last respect, the arrangements of Franz 
Liszt have excelled all others, although in some cases he may have overstepped the boun- 
dary of propriety. See Pot-pourri and FANTASIA. 


ARRAS (the ancient Nemetacum), a fortified t. and capital of the department of 
Pas-de-Calais, as it was formerly of the province of Artois, in France. It is situated on 
the banks of the Scarpe, partly on an eminence, and partly on a plain, and consists of 
four divisions—the city, upper town, lower town, and citadel. It is a principal sta- 
tion on the French Northern railway, distant from Paris by this route 134 m., and from 
Brussels, 97. The pop. in 1891 was 20,100. The houses are of hewn stone, and in the 
lower town they are handsomely built and uniform; the streets straight and wide, set 
off with several fine squares and many beautiful public buildings. Among the principal 
edifices are the cathedral of Notre Dame, the residence of the prefect, the town-hall, the 
thester, and the public library. 

A. ranks as a fortified town of the third class, its fortifications being the first that 
were constructed by the celebrated Vauban, according to his own system. It has been 
the seat of a bishop since 390 A.p., and two ecclesiastical councils have been held here 
—one in 1025, the other in 1490. 

The corn market of A. is the most important in the n. of France. Its principal manu- 
factures are beet sugar, agricultural implements, hosiery, lace, pottery, and leather. Its 
trade, which is considerable, is in corn and flour, oil, wine, and brandy, with the indus- 
trial products of the city. 

It appears from the writings of Jerome that A. was remarkable for its woolen manu- 
factures in his time; and afterwards, during the middle ages, it was famed for its tapes- 
try; indeed, the name of the town was transferred to this article of manufacture, and 
arras was the name given in England to the richly-figured hangings that adorned the 
halls of the kings and the barons. , 

In 1482, A. with Artois was ceded by the states cf the Netherlands to Louis XI. of 
France; but the inhabitants having revolted, the king laid siege to the town, stormed it, 
and slew or expelled the people, whom he replaced by others brought from all parts of 
his dominions, ordering the city to be thenceforward called Franchise, to obliterate the 
very name of A. Soon afterwards (1498) it was ceded to Maximilian of Austria, and 
was possessed by the Spanish branch of the house of Hapsburg till 1640, when Louis 
XIII. of France took it after a long siege. By the treaty of the Pyrenees, it was finally 
ceded to France. A. suffered much in the time of the first French revolution, especially 
in the year 1798. Robespierre, the terrorist, was a native of the town. 


ARRAS, hangings for rooms covered with a pattern like wall paper. It derived 
its name from the fact that it was woven chiefly in the French town of Arras 


(q.v.). 


AR’RAWAKS, or LoxKono, a native tribe, once powerful, in Dutch Guiana, but of 
peaceful character and friendly with whites. Nearly 200 years ago a Roman Catholic 
missionary undertook to civilize them, mastered their language, and gave them printed 
works. The family was the foundation of such government as they had, and descent 
followed the female line. 


ARRAYER, a title given to certain inilitary officers in England in the early part of 
the 15th century, ‘There were two of them in each co., sometimes called commissaries of 
musters. Their duties were set forth in an ordinance of Henry Y., from the terms of 
which it appears that the arrayers were army inspectors, or, rather, militia inspectors, 
and in some sense precursors to the modern lord-lieutenant of counties. 


ARREST is a legal term used both in criminal and civil process. Criminal A. has 
already been sufficiently considered under the word APPREHEND (q.v.); and in civil pro- 
cedure it may be simply defined to be the execution of a judicial or prerogative order, by 
which the liberty of the person may be restrained, and obedience to the law compelled. 
In the practice of the court of chancery, a defendant may be arrested for his contempt 
in not putting in his answer to a bill filed against him; and persons in all the superior 
courts may be arrested or attached for contempt. But in its ordinary legal acceptation, 
A. is used to signify the enforcement of the judgment or order of a court of law, in order 
to satisfy justice. In the execution of such judgment, the party against whom it has been 
given may be arrested by means of a writ of capias ad satisfaciendum, or a ca. sa., the 
gt i of which is to imprison the body of the debtor till he pays the debt or damages 
and costs, 


Arrest. 
Arrow-root. 


744 


¢ 


In the United States the laws of arrest are nearly the same as in England. Any in- 
dividual present at the commission of a felony, or who knows that another has 
committed a felony, can arrest the offender without a warrant and take him 
before a magistrate. In civil matters an A. must be made by an authorized officer, 
usually a sheriff, or his deputy, or a constable ; or in cases in federal court by a marshal ; 
in legislative bodies by a sergeant-at-arms. Certain persons and classes are exempt from 
civil A., either generally or in special relations indicated ; such as ambassadors and their 
assistants, attorneys duly acting for their clients, voters attending election, insolvent 
debtors legally discharged, legislators attending the bodies of which they are members, 
militia while doing military duty, parties to a suit while attending court, witnesses in 
such cases, women in certain cases, and, in some states, persons giving bail for others, 
and clergymen while performing service. Civil A. is unlawful on Sunday or on public 
holidays, or in presence of a court, or in the defendant’s residence. Since the very gen- 
eral abandonment of imprisonment for debt, civil A. has become rare, but is resorted to 
in case of apprehended frauds, such as concealing property, or absconding, and in certain 
actions brought for wilful injury to person, character or property, etc. For crime, any 
person is liable to A. except ambassadors and their official assistants ; and any necessary 
force, even to killing, may be used to accomplish the A.; but it is murder to kill the per- 
son who is trying to effect the A. 


ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in the practice of the English common law courts, was an 
expedient after verdict on the part of an unsuccessful defendant, who endeavored to get 
the judgment arrested or withheld, on the ground that there was some error which 
vitiated the proceedings; and if this objection succeeded, it was fatal, no amendment 
being allowed after trial. But as this rule was found to be productive of great incon- 
venience, expense, and often injustice, it has been considerably modified by the common 
law procedure act of 1852. Where a plaintiff is not entitled to a verdict a motion for A. 
of J. is usual; or if no such motion be made, the court may produce the same effect by 
suspending its own decision. Under A. of J., all the proceedings are set aside, and 
acquittal is granted ; but this does not bar a new indictment. 


AR’RHENATHE’RUM, a genus of grasses, allied to holcus (see Sorr GRass) and avena 
(see Oat), and distinguished by alax panicle, 2-flowered spikelets with two glumes, the 
lower floret having stamens only, and a long twisted awn above the base; the upper 
floret perfect, with a short straight bristle below the point.—The name A. is from the 
Greek arrhen, male, and ather, an awn. A. avenaceum (avena elatior of Linneeus, also 
known as holeus avenaceus) is a common grass in Britain. It is sometimes called Oat- 
LIKE Grass, from the resemblance to the coarser kinds of oats in the general appearance 
of the panicle. In France it is very much cultivated for fodder, and is often called 
Frencu Ryz-erass. It has, however, ne affinity to the true rye-grass (loliwm). 

ARRHIDZE'US, Puinip, a son of the father of Alexander the Great by a dancing 
girl of Larissa. He was at Babylon when Alexander d., 323 3.c., and though almost 
imbecile was elected king, under the name of Philip, with the understanding that a 
child (then unborn) of Alexander was to be associated with him in the government. 
The next year Arrhideus married Eurydice, who thereafter had complete control over 
him. Two years later he and his wife were captured by Polysperchon, the leader of the 
cause of Alexander’s son mentioned above, and both were put to death by the order of 
Olympias, the grandmother of the young king. They were afterwards honored with 
decent burial, and funeral games were celebrated as memorials of them. 


AR 'RIA, the wife of Cecina Petus, who, for treason to the emperor Claudius, was 
ordered to end his own life by suicide. When A.’s husband hesitated, she seized the 
dagger, drove it to the hilt into her own breast, and then handed it to him, saying 
calmly, ‘‘Peetus, it does not pain me.” She fell dead, and the husband at once dis- 
patched himself with the reeking weapon. 


ARRIA'NUS, Fiavivs, a native of Nicomedia, in Bithynia, b. about 100 a.p. He 
became a disciple of Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher, and, under his instructions, a warm 
advocate of that system. On bringing before the public the earliest products of his pen, 
the learned men of Athens were highly pleased with them, and honored him with the 
freedom of their city. A. had chosen Xenophon as his model of composition, and hence 
the Athenians called him the young Xenophon. In 124 a.p., he was introduced to the 
emperor Hadrian in Greece, who conferred on him the freedom of the eternal city. He 
was appointed prefect of Cappadocia in the year 186. Under Antoninus Pius, the suc- 
cessor of Hadrian, he was promoted to the consulship. But some four years afterwards, 
he appears to have retired from public life, and devoted himself to literature in his 
native place. As the pupil and friend of Epictetus, he edited the manual of ethics 
(Lncheiridion) left by his master, and wrote the Lectures of Epictetus, in 8 books, of 
which only 4 have been preserved—to be had in Schweighiiuser’s Philosophie Hpictetes 
Monumenta, vol. iii. (Paris, 1827). He wrote also The Conversations of Hpictetus, a work 
which has been lost, except a few fragments. The most important work by A. is the 
Anabasis of Alexander, or History of the Campaigns of Alexander the Great, which has 
come down to us entire, all but a gap in the 12th chapter of the 7th book. This book ig 
our chief authority on the subject of which it treats, and isa work of great value. In 
close connection with it, A. wrote his Indian History, viving an account of the people of 
India. Other writings by A., his letter to Hadrian on A Voyage round the Coasts of the 
Huxine Sea, and another, A Voyage round the Coasts of the Red Sea, are valuable with 


745 Arrowsreok 


regard to ancient geography. There is still anothe. work by our author—a treatise on 
the chase (Kynegeticos)—in which, as well as in the Anabasis, he has imitated Xenophon. 

A. was one of the best writers of his day. His works bear the marks of care, hon- 
esty, and correctness; and they were numerous, though several have not been handed. 
down to our time. All that we are possessed of appear to have had translations into Latin. 
There isa good French translation of the Anabasis by Chaussard, with commentary, 3 
vols. (1802), and also a good one of the Lectures of Epictetus by Thurot (1838). The best 
critical edition of A. is that by Miller (Paris, 1846). 


ARRO’'BA, a weight commonly used in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and in the principal 
Spanish and Portuguese colonies. In the first of these countries, it is equivalent to the 
English quarter of a cwt., or 28 Ibs.; it is nearly the same in Portugal, etc. In Spain, 
the A. is also a measure for wine, brandy, etc., and contains four of our quarts. 

ARRONDISSEMENT (from the French arrondir, to make round), the subdivision of 9 
French department (q.V.). 

ARROW. See ARBALEST; ARCHERY. 


ARROWHEAD, Sagittaria, a genus of plants of the natural order alismacea, distin- 
guished by unisexual flowers, having three herbaceous sepals and three colored petals, 
numerous stamens, and numerous carpels, which are compressed, one-seeded, and on a 
globose receptacle. They are aquatic plants, natives of very different climates, from 
the tropics to the coldregions of the world.—The Common A. (S. variabilis) is a beau- 
tiful aquatic, a native of America, with arrow-shaped leaves which rise above the surface 
of the water It is one of those plants which have enjoyed an undeserved reputation as 
cures for hydrophobia. The corms (or solid bulbs), dried and powdered, have some- 
times been used for food, but have an acrid unpleasant taste.—The CHINESE A. (8. 
sinensis) is a native of China, and has long been cultivated in that country and Japan for 
its eatable corms, which, in a fresh state, are somewhat acrid, but abound in starch. It 
has arrow-shaped acute leaves, and a branched polygonal scape (leafless stem). It is 
grown in ditches and ponds. 

ARROW-HEADED CHARACTERS, See CUNEIFORM. 

ARROW-HEADS. See E_r-ARROW-HEADS. 

ARROW-ROOT is a variety of starch extracted from the roots of certain plants grow- 
ing in tropical countries. It is a fine starchy farina, much valued as a delicacy, and as 
an easily digestible food for children and invalids. It is obtained from the tuberous 
roots—or more correctly, the root-stocks (rhizomes)—of different species of the genus 
maranta, belonging to the natural order marantacee, and characterized by solitary 
ovules, a fleshy style curved downwards, branching stems, and white flowers. The 
species chiefly yielding it is M. arundenacea, a native of tropical America, cultivated in 
the West India islands, and growing about 2 ft. high, with ovato-lanceolate some- 
what hairy leaves, clusters of small flowers on 2-flowered stalks, and globular fruit about 
the size of currants. The roots (or rhizomes) contain a large proportion of farina. 
They are often more than a foot long, of the thickness of a finger, jointed, and almost 
white, covered with pretty large paper-like scales. ‘They sometimes curve so that the 
points rise out of the earth, and form new plants. They are dug up when a year old, 
washed, carefully peeled, and reduced to a milky pulp. Millis for this purpose have 
been introduced, but in Jamaica the roots are usually reduced by beating in deep 
wooden mortars; in Bermuda by means of a wheel-rasp. The pulp is then mixed with 
much water, cleared of fibers, by means of a sieve cf coarse cloth or hair, and the starch 
is allowed to settle to the bottom. The water dissolves, and so removes the greater part 
of the albumen and salts, the starch quickly settling down as an insoluble powder. 
Successive washings are employed for further purification. The A. is finally dried in 
the sun or in drying-houses, great care being taken, by means of gauze, to exclude dust 
and insects. The careful peciing of the roots is of great importance, as the skin contains 
a resinous matter, which imparts a disagreeable flavor to A. with which it is allowed to 
mix. Great care is taken to preserve the A. from impurities; and the knives used in 
peeling the roots, and the shovels used in lifting the A., are made of German silver. 
The West Indian A., most esteemed in the market, is grown in Bermuda; the next, and 
almost equal to it, in Jamaica. The East Indian A. is not in general so highly valued, 
perhaps because substitutes for the genuine A. more frequently receive that name. The 
maranta arundinacea is now, however, cultivated to some extent both in the East 
Indies and in Africa. M. indica, which was supposed to be distinct from MZ. arundinacea, 
is now regarded as a mere variety of it, with perfectly smooth leaves. It is cultivated 
both in the East Indies and in Jamaica. A. is obtained also from JM. allouyia and MM. 
nobilis in the West Indies, and from J. ramosissima in the East. 

The amount of fecula or starch present in the roots of the maranta varies according to 
age, and runs from 8 per cent, in those of the young plant, to 26 per cent when full 
grown. The latter stage is reached when the plant is 10 to 12 months old; and the roots 
then present the following composition in 100 parts: 


ammenne FOP Ole 3 OF -AXTOW TOO sx fas ise 4 ESSAY chia NLR a Re oe 26 
WURROODAIL I 2)5).)4.0. Di). 10 2 ad dala healy Sitges USO teeies lst y tdtodldve 6 
eRe ess 25122 Oe DUs DORE .. 14 
Cie eiract, volatile oil, and Salts... x cnc esos so scs ver sd cme esters 1 


We ALOR: os as ces veo one ost ee or ere eee eo ero ree ® Loewe eres ee se eee eee 654 


Arrowsmith, v 
Arsenals. ( 46 


A. is exported in tin cases, barrels, or boxes, carefully closed up. It isa light, opaque, 
white powder, which, when rubbed between the fingers, produces a slight crackling 
noise, like that heard when newly fallen snow is being made into a snow-ball. Through 
the microscope, the particles are seen to be convex, more or less elliptical, sometimes 
obscurely triangular, and not very different in size. The dry farina is quite inodorous, 
but when dissolved in boiling water it has a slight peculiar smell, and swells up into 
a very perfect jelly. Potato-starch, with which it is often adulterated, may be distin- 
guished by the greater size of its particles, their coarser and more distinct rings, and their 
more glistening appearance. Refined sago-flour is used for adulteration, many of the 
particles of which have a truncated extremity, and their surface is irregular or tuber- 
culated. A. is also sometimes adulterated with rice-starch and with the common starch 
of wheat-flour. Me D 

Not less than 800,000 Ibs. of A. are annually imported into the British isles. As an 
article of diet, it is often prepared for invalids and children by merely dissolving it in 
voiling-water and flavoring with sugar, lemon-juice, wine, etc. It is also often prepared 
with milk, made into puddings, etc. When most simply prepared, it forms a light meal, 
which, however, is not very nutritious. See NUTRITION. 

A farina somewhat similar to A., and partly known by the distinct name of touws-les- 
mois, is obtained from some species of the allied genus canna (q.v.). But East Indian A. 
is in part obtained from the tubers of curewma angustifolia. Other species of curcuma 
(see TURMERIC), as C. zerumbet, C. leucorhiza, and C. rubescens, also yield a similar farina; 
the same tubers which, when young, yield a beautiful and pure starch, yielding turmeric 
when old. In Travancore, this starch is a principal part of the food of the inhabitants. 
The young tubers of the galangale (q.v.), (alpina galanga), another plant of the same 
natural order (scitaminee), are another source of this farina.—A farina somewhat resem- 
bling A., and often sold under that name, is obtained from different species of the 
natural order cycadacew, as from the dwarf fleshy trunks of zamia tenuis, Z. furfuracea, 
and Z. pumila in the West Indies, and from the large seeds of dion edule in the lowlands 
of Mexico.—The starch of the cassava, manihot or manioc (see MANTIOC), is sometimes 
imported into Europe under the name of Brazilian A. Potato-starch, carefully prepared, 
is sometimes sold as English A.; and the farina obtained from the roots of the aruwm 
maculatum (see ARUM), as Portland A, Otaheite A. is the starch of tacca (q.v.) pinnati- 
jida.—All these, as well as Oswego and Chicago corn-flour—the starch of maize or 
Indian corn—are so nearly allied to true A. as not to be certainly distinguishable by 
chemical tests; but the forms of the granules differ, so that they can be distinguished by 
the microscope. 

The name A. is commonly said to have had its origin from the use of the fresh 
roots by the South American Indians as an application to wounds to counteract the effects 
of poisoned arrows; and the expressed juice has been recently recommended as an anti- 
dote to poisons, and a cure for the stings and bites of venomous insects and reptiles. 
But it is not improbable that the name is really another form of ara, the Indian name . 


ARROWSMITH, the name of a family of English geographers. AARoN, b. about 
1750, in Durham, earned fame by his large chart of the world on Mercator’s projection, 
and another on the globular projection. He d. in 1823, leaving two sons, AARON and 
SAMUEL; the former compiled the Hion Comparative Atlas, a biblical atlas, and geograph- 
ical manuals. John A., nephew of the elder Aaron, published his London Atlas in 
1834, following it with many other elaborate works in cartography. He was one of the 
founders of the royal geographical society. He d. May 2, 1878. 


ARROY'0 MOLINOS, a village in. Estremadura, Spain, noted as the scene of gen. 
Girard’s complete discomfiture by lord Hill on the 28th Oct., 1811. Gen. Girard 
had been sent out by Soult on a plundering foray with 5000 men, when he was sur- 
prised early in the morning by lord Hill, who had slept a league off at Alcuescar; the 
natives of which had the good sense not to betray the presence of their deliverers. With 
x couple of regiments, the 71st and 92d, the English general dashed through the rain 
upon the enemy, who fled in all directions, leaving behind everything, arms, packs, etc. 
1300 prisoners were taken; the whole artillery, colors, baggage, etc. French historians 
(Thiers, etc.), however, maintain that the battle was ‘‘ undecided,” and that their coun- 
trymen only retreated in good order, under the pressure of much larger forces. 


ARRU’ ISLANDS, a Dutch possession, s. of New Guinea, between 5° and 7° s. lat., and 
154° and 185° e. long.; area, 3000 sq. m.; pop. about 25,000, including a small number of 
Christians and Mohammedans. The natives, who are fetich-worshippers, approach the 
Papuan type, and the islands are thought to have formed originally a part of New 
Guinea. Sago and cocoanut palms are plentiful, and some tobacco, rice, sugar-cane, 
maize, and edible roots, etc., are cultivated. The forests yield timber, and the sea fish. 
"he rocks give edible nests, and the woods shelter wild swine, hares, parrots, pigeons, 
birds of paradise, ete. Cotton goods, iron and copper wares, Chinese pottery, beads, 
knives, rum, and arrack are imported, and bartered for mother-of-pearl, trepang, edible 
nests, pearls, tortoise-shell, birds of paradise, ete. 


ARSA’CES, a name common to several Parthian and Armenian kings. The accounts 
concerning them which have been transmitted to us by the ancient historians are exceed- 
ingly vague, confused, and contradictory; and modern criticism has found itself unable 


loi Arrowsniit 
( 47 Arsenals Les 


to reconcile or simplify the conflicting statements. The most important members of the 
dynasty of the Scythian Arsacide were A. I. and A.VI. 

ARSACcEs I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy, flourished in the 3d c. B.c., under 
the reign of Antiochus-Theus. An atrocious insult offered to his brother Tiridates by 
Pherecles or Agathocles, Macedonian satrap of the country, is said to have fired his 
spirit, and driven him to rebel. The Macedonians were expelled, 256 B.c. Antiochus, 
embroiled in a war with Egypt, could not immediately find time to attempt the recovery 
of this portion of his dominions. Seleucus, the son of Antiochus, made two unsuccess- 
ful expeditions against the insurgent chief, in the last of which he was taken prisoner, 
A. I. now acquired regal power, built a city called Dara, on the mountain Zapaortenon, 
developed the internal resources of his new kingdom, and endeavored to organize it; and, 
after the conquest of several countries, d. at a great age. Such, at least, is the account 
given by Posidonius, etc.; but Arrian states that A. d. after a reign of two years, and 
that his brother Tiridates succeeded him, under the name of A. II., and ruled for thirty- 
seven years, whence we may conclude that many of the acts attributed to the founder 
of the Parthian kingdom were the work of his successor. 

Arsacss VI., or Mrrmripates I., flourished about the middle of the 2dc. B.c. He 
enlarged the territories of the Parthians by the conquest of Bactria; and is even supposed 
to have penetrated into India, and subdued the nations between the Hydaspus and Indus. 
In the year 138 B.c., he defeated and took prisoner Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria, 
whom, however, he treated generously, bestowing on him his daughter in marriage. He 
was a just and merciful prince, and an enemy to luxury. 


ARSAMASS’, or ARZAMAS, at. in Russia, at the confluence of the Arsha and Teska, 
affluents of the Volga; pop. about 10,400. It is a manufacturing place, and has annual 
fairs. A. contains churches and monasteries. 


ARSENALS are great military and naval repositories where the munitions of wai are 
manufactured and stored for use. In France the chief arsenals are Cherbourg, Brest 
and Toulon. Kiel in Germany and Spezzia in Italy are the principal ones in those 
countries. In England there are munitions stored at Deptford, Weedon, the Tow:., 
and other places, but the great arsenal of the country is at Woolwich. This arsenal is 
divided into two great sections, of which one is the depot for the storage of arms and 
all military equipments, whether for land or naval service, the other being occupied by 
the manufacturing departmeuts, containing the gun-factories and the laboratory. 

In the United States armories and arsenals were not established until after the 
revolutionary war, but powder was made in Virginia in 1776. In 1777 General Wash- 
ington chose Springfield as a suitable location for an arsenal, and small arms were made 
there in 1787; about the same time an armory was built at Carlisle, Pa. The arsenal at 
Harper’s Ferry was begun in 1795, and from that time the number was gradually in- 
creased until, in 1860, there were 23 scattered quite generally among the different states. 
Of this number 9 were enlarged during the civil war, the small arm establishment at 
Springfield alone having a capacity of 1000 muskets per day. The following are the 
armories, arsenals, and depots now used for various army purposes: Allegheny, Pa.; 
Augusta, Ga. ; Benicia, Cal.; Cheyenne, Wyo. ; Columbia, Tenn. ; Fort Leavenworth, 
Kan. ; Fort Monroe, Va. ; Fort Snelling, Minn. ; Frankford, Pa. ; Indianapolis, Ind. ; 
Augusta, Me.; Springfield, Mass.; Governor’s Island, N. Y.; Rock Island, Ill. ; St. 
Louis, Mo. ; San Antonio, Tex.; Dover, N. J. : Vancouver, Wash. ; Watertown, Mass. ; 
Watervliet, N. Y. At Frankford arsenal small-arm ammunition is made in large quanti- 
ties, at Watertown gun-fabrication and testing have been carried on. Sea-coast carriages 
and projectiles for heavy guns are also made in considerable quantities. At Springfield 
the manufacture of small arms is the chief employment. At Rock Island and Benicia 
considerable leather work is made. There is also an ordnance depot at Omaha, Neb. 

Several years ago a mixed board of army and naval officers made a thorough investi- 
gation of public and private gun foundries and arsenals both in this country and abroad, 
and their conclusions were that the demands of the services that they represented could 
best be fulfilled by establishing a separate arsenal for each branch, where the fabrica- 
tion of guns could be carried on, as well as all that pertained to ordnance. The arsenal 
at Watervliet, New York, was selected for army use, and after the completion of the 
buildings a plant was installed for heavy gun manufacture. It was not deemed advis- 
able to have the forgings made by the government, so for this purpose contracts in- 
volving millions of dollars have been made with various firms, but chiefly with the iron 
works at Bethlehem, Pa. Rock Island and Benicia have also been equipped as addi- 
tional arsenals, where the manufacture and assembling. of the guns are carried on. The 
naval officers selected the navy-yard at Washington, D. C., as the most desirable locality 
for making naval guns, and at once set to work to remodel the yard for the improved 
system of gun-making. ‘The changes have been entirely completed, and almost all of 
the batteries of the new cruisers are made up of guns finished at the naval arsenal. 
These guns embrace all calibres, from the 3-inch howitzer to the 10-inch gun, and pre- 
parations are in progress for making guns of 15 inches calibre, which is the largest size 
at present proposed for naval use. Rapid fire artillery, carriages, mountings and pro- 
jectiles for the different classes of guns in use in the navy are also made here in such 
quantities as are required. 


Arsenic. 748 


Arsenious. 


ARSENIC is the name applied in popular language to a well-known poisonous sub- 
stance, arsenious acid (q.v.), but, strictly speaking, the term is restricted to the metal, 
of which the symbol is As and the equivalent is 75.0, The metal A. is rarely found free 
in nature, but in a state of combination it occurs largely (see ARSENICAL MINERALS). 
The metal is generally prepared from arseniousacid, As,Os, by mixing it with its own 
weicht of charcoal, placing the mixture.in a well-covered crucible, and subjecting the 
whole to heat, when the metal set free by the charcoal rises, and condenses in the upper 
part or cover of the crucible. Metallic A. is very brittle, can easily be reduced to pow- 
der by hammering, or even pounding in a mortar; and when a freshly-cut surface is 
examined, it presents a brilliant dark steel-gray lustre, which, however, readily tarnishes 
on exposure to the air. The metal, as such, is not considered poisonous, but when intro- 
duced into the animal system, it is there faintly acted upon by the juices, and in part dis- 
solved, at the same time exhibiting poisonous properties. When heated in the open air, 
it burns with a peculiar bluish flame, and emits a characteristic alliaceous odor. The 
only use to which the metal A. is applied in the artsis in the manufacture of leaden shot 
of the various sizes, when its presence in small quantity in the lead renders the latter 
much more brittle than it ordinarily is. Of all the compounds of A, the most impor- 
tant is the one already alluded to—viz., arsenious acid, which is an oxide of A. With 
sulphur, A. forms two important compounds: realgar, AseSe, a red, transparent, and 
brittle substance, which is employed in the manufacture of the signal-light called white 
Indian fire; and orpiment, As.S;3, or king’s yellow, a cheap pigment of a yellow color. 
With hydrogen, A. forms arseniuretted hydrogen, AsHs, a very poisonous gas, and one 
which has been fatal to several chemists. 


ARSENICAL MINERALS occur chiefly in primitive rocks, and frequently associated 
with other metalliferous minerals.— Native arsenic, although nowhere very abundant, is 
not unfrequently found in mines in Europe, Asia, and America, generally along with sul- 
phur and metallic sulphurets. In Britain, it occurs at Tyndrum in Perthshire. It has 
usually a fine granular character. It is very seldom, if ever, quite pure, usually con- 
taining a little antimony and iron, and not unfrequently a very little silver or gold.—A 
very similar, and still rarer mineral, found in similar situations, is known as arsenic- 
antimony, and consists of about two parts of metallic arsenic, and one of metallic anti- 
mony.—Arsenic-silver, or arsenical silver, is another very rare mineral, consisting chiefly 
of arsenic and iron, but containing also about 13 per cent of silver and a little antimony. 
— Arsenic-glance, found at Marienberg in Saxony, and containing about 3 per cent of bis- 
muth, has the remarkable property of taking fire at the flame of a candle.—Arsenious 
acid occurs native in a few localities in Germany and France, and as a mineral species, 
has received the name of arsenite, which perhaps too closely resembles the chemical 
designation of its salts.—Avrsenze acid, another compound of arsenic and oxygen (As20s), 
containing more oxygen than arsenious acid, although it does not itself occur native, is 
not unfrequent in the form of compounds with copper and lead (arseniates of copper and 
lead), which enter into the composition of a number of minerals, none of them so abun- 
dant as to be important.—Among A. M., are also to be ranked the compounds of arsenic 
with sulphur, particularly orpiment (see ARSENIC), realgar (q.v.), and dimorphine, a 
rarer mineral than the other two, and therefore less important.—But the most important 
of all A. M., because of their use as ores of arsenic, for the preparation of white arsenic, 
or arsenious acid, are those in which arsenic is combined with nickel and cobalt. One of 
these is arsenical pyrites, or leucopyrite, found in various mines of the continent of Europe, 
and containing arsenic, iron, sulphur, nickel, and cobalt, in somewhat various propor- 
tions—the arsenic, however, always the principal constituent. It generally occurs mas- 
sive.— Mispickel, which frequently occurs in rhombic crystals, but often also massive, 
differs from it in containing a considerable quantity of silver, so that it is used both as 
an ore of arsenic and of silver. It is found in many of the tin-mines of Cornwall, and 
is pretty frequent in different parts of the world.—Wickeline consists of nickel and 
arsenic, and is used as an ore of nickel, and also for the preparation of white arsenic.— 
Cobaltine and smaltine—the former consisting of cobalt, sulphur, and arsenic; the latter, 
of cobalt and arsenic—are used for the preparation of blue colors for porcelain and 
stoneware. Both are found in Cornwall; they occur also in some of the mines of 
the continent of Europe, and in other parts of the world.—The presence of arsenic in 
a mineral may commonly be detected by the alliaceous odor which it emits before the 
blowpipe. 

ARSENIC POISONING. See Poisons, 


_ARSE'NIOUS ACID is the arsenical compound most familiarly known. It is obtained 
principally during the roasting of the arsenical nickel ores in Germany in furnaces com- 
municating with flues. When the arsenic of the ore burns, it passes into the condition 
of A. A., AssOs, and rising as vapor into the somewhat cool flue, is there deposited as a 
grayish powder, known by the names of smelting-house smoke, flowers of arsenic, poison- 
flour, or rough A.A. km thiscondition, the A. A. is contaminated with some impurities, 
from which it may be separated by introducing the gray powder into an egg-shaped 
vessel, and applying heat at the lower end, when the A. A. rises in vapor, and condenses 


in the cool end as a transparent glassy or vitreous substance. Ordinary A. A. of the 


+ AQ Arsenic. 


Arseniouss 


shops (which is what is popularly known as arsenic) is a white crystalline powder, which 
feels decidedly gritty, like fine sand, when placed between the teeth, and has no well- 
marked taste. It is very heavy, so much so as at once to be noticeable when a paper or 
bottle containing it is lifted by the hand. It is soluble in water to the extent of 1 part of 
A. A. in about 100 parts of cold water, and 1 part of A. A. in about 10 parts of boiling 
water. In England, if sold in quantities under 10 lbs. in weight, the A. A. 
is required by law to be colored with 4 of its weight of indigo, or 3 of its 
weight of soot; the object of the admixture being to render any liquid to which 
the A. A, might be added, with a murderous intent, of a black or bluish-black hue, and 
thus indicate the presence of something unusual. In packages of 10 lbs. and upwards, 
A. A. is allowed to be sold in the pure white crystalline form without coloration. When 
placed in a spoon, or other vessel, and heated, the A. A. volatilizes, and condenses in 
crystals on any cool vessel held above. By this means, it can be distinguished from 
ordinary flour, which, when heated, would char, and leave a coal behind; and from 
chalk, stucco, baking-soda, tooth-powder, and other white substances, which, when 
heated, remain in the vessel as a non-volatile white residue. Again, when A. A. is 
placed on a red-hot cinder, and thé escaping vapors cautiously brought under the nostrils. 
the strong alliaceous odor characteristic of arsenic is given off. The mode in which 
A. A. comports itself, when thrown upon water, is likewise peculiar. Instead of at once 
descending through the water like sand, the A. A., notwithstanding its great density 
(sp. gr. 3.70), partially floats on the surface, as wheat-flour does; and that portion which 
sinks in the water, rolls itself into little round pellets, which are wetted only on the out- 
side, and contain much dry A. A. within. The solution of A. A. in water is recognized 
by three tests: 

1. Hydrosulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid produce a yellow precipitate of sulphide 
of arsenic, AseS3, soluble in ammonia. 
tl a ate barn, of copper, an apple-green precipitate of arsenite of copper, 

u SUs. 

3. Ammonio-nitrate of silver, a yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver, As;AsOs. 

In many cases A. A. is used asa means of destroying animal life, but happily, the 
processes for the detection of the poison in organic mixtures and in the animal tissues 
are so unerring and trustworthy, that it is hardly within the range of possibility that an 
animal can be destroyed by the administration of A. A. without very decided evidence 
of the existence of the poison being obtained on examination of the various parts of the 
animal structure; indeed, it may be safely said that there is no limit to the detection of 
the poison, as even after the animal structure has been so far decomposed that little 
remains, yet still the poison, from its indestructibility, survives, and will indicate itself 
clearly, on the application of the several tests. 

For the isolation and recognition of A. A. in organic mixtures, such as the contents 
of a stomach, three processes may be followed. ‘The method generally pursued, and 
that upon which. greatest dependence is placed, is called Reinsch’s process, from the 
name of its discoverer. The manner of its application is to treat the organic mixture 
with water sufficient to render it thin, then add hydrochloric acid to the extent of one 
eighth of the volume of the liquid; apply heat, and when the whole has been raised to 
near the boiling-point, introduce clean, newly burnished pieces of copper in the form of 
wire, gauze, or foil. If A. A. be present in the mixture, a steel-gray coating of metallic 
arsenic will form on the surface of the copper. This apparent tarnishing of the copper 
may take place when no A, A. isin the mixture, and may be produced by salts of mercury, 
antimony, etc., as well as by sulphur compounds, and even occasionally by fatty matters. 
To distinguish between the coating formed by A. A. and that produced by other sub- 
stances, the copper is taken out of the mixture, washed with water, to remove acid; 
immersed in ether, to dissolve off any adherent fatty matter; dried between folds of 
blotting-paper ; introduced into the lower end of a dry glass test-tube, and there cautiously 
heated. The metallic arsenic, As, is driven off by the heat from the surface of the copper, 
rises in vapor into the upper portions of the test-tube; there meets the oxygen of the air, 
with which it combines, forming A. A., As.Os, and thereafter deposits itself on the inner 
surface of the cool part of the tube in little glistening crystals. On allowing the tube to 
cool, adding water thereto, and applying heat, the water dissolves the crystals of A. A., 
yielding a solution, to separate portions of which the liquid tests mentioned above may 
be successfully applied. This process may likewise be employed in the detection of 
A. A. in animal tissue, as in the liver, spleen, kidneys, etc., by first dividing the animal 
matter into small pieces, and thereafter treating with water, hydrochloric acid, and 
copper. The precautions which require to be exercised in trying this process are, that 
the hydrochloric acid and copper are themselves free from A. A. Hydrochloric acid has 
long been known to be liable to contain at times a very sensible proportion of the poison, 
and it is therefore necessary, before using the acid in any experiment, to make a pre- 
liminary trial with dilute hydrochloric acid, into which, when heated, a piece of copper 
is immersed; and if no tarnishing occurs after a quarter of an hour’s trial, the acid may 
be declared free from contamination with arsenical compounds. The liability of copper 
to contain arsenic some years ago (Aug., 1859) assumed importance in connection with a 
trial for murder by slow poisoning with arsenic, which took place in Britain. In this 
case, a considerable amount of copper was dissolved during the testing, and supplied the 


Arsinoe. vé 5 0 


Arson. 


poison in quantity enough to produce a faint coating on a piece of copper which was 
subsequently introduced into the liquid. The result was that A.A. was at first declared 
to be present in the material under examination; but further experiments demonstrated 
that the copper itself had afforded the arsenic. To free copper from any arsenic which 
it may contain originally, it is only necessary to heat the copper over a gas or spirit-lamp 
flame, when the arsenic volatilizes, and leaves the copper uncontaminated therewith. 

The other two processes for the detection of A. A. in organic mixtures are—l. That 
recommended by Marsh, in which the material is treated with dilute sulphuric acid and 
metallic zinc in a gas-generating apparatus, when the arsenic combining with hydrogen, 
forms arseniuretted hydrogen (AsHs), from which, in the act of escaping, the metallic 
arsenic, and subsequently A. A., can be obtained; and 2. That known as Berzelius’s 

rocess, in which dry arsenical compounds are mixed with the reducing flux, and heated 
in 2 constricted tube, when the metal arsenic is produced, which in its turn is converted 
into A. A. by heating in a wide test-tube. The processes of Marsh and Berzelius are 
not so generally followed as that of Reinsch; but in each and all it is absolutely neces- 
sary, in order to avoid the possibility of mistake, (1) that metallic arsenic be obtained 
from the organic mixture; (2) that the metallic arsenic be converted into A. A.; and (8) 
that this A. A., treated with water, should yield a solution which will give the three 
liquid tests mentioned previously. 

A. A. forms compounds (salts) with alkalies and other bases, which are called arsenites. 
Some of these are employed in commerce and medicine. <A. A., boiled with asolution of 
potash, or carbonate of potash, forms an arsenite of potash, used in medicine, and known 
as Fouwler’s solution. The more largely used sheep-dipping mixtures are composed of A. A.., 
soda, sulphur, and soap, which, when used, are dissolved in a large quantity of water, and 
thus constitute essentially dilute solutions of arsenite of soda. A compound of A. A. and 
the oxide of copper, called the arsenite of copper, or Scheele’s green, is a pigment largely 
used by painters as a pretty and cheap green paint. The same substance is extensively 
employed in the manufacture of common green paper-hangings for the walls of rooms, 
and recent inquiries would lead to the belief that rooms covered with paper coated with 
this green arsenite of copper, are detrimental to the health of human beings residing 
therein, from the readiness with which minute particles of the poisonous pigment are 
detached from the walls by the slightest friction, are diffused through the room, and 
ultimately pass into the animal system. Another green pigment is named Schweinfurth 
green, and contains A, A., oxide of copper, and acetic acid, and is a double arsenite and 
acetate of copper. 

ARSENIC (ARSENIOUS AciID), Properties of, as a Drug.—A. has long been used as a 
medicine. When taken into the stomach, it is soon absorbed into the blood, and circu- 
lates with that fluid, exhibiting great power over certain diseases, especially skin dis- 
eases, aS psoriasis, lepra, eczema (q.v.), etc. It is also classed among the tonic minerals, 
and given for nervous disorders, especially those that are periodic. Of late it has been 
much recommended for rheumatism; and Dr. Begbie, of Edinburgh, considered that 
among the remedies for chorea (St. Vitus’ dance) it holds the foremost place. In ague, 
also, and remittent fever, as well as in other disorders originating from the same source, 
A. and quinine are our chief remedies. They are considered to act as alteratives of 
the blood. The usual method of administering A. is in small doses (from 8 to 5 drops) 
of the liquor arsenicalis, largely diluted with water, twice or thrice in the day. Arsenic 
is sometimes given combined with iodine and mercury (Donovan’s solution). 

When given in the doses above mentioned, for 8 or 10 days, symptoms of poisoning 
begin to appear; the skin becomes hot, the pulse quick, the eyelids hot and itchy; the 
tongue has a silvery appearance; the throat is dry and sore, the gums swollen and tender; 
and if the treatment is persisted in, salivation ensues, and then come nausea, vomit- 
ing, diarrhoea, nervous depression, and faintness (Begbie). The quantity necessary to 
destroy life, of course, varies. Dr. Christison records the case of a man who died in six 
days, after taking 30 grains of the powdered white A.; but a much smaller dose will 
prove fatal; a girl was killed with 24 grains of A. contained in 2 ozs. of fly-water. 
According to Dr. Swaine Taylor, a medical witness is justified in stating, that under 
circumstances favorable for its operation the fatal dose for an adult is from two to three 
grains. Death from a poisonous dose of A. may occur in a few hours, or after the lapse 
of days. A woman, aged 56, used a solution of A. in water to cure the itch; she experi- 
enced severe suffering, and died after two years, having had symptoms of arsenical 
poisoning all that time. 

A. has been used frequently as a slow poison, the symptoms being attributed to 
inflammation of the bowels from natural causes. Fortunately, in most cases its detec- 
tion is easy. Orfila found A. in the soil of cemeteries, a fact which has created some dis- 
cussion among toxicologists. A. is used by anatomists as an antiseptic, but is dangerous, 
as itis apt to get into cuts on the hands, and under the finger-nails, and cause disagree- 
able symptoms. It is stated that in some countries, especially in Styria, A. is taken by 
the young female peasants to increase their personal attractions; a statement which 
probably amounts to this, that experience of its tonic and other qualities induces some 
individuals to prescribe for themselves a medicine which ought only to be administered 
by a skillful and cautious hand. That A. can be taken habitually for any length of time, 
would seem a physiological impossibility; and yet such statements are made on what 


ri 51 Arsinoe, 


Arson. 


appears to be unquestionable authority. See Chambers’s Journal, vol. v. p. 90, and vi. 
p. 46; also Johnston’s Chemistry of Common Life. 

No effective chemical antidote for A. has yet been discovered. In case of an over 
dose, or of intentional poisoning, the following treatment is recommended: Evacuate the 
stomach by the stomach-pump, using lime-water; administer large draughts of tepid 
sugar and water, chalk and water, or lime-water; avoid the use of alkalies, but adminis- 
ter charcoal and hydrated sesquioxide of iron; bleed freely; take a tepid bath, and use 
narcotics. If the fatal symptoms be averted, let the patient for along time subsist wholly 
on farinaceous food, milk, and demulcents. 


ARSIN'OE, the daughter of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, and of Berenice, was b. about 
316 B.c., and married in her 16th year to the aged Lysimachus, king of Thrace, whose 
eldest son, Agathocles, had already wedded Lysandra, the half-sister of A. Desirous of 
securing the throne to her own children, A. prevailed on her husband to put Agathocles 
to death; the consequences of which crime, however, were fatal to the Thracian mon- 
arch; for Lysandra, having fled with her children to Seleucus in Asia. managed to 
induce him to declare war against her unnatural father-in-law. Lysimachus was slain, 
and Seleucus seized the kingdom. A. now sought refuge in Macedonia, which, however, 
was also taken possession of by Seleucus; but on the assassination of the latter, after a few 
months, by Ptolemy Ceraunus, the half-brother of A., she received a hypocritical offer 
of marriage from Ptolemy, who wanted to destroy her two sons, lest they should prove 
formidable rivals to his ambition. She consented to the union, and opened the gates of 
the town in which she had taken refuge, but her children were butchered before her 
eyes. She then fled to Egypt (279 B.c.), where she married her own brother, Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus, These unnatural unions subsequently became common among the Greek 
kings of Egypt. It does not appear that A. had any children by her brother, though 
she was regarded by him with the deepest affection. He named several cities, and also 
an entire district, by her name. After her death, he ordered Dinochares, the architect, 
to build a temple to her memory, and roof the edifice with loadstones, so that her iron 
statue might seem to float in the air. 


ARSIN’OE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, of Egypt. She escaped from Alexandria 
when that city was besieged by Ceesar, 47 B.c., and was received as queen by the Egyp- 
tians, her brother Ptolemy Dionysius being in Cesar’s hands. The city was taken, and 
A. was one of the captives led in triumph through the streets of Rome, where the people 
expressed great sympathy for her. She was liberated by Cesar and returned to Egypt, 
but her sister Cleopatra persuaded Antony to have her put to death, 41 B.c., although 
she had taken refuge in the temple of Diana. 


AR'SIS anp THE'SIS (Gr. raising up, and laying down), a term in music applied to 
the rising and falling of the hand in beating time. It is also applied to the elevation and 
depression of the voice in speaking. 

ARSON, or, as it is called in Scotland, willful fire-raising, is, according to the laws of 
all civilized countries, a crime of the deepest atrocity; for it involves in its consequences 
not only destruction of property; but also the destruction of, or at least an indifference 
to, the life or lives of others, which can only be imputed to the most wicked and malig- 
nant spirit. In the criminal law of England, it isa felony, and has been described as 
the malicious and willful burning of the house or building of another man. It is essen- 
tial to the offense that the house or building burned should be that of another, for 
although it is a misdemeanor to destroy one’s own house by fire, especially in a town, or 
where other buildings are contiguous, which are thereby put in danger, such an offense 
does not amount to a felony, strictly so called. To constitute such felony, there must 
be an actual burning; for no intent, however clear, would suffice at common law to sup- 
port a charge of arson. 

By the law of many of our states, the crime of arson is substantially the same 
as in England. It varies from the common law, however. In some cases it is 
held to include the setting fire to one’s own house. This is soin New York, where the 
setting fire to any building in which there is at the time a human being constitutes the 
crime of arson. The rule is also extended to the firing of an outbuilding so situated 
that its burning will manifestly endanger the building itself. The English law, which 
embraces haystacks and vegetable produce, would not be applied here as constituting 
the crime of arson. 

It has been held that there need not be ablaze; any wasting of the fibres of the wood 
by the combustion is sufficient ; and if the fire is extinguished, that makes no difference. 


ART. The word A. is here meant as designating what is more specifically termed 
fine A., being opposed to the useful arts, or the industrial operations for supplying the 
common necessities of life. Painting and poetry are fine arts; agriculture, navigation, 
and medicine are useful arts. 

The great end of A. is to give pleasure, but the kind of pleasure is peculiar and cir- 
cumscribed, There are many of our enjoyments that no artist would ever think of 
attempting to provide. The gratifications of eating and drinking, of exercise and 
repose, warmth and coolness, form a class in contrast with the pleasures of music, sculp- 
ture, or the drama. It is a matter of some nicety to draw the line between these two 
regions of our pleasurable susceptibility; indeed, it is not clear that a precise line can be 


nee 752 


drawn, Certain peculiarities can be assigned as disqualifying circumstances, such that 
any mode of pleasure laboring under them is debarred from entering into. A.; but after 
we have allowed for these, there will remain a disputed border-land, on which no general 
‘riterion will hold. 

mn Ati Parious indulgences called sensual are the best examples of contrast to the pleas- 
ures of A. In the first place, as our frame is constituted, these bodily functions, while 
incidentally ministering to our pleasure, are in the main subservient to maintaining our 
existence, and being in the first instance guided for that special end, they do not neces. 
sarily rank among our gratifications as such; in the second place, they are connected 
with the production of what is repulsive and loathsome, which mars their purity as sources 
of pleasure; and in the third place, they are essentially confined in their influence to the 
sinele individual; for the sociability of the table is an element superadded. Now, a 
mode of pleasure subject to one or more of these three conditions may belong in an 
eminent degree to the list of utilities, and constitute an end of industry, but does not 
come under the class we are now considering. Wealth is disqualified by the third con- 
dition, inasmuch as, while in the shape of money, it is confined to some single proprietor. 
The same may be said of the pleasures of power and dignity. Even affection is too 
exclusive to Come under the artistic head. Anything so restricted in its sphere of action 
as to constitute individual property, and give occasion to envy and jealousy, is not a 
pleasure aimed at by the producer of fine A.; for there do exist objects that can give us 
delight as their primary end, that have no disagreeable or revolting accompaniments, and 
whose enjoyment is not restricted toa single mind; all which considerations obviously 
elevate the rank of such objects in the scale of our enjoyments. The landscape, the 
elowing sunset, the song of the lark, the flowers of the field and the garden, yield unal- 
loyed pleasure, and create no monopoly. The painter, sculptor, and musician aim at 
corresponding effects. 

The eye and the ear are the chief avenues of artistic delight; the other senses are 
more or less in the monopolist interest. Moreover, one important feature in the some- 
what capricious attribute termed refinement, attaches more particularly to the objects of 
these two senses; namely, the power of protracted enjoyment without fatigue. <A coarse 
effect is one that is intense and pungent, but too exhausting to be kept up; such is a 
noisy clash of loud instruments in a musical performance, or a tale of overdone marvels. 
To remove all the fatiguing accompaniments, and thereby tone down the exciting influ- 
ence, while retaining as much as possible the really pleasurable part, is to refine upon 
the effect, and produce a higher work of art. Now, in the sensations of taste and smell 
generally, the stimulus is apt to be of short duration; the pleasure is said to pall soon. 
Yet there are degrees in the case; some of the choicer odors can affect us for hours 
together with a gentle and pleasing sensation. But it is the ear, and perhaps still more 
the eye, that can remain open to agreeable stimulation for the greatest length of time; 
and taking this fact along with the unconsuming nature of their objects, we see good 
reasons for the artist striving so earnestly towards the gratification of those two senses. 

The sensual elements can be brought into A. by being contemplated in the ddea, in 
place of being enjoyed in the reality. A painter or poet may depict a feast to our minds, 
and impart a pleasure that differs essentially from the delights of eating and drinking. 
The imagined repast has nothing to do with our bodily necessities; the disagreeable 
accompaniments can be kept out of view; and any number of persons may share in the 
effect. So with the elements of wealth, power, dignity, and affection, which in their 
actuality want the liberal character of the true artistic delight; if we can only derive 
pleasure from the spectacle of them in the hands of the select number of their possessors, 
they become to us an enjoyment that can be shared by the general multitude, like the 
blue sky, or the towering peak. It isthe fact that mankind find a charm in contemplating 
the wealthy, the powerful, the elevated, the illustrious, the beloved; and accordingly 
such elements are freely adopted into artistic compositions. 

If all the sensual gratifications could become artistic by being contemplated in idea, 
or merely thought of, as in the above case of imagining a rich feast, we should have the 
means of distinctly circumscribing the select region of the beautiful or artistic, and of 
resolving a difficult problem. It would be admissible for the poet or painter to suggest 
any of those inferior pleasures to the mind by descriptive touches, and he would thereby 
elevate them into the region of art. But we find that every mode of sensual gratification 
is not open to this ideal presentation. Even as regards eating and drinking, exception is 
taken against the too free allusion to those pleasures; while the sensuality of love is 
hardly to be suggested through the most distant allusion. We may revel in tales of 
mere tender emotion—of parental love and of pure affection—but those other subjects 
are kept at the utmost distance; and we should be said to be reveling in sensuality, if 
we were merely to indulge in the imagination of those species of delight. There is no 
help, therefore, but to consider that there are conventional and arbitrary limitations of 
the sphere of the artist, rendering it quite impossible to draw any clear and universal 
boundary-line between the beautiful and the agreeable generally. 

Sublimity, beauty, grace, harmony, melody, pathos, ideality, picturesqueness, pro- 
portion, order, fitness, keeping, and the ludicrous, though they do not all relate to the 
so-called beautiful, are all involved in the circle of pleasures now before us; and it is. 
quite obvious that no one fact can run through this variety of designations. There must 


* 


753 Art, 
@ 


be a great multitude of agents operating to produce these different impressions, which 
are related to one another only by attacking in common to the esthetic class of composi- 
tions. Doubtless, several of these names may be employed to mean the same thing, 
being, in fact, partially synonymous terms, as beauty and grace—proportion, fitness, and 
keeping; but hardly any two terms are synonymous throughout, and _ there are distinct 
conceptions implied in sublimity, beauty, picturesqueness, fitness, and the ludicrous. 

Among the elementary sensations and emotions of the human mind that are of a 
preasurable kind, a certain number may enter at once into the composition of A.; such 
are the pleasures of sound and sight, the emotion of surprise, and plot-interest. Others 
may enter by ideal presentation; as the gratifications of the remaining senses, and the. 
emotions of fear, tenderness, irascibility, power. The feelings more specific to A. are 
those produced by harmony under its various aspects. When sweet sounds are harmo- 
niously combined, we have the musical art; the painter has a similar aim in reference to 
colors and forms; and so through all the fine arts, this quality is found recurring as the 
crowning work of the artistic hand. Nothing is so indisputably included within the 
circle of the esthetical or beautiful as finely struck harmonies, melodies, or concords. 
Whatever else may be included in a composition, it is the admission of these that gives 
the specific charm, although it would be a mistake to dispense with other elements of 
interest common to art and to every-day life. Story is essential to romance and poetry; 
sweetnéss in the separate sounds is requisite for good music; and color in itself imparts 
sesthetic pleasure apart from harmonious union. 

The agreeable effect designated by fitness takes rank with the artistic pleasures; we 
may call it the esthetic of the useful. When a work is not only done effectually, but 
done with the appearance of ease, or the total absence of restraint, difficulty, and pain, 
we experience a delight quite different from the satisfaction growing out of the end 
attained. Much of the pleasure of architectural support is referable to this source. 

Among the susceptibilities touched by artistic arrangements may be noticed the sense 
of unity in multitude, arising when a great number of things are brought under a_com- 
prehensive design, as when a row of pillars is crowned by a pediment. The use of sim- 
ple figures—the triangle, circle, square, etc.—for inclosing and arranging a host of 
individuals, has the tendency to make an easily apprehended whole out of a numerous 
host. of particulars. In all large works abounding in detail, we crave for some such 
comprehensive plan, whereby we may retain the total, while surveying the parts. A 
building, an oratorio, a poem, a history, a dissertation, a speech, should have a discern- 
ible principle of order throughout; the discernment of which gives an artistic pleasure, 
even in works of pure utility. 

The craving for variety and novelty is a powerful impulse of the human mind, and 
makes itself especially apparent in the appreciation of works of A. The greatest works 
cease to please after a time, and temporary fashion may occasionally lord it over the 
perennial in taste. 

In looking at the fine arts individually, we may divide them into two classes, by draw- 
ing a distinction of some importance as regards the question of an artistic standard. The 
one class contains the ef’usive arts, or those which consist of mere outbursts of the inward 
spontaneity, regulated by the effect of the display on the sense of the beholder or list- 
ener. Music is a good example. The spontaneous effusions of the human voice, anc 
those prompted by the various emotions, are corrected and tuned by the ear into melody 
and harmony, and after this process has been often repeated, pleasing airs and composi- 
tions are the result. It is the same with the dance, considered as a fine art. In like 
magnner, dramatic gesture and display, and the graces of elocution and fine address, are 
the natural promptings rendered pleasing by being changed and modified for that express 
end. The first movements are mere random, but the delicate sensibility of the beholder 
causes some to be suppressed, and others brought out, until a.really pleasing combination 
is attained. Contrasted with the purely effusive, are the so-called imitative arts, or those 
that involve the representation of some of the appearances of the outer world. Such are 
painting, sculpture, and poetry. In these, the artist, while still aiming at pleasing effects, 
is trammeled with a new condition—namely, a certain amount of fidelity to his original. 
In the others, there are no originals. The musician imitates nothing, and is bound by 
the sole condition of gratifying the ear; but a painter chooses his subject from nature, 
and although he must contrive to yield the pleasures of color, outline, and grouping, he 
must do so with a certain respect to the object copied. The poet, in depicting the life 
of men, comes under the rule of fidelity to this extent, that an obvious misrepresentation 
is apt to give a painful shock, and mar the pleasure that would otherwise be derived 
from the poetry itself. It is not so much that truth isa part of the artistic pleasure, as 
that falsehood is a stumbling-block in the way; for even the imitative arts are only so 
in part. There is no imitation in the meter and cadence of a song, and yet these often 
constitute the main charm. So acertain license of fantastic effusion is allowed to poets, 
subject to no rules but the giving of pleasure. The creation of imaginary worlds, when 
avowed, is not objected to; and the criterion of fidelity to the actual is accordingly laid 
aside for the time. The various arts of decoration and design are for the most part 
effusive, although occasionally imitative. Architecture is not in any way imitative; the 
coincidence between the Gothic roof and the intermingling foliage of a double row of 
trees is a mere accident. 


754 
Art, . 

These observations are necessary in order to qualify the current maxim that nature 
is the artist’s standard, and truth his chief end; conditions that, in their strictness, apply 
only to science. It is the scientific man that should never deviate from nature, and should 
care for truth above every other consideration. The artist’s standard is feeling, his end 
is refined pleasure; he may go to nature, but it is to select what chimes in with his feel- 
ings of artistic effect, and pass by the rest. He is not bound to adhere to nature even 
in her choicest displays; his own taste being the touchstone, he alters the originals at his 
will. The student of science, on the other hand, must embrace every fact with open 
arms, If a nauseous fungus or loathsome rat meet the eye of a naturalist, he is bound 
to record it as faithfully and minutely as he would dilate on the violet or the nightin- 
gale. When a painter adopts the human figure as a basis for setting forth harmonies of 
color, beauties, and form, and picturesqueness of grouping, he ought not to jar our 
sense of consistency by a wide departure from the usual proportions of humanity. Still, ~ 
we do not look for anatomical exactness; we know that the studies of an artist do not 
imply the knowledge of a professor of anatomy; but we expect the main features of the 
reality to be adhered to. In like manner, a poet is not great because he exhibits human 
nature with literal fidelity; to do that makes the reputation of a historian or mental phi- 
losopher. The poet works by his meters, his cadences, his touching similes, his graceful 
narrative, and his exaltation of reality into the region of ideality; and if in all this he 
avoids serious mistakes and gross exaggerations, he succeeds in his real vocation. 

The attempt to reconcile the artistic with the true—art with nature—has given birth 
ton peculiar school, in whose productions a restraint is put upon the flights of pure 
imagination, and which claims the merit of informing the mind as to the realities of the 
world, while gratifying the various emotions of taste. Instead of the tales of Fairyland, 
the Arabian Nights, and the Romances of Chivalry, we have the modern novelist, with 
his pictures of living men and manners. In painting, we have natural scenery, build- 
ings, men, and animals represented with scrupulous exactness. ‘The sculptor and the 
painter exercise the vocation of producing portraits that shall hand down to future ages 
the precise lineaments of the men and women of their generation; hence, the study of 
nature has become an element in artistic education; and the artist often speaks as if 
the exhibition of truth were his leading purpose. It is probably this endeavor to 
subject the imagination more strictly to the conditions of truth and reality, that has 
caused the singular inversion whereby the definition of science is made the definition of 
art. 

But while fidelity, in the imitative class of arts, is to be looked upon, in the first 
instance, as avoiding a stumbling-block rather than constituting a charm, there are 
still certain ways wherein we derive from it a sort of pleasure that may be called esthetic. 
We feel drawn by fellow-feeling towards one who has attended to the same objects as 
ourselves, or who has seized and put into vivid prominence what we have felt without 
ever having expressed. The coincidence of mind with mind is always productive of the 
agreeable effect of mutual sympathy, and, in some circumstances, there is an additional 
effect of pleasing surprise. Thus, when an artist not merely produces in his picture 
those features of the original that strike every one, but includes all the minuter objects - 
that escape the notice of the generality, we sympathize with his attention, we admire his 
powers of observation, and become, as it were, his pupils, in extending our study and 
knowledge of nature and life. We feel a pungent surprise at discovering, for the first time, 
what has been long before our eyes; and so the minute school of artists labor at this 
species of effects. Moreover, we are brought forward as judges of the execution of a 
distinct purpose; we have to see whether he that is bent on imitation does his work well 
or ill; and if our verdict is favorable, our admiration is excited accordingly. There is, 
too, a certain exciting effect in the reproduction of some appearance in a foreign material, 
as when a plain surface is made to yield the impression of solid effect, and canvas or 
stone imitates living humanity. Finally, the sentiment of reality and truth, as opposed 
to fiction or falsehood, appealing to our practical urgencies, disposes us to assign a value 
to every work in which truth is strongly aimed at, and to derive an additional satisfaction 
when fidelity of rendering is induced upon the charms peculiar to A. Thus imitation— 
which, properly speaking is a mere accident attaching to sculpture, painting, and poetry, 
and has no place in music or architecture—may become the center of a small group of 
agreeable or acceptable effects. These effects are the more prized, that we have been 
surfeited with the purely esthetic ideals. We turn refreshed from the middle- age 
romance to the graphic novel of our own time. 

Besides being a source of pleasure, art is frequently spoken of as having an elevating 
and refining influence on the mind and character; for which reason it is considered a 
proper object of public encouragement in civilized communities. This circumstance is 
owing to the higher nature of artistic pleasure as above described, the taste for which 
helps to rescue mankind from the exclusive dominion of sensual and selfish enjoyments. 
At the same time, we must admit that the devotion to art may be itself excessive, and 
have the effect of withdrawing men too much from the urgency of practical life, render- 
ing them a prey to political despotism, as well as indifferent to moral principles, 
-hstances are not wanting to justify this remark. 

_See Dugald Stewart's Philosophical Hssays, Part II., and Bain on the Hmotions and the 
Will, p 247. See ARsTHETICs. | 


7d5 vs Art, 


ART, History oF. The history of the origin and development, growth and decline 
of beautiful artistic forms, constitutes a portion of the history of civilization. As regards 
cach particular people, the history of their efforts to conceive and express absolute per- 
fection, or what is commonly called ideal beauty, in form and color, is, with the single 
exception of the history of their speculative opinions, the most reliable test of the stage 
of progress which they have attained. Nor is it as an indication of their command over 
physical nature, of the abundance of their external resources, or even of their intellectual 
activity alone, that the history of the art of a people is thus important. It determines 
their moral, and even, in a certain sense, their religious position, for che inseparable con- 
nection between the beautiful and the good is in no way more clearly manifested than in 
the fact that the first inroads of demoralization and social disorder are invariably indi- 
cated by a diminution in the strengthand purity of artistic forms. It has been usual to 
include under the term history of art merely the history of the arts of form, including 
architecture, but excluding, of course, poetry and music, though these latter, again, 
are generally included when we speak of the fine arts. See ArT; PAINTING. 

The classical nations of antiquity were not insensible to the importance of tracing the 
development of that rich artistical life which they had originated, and we accordingly 
find the germs of artistic history in Pliny, Quintilian, Pausanias, and others. In the 
middle ages, every trace of a general historical treatment of art disappears, though casual 
remarks and incidental notices on the subject of artists and the arts are abundant, 
persue ey in such works as the Liber Pontificalis of abbot Anastasius, who is commonly 
<nown as ‘‘the librarian,” in consequence of his having filled that office at the Vatican in 
the 8th century. Buta history of art, in the sense which we have here assigned to the term, 
made its appearance in the world for the first time.on the revival of letters, in the 15th 
and 16th centuries; when the artistic treasures of the heathen world, which had come 
upon mankind as novelties, fell to be contrasted with that peculiar type which art had 
assumed under Christian influences during the middle ages, on the one hand (see ByzAn. 
TINE ART), and on the other with that rich harvest of fresh invention which ripened 
during the long lives of Leonardo da Vinci (q.v.) and Michael Angelo (q.v.), in the period 
of which Raphael’s (q.v.) short career may be regarded as the noonday. Whilst Vasari 
(q.v.) traced the great epochs of Italian art—from a biographical point of view only, it is 
true—in his celebrated work, the students of classical literature collected such expres 
sions of opinion on artistic subjects as the writings of the ancients contained, and Pal- 
ladio, Ligorio, Vignola, and others measured ancient buildings and their constituent 
members. In this way a vast mass of information on artistic subjects was brought 
together. But though the materials which might have served for a history of art were 
thus supplied, it was a long time afterwards before anything like proper historical 
treatment arose; and the knowledge of ancient art which had been gained, was applied 
to their respective purposes by artists on the one hand and philologists on the other. As 
regarded modern art, the biographical method of Vasari was adhered to, and to this 
circumstance we are indebted for the innumerable artistic anecdotes which have been 
preserved. The remarkable variations in style which exhibited themselves between the 
16th and 18th centuries, gave rise to a species of historical treatment which had for its 
object the discovery of the common features by which the artists of the respective periods 
were distinguished. But the history of style, strictly speaking, begins with Winckel- 
mann (q.v.), who was the first to divide ancient art into epochs, and to trace its connec- 
tion with the general history of human progress. It was from this period that the history 
of art came to be regarded as a branch of the history of civilization. Even where the 
biographical method continued to be followed, it was henceforth with this difference, 
that the division into schools took the place of mere chronological arrangement. ‘The 
strongly classical tendency which exhibited itself towards the end of the last century, and 
the romantic reaction and consequent admiration for the middle age which succeeded, 
though both must be regarded as one-sided influences, had an unquestionable effect in 
calling attention to what was really great in the artistic productions of these respective 
periods; and during the present century, the history of art has gradually assumed a more 
important place as a department of general history. It was only in very recent times, 
however, that a complete artistic history appeared in Kugler’s Handbook of the History of 
Art, which has been partially translated into English, and edited by Sir Charles Eastlake. 
In the original work, which is very excellent, the immense mass of material which the 
subject offered has been arranged in periods, and treated in such a manner as to present 
a sketch which is complete in itself, whilst at the same time its connection with and 
dependence on general history, social, political, and philosophical, are carefully indicated 
throughout. Alongside of Kugler’s history, that of Schnaase falls to be mentioned—a 
work giving a philosophical and historical account of the origin of the various styles, 
and their connection with each other; as also the works of Liibke, Springer, and Car- 
riere. Kinkel’s history of Christian art has unhappily remained incomplete. Waagen’s 
works on art and artists in England, France, and the other countries by which Germany 
is surrounded, are the best artistic handbooks for the traveler. Those which have refer- 
ence to England have been translated. There are many other historical works of 
importance on special departments and separate schools of art, monographs and the like, 
but, with the exception of Stirling’s Annals of the Artists of Spain, and Velasquez and jus 
Works, very few belong to our own literature. 


Arta. 756 


Artemisia. 


ient Ambracia, at. of Epirus, and ceded by Turkey to Greece in 1881; 
7 Pepe 3 Rorehara coast of the gulf to which it gives name, and 39 m. s. from Janina, 
It stands on the left bank of the river Arta, the ancient Aracthus, whence the modern 
name. It is the see of a Greek bishop, and is governed by a bey. Pop. about 4000. It 
has a considerable trade, and manufactures, chiefly of cloths and leather, the floccata, or 
‘shaggy capote,” alluded to in Byron’s earlier poems, is greatly esteemed; but the town 
has never recovered from the disasters of 1828, when it was stormed by the Greek 
patriots under Marco Botzaris. Portions of the old walls, which were of great strength, 
and the foundations of the acropolis, are the only relics of Hellenic times. Remains of 
the lower empire exist in a convent founded 840 a.D. by the empress Theodosia. 

The ancient city of Ambracia, founded by a Corinthian colony about 635 B.c., was 
at one time a flourishing independent state, with a considerable territory. It was 
ruined in the struggle with the Amphilochians, and subsequently became subject to 
Philip of Macedon. Pyrrhus made it the capital of Epirus, after which it fell into the 
hands of the Atolians, and lastly of the Romans. See AMBRACTA. 


ARTA, GULF oF, an arm of the Ionian sea, 2) m. long and _ 10 wide, between Turkey 
and Greece. Until 1881, the whole of the northern coast was Turkish; but in that year 
the portion east of the river Arta was ceded to Greece. It was arranged that the gulf 
should be neutral, the fortress commanding the entrance to the gulf on either side being 
disarmed. Under its ancient name of the Ambraciot gulf (sinus Ambracius), it separated 
Epirus and Acarnania. 

ARTABA’ZUS, the name of several distinguished Persians in the times of the Ache- 
menide, When Xerxes advanced against Greece, A. led the Parthians and Chorasmi. 
At a later period he warned Mardonius, but in vain, against engaging in battle at 
Platsea; and on the first indications of defeat, he withdrew his own division, amounting 
to 40,000 men, from the field, and succeeded, though with great difficulty, in forcing his 
way through the wilds of Thessaly, Macedonia, and Thrace to Byzantium, where he 
crossed to Asia. Subsequently, he acted as negotiator between the Spartan Pausanias 
and Xerxes.—Another A. was general under the Persian king, Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
and revolted against Artaxerxes Ochus in 856 B.c, For this offense he appears to have 
been forgiven; and subsequently we find him accompanying king Darius after the battle 
of Arbela. Alexander rewarded his fidelity by appointing him satrap of Bactria. 

ARTANTHE, See Marico. 

ARTAX’ATA, the ancient capital of Armenia, on the Araxes, where Hannibal took 
refuge when Antiochus could no lounger protect him, The Carthaginian is said to have 
superintended the building of that city, which was named from the king Artaxais. It 
was destroyed by the Romans, 58 a.p., rebuilt by Tiridates, and called Neronia, in honor 
of Nero, who had granted the kingdom to Tiridates. It was taken and partially destroyed 
by the Persians in 370, and in 450 {t was the seat of an ecclesiastical council over which 
Joseph, the patriarch, presided. 


ARTAXERX’ES, the name of several Persian kings. <A. I., surnamed Longimanus, 
the second son of Xerxes, escaped from the conspiracy of Artaban and others, and 
ascended the throne in 465 n.c. His long reign, extending to 425, was marked by a 
decline of power.—A. II., surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father, Darius II., in 405 
s.c. After gaining the victory over his brother Cyrus, he became involved in war with 
Sparta, wh.ch ended with the Antalcidean treaty of peace. He d. in 361.—A. IIL, 
surnamed Ochus, was the son and successor of the former, and reigned in the true style 
of oriental despotism until 838 B.c. One of his most daring expioits took place in Egypt, 
where he caused the divine bull Apis to be slaughtered and cooked as ordinary beef. 

lII. was poisoned in 338 by his eunuch Bagoas. It is said that his flesh was eaten by 
cats, and that hilts for scimitars were made of his bones.—The founder of the new 
Persian dynasty of the Sassanid (which ruled from a.p. 226 to 651) was named A. 


ARTEDI, PETER, a celebrated naturalist, was b. on the 22d of Feb., 1705, at Anund, 
in the province of Angermannland, Sweden. He was at first designed for the church, 
and entered the university of Upsala, intending to pursue the usual course of philosophy 
and theology; but he soon abandoned all thought of the ministry, and betook himself to 
medicine. In 1728, Linneus went to Upsala, to study the same science, and a close 
intimacy sprung up between the young men. They worked together, and, to a certain 
extent, on the principle of a division of labor. Physiology, chemistry, and mireralogy 
they pursued in common; but to this A. added ichthyology, and Linnzus ornithology 
and entomology. In 1734, A. sailed for England, and Linneus went to Lapland, eac 
having made the other his heir and executor of all his scientific documents. While in 
London, A. wrote the preface to his Jchthyologica. Next year he went to Leyden in 
Holland, where he found Linnzeus just arrived from the north. Each showed the other 
the results of his labors. A.’s useful career was abruptly ended, on the 2ist of Sept., 
1739, by his falling into one of the canals near Amsterdam. 

A.’s only complete work is the Philosophia Ichthyologica. The Synonymologica is 
described as a work of extracrdinary labor, but somewhat confused. Linneus faithfully 
performed his duty as his friend’s executor. He arranged, corrected, and completed his 
manuscripts, and published the whole, together with a life of the author, in 1788. 
According to Cuvier, the great work of A. is the first named, which gave a truly scien 


vi) 4 Aerie 


tifie character to the study of fishes. The only error of any magnitude which occurs in 
it is including the cetacexz among fishes. A. was also a distinguished botanist. He was 
the first to indicate, as a special characteristic, the presence or absence of involucra in 
the umbelliferous plants, whose species are so difficult to distinguish from each other. 
Linneeus has called a genus of these, in memory of his friend, artedia. 


ARTEMIDO’RUS or Epuests, a geographer who lived about 100 B.c., who voyaged. 
around the Mediterranean, the Red sea, and probably parts of the Indian ocean. He 
visited Iberia and Gaul, and corrected some of the errors of Eratosthenes. His work (in 
eleven books) is nearly all lost, but it was highly prized and frequently quoted by Greek 
and Roman writers. A few fragments have been found, and an abridgment, made by 
Marcianus, still exists. From what is known, the loss of A.’s work is deeply regretted, 
as he gave most minute accounts of the manners and customs of the people which he 
visited. 

ARTEMIS. See Diana, 

ARTEMIS'A, queen of Caria (circa—350 B.c.), was the wife of Mausolus, and celebrated 
for the magnificent mausoleum which she caused to be erected to her husband’s memory. 
See MavusoLEuM.—Another A., queen of Halicarnassus, accompanied Xerxes in his 
expedition against Greece, and distinguished herself at the battle of Salamis (480 B.c.); 
she ended her life, in consequence of an unfortunate attachment, by leaping from a 
rock. 


ARTEMISTA,a genus of plants of the natural order composite, sub-order corymbifere, in 
which the flowers of the disk are hermaphrodite, those of the ray in one row, the bracts 
forming a roundish imbricated head, the receptacle naked or hairy, the acheenia obovate, 
and destitute of pappus. The heads of flowers are numerous and small; the leaves generally 
much divided. There are many species, herbaceous plants and shrubs, natives chiefly 
of the more temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere. ‘They have generally an aro- 
matic smell, more or less agreeable, and a warm, sometimes rather acrid and bitterish 
taste.—To this genus belongs WormMwoobp (A. absinthium), the apsinthion of the ancient 
Greeks, to whom its medicinal properties were well known. It is a native of Britain, 
the continent of Europe, and the northern parts of Asia, growing in waste places, by way- 
sides, etc. It is a perennial, 2to4ft. high; its leaves bipinnatifid and clothed with a silky 
down, and its small hemispherical drooping heads of flowers are of a dingy yellow color, 
and are produced in axillary panicles. It is aromatic and bitter, containing a bitter 
principle and an essential oil, both of great strength, upon account of which it is used in 
medicine in various forms (oil, extract, tincture, etc.), as a stomachic and anthelmintic 
or vermifuge. It was formerly in much use as a febrifuge. It is a plant very frequently 
to be found in cottagers’ gardens, occupying an important place in their domestic phar- 
macopeeia. It is an essential ingredient in a number of compound medicines. Its roots, 
and those of some other species of this genus, have been recommended in epilepsy.— 
SeA WorMwoop (A. maritima, including a variety which has been called A. gailica,) a 
native of salt-marshes in Britain and other parts of Europe, possesses similar properties, 
and is occasionally used for the same purposes; as also Roman WorMwoop (A. pontica), 
a native of the middle and south of Europe, but not of Britain—Tarrarian WORMWOOD 
(A. santonica), a native of Tartary, Persia, and other parts of the east; and INDIAN Worm- 
woop (A. indica), a native of the Himalaya, abounding at elevations of 2000 to 6000 ft. 
Indian wormwood grows to the height of 12 ft. It is considered in India a powerful 
deobstruent and antispasmodic. TREE Wormwoop (A. arborescens), a native of the s. of 
Europe and the Levant, is also larger and more shrubby than the common wormwood, 
which, in characters and qualities, it much resembles.—The dried flower-buds of a num.- 
ber of species of A. are sold under the names of WORMSEED and of semen contra, semen 
cing, semencine, etc., and have long been in much repute as an anthelmintic. A. santonica, 
and A. siebert (or A. contra), a native of Palestine, are believed to yield much of the worm- 
seed which is brought from the Levant, also A. judaica, a native of the east and of Bar- 
bary, which is regarded as the principal source of the Barbary wormseed. The flower- 
buds of A. glomerata, A. lerchiana, and A. pauciflora, natives of the banks of the Volga, 
are also said to form part of the wormseed of the shops; and those of A. vahliana are 
collected in the n.e. of Persia, and form the semen cine levanticum or semen cine in grains 
‘The flower-buds of A. cwrulescens, a Mediterranean plant, which is said to have been found 
on the sea-coast of England, form the anthelmintic called semen seriphii or barbotine. 
Those of A. camphorata, another native of the south of Europe, are used in the same way. 
*Even those of A. absinthiwm and A. vulgaris are used under the name of wormseed.—The 
plants from which the bitter aromatic liquor called extrait, eaw or créme d absinthe is pre- 
pared, are small low-growing species of A. (A. mutellina, A. glacialis, A. rupestris, A. 
spicata, etc.), found on the Alps, and known to the inhabitants of the Alps by the name 
of genipi. This liqueur, generally diluted with water, is sometimes used by persons so 
devoted to the pleasures of the table that they cannot wait for the natural return of appe- 
tite, and also by those who really suffer from weakness of digestion. It is a useful and 
agreeable stomachic, and is very popular in France—Muewort (A. vulgaris), a common 
native of Britain and of the continent of Europe, often found about ruins and in waste 
places, grows to the height of 3 or 4 ft., with pinnatifid leaves and somewhat racemed 
small flowers, which have each five florets of the ray. It emits, when rubbed, an agree 


ater 758 


able smell, and has a bitter taste. In Germany, the young shoots and leaves are used in 
cookery for seasoning. It is used also for the same medicinal purposes as wormwood, 
but is weaker. Its leaves, and those of some of the other species, are used as fomenta- 
tions for cleansing and healing wounds.—SoUTHERN WOOD (A. abrotanum) is a shrubby 
plant with long straight stems, 3 to 4 ft. high, the lower leaves bipinnate, upper leaves 
pinnate, their segments hair-like. It is a native of the s. of Europe and middle parts of 
Asia, and has long been a favorite plant in cottage-gardens in Britain, It has an aromatic 
and pleasant odor. The leaves are used to drive away moths from linen; and in some 
parts of the continent of Europe, as an ingredient in the manufacture of beer. The smell 
of this plant appears to be peculiarly disagreeable to bees, which retreat from it; and a 
little branch of southernwood is sometimes efficaciously used when they are swarming, 
to promote their ascent into the new hive placed over them.—TAaRRAGON (A, dracuneu- 
lus) is a perennial plant, a native of Siberia, and long cultivated in gardens in Britain. 
It has a branching stem 1 to 14 ft. high, with narrow leaves. It is fragrant, and has an 
aromatic smell and taste. The leaves and tender tips are a favorite ingredient in pickles. 
An infusion of the plant in vinegar is used as a fish-sauce.—The leaves of A. maderaspa- 
tuna ave regarded in India as a valuable stomachic, and are also used in anodyne fomen- 
tations.—Moxa (q.v.) is prepared by the Chinese from the leaves of A. mova and other 
species, the whole surface of whose leaves is covered with a thick down.—A. acetica, a - 


Persian species, is said to have a strong odor of vinegar. 


ARTEMISIUM, the name of the northern coast and of a promontory in Eubea, 
opposite the Thessalian Magnesia, and named from the temple of Artemis; belonging to 
the t. of Histixa. Off this coast occurred the conflict of the Grecian fleet with the fleet 
of Xerxes.—The name also of a mountain between Argolis and Arcadia, now Mt. Turniki, 
on which was a temple; also of a promontory in Caria, which was crowned with a temple 
to Artemis. 


ARTEREOT OMY, or the opening of an artery, is an operation that has been strongly 
advocated in those cases in which it is desirable to produce a more decided and imme- 
diate effect upon the cerebral circulation (as in severe forms of sanguineous apoplexy) 
than could be produced by ordinary venesection. It is supposed by some surgeons to 
relieve pressure on the brain more efficiently than opening the jugular vein could do; 
and whether this is the case or not, it isa simpler and less dangerous operation. The 
only vessel operated on is either the temporal artery itself or one of its main branches. 
The operation is a simple one, but should, of course, only be undertaken by a surgeon. 
To arrest the flow of blood when sufficient has been taken, the artery should be 
completely divided, and after the parts have been sponged, a compress, or small pad, 
should be applied to the wound, and secured by a bandage, which must be carefully 
adjusted, so as, if possibie, to remain undisturbed for four or five days, when it may be 
removed, and the wound covered with a strip of plaster. 


ARTERIES, Diseases oF. Most of the important morbid conditions of the arteries are 
those which are occasioned by the deposition of atheroma (a Greek word signifying a tumor 
or deposit containing matter like athéré, meal or groats) on the free surface of the inner 
coat of the vessel; a new inner lining to the artery being thus furnished. As atheroma 
has the effect of weakening, enlarging, and occluding arteries, according to the extent 
and period of the deposition, it is expedient briefly to notice the most important stages 
of its progress. In the earliest stage, atheroma consists of a thin, soft, and clear 
membrane, lining a part or the whole of the tube. It seems to be a mere addition to 
the artery, in whose original coats there is no appearance of disease. It is most 
probably a deposit on the inner surface from the blood. On the inner surface of the 
new coat, a similar layer gradually forms, and in course of time, becomes the founda- 
tion of subsequent formations; and when many strata have thus been deposited, the 
collective mass ceases to be transparent, and becomes converted into an opaque material 
similar to hardened albumen, and finally to ligament. Until this consolidation occurs, 
the coats of the artery are not much affected; but by their adhesion to the hardened 
deposit, they lose their strength, elasticity, and natural color, and their functions are 
destroyed. The indurated deposit may now undergo one or other of these changes: it 
may either soften in its interior, in which case it degenerates into a pulpy mass of 
cholesterine, oil-globules, albuminous and chalky molecules; or it may be converted into 
a layer of hard, chalky, bone-like matter. This latter change (cretefaction or ossifica- 
tion) takes place only in the external oldest layers of thick deposits; and nothing intervenes 
between the bony plate and the middle coat of the artery, for the inner or lining coat 
partakes in the morbid change. It is obvious that either of these changes (softening or 
hardening) must gradually lead to disease of the arterial coats generally. The process 
of change is slow, and the change itself can only be detected in the living subjeet when 
it is in an advanced stage. In the radial artery and others which lie superficially, the 
finger can often detect rings or tubes of chalky matter. Most commonly, however, the 
state of the arteries is detected by some secondary symptom. 

Atheromatous deposit is at first attended with a narrowing of the calibre of the vessel, 
varying with the thickness of the deposit, and most marked at the points of bifurca- 
tion. Smaller arteries may be completely obliterated, whilst the larger arteries may be 
very much contracted. Thus, the common iliac has been found to have its canal dimin- 


759 Artemis om 


ished by about one half, and the great ascending branches of the arch of the aorta, the 
subclavian and carotid arteries, have been found very nearly closed. <A later conse- 
quence of the same disease is dilatation of the vessel. The power of the outer coats 
being insufficient to compress the deposit and to close in upon the blood, by which each 
- contraction of the left ventricle of the heart distends them, they remain wide and dis- 
tended during the relaxation of the ventricle, and the artery thus slowly expands; the 
enlargement being most marked at parts where there is most obstruction to the blood- 
current, as, for example, in curved arteries. These dilatations are apt to terminate in 
regular aneurism, ‘The changes which we have already described have an effect on the 
retractile power of. the arteries. A healthy artery, if cut across, may shorten to the 
extent of an inch and a half, as has been actually measured by Dr. Moore (‘‘ Diseases of 
the Arteries,” in Holmes’s System of Surgery, vol. iii. p. 329); but the retractile power is 
destroyed by the deposition of bony rings or plates. But although incapable of short- 
ening, the arteries sometimes become abnormally lengthened, and consequently become 
not only dilated, but also tortuous. If the outline of superficial arteries thus affected be 
watched, each pulsation of the heart is seen to increase their curvature; and deep-seated 
arteries (as the iliac) are thus often forced from their normal positions. Another condi- 
tion involving much danger is this: an ossified artery loses the smoothness which the 
interior of the vessel ought to present, and from the displacement or cracking of a bony 
plate, there may be sharp, rough projections exposed, to which the fibrin of the circu- 
lating blood may adhere. These littie clots becoming detached, may be carried with 
the blood till they become arrested, and plug up an artery, thus presenting cases of 
embolism or thrombosis (q.v.). Again, the relation of this disease to accidents and sur- 
gical operations on arteries is obvious. A blow may crush a diseased artery, when a 
healthy elastie vessel might have escaped injury. Such aslight movement as suddenly 
lifting the arm to the head, for the purpose of securing the hat in a sharp gale, has been 
known to have been followed by aneurism of the axillary artery. <A ligature applied to 
any ossified artery, is very apt to cause it to break, and the difficulty of securing such 
vessels is often very great. It is tothis form of disease that most of the failures of 
operations for aneurism are due. Having thus noticed the most important changes 
which are induced in the arteries by atheroma, and the evil consequences to which they 
may give rise, we shall now direct attention to an important cause of occlusion—that, 
namely, in which the canal is closed by an imported foreign body, and especially by 
fibrinous plugs originally formed in the heart, and transported to other parts in the 
stream of the blood. When a large artery, as, for example, the principal artery of one 
of the limbs, is ‘‘ suddenly plugged in its higher part, a sensation of severe pain is com- 
monly the immediate result of the accident. In some cases, the pain extends along the 
course of the vessel, which, though pulseless, is extremely tender; in others, the suffer- 
ing is referred to some distant part of the limb, as, for instance, to the calf. Signs of a 
deficient circulation succeed, and they may amount to pallor, loss of temperature, numb- 
ness of the surface, or even to that ‘torpor’ which is observed to precede the total 
death of a limb in certain cases of injuries of vessels. Such torpor implies not onlya 
loss of circulating blood, but also a cessation of all feeling and motor power in the limb.” 
—Moore, op. cit., p.3385. Although gangrene (q.v.) is always to be feared as the result of an 
obstructed artery of large size, it does not invariably follow; as a collateral circulation 
may be established, and the life of the limb may be thus saved. Very young persons 
will endure the obliteration of very large vessels without gangrene; and a case is on 
record (Med. Chir. Trans., vol. xxix. p. 214) in which ‘‘all the main arteries of both 
upper extremities and of the left side of the neck were reduced to solid cords,” and yet 
no gangrene ensued. Fyom the description of the symptoms, the nature of a case of 
sudden occlusion of a large artery by a plug may possibly be recognized, or, at all events, 
suspected even bya non-professional observer. Medical aid must at once be sought. 
The early indications of treatment are to preserve the temperature of the part, to favor 
the establishment of a collateral circulation, to protect the limb from irritation or injury, 
to give nourishing blood-making food, and to relieve pain by the judicious use of 
opiates. The later treatment, if the affection is not checked, is that which is described 
in the article GANGRENE.—A/7teritis, or inflammation of the arteries, was a disease which 
was formerly recognized by physicians. No such specific general disease is now 
believed in; but the changes which have been already described as occurring in consoli- 
dated atheromatous deposits—either softening or ossification—are accompanied by an 
unnaturally vascular condition of the attenuated arterial walls, extending to true local 
inflammation, and even to suppuration.—Aneurism (a tumor containing blood, and com- 
municating with the cavity of an artery) has been considered in a special article. 


ARTERY (Lat. aer and fe76) named from the old idea that these tubes were air-car- 
riers. Arteries are the vessels through which the blood passes from the left side of the 
heart to the tissues. The structure of an arterial tube is very complex, and a section of 
it may be roughly subdivided into three layers, called the coats of the artery: an exter- 
nal, which is elastic and distensible; a middle, which is muscular, contractile, and brit- 
tle; an internal, also brittle, smooth, and transparent, being lined with epithelium on» 
the side washed by the blood. The tube is also enveloped in cellular tissue, termed 
the sheath of the A. When an A. is wounded by a sharp instrument, the effect varies 


Artesian, 760 


Arthur. 


with the direction of the cut. Thus, if longitudinal, the edges may not separate, and 
the wound may heal without much bleeding; if oblique or transverse, the edges gape, 


and a nearly circular orifice allows of a pro- 
fuse hemorrhage. If the A. be completely 
divided, its walls do not collapse like those 
of a vein, but pass through certain changes 
provided by nature to prevent fatal bleed- 
ing. The cut orifice contracts, and also re- 
tracts into its cellular sheath; this checks 
the flow of blood, a clot of which shortly 
forms on the outer side; then another forms 
inside the vessel; and together, they stem 
the flow, till the cut edges of the A. have 
time to throw out lymph (see ADHESION), 
and heal as wounds of other tissues. When 
an A. is compressed by a ligature, the brittle 
inner and middle coats crack, curl inwards, 
and heal. See BLEEDING. 

The arteries of the human body are all 
offsets, more or less direct, of the aorta. As __ _ Subdivisions of arterial wall. 
each main trunk passes into a portion of the aia t internal. 8. Muscular, t middle. 

SAEs aie we = AGI mere 2. Fenestrated, 4, Elastic, 

body, it divides into two principal divisions: 5. Fibrous, : 
one, which breaks up into branches for the 6. Areolar, { external. 
supply of the tissues in the vicinity—the A. 
of supply; and another, which passes almost branchless to supply the parts beyond— 
the A. of transmission. These, however, anastomose (q.v.) freely, so that the distant 
tissues are not solely dependent for their supply on only one arterial trunk. Thus, the 
femoral A. divides in the groin into the profunda, or deep femoral, to supply the thigh, 
and the superficial femoral, to supply the leg below the knee. Again, the common 
carotid divides into external carotid, to supply the neck and head, and the internal car- 
otid to supply the brain. Although arteries have generally the same distribution or ar- 
rangement of branches, they occasionally vary, and thereby are apt to puzzle a super- 
ficial anatomist. Mr. Thomas Nunn of London, an excellent human anatomist, has 
clearly shown that these anomalies in arterial distribution are all governed by the law of 
arterial distribution just mentioned, a fact which not only simplifies the study of arte- 
rial anatomy, but assists the operative surgeon out of perplexing positions. The prin- 
cipal arteries will be considered under their distinctive names. The best authority on 
arteries is the splendid work of R. Quain. See ARTERIES, DISEASES OF, 


ARTE'SIAN WELLS are perpendicular borings into the ground, through which water 
rises, from various depths, according to circumstances, above the surface of the soil. 
The possibility of obtaining water in this way in a particular district depends on its 
geological structure. All rocks contain more or less water. Arenaceous rocks receive 
water mechanically, and according to their compactness and purity, part with a larger 
er smaller proportion of it. A cubic yard of pure sea-sand can contain, in addition to 
the quantity of dry sand which occupies that space, about one third of its bulk of water. 
It would part with nearly the whole of this into a well sunk in it, and regularly pumped 
from. Chalk and other rocks, composed of fine particles, closely compacted together, 
contain as large a proportion of water; but from the power of capillary attraction, little 
or none of this water would be drained into a well sunk in suctt rock. From the exist- 
ence, however, of numerous crevices in chalk through which the water freely flows, and 
from the general presence of a larger quantity of water than the porous rock is able to 
retain, wells sunk in chalk often yield water. There is yet a third class of rocks, which 
are perfectly impervious to water: such are clays, which are absolutely retentive, neither 
allowing water to be obtained from them nor to pass through them. When such rocks 
occur in basins (q.v.) in alternating layers, and in such order that pervious beds are in- 
serted between impervious ones, it is evident that if a perforation is made through the 
retentive barrier-bed in the lower portion of the basin, the water contained in the water- 
logged strata will rise through the bore to a height depending upon the pressure of water 
which has accumulated in the confined sloping space between the two impervious beds. 
There is a number of porous beds composing the cretaceous measures, resting on the 
Impervious gault, and these, again, are covered by the equally impervious series of the 
London clay, which form the strata on the surface, and extend to a considerable depth. 
The edges of the chalk-beds are largely exposed in the higher grounds around London; 
the water falling on the whole area of these exposed edges, sinks into the more or less 
porous cretaceous beds, and would, in course of time, by continued accessions, fill up 
the basin, were it not prevented by the clay above. By driving a bore through this 
superior bed, the inferior water-logged strata are reached, and the subterranean water 
rises to the surface, and flows continuously, by means of hydrostatic pressure. 

Many such wells exist in London and its vicinity; those which form the ornamental 
fountains in Trafalgar square descend into the upper chalk to a depth cf 393 ft. The 
most famous artesian well, perhaps, is that of Grenelle, in the outskirts of Paris, where 


761 Ankur. 


the water is brought from the gault at a depth of 1798 ft. It yields 516} gallons of 
water in a minute, propelled 82 ft. above the surface; temperature, 81°.7 F. An artesian 
well in course of construction at Pesth, yielded, at a depth of 3100 ft., 175,000 gallons 
of water per day, of a temperature of 161° F., projected 35 ft. above the surface. One at 
Sperenburg, Prussia, is 4162 ft. deep. 

It is believed that the Chinese have been long acquainted with A.W. They have 
been in use for centuries in Austria, especially in the neighborhood of Vienna, where 
they are very abundant. No knowledge existed as to their source, and consequently the 
boring for them was engaged in and conducted in a rude and empirical manner. An 
excavation was made till a bed of clay was reached; on this a perforated mill-stone was 
laid, and through the hole the clay was bored until water rose. As soon as geology took 
the position of a science, and the theory of A. W. was propounded, the engineer was 
able, after the geological survey of a district, to discover whether a supply of water 
could there be obtained in this way. Already, districts formerly dry and arid have 
received a plentiful supply of water by means of such wells, and many more applications 
have yet to be made: it seems likely that erelong Africa’s deserts may thus be converted 
into fertile plains. In an official report of the Algerian government for 1856-57, it is 
stated that artesian borings had been executed in the Sahara of the province of Constan- 
tine with remarkable success. The first attempt, after a few weeks’ labor, produced a 
constant stream, forming a perfect river, and yielding 4010 quarts of water per minute, 
at a temperature of 78° F. There are now upwards of 75 such borings in the Sahara, 
yielding an aggregate of 600,000 gallons per hour. The result is proving beneficial not 
only to the country materially, but also to the character and habits of its nomadic Arab 
inhabitants. Several tribes have already settled down around these wells, and forming 
thus the centers of settlements, have constructed villages, planted date-palms, and entirely 
renounced their previous wandering existence. 

A. W. have supplied a portion of the data upon which the internal temperature of the 
earth has been calculated. They have their origin below that zone which is affected by 
the changing superficial temperature of the seasons, and consequently the water is of a 
constant temperature. Thus the Grenelle artesian well has a temperature of 81°°7 F., 
while the mean temperature of the air in the cellar of the Paris observatory is only &3°. 
MM. Arago and Walferdin observed the temperature as the work proceeded, and found 
that there was a gradual and regular increase downwards. The latter gentleman made 
a series of very accurate and careful observations on the temperature of two borings at 
Creuzot, within a mile of each other, commencing at a height of 1030 ft. above the sea, 
and going down to a depth, the one of 2678 ft., the other about 1900 ft. The results, 
after every possible caution had been taken to insure correctness, gave a rise of 1° F. 
for every 55 ft. down to a depth of 1800 ft., beyond which the rise was more rapid, 
being 1° for every 44 ft. of descent. There are several very deep borings in the United 
States; as at St. Louis (8843.5 ft.); Columbus (27751 ft.); Louisville, Ky. (2086 ft.) ; 
Charleston, S. C. (1250 ft.); and Galveston, Tex., where a boring of 3071 ft. failed to 
reach water. 

ARTEVELDE, JAcops, b. about 1285; a brewer of Ghent, a popular leader in the 14th 
century. In the war between England and France he gave his aid to the former, while 
the counts of Flanders supported the latter. A., after gaining great advantages over 
the party of the nobles, went too far when he proposed that the son of Edward III. of 
England should be elected count of Flanders. For this the Flemings were not prepared, 
and, in consequence, A. was killed in a popular insurrection Aug. 19, 1345. His son 
Philip, in 1381, was leader of the people of Ghent in their civil war against Bruges, and 
gained a victory over count Louis. The latter was afterwards assisted by Charles VI. 
of France, and Philip A. was slain and defeated in the battle of Rosbeke, 1382. The 
history of A. has been several times treated dramatically. In England, Sir Henry 
Taylor, a writer of eminence, has produced a beautiful ‘‘ closet-play,’’ entitled Philip 
Van Artevelde (1834). 

ARTHABAS’KA, a co. in Canada, province of Quebec; 850 sq. m.; pop. ’91, 43,927. 
Principal town, Arthabaskaville. 

ARTHRITIS, inflammation of the joints, arising from wounds, bruises, or surgicai 
operations, and sometimes without apparent cause. All, ora part, of the joint may be 
involved, and sometimes the pain is intense, even producing delirium or convulsions. 
The usual treatment is compression by cloths wet with cold water, rest, cooling diet, and 
sedatives. In some cases cupping or leeching may be proper. See Gout. 

ARTHROPODA, the name now used instead of Cuvier’s articulata, It includes 
erustacea, arachnida, myriapoda, and tnsecta, but excludes annelida. See ARTICU- 
LATA, 

ARTHUR, king of a tribe of ancient Britons, is supposed to have flourished in the 6th 
century. He is usually represented as a Christian prince who struggles bravely to main- 
tain the liberty and faith of his country against the pagan Saxons, but there is no evi- 
dence for the statement that he fought against the Saxon Cerdic. Neither the Welsh 
bards nor Nennius assert this; in fact, it would seem to be merely an inference drawn 
from the supposition that the scene of A.’s exploits was the w.and s.w. of England. 
But Mr. Skene (The Hour Ancient Books of Wales, vol.i., pp. 50-60) seeks to prove from 


762 


Arthur, 


an examination of Nennius (Historia Britonum, cap. 50), that the localities of the twelve 
great battles which A. fought are In Strathclyde, and therefore that he belongs to the 
region now called Scotland rather than to England. If there is any reality in his history 
at all, this is probably the correct view of it, but the influence of Geoffrey of Mon- 
mouth’s fictions, and of the French romances, succeeded in fixing the Cumbrian prince 
in the more important part of the island. It is a curious fact that no mention whatever 
is made of A. by the venerable Bede, the oldest of our historians, or by the annalists of 
the Saxon Chronicle; and Mr. Skene’s explanation, that these authorities only “record 
the struggle between the Britons and the Saxons s.of the Humber,” is hardly satis- 
factory. 

- In ne lays of the Welsh bards, supposed to be as early as the 6th and 7th c. 
(although no manuscript is extant of older date than the 12th c.), A. and his brave com- 
panions are celebrated, but modestly and without miracle. It is in Nennius that the 
legendary additions begin to develop themselves, though Mr. Skene does “‘not hesitate 
to receive the Arthur of Nennius as the historic Arthur.” Then follow at a distance of 
three or four centuries the so-called Armoric collections of Walter, archdeacon of 
Oxford, from whom Geoffrey of Monmouth (q.v.) professes to translate, and in which 
the marvelous and supernatural elements largely prevail. Here for the first time the 
magician Merlin comes into association with A. According to Geoffrey, A.’s father, 
Uther, conceiving a passion for Igerna, wife of Gorlois, duke of Cornwall, is changed 
by Merlin into the likeness of Gorlois, and A, was the result. After his father’s death, 
A. becomes paramount leader of the British, and makes victorious expeditions to Scot- 
land, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and even to France, where he defeats a great Roman 
army. During his absence, his nephew, Modred, revolts, and seduces prince A.’s wife, 
Guanhumara. A. returning, falls in a battle with his nephew; and is carried to the isle 
of Avall»n to be cured of his wounds. Geoffrey’s work apparently gave birth to a mul- 
titude of fictions which came to be considered as q jasi-historical traditions. From these, 
exaggerated by each succeeding age, and recast by each narrator, sprung the famous 
metrical romances of the 12th and 18th centuries, first in French and afterwards in 
English, from which modern notions of A. are derived. In these his habitual residence 
is at Caerleon, on the Usk, in Wales, where, with his beautiful wife Guinevere, he lives 
in splendid state, surrounded by hundreds of knights and beautiful ladies, who serve as 
patterns of valor, breeding, and grace to all the world. ‘Twelve knights, the bravest of 
the throng, form the center of this retinue, and sit with the king at a round table, the 
‘*‘knights of the round table.” From the court of king A., knights go forth to all coun- 
tries in search of adventures—to protect women, chastise oppressors, liberate the 
enchanted, enchain giants and malicious dwarfs, is their knightly mission. A Welsh 
collection of stories called the Mabinogion, of the 14th and 15th centuries, and translated 
into English by lady Charlotte Guest in 1849, gives an idea of the Arthurian legends. 
Some of the stories ‘‘ have the character of chivalric romances,” and are therefore prob: 
ably of French origin; while others ‘‘bear the impress of a far higher antiquity, both 
as regards the manners they depict, and the style of language in which they are com- 
posed.” These latter rarely mention A., but the former belong, as Mr. Skene puts it, to 
the ‘‘full-blown Arthurian romance.” Early in the 12th c., the Arthurian metrical 
romance became known in Germany, and there assumed a more animated and artistic 
form in the Parzival of Wolfram of Eschenbach, Zristan and Isolt of Gottfried of Stras- 
burg, Hrec and Iwein of Hartmann, and Wigalois of Wirnt. The most renowned of the 
heroes of the Arthurian school are Peredur (Parzival or Perceval), Tristan or Tristram, 
Iwein, Erec, Gawein, Wigalois, Wigamur, Gauriel, and Lancelot. From France, the 
Arthurian romance spread also to Spain, Provence, Italy, and the Netherlands, and was 
again retransplanted into England. One of the publications that issued from the press of 
Caxton (1485), was a collection of stories by Sir Thomas Malory, either compiled by him 
in English, from various of the later French prose romances, or translated directly from an 
already existing French compendium. Copland reprinted the work in 1557, and in 1634 
the last of the black-letter editions appeared. <A reprint of Caxton’s Kynge Arthur, with 
an introduction and notes, by Robert Southey, was issued in 1817 (The Byrth, Lyfe, and 
Actes of Kyng Arthur, etc., 2 vols. Sto). The best edition is that by Thomas Wright 
(Lond. 3 vols., 1866) from the text of 1634. The name of king A. was given during the 
middle ages to many places and monuments supposed to have been in some way associ- 
ated with his exploits, such as ‘‘ Arthur’s seat ” near Edinburgh, ‘‘ Arthur’s oven” on the 
Carron near Falkirk, etc. What was called the sepulchre of his queen was shown at 
Meigle, in Strathmore, in the 16th century. The interest of the legends about king A. 
ana f.s knights has been revived by the publication of Tennyson’s dylls of the King (1859 
et seq.). See Turner’s History of the Anglo-Saxons, Appendix; Ritson’s King Arthur; De 
la Villemarqué, Contes Populaires des Anciens Bretons (2 vols., Paris, 1842); Grisse, Die 
Grosse Sagenkreise des Mittelalters (Leip. 1842); Skene’s Four Ancient Books of Wales 
(Edin. 1868); Glennie’s Arthurian Localities (1869). 


_ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN, b. Vt. 1830, of Scottish parents. His father was a Baptist 
minister, pastor of churches in Vermont and New York. Chester was the fifth of seven 
children ; he graduated from Union college in 1848, studied law and became legal 
vartner of Erastus D. Culver, of New York, In 1852, A. had the management of the 


"63 Arthur, 


Lemmon slave case. The case was carried to the court of appeals, and in every removal 
was decided for the defendants (the slaves). Charles O’Conor was chief of the opposing 
counsel. In the case of a colored woman put off from a public car in New York, 
Arthur sued the company and recovered exemplary damages, A whig, and follower of 
Henry Clay, he early joined the republican party and became a leader. When the civil 
war broke out, he was intrusted with the arming and subsisting of the troops raised in 
the state of New York, and was afterwards quartermaster-general, engineer-in- chief, 
and inspector-general. He was chosen colonel of the ninth regiment for immediate active 
service, but at the urgent request of Gov. Morgan, declined the place, his military duties 
in the state being more important. Under his supervision 68 regiments of infantry, 
6 battalions, and 10 batteries were sent to the field in four months in 1861. In 1871, 
he was appointed collector of the port of New York, and four years afterwards was reap- : 
pointed with universal approval. He resigned after six years of service. In 1880, he 
was nominated as the republican candidate for vice-president, and was elected. Soon 
after his inauguration a contest arose in congress between the two wings of the repub- 
lican party, the ‘‘Stalwart” faction of which Arthur was an adherent and Roscoe 
Conkling a prominent leader, opposing several of the nominations of President Garfield, 
who was attached to the opposite faction. The struggle culminated in the resignation 
of Conkling and of his colleague, Thomas C. Platt, from the New York senatorship. 
Arthur espoused the cause of Conkling, and vainly sought to have him re-elected by the 
legislature. On July 2, 1881, four months after his inauguration, President Garfield was 
was shot by the assassin Guiteau, and lingered for 80 days. During this period of 
suspense Arthur retired into privacy, but at Garfield’s death (Sept. 19, 1881) he took the 
oath of office at his own house in New York, Sept. 20, and was publicly inaugurated 
president at Washington on the 22d. Ina brief address he promised to continue the 
policy of his predecessor, and, in fact, the change of administration showed its effects 
in the most gradual manner. The members of Garfield’s cabinet had sent in their resig- 
nation at once to the new president, but were requested to hold over until the meeting 
of congress. Only one of them, indeed, Robert E. Lincoln, sec. of war, was perma- 
nently retained in office, but some of the others had peremptorily insisted upon resigning. 
Arthur’s administration, while distinguished by no events of great importance, was in 
most respects satisfactory to the people, and was at least characterized by his earnest 
endeavor to be the president of the nation at large, and not of a party or of a faction. 
He d. in New York city, Nov. 18, 1886. 


ARTHUR, PRINcE (DUKE OF CoNNAUGHT), Prince of the United Kingdom, Duke of 
Saxony, Prince of Coburg and Gotha, the third son of Queen Victoria, was b. 1850 ; edu- 
cated at the Woolwich Military Academy ; became a lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, 
in 1868, and‘a lieutenant in the Royal Artillery, 1869. In the same year he was made 
lieutenant in the Rifle Brigade and captain in 1871. Prince Arthur was created Duke of 
Connaught and Strathearn, and Earl of Sussex, in 1874, and took his seat in the House 
of Lords in June of that year. In 1879 he married the Princess Margaret Louise, of 
Prussia, third daughter of Prince Frederick Charles and grand-niece of the Emperor of 
Germany. In 1880 he was made a general of brigade, and in 1882 major-general and 
commander of the Guards Brigade in the First Division in the expedition to Egypt. He 
was appointed commander of the Aldershot district in 1893. 


ARTHUR, TimoTHy SHAY, b. N. Y., 1809; an American story-writer who wrote a 
great number of moral and domestic tales and sketches which formerly had much popu- 
larity and established Arthur’s reputation. Hed. Philadelphia, 1885, 


ARTHUR, WILLIAM, b. Ireland, 1819, an author and clergyman in England and 
Ireland. He was three years in India as a missionary; afterwards secretary of the 
Wesleyan church missionary society, and president of the British conference, and was 
principal of the Wesleyan college in Belfast, 1867-71. He is the author of Personal 
Reminiscences of a Mission to the Mysore, The Successful Merchant, The Tongue of Fire, and 
other works. 


AR'THUR’S SEAT, a hill in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, which rises to the 
height of 822 ft. above the level of the sea. The ascent is easy, and the prospect from 
the top unrivaled. 

A. 8. is supposed to derive its name from the British king of that name. When the 
hill received this appellation is not known; but as early as the close of the 15th c., Ken- 
nedy, the Scotch poet, mentions ‘‘ Arthur Sate or ony hicher hill.” 

The hill is formed of a mass of trap of various species, upheaved through the carbon- 
iferous strata of central Scotland, and presenting on the w. and s. sides, at the height of 
570 ft., a perpendicular range of precipices, called Salisbury crags, 60 to 80 ft. high. 
The trap is in tabular masses, and has elevated and hardened the carboniferous sand: 
stone, shale, and limestone beds, which dip e., and crop out on the w., besides being 
broken through and overflowed by the trap-rocks. In the center of the hill, the trap often 
incloses fragments of sandstone, and divides it by veins. The central and upper part of 
the hill, and the remarkable columns called ‘‘Samson’s Ribs,” consist of basalt. To 
determine the density of the earth, a series of observations was made in 1855 by lieut.-col. 
James of the ordnance survey, on the attraction of A.S., or the amount of deviation 
from the vertical caused by its mass on the plumb-line. Calculation made the mean 

I. -25 


Arielest®- 764 


density of the whole earth 5.316 (water being 1), or about twice the mean specific gravity 
of the rocks forming the hill, which experiment gave as 2.710. 


ARTICHOKE, Cynara. scolymus, a thistle-like perennial plant, now growing wild in 
the s. of Europe, but probably a native of Asia. The genus cynara belongs to the natu 
ral order composite, sub-order cynarocephale, and is distinguished by the bracts of the 
involucre being fleshy at the base, and emarginate, with a hard point, and the receptacle 
fringed. C. scolymus has the radical leaves 3 to 4 ft. long, somewhat spiny, some of 
them pinnatifid, some undivided. ‘The stem is 2 or 3 ft. high, branched, with large 
heads of violet-colored (sometimes white) thistle-like flowers at the summits of the 
branches. The involucre is tumid, and consists of fleshy, roundish-ovate, crenate, acu- 
minate, imbricated scales. The seeds are elongated and quadrangular, with smooth and 
firmly attached pappus. The plant has been long cultivated for the sake of the delicate 
succulent receptacles of the heads of flowers, taken before the flowers expand, which are 
boiled and eaten, or, on the continent of Europe, eaten raw with salt and pepper. The 
part used is the same which is called the cheese in thistles by children, and is sometimes 
eaten by them. ‘The tender central leaf-stalk is also occasionally used in the same way 
as that of the cardoon. Several varieties are in cultivation, differing in the more or less 
spiny leaves, and the more or less globose form of the head. Artichokes are generally 
propagated by rooted slips or suckers in spring. These are planted in rows about 4 ft. 
asunder, and 2 ft. apart in the row. The A. bed continues productive for several years. 
Seaweed is an excellent manure.—The cardoon (q.v.) belongs to the same genus.—The 
Jerusalem A. (q.v.) is a totally different plant. 


ARTICLE (Lat. articulus, a joint) signifies in general a part of a systematic whole. 
Thus, we speak of the several articles of a confession; the articles of war; a leading arti- 
cle, etc. 

The use of A. as a grammatical term arose as follows. In such a sentence as, 
‘‘He found that (or the) man that he was looking for,” the Greeks considered the defin- 
ing particles as connecting the two parts of the sentence, and called them joints (Gr. 
arthra, Lat. articuli); the name was subsequently confined to the first of the two, the 
other being called the relative. 

In English, there are two articles—the definite the, and the indefinite a or an; and 
other modern languages have corresponding words. But articles are not essential to 
language. The Latin had no articles, and the Greek, as well as the older Germanic lan- 
guages, the Mceso-Gothic and Old Norse, e.g., had only the definite A. ‘‘In no lan- 
guage,” says Dr. Latham, ‘‘in its oldest stage, is there ever a word giving, in its primary 
sense, the idea of an or of the. As tongues become modern, some word with a stmilar 
sense is used to express the relation. In the course of time, a change of form takes place, 
corresponding to the change of meaning.” 

The definite articles originate uniformly in demonstrative pronouns. Eng. the is only 
a weakened form of that(Anglo-Sax. thet). The same is the case with Ger. der, and Fr. 
te, Ital. 22 and Jo, and Sp. e/, are all from the Lat. dl/e, ‘‘that.” In like manner, an or a 
is from the old form of one (ane); Ger. ein is both one and a; and so are Fr. wn, Ital. and 
Sp. uno, both from Lat. wnws = one. . 

In the Scandinavian tongues, the article is attached to the end of the word; the 
Danish, for example, writes kong-en, the king; hus-et, the house. : 


ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION, the printed regulations for the conduct of the business 
of a joint-stock company registered under the Companies Act passed by the British 
parliament in 1862. They are signed by the subscribers to the memorandum of associa- 
tion, and with the latter instrument are registered by the registrar of joint-stock 
companies, who grants a certificate of incorporation: The model regulations prescribed 
by the Companies Act form the Articles of Association, unless expressly altered by the 
company. See Joint-Stock CoMPANY. 


ARTICLES FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, Although 
the regulations governing the navy are in many respects similar to those of the army 
(see ARTICLES OF WAR), there is a considerable difference between the two, the special 
features, as far as the navy is concerned, being such as would most naturally apply to 
affairs afloat in contradistinction to those on shore. There are in all sixty articles, the 
first of which direct all commanders of fleets, Squadrons, naval stations and vessels 
belonging to the navy to show in themselves a good example of virtue, honor, patriotism 
and subordination. The second article directs a due observance of the Sabbath and the 
holding of divine service wherever chaplains are attached, and the third relates to 
punishment to follow irreverent or unbecoming behavior during divine service. Fol- 
lowing these are six articles in relation to courts-martial and punishments and later there 
are forty or more other articles on the same subject. The punishment of imprisonment 
for life or fora stated term at hard labor can be substituted by a court-martial in any 
case where it is authorized to adjudge the punishment of death, and such sentences of 
imprisonment and hard Jabor may be carried into execution in any prison or penitentiary 
under the control of the United States or which the United States may be allowed to 
use. Any officer who absents himself from his command without leave may, by the 
sentence of a court-martial, be reduced to the rating of an ordinary seaman, Any com- 


765 Artichoke 


Articles, 


missioned officer who, having tendered his resignation, quits his post or proper duties 
without leave, and with intent to remain permanently away, prior to due notice of the 
acceptance of his resignation, is deemed and punished as a deserter. No person con- 
nected with the navy is under any pretense to import in a public vessel any article which 
is liable to the payment of duty. Distilled spirits are admitted on board vessels of war 
only upon the order and under the control of the medical officers of such vessels, and 
to be used only for medical purposes. No person in the navy is allowed to take out of 
a prize any money, plate, goods, or any part of her equipment, unless it be for its better 
preservation or unless such articles are absolutely needed for the use of other vessels or 
United States forces before judgment has been passed by a competent court. Dismissal 
follows if any one in the naval service uses force to return any fugitive from service or 
labor, as does also the enlisting of any person who is known to be a deserter, an insane 
or intoxicated person or minor, without the consent of the latter’s guardian. When the 
crew of any vessel are separated from their vessel by means of her loss or destruction, 
all the command and authority given to the officers of such vessel remain in full force 
until the ship’s company are regularly discharged from or ordered again into service. 
Courts of inquiry are as a rule held to inquire into the loss of vessels. All offenses com- 
mitted by persons belonging to the navy while on shore are punished as though they 
had been committed at sea. No officer is dismissed from the navy except by order of 
the President or by sentence of a general court-martial ; and in time of peace no officer 
can be dismissed except in pursuance of the sentence of a general court-martial or in 
mitigation thereof. Any person refusing to give evidence before a court-martial can be 
imprisoned by the court for any time not exceeding two months. No sentence extending 
to loss of life or the dismissal of a commissioned or warrant officer can be carried into 
execution until confirmed by the President. All other sentences require only the confir- 
mation of the commander of the fleet or officer ordering the court. Every officer who 
is authorized to convene a general court-martial has power on revising the proceedings 
to remit or mitigate, but not to commute, the sentence of any such court which he is 
authorized to approve and confirm. 


ARTICLES OF FAITH, are summarized statements of the views held and taught by a 
religious body as the essential doctrine of its system. They, therefore, ina way, are the 
same in effect as a creed (q.v.). They have been divided by Protestant writers into arti- 
cles that are fundamental and those that are non-fundamental, and are of progressive 
growth, historically considered. The best-known articles of faith are the Apostles’ 
Creed (composed about 300 A.D.), the Nicene Creed, established by the Council of Nice 
(A.D. 325) ; the Athanasian Creed ; the statements of faith, promulgated by the Council 
of Constantinople (A.D. 381), and by the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431); the Thirty- 
Nine Articles (q.v.) of the Church of England, drawn up by Cranmer and Ridley in 
1562 ; the Augsburg Confession, the Helvetic Confession, the Thirty-Seven Articles of 
the Church of the Netherlands, and the articles of the Methodist Episcopal Church. No 
definite articles of faith appear to have been drawn up by the primitive church until the 
spread of Christianity and the geographical separation of its different branches made 
some brief formulariés necessary as a basis of union, 


ARTICLES OF WAR. The Articles of War are intended to set forth as clearly and 
concisely as possible the various offenses and punishments for the same in order that 
officers and men may understand exactly what they are to expect when they commit 
breaches of discipline. They also show the general methods of procedure to be followed 
in cases of courts-martial or courts of inquiry. And in order that all shall be thoroughly 
familiar with what is contained in the various articles they are to be read and published, 
once in every six months, to every garrison, regiment, troop or company in the service 
of the United States, and are to be duly observed and obeyed by all officers and soldiers 
in said service. These rules were originally borrowed from the English mutiny act, 
annually passed by parliament, and their articles of war established by the King. 

The existing articles in the United States service were enacted April 10th, 1806, and 
are substantially the same as those borrowed July 30th, 1775, and enlarged by the old 
Congress from the same sources September 20th, 1776. There are now one hundred and 
twenty-eight articles, nineteen of which relate to the organization and the methods of 
proceedings in general and regimental courts-martial and courts of inquiry, two to the 
oaths to be administered upon such occasions, five to the subject of arrests, twenty-two 
to special features of the regulations, and the remainder, forming the very large ma- 
jority, to the punishments that can be awarded for certain specified offenses. Officers 
are tried only by general courts-martial, and no officer shall, when it can be avoided, be 
tried by officers inferior to him in rank, In war times a field officer may be detailed in 
every regiment to try soldiers for offenses that are not capital. Regimental courts are 
ordered on enlisted men by officers commanding corps, regiments, garrisons, forts, or 
other places ; and they consist of three officers who have power to try all offenses not 
capital. The jurisdiction of the courts is limited and they cannot inflict a fine exceeding 
one month’s pay, nor can they imprison an offender or put him to hard labor for a 
longer time than one month. When an officer is put under arrest for the purpose of 
trial, except at remote military posts or stations, the officer by whose order he is arrested 
must see that a copy of the charges on which he is to be tried is served upon him within 
eight days after his arrest ; and that he is brought to trial within ten days thereafter, 


766 


Articles. 


unless the necessities of the service prevent such trial; and then he shall be brought to 
trial within thirty days after the expiration of the ten days. If a copy of the charges 
be not served, or the arrested officer be not brought to trial as above stated, the arrest 
ceases. Any general officer commanding a United States army or a separate depart- 
ment is competent to order a general court-martial either in time of peace or In time of 
war, and in war times a division commander or separate brigade commander has similar 
authority. But when any such commander is the accuser or prosecutor of any officer 
under his command, the court is appointed by the President, and its proceedings and 
sentence are sent directly to the secretary of war, by whom they are placed before the 
President, for his approval or orders in the case. Some of the offenses of which courts- 
martial can take cognizance are, mustering persons not soldiers, making unlawful enlist- 
ments, wasting ammunition, losing or spoiling accoutrements, disrespect toward the 
President or commanding officer, reproachful or provoking words, gestures, or menaces, 
challenging or accepting a challenge to fight a duel, or acting as second in a duel, 
absence without leave or after leave shall have expired, misconduct at divine service, 
fraud, embezzlement, releasing a prisoner without authority. Drunkenness on duty in 
she case of an officer was punishable by dismissal from the service. In the case of an 
enlisted man the award was at one time such corporal punishment as a court-martial 
might direct, but in 1875 this article was amended and since then no court-martial has 
been permitted to award flogging or branding, marking or tattooing on the body. 
Cashiering from the service is awarded by court-martial in the case of officers who 
knowingly entertain or receive deserters or who do not upon the discovery of a 
deserter arrest and give notice at once to the corps in which such deserter last served. 
Making false returns also subjects the offender to punishment by cashiering. While 
giving courts-martial great latitude, the articles of war prescribe certain punishments 
that, after full investigation, are to be awarded in case the offense be proven. For ex- 
ample, dismissal from the service follows the signing of a false certificate, taking gratifi- 
cation money on mustering a regiment, troop, battery, or company ; or making a false 
muster, placing a duty or imposition upon the sale of liquor, victuals or the necessaries 
of life brought into the garrison for the use of the soldiers, dueling or challenging 
another to fight a duel, drunk on duty, refusing, in the case of personal differences, to see 
justice done the offender and reparation made to the party injured, refusing or willfully 
neglecting, except in war times, to deliver offenders to the civil magistrates, when such 
offenses have been committed over which they have jurisdiction, conduct unbecoming 
an officer and a gentleman, leaving limits of confinement before being released by 
the commanding officer. In time of peace no sentence directing the dismissal of an 
officer is carried into execution untilapproved by the President. Disr.issal when 
awarded by division or brigade courts must always be confirmed by the general com- 
manding the army in the field to which the division or brigade belongs, before it can be 
carried into execution, The articles of war make a marked distinction between offenses 
committed in time of war and similar misdemeanors in peace times. For example, no 
sentence inflicting the punishment of death shall be carried into execution until it shall 
have been confirmed by the President ; except in the cases of persons convicted in time 
of war as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers ; and in the cases of guerrilla maraud- 
ers, convicted in time of war of robbery, burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to 
commit rape, or of violation of the laws and customs of war. In such accepted cases 
the sentence of death may be carried into execution upon confirmation by the command- 
ing general in the field or the commander of the department, as the case may be, thereby 
granting an authority to such officers as they cannot wield in time of peace. The 
punishment of death can be awarded at the option of a court-martial to any officer or 
soldier who, on any pretense whatsoever, strikes his superior officer, or draws or lifts up 
any weapon, or offers any violence against him, being in the execution of his office, or 
disobeys any lawful command of his superior officer. 

Exciting or joining in any mutiny or sedition, or failing to resist the same, subject the 
offender to suffer death, as do sleeping on post, raising false alarms, cowardice and mis- 
behavior before the enemy, surrendering a garrison or fortress unnecessarily, disclosing 
the watchword, relieving the enemy or corresponding with him, doing any violence to 
any persons bringing provisions or other necessaries 10 camp, and desertion. 

The articles of war in relation to the crime of desertion are the only ones that have 
very recently been amended and at present they stand as follows. No person shall be tried 
or punished by a court-martial for desertion in time of peace and not in the face of an 
enemy, committed more than two years before the arraignment of such person for such 
oifense, unless he shall meanwhile have absented himself from the United States, in 
which case the time of his absence shall be excluded in computing the period of the 
limitation : provided that said limitation shall not begin until the end of the term for 
Miami gid was mustered into the service. See CouRnT-MARTIAL ; DESERTION ; 

In England there are separate articles of war for the forces serving in England and 


India, for the marines, and for the nav They w 
, é ; - ere all, as at present constituted, made 
law by acts of Parliament in 1858-9. ; ‘: s 


767 Articles. 


ARTICLES, THE SIX, often mentioned in the ecclesiastical history of England in the 
16th c., were articles imposed by act of parliament in 1539, when Henry VIII. being 
displeased with some of the bishops most favorable to the reformation, their opponents 
for a time regained the ascendency. These A. asserted the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion, declared communion in both kinds not to be necessary, condemned the marriage 
of priests, enjoined the continued observance of vows of chastity, and sanctioned private 
masses and auricular confession. The act imposing them was popularly called ‘‘ the 
six-stringed whip.” Severe penalties were appointed for writing or speaking against 
them, and for abstaining from confession or the sacrament at the accustomed times, for 
priests failing to put away their wives, and for persons writing or speaking against the 
doctrine of transubstantiation. Archbishop Cranmer vainly opposed the act in the 
house of lords: the king was resolute to have it passed. Its severity was mitigated by a 
subsequent act of his reign (1544), and although it continued substantially unrepealed, it 
was transgressed with impunity even by ecclesiastical dignitaries. 


ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the church of England, are the articles of 
religion which were agreed upon by the archbishops and bishops of both provinces and 
the whole clergy in the convocation held at London in the 4th year of Elizabeth, 1562, 
under Archbishop Parker. To have a clear view of the history of these important 
articles, we must go back to the promulgation of the origiual ones, 42 in number, in the 
reign of Edward VI. The council appointed by the will of Henry VIII. to conduct the 
government during the king’s minority, was for the most part favorably disposed 
towards the reformed opinions, and the management of church affairs devolved almost 
entirely upon archbishop Cranmer. In the year 1549, an act of parliament was passed, 
empowering the king to appoint a commission of 82 persons, to make ecclesiastical laws. 
Under this act, a commission of 8 bishops, 8 divines, 8 civilians, and 8 lawyers (amongst 
whom were Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, Coverdale, Scory, Peter Martyr, Justice Hales, 
etc.) was appointed in 1851, and one of its first acts was to draw up a code of articles 
of faith. These were 42 in number, and were set forth by the king’s authority in 1553. 
Strype and Burnet make it appear that these 42 articles were agreed upon in the convo- 
cation that was sitting in 1552, but this was not the case. Fuller, speaking in his quaint 
way of this convocation, declares that it had ‘‘no commission from the king to meddle 
with church business, and,” he adds, ‘‘every convocation in itself is born deaf and 
dumb, so that it can neither hear nor speak concerning complaints in religion till first 
Ephphatha, ‘Be thou opened,’ be pronounced unto it by royal authority. However,” 
he continues, ‘‘this barren convocation is entitled the parent of those 42 articles which 
are printed with this title, Articuli de quibus in Synodo Londinensi 1552 A.D. inter Hpiscopos 
et alios convenerat.”” 'To these articles was prefixed the catechism, and there is no doubt 
of Cranmer having had the principal hand in their composition; for he owned before 
Queen Mary’s commission that they were his doing. But immediately after their 
publication, Edward died, and one of the first acts of the convocation summoned with 
the parliament in the first year of Queen Mary, was to declare that these 42 articles had 
not been set forth by the agreement of that house, and that they did not agree thereto. 
In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her sister. In 1559, Parker was installed in the see of 
Canterbury, and immediately the other vacant sees were filled up. And now came a 
fresh opportunity of drawing up some articles of faith which might serve as a test of 
orthodoxy in the reformed church. Parker applied himself to this work, and, for the 
purpose, revised the 42 articles of king Edward, rejecting 4 of them entirely, and 
introducing 4 new ones, viz., the 5th, 12th, 29th, and 80th as they now stand, and alter- 
ing more or less 17 others. This draft Parker laid before the convocation which 
met in 1562, where further alterations were made; and the 389th, 40th, and 42d of king 
Edward’s, which treated of the resurrection, the intermediate state, and the doctrine of 
the final salvation of all men, -were finally rejected. The 41st of King Edward’s, which 
condemned the Millenarians, was one of the four which Parker omitted. Thus the arti- 
cles were reduced to 39. They were urawn up and ratified in Latin, but when they 
were printed, as was done both in Latin and English, the 29th was omitted, and so the 
number was further reduced to 88. From these 88 there was a further omis- 
sion, viz., of the first half of the 20th article, which declares that ‘‘the church hath 
power to decree rites and ceremonies, and hath authority in controversies of faith.” As all 
the records of convocation perished in the great fire of 1666, it is very difficult to ascertain 
how these omissions arose. However, in 1571, the articles once more underwent revision. 
Archbishop Parker and Bishop Jewell made a few trifling alterations, and the 29th being 
restored, the convocation which was then sitting ratified them both in Latin and Eng- 
lish, and an act of parliament was passed in that year compelling the clergy to subscribe 
“such of them as only concern the confession of the true Christian faith, and the 
doctrine of the sacraments.” There still, however, remained some difficulty as to which 
was the authorized copy, some of the copies being printed with, and others without, 
the disputed clause of the 20th; but this was finally settled by the canons passed in the 
convocation of 1604, which left the 39 articles as they now stand. ‘ His majesty’s 
declaration,” which precedes them, and directs that they shall be interpreted ‘‘in their 
literal and grammatical sense,” was prefixed by Charles I. in 1628. 

It may be interesting to know from what other sources the 39 articles are derived. 


Articulata. 
Artificial. 7 6 8 


Some of them, as the 1st, 2d, 25th, and 3ist, agree not only in their doctrine, but 
in most of their wording, with the confession of Augsburg. The 9th and 16th are 
clearly due to the same source. Some of them, as the 19th, 20th, 25th, and 34th, 
resemble, both in doctrine and verbally, certain articles drawn up by a commission 
appointed by Henry VIIL, and annotated by the king’s own hand. he 11th article, 
on justification, is ascribed to Cranmer, but the latter part of it only existed in the 
articles of 1552. The 17th, on predestination, may be traced to the writings of Luther 
and Melanchthon. 

The 89 articles have been described as ‘‘containing a whole body of divinity.” 
This can hardly be maintained. They contain, however, what the Church of England 
holds to be a fair scriptural account of the leading doctrines of Christianity, together 
with a condemnation of what she considers to be the principal errors of the church of 
Rome, and of certain Protestant sects. As faras they go (and there are many things 
unnoticed by them) they are a legal definition of the doctrines of the church of England 
and Ireland; though it is to the Book ef Common Prayer that members of that com- 
munion look for the genuine expression of their faith. They were adopted by the con- 
vocation of the Irish church in 1635, and by the Scotch Episcopal church at the close of 
the 18th century. Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, contains the only copies of the A. 
in manuscript or print that are of any authority. Amongst them are the Latin manu- 
script of the A. of 1562, and the English manuscript of the A. of 1571, each with the 
signatures of the archbishops and bishops who subscribed them. See An Account of the 
Thirty-nine A., By Dr. Lamb, 

For other ‘“‘ Articles,” see LAMBETH, PERTH, and SCHMALKALD,. 


ARTICULA’TA, or ARTIC'ULATED ANIMALS, one of the great primary divisions of the 
animal kingdom, according to the system of Cuvier, who in this is followed by recent 
naturalists generally. The term indicates not the possession of articulated members, but 
the articulated structure of the whole body. The A. are composed of segments articu- 
lated or jointed together in a line, each segment being formed of one or more rings, 
which in some appear externally as mere transverse folds in a soft skin, but are 
often covered with a hard substance similar in chemical composition to the bones 
of vertebrated animals. To this the muscles are attached, and it has sometimes 
received the name of an external skeleton—a name perhaps suggestive of closer and 
more numerous analogies to the bony framework of the vertebrated animals than actually 
exist. In some of the A. the rings are almost equally developed; in others, the differ- 
ence is very great. They are divided into those which have and those which have not 
articulated members, the first subdivision including insects, arachnida, crustacea, and 
myriapoda; the latter, annelida and entozoa. Some naturalists rank cirrhopoda 
(barnacles, acorn-shells, etc.) among the A., and regard them as intermediate between 
these two subdivisions; others follow Cuvier in placing them among the mollusca. The 
rotifera (or wheel animalcules) are also placed by some in the second subdivision of the 
A., but their right to be so placed is by no means well established. It is in the first 
subdivision only that the rings are very distinctly grouped in what are called segments 
of the animal; and even in the myriapoda (centipedes, julz, etc.) they often seem little 
else than mere repetitions of each other; whilst in some of the crustacea, as the crabs, 
the trunk becoming encased ina hard envelope, the segments become immovably united, 
so that they no longer appear as distinct. A few only of the lowest A., however, are 
destitute of a distinct head, in which are placed the eyes and other organs of special 
senses, with regard to which there is considerable difference in the different classes. In 
it also they usually have jaws for seizing their food and cutting or tearing it to pieces. 
Their jaws do not open vertically, as in vertebrate animals, but laterally; and there are 
frequently several pairs of them. Some, however, have the mouth adapted merely for 
suction. The alimentary tube often proceeds in a straight line from one extremity of 
the body to the other; and when it is convoluted, its convolutions are usually few. 
There is no proper heart; but instead of it, we find a dorsal vessel, a tube carried along the 
central line of the body near the back or upper side, aud divided in a manner corre- 
sponding with the division of the body into rings and segments; a general connection 
being thus maintained, whilst each segment or each ring has to a certain extent a system 
of circulation for itself. | Respiration is effected either by gills (ranchie), which is the 
case in those A. that live in water, or by air-tubes (¢rachew) and sacs; and the aération of 
the blood taking place not merely in one or two, but in many of the rings, great mus- 
cular power and activity are maintained without a very active circulation. ‘The muscular 
power is, indeed, greater in proportion to the size in the A. than in any other animals, 
The blood is usually white; in some of the annelida alone it is red; but this color (see 
ANNELIDA) does not indicate any approach to the higher classes of animals, although 
even Cuvier appears to have regarded it as a reason for assigning to the annelida the 
first place among the A, The nervous system exhibits a great similarity throughout the 
whole of the A., and corresponds in its general plan with their system of circulation. 
It consists of a series of small nervous masses or ganglia, arranged in a chain along 
the central line of the body on the under side of the animal. A ganglion in the head is 
often termed the brain, and from it proceed the optic nerves and other nerves of the 
special senses; but it by no means perfectly corresponds to the brain in vertebrate 


10 Articulata. 
769 Artificial. 


animals, There is usually a ganglion for each ring. The ganglia themselves are 
double or composed of two haves, more or less distinctly separ- 
ated; the connecting cord aiso is double. In those A. which 
have articulated limbs, the ganglia are largest in the parts of 
the trunk with which the limbs are connected, whilst they 
almost disappear from the more unimportant rings; in the crabs, 
and some other tailless or very short tailed crustacea, they are 
condensed into two masses. A 

The remains of the A. in the fossiliferous rocks are numerous, 
although often so fragmentary and imperfect that the determi- 
nation of genus and species is impossible, and their complex 
organization cannot be thoroughly investigated. It is evident, . 
however, that many of them differed much from any animals | 
now known to exist, and changes can be observed from one 
geologic period to another; the great crustacean family of the 
trilobites (q.v.), for example, being found only in the paleeozoic 
rocks. Markings, supposed to be the tracks and burrows of 
marine worms, appear among the earliest traces of animal life. 

Nervous System of an 


ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. See FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL, Insect. 


_ ARTIFICIAL HORIZON, a reflecting surface usually of quicksilver in an open 
dish, useful in finding aititude when the natural horizon is indefinable, and in determin- 
ing the zero for all instruments by which altitude is measured. 


ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, With the exception of the celebrated artificial hand of the 
German knight, Gétz von Berlichingen*—who flourished in the early part of the 16th c. 
(1513), and who was named The Llron-handed—which weighed three pounds, was so 
constructed as to grasp a sword or lance, and was invented by a mechanic of Nurem- 
berg, our knowledge of artificial limbs dates from the time of Ambrose Paré, whose 
Guvres de Chirurgie were published in 1575. The twelfth chapter of that volume, as 
translated by Thomas Johnson in 1605, shows ‘‘ by what means arms, legs, and hands 
may be made by art, and placed instead of the natural arms, legs, and hands that are 
cut off or lost.” No improvements worthy of record were made from the time of 
Ambrose Paré to the beginning of the present century, when Baillif of Berlin con- 
structed a hand which did not exceed a pound in weight, and in which the fingers, 
without the aid of the natural hand, not only exercised the movements of flexion and 
extension, but could be closed upon and retain light objects, such as a hat, and 
even a pen. ‘Artificial hands,” says Mr. Heather Bigg, ‘‘are now constructed, by 
means of which a pin may be picked up from the ground, a glass raised to the lips, 
food carried to the mouth, and a sword drawn from its scabbard and held with con- 
siderable firmness; while a combined arm and hand is fabricated, which is equal to 
the ordinary requirements of histrionic declamation.”—Orthoprazy, 1865, p. 157. The 
utility of an artificial arm depends much on the nature of the stump. A stump 
above the elbow is best suited for an arm when it gradually tapers to its lowest end, 
and terminates in a rounded surface. When an arm is removed at the shoulder- 
joint, and there is no stump, an artificial arm can still be fixed in its proper place by 
means of acorset. In amputation below the elbow-joint, the best stump is one which 
includes about two thirds of the forearm; while a stump formed by amputation at the 
wrist is very unsatisfactory. The simplest form of artificial arm intended to be 
attached to a stump terminating above the elbow, ‘‘consists of a leathern sheath 
accurately fitted to the upper part of the stump. The lower end of the sheath is fur- 
nished with a wooden block and metal screw-plate, to which can be attached a fork for 
holding meat, a knife for cutting food, or a hook for carrying a weight.”—Op. cit. 
p. 160. The arm should be so carried as to represent the position of the natural arm 
when at rest. It is retained in its position by shoulder and breast straps, and forms a 
light, useful, and inexpensive substitute for the lost member. More complicated and 
therefore more expensive pieces of apparatus are made, in which motion is given to the 
fingers, a lateral action of the thumb is obtained, and the wrist-movements are partially 
imitated; and a degree of natural softness is given to the hand by a covering of gutta- 
percha and India-rubber. Such a hand, says Mr. Bigg, is often more symmetrical in 
aspect than the natural hand, but it possesses no efficient grasping power. Hence provi- 
sion has to be made for attaching various instruments to its palm, such as special hooks, 
which can be removed at pleasure, for driving, shooting, etc.; apparatus for using the 
knife and the fork, for grasping the pen, etc.: indeed, the number and variety of instru- 
ments capable of being applied to an artificial hand are extremely great. Nothing has 
tended so much to the very highest development of artificial arms and hands, as an acci- 


* The iron hand of this knight, who has been immortalized by Goethe, is preserved at Jaxthausen, 
near Heilbronn, and a duplicate of it isin the Schloss at Erbach, in the Odenwald. It is stated in 
Scott’s Border Antiquities, vol. ii., p. 206, that the family of Clephane of Carslogie ‘‘ have been in 
possession from time immemorial of a hand made in the exact representation of that of a man, 
curiously formed of steel,” which was conferred by one of the kings of Scotland on a laird of Cars- 
logie, who had lost his hand in the service of his country.—_See Notes and Queries for July 17, 1867, 
p. 35. 


Artigas. londlard 
Artillery. ‘ (0 


dent which happened more than a quarter of a century ago to the celebrated French 
tenor, M. Roger, who lost his right arm above the elbow. It was necessary for his 
future appearance on the stage, that he should have an artificial limb, which would 
serve the purposes of histrionic action, and permit him to grasp a sword and draw it 
from its scabbard. Such a contrivance was invented in 1845 by Van Petersen, a Prus- 
sian mechanician, and the French academy of sciences commissioned MM. Gambey, 
Rayer, Velpeau, and Magendie to report upon it. For a history of the nature 
of the limb, the reader is referred to the report which appeared in the Comptes 
Rendus for that date, or to Mr. Bigg’s Orthopraxy, pp. 176-181. The apparatus, which 
weighs less than 18 oz., was tested upon a soldier who had lost both arms. By its 
aid he was enabled to pick up a pen, take hold of a leaf of paper, etc.; and the old 
man’s joy during the experiment was so great, that the academy presented him with a 
pair of these arms. Van Petersen’s conceptions have been extended and improved by 
Messrs. Charriére, the celebrated surgical mechanics of Paris, aided by M. Huguier, the 
well-known surgeon. A very marvelous arm has also been almost simultaneously con- 
structed by M. Bechard, which, ‘‘by means of a single point of traction, placed in pro- 
nation, executes first the movement of supination, next in succession the extension of 
the fingers and abduction of the thumb: the hand is then wide open.”’—Bigg, op. cit. 
. 190. 

ss Artificial legs, having fewer requirements to perform than artificial arms, are com- 
paratively simple in structure. We borrow the description of the ordinary bucket leg 
in common use amongst the poorer classes from Mr. Bigg’s Orthopraay. ‘‘It con- 
sists of a hollow sheath or bucket, accurately conformed to the shape of the stump, 
and having—in lieu of the more symmetric proportions of the artificial leg—a ‘pin? 
placed at its lower end to insure connection between it and the ground. This form 
of leg is strongly to be recommended when expense is an object, as it really fulfills 
all the conditions excepting external similitude embraced by a better piece of mechan- 
ism. It is likewise occasionally employed with benefit by those patients who, from lack 
of confidence, prefer learning the use of an artificial leg by first practicing with the 
commonest substitute.” As, when the body rests on a single leg, the center of gravity 
passes through the tuberosity of the ischium, it is essential that the bucket should be so 
made as to have its sole point of bearing against this part of the pelvis. . 

Of the more complicated forms of artificial leg, three are especially popular. The 
first of these is of English origin, and, owing to its having been adopted by the late 
marquis of Anglesea, is known as the Anglesea leg. For a description of it the reader is 
referred to Gray’s work on Artificial Limbs, one of the firm of Grays having been the 
constructor of the legs used by the marquis. This was for a long time the fashionable 
artificial leg. ‘The second leg worthy of notice is that invented by an American named 
Palmer, and called the Palmer leg. From its lightness and the greater ease of walking 
with it, it has long superseded the Anglesea leg in America. In the third of these legs, also 
invented in America, and known as Dr. Bly’s leg. the principal faults of the two other 
legs have been completely overcome. The advantages of this leg are thus summed up 
by Mr. Bigg, who has fully described and figured its mechanism: (1.) Adaptation to all 
amputations either above or below the knee. (2.) Rotation and lateral action of the 
ankle-joint. (8.) Power on the part of the patient to walk with ease on any surface, 
however irregular, as, owing to the motion of the ankle-joint, the sole of the foot readily 
accommodates itself to the unevenness of the ground, which is an advantage never 
before possessed by any artificial limb. (4.) The ankle-joint is rendered perfectly inde- 
structible by ordinary wear, owing to its center being composed of a glass ball resting in 
a cup of vulcanite; thus it never gets out of repair, as the Anglesea leg but too frequently 
does, and the original cost is almost the only one the patient incurs. (5.) The action of the 
ankle-joint is created by five tendons, arranged in accordance with the position assigned 
to them in a natural leg. These tendons are capable of being rendered tight or loose in 
a few instants, so that the wearer of the leg has the power of adjusting with precision 
the exact degree of tension from which he finds the greatest comfort in walking, and 
also of giving the foot any position most pleasing to the eye. (6.) There is a self-acting 
spring in the knee-joint, urging the leg forward in walking, and imparting automatic 
motion, thus avoiding the least trouble to the patient, who finds the leg literally and not 
metaphorically walk by itself. (7.) The whole is covered by a beautiful flesh-colored 
evamel, thus avoiding the clumsy appearance of the wood, as is always found in an 
Anglesea leg admitting of its being washed with soap and water like the human skin. 
(8.) At the knee-joint there is a mechanical arrangement representing the crucial liga- 
ments, and affording natural action to that articulation by which all shock to the stump 
in walking is avoided. This leg is patented, and, as might be expected, is somewhat 
expensive. 

In cases of arrested development of the lower limbs, short-legged persons may be 
made of the ordinary height by the use of two artificial feet placed twelve or more 
inchs below the true feet, and attached to the legs by means of metallic rods, jointed at 
the knee and ankle. - 

Other parts not entitled to be called limbs, can also be replaced by mechanical art— 
such as the nose, lips, ears; palate, cheek, and eye. In the present advanced state of 
plastic surgery, deficiencies of the nose, lips, and palate can usually be remedied by an 


Artigas. 
rip: Artillery. 


operation; cases, however, may occur where an artificial organ is required. Artificial 
ears are molded of silver, painted the natural color, and fixed in their place by a spring 
over the vertex of the head. Loss of an eye causes sad disfigurement; but the artificial 
eyes of Boissonneau (see his Renseignements Généraua sur les Yeux Artificiels, leur Adop- 
tion et leur Usage), which have been shown in all the recent public exhibitions, completely 
throw all others in the shade, and cannot be detected without the closest inspection. 
For further details on all these subjects we must refer to Mr. Bigg’s volume, which is a 
complete encyclopedia on these and allied topics. 


ARTI GAS, Jost, 1755-1851 ; a Montevidean officer and dictator. At anearly age 
he went into service in Buenos Ayres in the insurrection against Spain, and won a num- 
ber of victories. He then joined the republican army besieging the Brazilian troops 
occupying Montevideo, but he acted so independently that the director outlawed him. 
A. then organized a force of gwachos (cattle-drivers), defeated the troops sent against him, 
and forced the junta to give him the whole of Uruguay, and recognize him as an inde. 
pendent chief. He drove the Portuguese out of Montevideo, became dictator, and in 
1815 made an unsuccessful effort to take Buenos Ayres. He was defeated from time to 
time, and in 1820 fled to Paraguay; but the dictator there sent him to Candelaria, where 
he passed the remainder of his life in peace as a political exile. 


ARTILLERY. The history of artillery may be said to date from the discovery of 
gunpowder, which is popularly attributed to Roger Bacon and Barthold Schwarz, two 
monks of the thirteenth century, although a mixture of nitre, charcoal, and sulphur 
was used for explosive purposes by the Chinese during the ninth century. Its intro- 
duction into European warfare is due to the Moors, for mention is made of artillery at 
Cordova in 1280. Ferdinand IV. of Castile took Gibraltar with artillery in 1809, and 
cannon were used at the sieges of Baza, Martos, and Alicante. This arm soon became 
known throughout Europe. The French availed themselves of it at the siege of Puy 
Guillaume in 1838, and the English had three small guns at the battle of Crécy in 1346. 
In the French war of independence against the English artillery was much used, and 
in 1428 Joan of Arc is said to have pointed the guns herself. The guns of the fourteenth 
century were of the rudest design ; in the fifteenth century Charles VIII. of France 
used an improved artillery in his Italian campaigns ; while to this arm, also, Louis XII. 
largely owed his success in Italy. Henry VII. and Henry VIII. of England did much 
for its advancement. During the sixteenth century brass guns and cast-iron projectiles 
were adopted throughout Europe, while Tartaglia in Italy made great improvements in 
gunnery, and invented the gunner’s quadrant. During the latter part of this century 
case-shot, the German hagelkugel, was invented, and shells were fired from mortars. 
The first half of the seventeenth century forms an era in the history of artillery. Henry 
IV. of France was among the first to recognize its coming importance, and occupied 
himself diligently with its improvement. Maurice and Henry Frederick of Nassau 
made much advancement in it, but it was under the great Swedish warrior, Gustavus 
Adolphus, that artillery first began to take its true position on the battle-field. He 
attached two guns to each regiment, and may, therefore, be called the father of the 
battalion system of guns. He proved its utility in the celebrated Thirty Years’ War. 
During his life he did much to forward the science of artillery, increasing its mobility 
and its rapidity of fire, and raising the proportion of guns to over 6 for 1000 men. In 
England, the laboratory at Woolwich was established in 1672, and a reorganization of 
the artillery took place in 1682, under Lord Dartmouth. Louis XIV. established a 
special artillery force, raised an artillery regiment in 1671, and in 1690 founded the 
first artillery schools. The inventions of the elevating screw, the prolonge, and the 
priming tube filled with powder were made during his reign. The Prussian artillery 
was very backward during the first part of the eighteenth century, and Frederick the 
Great did not at first set much value upon its services. Although it contributed much 
to Frederick’s victory at Rossbach, it was usually no match for the well-handled Aus- 
trian guns, which fact impressed him with the importance of giving more attention to 
this branch. He therefore raised the proportion of guns and established horse-artillery 
in 1759. After the Seven Years’ War the Austrians recognized the importance of artil- 
lery in modern warfare, and Prince Lichtenstein was commissioned to reorganize it. 
The experience of Frederick’s warfare was best utilized by France, and under Gribeau- 
val, in 1765, great reforms in the French artillery were commenced. This officer had 
been sent to Austria during the Seven Years’ War, and had held command under Prince 
Lichtenstein. Struck with the improvements effected in Austria, he strove on his 
return to build up a complete system as to both persons and material, making a separate 
provision for field, siege, garrison, and coast artillery. At first his reforms met great 
opposition, but in 1776 he became _ first inspector-general of artillery, and was able to 
carry through his improvements. The French horse-artillery dates from 1791, and the 
last step in the compete organization of the field-artillery was made in 1800, when the 
establishment of a driver’s corps of soldiers put an end to the old system of horsing by 
contract. Napoleon, who was a great artillery officer, introduced the tactical combina- 
tion with brilliant success. To his wars we first look for instances of the important 
effects produced by this arm in that concentration of fire which in those days was pro- 
duced only by massing guns. Napoleon III. made artillery a special subject of study, 
and the great treatise commenced and mainly written by him is a standard work on the 


Artillery. : 772 


subject. Since the war of 1870-71, in which the French artillery proved itself far 
inferior to the German, the French have been actively engaged in experiments, with a 
view toward the introduction of superior guns, and have increased their force of artillery 
by 120 batteries. Similar progress has been made by the other great European powers 
during this century. The British artillery had greatly deteriorated during the eigh- 
teenth century, and was not up to the standard of other countries, but horse artillery 
was formed in 1790 and a driver’s corps introduced the following year. At the begin- 
ning of the nineteenth century the Prussian artillery was powerful rather than mobile : 
but after the disasters of 1806-7 this defect was remedied, and in 1816 further improve- 
ment was made. 

In 1872 the German artillery was reorganized, the field-artillery of each army corps 
being augmented and divided into two regiments. The Austrian artillery has always 
been pre-eminent both in the excellence of its material and in tactical handling on the 
field. In 1859 rifled guns were introduced ; and two years later gun-cotton was ex- 
tensively used instead of gunpowder, but was soon given up. Russia won special 
distinction in the Napoleonic wars by the power and good service of its artillery, and, 
having adopted the breech-loading system of Prussia, has continued to give particular 
attention to this arm of the service ever since. 

The artillery of the Union armies during the civil war was organized by General 
William F. Barry. The aggregate was about 15,000 field guns, with 40,000 horses and 
48,000 men. The number of guns of position used in field-works or intrenched lines 
during the civil war was 1200, served by about 22,000 men. At present there are five 
regiments of artillery in the U. S. Army, aggregating 282 commissioned officers and 
2650 enlisted men. ‘The First, Second, Third, and Fourth regiments were organized by 
act of Congress, March 2, 1821, from the corps of artillery formed by act of March 30, 
1811; by the consolidation of the First regiment of artillery, organized by act of March 
16, 1802 ; from the two regiments of artillerists and engineers, authorized by act of 
March 3, 1799 ; the Second and Third regiments of artillery organized by act of January 
11, 1812; the regiment of light artillery organized by act of April 12, 1808, and the 
Ordnance department, organized by act of February 8, 1815, and merged in the artil- 
lery by act of March 2, 1821. The ordnance was separated from the artillery by acts of 
April 5, 1832, and July 5, 1838. The artillery regimental organization consists of a. 
colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors, 12 captains, 26 first-lieutenants and 18 second- 
lieutenants, 1 sgt. major, 1 quartermaster sergeant, 1 chief musician, 2 principal 
musicians, The ten heavy batteries to each regiment have 4 oflicers, 1 first sergeant, 
A sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 musicians, 2 artificers, 1 wagoner, 46 privates—60 aggregate. 
The two light-batteries have 5 officers, 1 first sergeant, 6 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 musi- 
cians, 2 artificers, 1 wagoner, 49 privates—65 aggregate. This makes 735 men to a regi- 
ment. At all posts with fixed batteries, the position of every gun has its number, which 
is placed on the gun when in position. The guns are mounted in a regular series, com- 
mencing with the first gun on the left of the main entrance looking out. The pieces of 
other batteries are numbered from right to left. On parade or other occasions of cere- 
mony, troops are arranged in the following order: 1st infantry ; 2d field-artillery ; 
3d cavalry. Artillery not mounted, and serving as infantry, is posted as infantry. 
Captains of the light-batteries are specially assigned, with the approval of the secretary 
of war, by the commanding general of the army, upon the:recommendation of the colonel! 
of the regiment, which is based solely upon the special qualifications of the officer for 
the command of a school of light artillery. For purposes of instruction, the lieutenants 
of the artillery regiments pass through the school of light artillery in their respective 
regiments, 

John Owen first cast brass cannon in England in 1535, and a year or two later they 
were made in Scotland ; but long guns for firing shell were not known until 1812, when 
Colonel Bomford, of the U. 8. Army, invented the ‘‘ Columbiad,”’ which proved very 
successful. The Dahlgren guns, cailed after an admiral in the U. 8. Navy, were the 
pattern used by the navy, the Parrot rifles being the most extensively used gun of that 
type during the war. <A few batteries of ‘‘ Napoleon’? guns were used by the army, 
but as arule, and particularly with the larger calibers, muzzle-loading and smooth-bores 
were used, and to-day the sea-coast defenses and the old wooden men-of-war are armed 
with that class of gun, The result of appointing a mixed board of army and navy 
officers to inquire into the needs of the country, as far as its armament is concerned, has 
been the establishment of two completely equipped arsenals for the manufacture of 
guns and their appliances—one for the army at Watervliet Arsenal, New York, and 
the other for the navy, at the navy-yard, Washington, D.C. (See ARSENAL.) The latter 
is the only one in full working order, and the guns already made by it comprise 4-inch, 
d-inch, 6-inch, 8-inch, and 10-inch breech-loading steel guns. At first the larger 
forgings were imported, but a contract made with the Bethlehem Iron Company of 
Bethlehem, Pa., induced that firm to modernize and extend its plant, so that all later 
forgings are entirely of domestic steel. The body of the modern rifle is made of a 
solid steel ingot, which is bored and turned ; over the rear portion is shrunk a cylinder 
of steel, and steel rings or hoops are shrunk over the jacket and over the tube to the 
muzzle. ‘The standard muzzle velocity of these guns is 2009 foot seconds but it can 
easily be increased to 2100 foot seconds without undue strain on the gun, The twist of 


~ 
q ( 3 Artillery. 


‘he rifling is one turn in 25 calibers, giving greater steadiness in flight and the power to 
use, if so desired, longer projectiles than could otherwise be employed. The larger 
guns are now being made 385 calibers long. The service breech mechanism is on the 
slotted screw principle, and for the smaller guns the Driggs-Schroeder system has also 
been adopted. The 4-inch rapid-fire gun is the most recent advance that has been made, 
and several of this type are undergoing experiments. See ORDNANCE FABRICATION ; 
MacuinE Guns; ORDNANCE; Rapip-FirE Guns ; BREECH-LOADING ARMS. 


ARTILLERY COMPANY, Honorasie, is the oldest existing volunteer corps in 
Britain. Four military bodies—the A. (., the Sergeant-at-Arms, the Yeomen of the 
Guard, and the Gentlemen Pensioners, were established as far back as the time of the ‘ 
Tudors; they all still exist, but under greatly altered circumstances. In 1537, Henry 
VIIL. granted a patent to three persons, appointing them ‘‘overseers of the science of 
artillery,” for long-bows, cross-bows, and hand-guns. They were to constitute a guild 
or fraternity for this purpose, with power to appoint assistants and successors, to pur- 
chase lands, and to use a common seal; and their formal official name became ‘‘ The 
Masters, Rulers, and Commonalty of the Fraternity or Guild of Artillery of Long-bows, 
Cross-bows, and Hand-guns.” The freemen of the guild cr company were empowered 
to keep arms, and to exercise themselves in shooting. In 1605 a patent was granted by 
James I., intended chiefly to effect the preservation of the shooting and practising 
grounds around London, for the A. C. In 1633 a commission was appointed by Charles 
I., still further to insure this object. In 1688 the corporation of the city of London pre- 
sented to the company the plot of ground ever since called the artillery ground, near 
Moorfields, as a field for military exercise. Royal princes frequently enrolled themselves 
as members of the company, usually as ‘‘captain-general.” In 1719, George I. issued 
an order that all commission and staff officers of the city train-bands (a metropolitan 
militia) should become members of the A. C., and exercise with the other members at 
all convenient times. The word ‘‘artillery” had heretofore been considered as applying 
to bows and arrows as well as to firearms; but the members of the company, like other 
marksmen, had almost abandoned archery, without, however, making any change in 
their designation. In a summons to the company to meet for exercise on a particular 
day in 1682, it is said: ‘‘Those gentlemen that on that day handle muskets are desired 
to take care that their arms are clean and well fixed, and that they bring with them fine 
dry powder, and even match.” ‘The company, like many other city guilds, has nearly 
outlived its original purpose. In 1780, when the ‘‘ Lord George Gordon riots” afflicted 
the metropolis, the members of the A. C. effectually protected the bank of England; in 
1848, when Chartist riots were apprehended, the company was on the alert to render 
good service if needed; and in the spring of 1859, when an uneasy feeling prevailed in 
England concerning the designs of France, the members polished their arms and looked 
forward to eventualities; but the company has never been engaged in actual warfare 
with an enemy. 

The A. C. consists of members elected by ballot, who pay two guineas annual sub- 
scription, and supply themselves with dress, but not with arms, etc. These pay- 
ments, together with the rental received from some real property, constitute the 
fund out of which the expenses are defrayed. The members learn rifle-shooting as well 
as artillery practice; there are certain days of meeting at Moorficlds; and every summer 
there are certain days of drill and practice at Seaford. The corps comprises six infantry 
companies, a grenadier company, a light-infantry company, a rifle company, and an 
artillery company. Until 1849, the members elected their own officers; but since that 
year the crown has appointed them on the nomination of the lieutenancy of the city of 
London. The lieutenant-colonel appoints the non-commissioned officers. 


ARTILLERY COMPANY, THe ANCIENT AND HoNoRABLE, of Boston, the first regu- 
larly organized military company in America, formed in 1637 and copied from the 
Honorable Artillery Company of London, dating from 1587. The Boston company 
was chartered June, 1638, has always been vigorously sustained, and is noted for the 
eminent citizens in its membership. It has an annual parade, sermon, and dinner, 
formal and dignified. Elaborately illustrated histories of the company have been pub- 
lished. 


ARTILLERY CORPS. The introduction of artillery caused a great revolution in the 
methods and tactics of the day, as it was quickly recognized that an army should form 
in order of battle at a much greater distance from the enemy than in former times. As 
the clumsy old guus, with their heavy carriages, were replaced by others lighter and more 
easily handled, it became possible to move them about more quickly from place to place. 
This was followed by the setting apart of a body of troops whose duties were entirely 
with the artillery, and who were not included as a component part of the regular army, 
until the Germans, during the Thirty Years’ War, saw the advantages to be gained 
by bringing the two portions of the army together. Gustavus Adolphus in Sweden, 
Frederick II. in Prussia, and Napoleon I. in France all attached a very high degree of 
importance to the artillery arm, and to-day its value is recognized to such a degree that 
some authorities practically give it precedence over cavalry and infantry. When mili- 
tary men speak of the field artillery, they usually include the guns, carriages, horses, 
ammunition, and stores of every description, as well as the artillerymen. The distinc- 


Artilleryman, 774 


Arum, 


i nd lieht artillery depends on the size of the cannon and the 
aaa ei aes Reed shell erareiee from them. Inmost European states, the artillery- 
men are divided into regiments, battalions, brigades, and companies. In England the 
whole form one enormous regiment, which is expanded or contracted according to the 
exivencies of the service. In the U. 8. there are five separate regiments broken 
up “nto detachments of various size, according to the post to which they are assigned. 
There are twelve batteries to each regiment, two of the number being light batteries. 
The five regiments aggregate 3,675 men and 282 officers. The color of the facings and 
trimmings of the artillery uniform is red. A well-appointed field force should have, 
according to the best authorities, 38 pieces of artillery to 1000 infantry. 


ARTILLERYMAN, See ARTILLERY CORPS. 


ARTILLERY, PARK OF, is a collective name given to the whole of the guns, car- 
riaves, ammunition, and other appurtenances essential to the working of siege or field A. 
Besides reserve guns and carriages, there belong to it the ammunition wagons, as well 
for the infantry and cavalry as for the A., the implements and materials necessary for 
repairing and completing equipments, harness-stores, field-forges, laboratories, and (in 
some armies) transport and provision wagons. The personnel of a park of A. consists of 
A. officers, non-commissioned officers, and artillerymen; besides a large number of 
smiths, wheelwrights, saddlers, armorers, drivers, and other mechanics and laborers. 
Sometimes the term is applied to the place selected, as well as to the vast military stores 
collected there. During a siege, the park of A. is stationed out of reach of the enemy’s 
fire, but in communication with the besiegers’ trenches. If possible, its locality is 
chosen close to some good line of communication, either road or river. All pioneering 
or intrenching tools, and all handicraft implements, are arranged in rows nearest to the 
field of action, with requisite spaces for the convenience of the storekeepers and work- 
men. Behind these are the materials for erecting batteries, making fascines and gabions, 
and filling sand-bags. Furthest removed from the enemy are the magazines, in and 
near which shot and shell and other kinds of ammunition are stored. A large park of 
A. is usually divided into park-columns, for the sake of better supervision. Under 
some circumstances, the engineering park is distinct from the park of A., especially 
where these two arms of the service are mutually independent. 


ARTILLERY, Scnoou or. This school, established at Fort Monroe, Virginia, con- 
stitutes an independent command, from which all reports and returns are made direct 
to the headquarters of the army. It is governed by special regulations, modified from 
time to time, as may benecessary. The school has the following organization : 1. Three 
field-officers of artillery—the senior to command the post and school, the others to be 
superintendents of instruction. The officers constitute the staff of the school. 2. At 
least five batteries of artillery—one from each regiment of artillery, and such other 
officers and enlisted men as may be ordered to the school for instruction. These bat- 
teries form the instruction batteries of the foot artillery. 8. An adjutant of the post, 
who issecretary of the staff and records its proceedings. The lieutenants of the instruc- 
tion batteries are relieved and replaced by others on the first of each alternate September. 
Details for instruction are, as far as possible, made in the order of rank, by roster, first 
from non-graduates of the Military Academy who have not already served at the school, 
and then from graduates from the military academy who have not served at the school. 
The first military school was established in 1828, but was discontinued six years later. 
A second attempt was made in 1858, but was stopped by the war breaking out in 1861. 
The present school was started in 1867. Instruction is both theoretical and practical, 
and the two years’ course is closed by an examination before a board of officers 
especially appointed for the purpose. France, Germany, England, and Italy have artil- 
lery schools, some of which have been established for over two hundred years. Insome 
of the countries the artillery and engineers’ schools are combined, but in most of the 
European states a separation of the two arms of the science is made. The studies 
comprise mathematics, physics, chemistry, field and permanent fortications, garrison war- 
fare, field tactics, electricity, law, military history and topography, surveying, sketch- 
ing, and so forth. The practical exercises include the serving and firing of the various 
types of guns, laying out and constructing field-batteries, work in the laboratory and 
artillery workshops. 

ARTILLERY TACTICS, See Tactics, M1InITary. 


ARTIODAC TYLES, even-toed, herbivorous animals, a division of the wngulata, or 
hoofed, as the cow, sheep, camel, etc.; and some omnivora, as the hog. 


ARTOCARPA CE, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, of which the bread-fruit 
(artocarpus incisa) is the type; very nearly allied to that of moracew (mulberries, figs, 
etc.), and, like it, by many botanists regarded as a sub-order of urticacew (nettles, etc.). 
The botanical distinction between artocarpacee and moraces lies chiefly in the 
straight embryo and large cotyledons of the former. The fruit is often a soroszs (a single 
succulent fruit formed of the aggregated germens of a whole spike of flowers), as in the 
case of the bread-fruit (q.v.). There are upward of 50 known species, natives ex- 
clusively of the tropics. The milky juice of some yields india-ruDber (q.v.) ; and that 


775 Artilleryman, 


run, 


of a few species is so bland as to be used as a substitute for milk (see CowrrEEr). The 
juice of others is, however, very poisonous, as that of antiaris toxvicaria the Antjar poi- 
son, one of the poisons cailed upas by the Javanese. The fruits are always wholesome; 
and the seeds of the musanga of the Gold coast of Africa, and of brosiémum alicastrum in the 
West Indies, are eaten as nuts. ‘lhe fibrous bark of the bread-fruit tree 1s made into 
cloth in the South Sea islands, and that of other species of artocarpus is capable of being 
used in the same way. ‘The bark of antiaris or lepurandra saccidora is used in western 
India for making sacks, which are formed by cutting a branch of the dimensions of the 
sack wanted; and simply turning back and drawing off the bark after it has been soaked 
and beaten, the wood being sawn off so as to leave a little portion to form the bottom of 
the sack. ‘The fibrous bark of cecropia peltata, or trumpetwood, is used for cordage in 
tropical America. The stem and branches are very hollow, and are used for wind-instru- 
ments. The wood of some species is valuable, as that of the drosimum or piratinera 
guianensis, the snake-wood of Demerara. See LETTER-woop. 


ARTOIS was formerly a province of France, bounded by Flanders and Picardy, and 
almost corresponding with the modern department of Pas-de-Calais (q.v.). The capital 
of A. was Arras. Louis IX., in 1239, made A. a county, and gave it to his brother 
Robert, who was succeeded by his son, Robert II., surnamed Posthumous, who died in 
1302. Afterwards it passed into the hands of Flanders and Burgundy, but was ceded 
to France by treaties in 1659 and 1678. Charles X., in his early life, and also after his 
abdication, was known by the title of count d’Artois. 


ARTOIS, or ARTHOIS, Jacquzs p’, 1613-1665; a Flemish painter of realistic land- 
scapes and compositions of large size, executed with much poetic feeling. 


ARTS, DEGREES IN, The term “A.,” or ‘liberal A.,” as technically applied to cer- 
tain studies, came into use during the middle ages, and on the establishment of uni- 
versities, the term ‘‘ faculty of A.” denoted those who devoted themselves to science 
and philosophy, as distinguished from the faculty of theology, and afterwards of medi- 
cine and law. The number of “‘A.” embraced in the full medieval course of learning 
was seven: grammar, logic, rhetoric (constituting the ¢riviwm), music, arithmetic, 
geometry, and rhetoric (the guadriviwm). The terms master and doctor were origi- 
nally applied synonymously to any person engaged in teaching. In process of time, the 
one was restricted to the liberal A. the other to divinity, law, and medicine. When 
regulations were established to prevent unqualified persons from teaching, and an initia- 
tory stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms become significant of a certain rank, 
and of the possession of certain powers, and were called gradus, ‘‘steps” or ‘‘ degrees.” 
The passing of the initiatory stage, said to have been first instituted by Gregory IX. 
(1227-41), conferred the title of bachelor (q.v.), and an additional course of discipline 
and examination was necessary to obtaining that of master. The title of master of A. 
originally implied the right, and even the duty of publicly teaching some of the branches 
included in the faculty of A.; a custom which is still retained, to some extent, in the 
German universities, but has fallen into disuse in Britain and France, where the title is 


nearly honorary. The subject will be more fully considered under the general head of 
DEGREE. 


A’RUM, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging to the natural order aracee 
or aroidew. This order consists of herbaceous plants, some of which are stemless, and 
shrubby plants, some of which are arborescent, and some climb by aérial roots, clinging 
to the trees of tropical forests. The leaves are sheathing at the base, convolute in bud, 
usually with branching veins. The flowers are male and femaie, naked, arranged upon 
a spadia, which is generally inclosed in a spathe (q.v.); the male flowers at the upper part 
of the spadix, and the female flowers at its base. The stamens are definite or indefinite 
in numbers; the anthers sessile, or nearly so, and turned outwards. The ovary is free, 
generally one-celled, many-seeded; the stigma sessile. The fruit is succulent, the seeds 
pulpy, the embryo in the axis of fleshy or mealy albumen, with a lateral cleft in which 
the plumule lies; the albumen, however, is wanting in some plants of the order.—As 
thus defined, this order contains almost 200 known species, natives chiefly of tropical 
countries, but some of the herbaceous kinds belong to colder climates.—The limits of 
the order are, however, sometimes extended, so that it includes as sub-orders typhacee, 
pistiacee, etc.—The genus A. has aconvolute spathe; the spadix naked at the point. 
In some species, a stench like that of carrion is produced during flowering, as well as a 
remarkable heat. Flowers, in general, are slightly warmer than the air around them, 
the heat being produced by the union of oxygen with some starch-like ingredient in the 
sap of the petals, or other parts of the flower; for flowers, instead of absorbing carbonic 
acid gas and giving off oxygen in the sunshine, like the leaves of plants, absorb oxygen and 
rive off carbonic acid, like the lungs of animals, But flowers, in general, are only one 

‘degree, or one degree and a half, warmer than the air, whereas the flowers of some of the 
arums and nearly allied plants are sensibly warm to the touch, and that of A. cordifolium 
has been found to have a heat of 121° F., while that of the air was only 66° F.—The only 
British species is A. maculatum, CUCKOW-PINT or WAKE-ROBIN, which is abundant in 
England and in most parts of Europe, growing chiefly in moist shady woods and under 
hedges. It has a tuberous perennial root; its leaves are all radical, on long stalks, 
strongly arrow-shaped, often spotted; the spathe greenish yellow, inclosing a rather 
short violet or brownish red spadix. It produces scarlet berries, 1 or 2 seeded, about 
the size of peas, clustered upon the spadix. The root has a burning acrid taste, which, 


Arun. 776 


Aryan, 


i ine or boiling. In a fresh state, it isa drastic purgative, too 
ole daatedieinal ce: ih indeed it, as well as the leaves, is an active poison; yet a 
nourishing farina is prepared from it, after the acrid juice has been removed. This 
farina is a pure starch, and is known in England by the name of Portland sago or Port- 
land arrow-root. It was formerly prepared to a considerable extent in the isle of Port- 
land. where also the tubers (corms) themselves are eaten by the country people. | A_cos- 
metic, called cypress powder, is made from them in France, and they are used in Swit- 
zerland as a substitute for soap. They contain, indeed, a quantity of saponine, to which 
their acridity is supposed to be owing. They lose great part of their acridity in drying, 
and were formerly used in medicine as a stimulant in impaired digestion, a diuretic in 
dropsies, and an expectorant in chest complaints. The plant is extensively cultivated 
in India for food.— A. indicum is also much cultivated in Bengal for its esculent stems 
and small pendulous tubers.—Acridity in the juice, and the presence of an amylaceous 
substance of very nutritious quality, from which the acrid Juice is easily separated, are 
characteristics of many plants of this order, particularly species of caladiwm and coloca- 
sia, much used for food in warm countries, under the names cocco (q.v.), EDDOES, ete. 
—Amorphopallus campanulatus (A. campanulatum), called OL by the Bengalese, is very 
much cultivated in some parts of India for its roots (flat underground corms), which 
form a very important article of food; yet ina fresh state it is so acrid that it is employed 
as an external stimulant, and is also used as an emmenagogue. Other species of amor- 
phopallus are still more powerfully stimulant.—Two large species of aviswma, another 
genus very closely allied to A., were found by Dr. Hooker to afford food to the inhabi- 
tants of the Sikkim Himalaya at an elevation of upwards of 10,000 ft. Their tuberous 
roots are bruised by means of wooden pestles, and thrown into small pits with water, 
until the commencement of acetous fermentation, when the acridity is mostly dissipated; 
but the process is so imperfect, that cases of injury from the poisonous juice are frequent. 
The tubers of arisema atrorubens (A. triphyllum of Linnezeus), a native of the United 
States, and there known as dragon-root and Indian turnip, yield a pure white starch like 
that of A. maculatum. 'Their medicinal uses are also similar; they are employed as a 
stimulant of the secretions. —The DRAGON-PLANT, A. dracunculus, a native of the south 
of Europe, is not uncommon in gardens in Britain, although it has a carrion-like smell, 
and its emanations are apt to produce headache and other disagreeable effects. It hasa 
singular appearance—straight stalks, 3 ft. high, curiously spotted like the belly of a 
snake.—The peculiar acridity of the aracee is most remarkably displayed in the dumb 
cane (q.V.). : 
A'RUN, a river rising in St. Leonard’s forest, in the middle of north Sussex, and after 
a course of 35 m. falling into the English channel. <A canal unites it with the Wey, a 
feeder of the Thames. 


ARUNDEL, a small t. 5 m. inland from the mouth of the Arun, in a tertiary and 
chalk district, on the s. side of the South Downs, in the s.w. of Sussex. It consists 
mainly of a very steep street rising from the right bank of the Arun to the summit of a 
hill crowned by a castle. The Arun is navigable for vessels of 150 tons up to the town. 
Bark and timber are the chiet exports. Pop. in ’91, 2644. A. was disfranchised by the 
reform bill of 1867. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councilors. The 
castle, from its site, is a striking object, and was built soon after the Norman conquest. 
It is an oblong, including 54 acres within its walls. It was laid in ruins during the civil 
wars of Charles I., but, being the baronial residence of the dukes of Norfolk, the late 
duke restored it to its former Gothic magnificence. The keep, containing the dungeon, 
is a circular Norman tower of imposing strength. 


AR'UNDEL, THomas, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of Richard II., Henry 
IV., and Henry V., b. in 13853, was the second son of Robert Fitz-Alan, earl of Arun- 
del and Warren. He was first archdeacon of Taunton, and at the early age of 21, he 
was, by the pope’s appointment, consecrated bishop of Ely. In 1888, he was, by the 
same authority, transferred to the archiepiscopal see of York. He was also for some 
years lord high chancellor of England. Having been banished the kingdom for taking a 
leading part in the first attempt which was made to deliver the nation from the oppres- 
sion of Richard IL., he was honorably received at Rome, and by pope Boniface IX. 
nominated archbishop of St. Andrews, with a promise of future preferment in England. 
In 1396, he was enthroned, with great pomp, as archbishop of Canterbury. He was a 
bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of Wickliffe, and a chief instrument in 
procuring the horrible act for the burning of heretics (de heretico comburendo), passed in 
the reign of Henry IV. He even carried his bigotry so far as to solicit from the pope a 
bull, for digging up Wickliffe’s bones, which, however, was wisely refused him. He 
also procured a synodal constitution, which forbade the translation of the Scriptures into 
the vulgar tongue. Amongst others whom he caused to be convicted of heresy, and sen- 
tenced to the flames, was Lord Cobham, one of the principal patrons of the new sect, at 
the commencement of the reign of Henry V. Soon after, A. was seized with an inflam- 
mation in the throat, which proved fatal. He d. 20th Feb., 1413. 


ARUNDEL MARBLES, part of a collection of ancient sculptures, formed about the 
beginning of the 17th c. by Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, and presented in 1667 to 
the university of Oxford, by his grandson, Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk 


7 ArvaiL 


The principal portion of it is the ‘‘ Parian chronicle,” consisting of the fragments of an 
inscription in marble, supposed to have been executed in the island of Paros, about 263 
B.C. In its perfect state, this inscription contained a chronological table of the principal 
events in Grecian history from the time of Cecrops (1582 B.c.) to the archonship of Diog- 
netus (264 B.c.). The chronicle of the last 90 years is lost, and the extant portion of the 
inscription is much corroded and defaced. This curious and interesting monument, the 
authenticity of which has been questioned and vindicated with almost equal ingenuity 
and learning, was purchased for the earl of Arundel, along with many other relics of 
antiquity, at Smyrna, by Mr. (afterwards Sir William) Petty. The inscription, and all 
the other principal sculptures in the Oxford collection, are to be found fully illustrated 
in the relative publications of Selden, Prideaux, Maittaire, and Chandle., under the 
various titles of Marmora Arundelliana and M. Oxoniensia. 

The nobleman whose name is associated with these ancient marbles is worthy of 
remembrance, independently of his general merits, as the first of his order in England 
who liberally encouraged the fine arts, and communicated the influence of his own taste 
and enthusiasm in their cultivation to a wide circle of imitators and successors. 


ARUN'DO. See REED. 


AR'VAKR (‘early awake”), in Norse mythology one of the horses of the sun; the 
other was called Alsvid, ‘‘all scorching.” 


ARVAL BROTHERS, a priesthood of 12 members anciently elected for life from 
the highest ranks in Rome, and including the emperor when there was one. ‘Their duty 
was to offer yearly public sacrifice for the fertility of the fields, and the custom is said to 
have originated with Acca Larentia, foster-mother of Romulus, who, with her twelve 
sons, instituted sucha festival. Another legend is that the foster-mother lost one of her 
sons, and Romulus permitted her to adopt him in his place, calling the twelve ‘‘fratres 
Arvales.” Though little is said of the A. B. by Roman orators, their records up to a 
high antiquity, as given by themselves, were inscribed on stone. The college consisted 
of a master, vice-master, flamen, preetor, and eight members; and among their attend- 
ants were four boys, who were required to be sons of senators, and to have living parents. 
Each officer wore a wreath of green, a white fillet, and a white toga bordered with pur- 
ple. The great annual festival under their charge was in honor of Dea Dia, who seems 
to have resembled the goddess Ops, wife of Saturn. It occupied three days, between 
the middle and end of May. On the first day was the ceremony of ‘‘ touching” samples 
of old and young grain; on the second day the sacrifice of two white pigs, a cow, and a 
fat sheep, in a sacred grove beyond the city, followed by blessing, or ‘‘touching,” sam- 
ples of grain brought by the people, and after that the dance and song of brotherhood in 
the temple, and the election of officers for the coming year. On the third day there was 
a sacrifice in the city. The minor duties of the brothers were to offer sacrifice on the 
birthday of an emperor, or at the beginning of a consulate, or for escape from danger, or 
at the starting or ending of a journey, or on occasion of any important event touching 
the imperial family. On the 3d of Jan. they recited a particular form of prayer for the 
ruling emperor, and made sacrifice to the male and female deities. 


ARVERS, ALExIs Féiix, a French poet and dramatic writer, was born in 1806 ; was 
aducated at the College Charlemagne, where he was graduated with honor in 1825, and 
devoted himself to the law, which he afterwards abandoned for poetry and the drama. 
He died in 1850. A volume of his poems containing the well-known sonnet usually 
cited as the Sonnet d’ Arvers, and beginning with the words, Ma vie a son secret, mon ame 
a son mystére, was published in 1833, under the title, Mes Hewres Perdues. Among his 
dramatic works are Deux Mattresses, Rose et Blanche, Suzon et Suzanne, les Deux Cesar, 
la Femme de Marbre, Lord Spleen, le Banquet de Camarades. He wrote, in conjunction 
with other dramatists, les Vieilles Amours, En Attendant, les Dames Patronesses, le Beau 
Martial, les Anglais en Voyayc, and other plays. 


ARVICOLA. See VOLE. 


AR'YAN RACE, AR'YAN LANGUAGES. The name Aryan (less properly, Arian) 
race or Aryan family of nations is now generally used to designate that ethnological 
division of mankind otherwise called Indo-European or Indo-Germanic. It consists of 
two branches, geographically separated, an eastern and a western. The western branch 
comprehends the inhabitants of Europe, with the exception of the Turks, the Magyars 
of Hungary, and the Finns of Lapland (see Europe); the eastern comprehends the 
inhabitants of Armenia, of Persia, of Afghanistan, and of northern Hindustan (see 
Hrnpustan). The evidence on which a family relation has been established among 
these nations is that of language. Between Sanscrit (the mother of the modern Hindu 
dialects of Hindustan), Zend (the language of the ancient Persians), Greek (which is yet 
the language of Greece), Latin (the language of the Romans, and the mother of the modern 
Romanic languages, i.e., Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian), Celtic (once 
the language of great part of Europe, now confined to Wales and some parts of Ireland 
and Scotland), Gothic (which may be taken as the ancient type of the Teutonic or 
Germanic languages—including English—and of the Scandinavian), and Slavonic (spoken 


Arzachel. 778 


Asafoetida. 


in a variety of dialects all over European Russia and a great part of Austria), the 
researches of philology have within the present century established such affinities as can 
be accounted for only by supposing that the nations speaking them had a common origin, 
No one of these nations, whether existing or historical, can claim to be the parent 
nation of which the others are colonies. The relation among the languages mentioned 
is that of sisters—daughters of one mother, which perished, as it were, in giving them 
birth. No monuments of this mother-language have been preserved, nor have we any 
history or even tradition of the nation that spoke it. That such a people existed and 
spoke such a tongue is an inference of comparative philology, the process of reasoning 
being analogous to that followed in the kindred science of geology. The geologist, inter- 
preting the inscriptions written by the finger of nature herself upon the rock-tablets of 
the earth’s strata, carries us back myriads of ages before man appeared on the scene ut 
all, and enables us to be present, as it were, at creation itself, and see one formation laid 
above another, and one plant or animal succeed another. Now languages are to the 
ethnologist what strata are in geology; dead languages have been well called his fossik. 
and petrifactions. By skillful interpretation of their indications, aided by the light of 
all other available monuments, he is able to spell out, with more or less probability, the 
ethnical records of the past, and thus obtain a glimpse here and there into the gray cloud 
that rests over the dawn of the ages. 

When these linguistic monuments are consulted as to the primitive seat of the Aryan 
nations, they point, as almost all ethnologists are agreed, to Central Asia, somewhere 
probably east of the Caspian, and north of the Hindu Kush and Paropamisan mountains. 
There, at a period long anterior to all European history—while Europe was perhaps only 
a jungle, or, if inhabited at all, inhabited by tribes akin to the Finns, or perhaps to the 
American Indians—dwelt that mother-nation of which we have spoken. From this 
center, in obedience to a law of movement which has continued to act through all history, 
successive migrations took place towards the north-west. The first swarm formed the 
Celts, who seem at one time to have occupied a great part of Europe; at a considerably 
later epoch came the ancestors of the Italians, the Greeks, and the Teutonic peoples. All 
these would seem to have made their way to their new settlements through Persia and 
Asia Minor, crossing into Europe by the Hellespont, and partly, perhaps, between the 
Caspian and the Black sea. The stream that formed the Slavonic nations is thought to 
have taken the route by the north of the Caspian. Ata period subsequent to the last 
north-western migration, the remnant of the primitive stock would seem to have broken 
up; part poured southwards through the passes of the Himalaya and Hindu Kush into 
the Punjab, and became the dominant race in the valley of the Ganges; while the rest 
Settled in Persia, and became the Medes and Persians of history. 

It is from these eastern members that the whole family takes its name. In the most 
ancient Sanscrit writings (the Veda), the Hindus style themselves Aryans; and the name 
is preserved in the classic Arii, a tribe of ancient Persia, Aria, the modern Herat, and 
Ariana, the name of a district comprehending the greater part of ancient Persia, and 
extended by some so as to embrace Bactriana, Ariana, or Airyana, is evidently an old 
Persian word, preserved in the modern native name of Persia, Airan, or Iran. Arya, in 
Sanscrit, signifies ‘‘ excellent,” ‘‘ honorable,” being allied probably to the Greek a7i(stos), 
the best. Others connect it with the root ar (Lat. arare, to plough), as if to distinguish 
a people who were tillers (earers) of the earth from the purely nomadic Turanians or 
Turks, 

The several members of this ethnological group will receive special notice each in its 
place. As to the hypothetical mother-nation—the primitive Aryan stock before separa- 
tion, it might seem impossible to affirm anything beyond its mere existence and locality. 
But the ethnologist does not content himself with this. In an admirable essay on Com- 
parative Mythology (Oxford Essays, 1856), Prof. Max Miiller has drawn a picture of 
the Aryan family while yet one and undivided, in which the state of thought, language, 
religion, and civilization is exhibited in a multitude of details. Where the same name 
for an object or notion is found used by the widely spread members of a family, it is 
justly inferred that that object or notion must have been familiar to them while yet 
resident together in the paternal home. It is in this way established, that among the 
primitive Aryans not only were the natural and primary family relations of father, 
mother, son, daughter, hallowed, but even the more conventional affinities of father-in- 
law, mother-in-law, sister-in-law; that to the organized family life there was superadded 
a state organization with rulers or kings; that the ox and the cow constituted the chief 
riches and means of subsistence; and that houses and towns were built. 

One general observation made by Miiller is so interesting that we take the liberty of 
quoting it entire. ‘‘It should be observed,” he says, ‘‘ that most of the terms connected 
with chase and warfare differ in each of the Aryan dialects, while words connected with 
more peaceful occupations belong generally to the common heirloom of the Aryan 
language. The proper appreciation of this fact in its general bearing will show how a 
similar remark made by Niebuhr, with regard to Greek and Latin, requires a very 
different explanation from that which that great scholar, from his more restricted point of 
view, was able to give it. It will show that all the Aryan nations had led a long life of 
peace before they separated, and that their language acquired individuality and nation- 
ality as each colony started in search of new homes—new generations forming new 


A 
779 Asafotida. 


terms connected with the warlike and adventurous life of their onward migrations. 
Hence it is that not only Greek and Latin, but all Aryan languages have their peaceful 
words in common; and hence it is that they all differ so strangely in their warlike 
expressions. Thus the domestic animals are generally known by the same name in 
England and in India, while the wild beasts have different names, even in Greek and 
Latin.” 

In this mainly pastoral life, the more important of the primitive arts were known and 
exercised: fields were tilled; grain was raised and ground into meal; food was cooked 
and baked; cloth was woven and sewn into garments; and the use of the metals, even of 
iron, was known. The numbers as far as a hundred had been named, the decimal 
principle being followed. The name for a thousand had not come into requisition until 
after the dispersion, for it differs in the different Aryan tongues. 

Finally, it was among the yet undivided Aryans, while abstract language did not yet 
exist, while every word was a metaphor, and the setting of the sun, for example, could 
only be expressed by his growing old and dying, that those stories of gods, heroes, and 
monsters originated, which, with more or Jess of variety, but still with a family-likeness, 
formed the pagan mythology of every member of the group. See PALEOGRAPHY. 


AR'ZACHEL, ABRAHAM, a Spanish Hebrew astronomer of Toledo, who lived about 
1060. He determined the apogee of the sun, and wrote on the obliquity of the ecliptic. 
It is said that his works were in part the foundation of the Alphonsine tables, made by 
order of Alphonso X. of Castile. 


ARZIGNANO, a t. of north Italy, 11 m. w. by s. from Vicenza, in a plain surrounded 
by hills. It manufactures woolens, leather, and silk twist. 


AS was the designation both of a Roman weight (called also bra) corresponding very 
nearly to an English pound (q.v.), and also of a coin made of the mixed metal aes, or 
bronze. The A. (coin) originally no doubt weighed a (Roman) pound; but it was gradu- 
ally reduced to ;4; of a pound, and even lower. It is thus difficult to assign any fixed 
value to the A. About 270 B.c., the denarius (= 17c.) contained 10 asses; so that the 
value of the A. was then a little more than $ of a cent ; when 16 asses went to the de- 
narius, the value was about one cent. It was by the sestertius (q.v.) that money was 
reckoned at Rome. The oldest form of A. usually bore the figure of an ox, a sheep, or 
other domestic animal (pecws); from which it is usually supposed that the Latin word 
for money, pecunia, is derived. 


A’SA, son of Abijah, and grandson of Rehoboam, was the third king of Judah. At 
the beginning of his reign, he was very young, and his character apparently undevel- 
oped, for he allowed his grandmother, Maachah, to encourage idolatry; but on assuming 
the reins of government, one of his earliest acts was to remove her from all authority 
“because she had made an idol in a grove” (1 Kings, xv. 13; 2 Chron. xv. 16). His 
zealous efforts to extirpate the vices and impieties of the people were on the whole suc- 
cessful. He took away the Sodomites out of the land, and the altars of the strange 
gods, broke the images, and cut down the groves. For the next ten years, he devoted 
himself to strengthening the defenses of his kingdom, and organized a magnificent army 
of more than half a million, which seems to have been looked upon as a menace by 
other monarchs, for one of these, Zerah the Cushite, took the initiative, and penetrating 
through Arabia Petrwa, invaded Judah, but was defeated with immense slaughter. Before 
the battle commenced, A. had invoked the aid of Jehovah; and some time after the 
victory, he and all his people entered into a solemn covenant ‘‘ to seek the Lord God of 
their fathers with all their heart and with all their soul” (2 Chron. xv. 12). Peace lasted 
for twenty years in the kingdom, but in the 35th year of A.’s reign, war again broke 
out between him and Baasha, king of Israel. He sought and obtained the aid of the 
Sytian monarch, Benhadad, but at the expense of ‘‘the treasures of the house of the 
Lord;” and although successful against his adversary, he was indignantly upbraided 
and threatened by the prophet Hanani for not relying on Jehovah alone. A., flushed 
with success, threw the prophet into prison, and, it would appear, ‘‘in his rage” op- 
pressed some of the people at the same time—perhaps those only who sided with 
Hanani, for we know that at his death the nation honored him with a splendid funeral; 
and the sacred historian pays the highest tribute to his memory, declaring that ‘‘ A.’s 
heart was perfect with the Lord all his days.” He reigned from 955 to 914 B.c. 


A'SA DULCIS (i.e., sweet Asa), a drug in high repute among the ancients as an anti- 
spasmodic, deobstruent, and diuretic; also for supposed virtues of the most extraor- 
dinary kind, such as neutralizing the effects of poison, curing envenomed wounds, 
restoring sight to the blind, youth to the aged, etc. Its value was estimated by its weight 
in gold. The princes of Cyrene caused a figure of the plant producing it to be struck 
on the reverse of their coins, and it was sometimes called: laser cyrenaicum. The plant 
is of the genus thapsia (of the natural order wmbellifere), either T. garganica, or a nearly 
allied species, 7. selphtum—perhaps the drug was produced by both. They are natives 
of the s. of Europe and of Barbary, and appear to be very active purgatives. 

ASAFC'TIDA, or ASSAFa@TIDA (i.e., fetid asa or assa), is a gum-resin, which has 
been supposed to be identical with the exuded juice of the sé/phion of Dioscorides, so 
highly esteemed among the Greek physicians; but which, perhaps, was rather the asa 


Asaph. 780 


Ascaris. 


dulcis, Ttsname is derived from the Persian word asa, which means a staff. ‘This drug 
is brought from Persia and Afghanistan, and is procured by drying the milky juice 
which flows from the root of the plant ferula (narthex) A., which has been referred to 
the genus ferula by Linnzeus, and to narthex by Dr. Falconer. The root of the A. plant 
is long, and generally undivided; white inside, but having a black covering; and con- 
tains in its interior a quantity of juice of an overpowering odor, which much resembles 
that of garlic. Herula or narthex A. has its radical leaves tripartite, their segments 
bipinnatifid, and nearly 2 ft. in length. The gum-resin is said by some to be obtained 
also from ferula persica, a plant which has the root-leaves very much divided, and all 
either tripinnate or quadripinnate. The name Serula, like the Persian asa, refers to 
the appearance of the stem of the plant. Ferwla persica has long been propagated suc- 
cessfully in Britain, and even brings its seeds to perfection. 

A. is prepared in the dry southern provinces of Persia, but chiefly in Khorassan and 
Afghanistan, and also to the n. of the Hindu Kush range of mountains. About April, 
the root-leaves are taken away, and the root itself is more or less exposed by removal of 
the soil from about it. After a lapse of six weeks, a slice is cut horizontally from its 
summit, and a thick white juice exudes, the smell of which even exceeds in strength 
that of the drug when dry. The drug is sometimes met with in the market in the form 
of tears, but more frequently in lumps, which are made up of irregularly shaped tears, 
agglutinated together by a softer substance. _A. is extensively used in medicine, and 
possesses stimulant and anti-spasmodic properties. When taken internally, it undergoes 
absorption, and may be detected in almost every secretion of the body, as the saliva, 
breath, and urine. According to the analysis of Pelletier, A. is composed of the fol- 
lowing substances: resin, 65 parts; volatile oil, 3.6; gum, 19.44; bassorin, 11.66; vari- 
ous salts, .80. In many parts of the east, this drug is used as a condiment, in which 
respect it seems to take the place of the garlic of some European nations. 


A'SAPH, St., a cathedral city and a station on the Vale of Clwyd railway, stands on a 
small hill between the rivers Clwyd and Elwy, in the n.w. of Flintshire, Wales. The 
cathedral is a cruciform building, 178 by 68 ft., and was built in 1284 on the site of a 
wooden structure founded before 596. It has a tower 93 ft. high, is one of the small- 
est of British cathedrals, and stands on the top of the hill on which the city is built. 
Kentigern, or St. Mungo, bishop of Glasgow, and his disciple, St. A., are said to have 
founded the see of St. A. inthe 6th century. The bishop, who hasa revenue of £4200, is 
patron of 121 of the 148 benefices in the diocese. Pop. in 91,138,998. St. A., with the 
Flint district of boroughs, returns one member to parliament. 


A’SAPHUS. See TRILOBITE. 


ASARABAC'CA (a'sarum europeum), a plant of the natural order aristolochiacew (see 
ARISTOLOCHIA), a native of Europe, growing in woods; rare, and perhaps not truly indig- 
enous, in Britain. The whole plant has acrid properties; the roots and leaves are aro- 
matic, purgative, and emetic. The use of A., however, as an emetic has been much 
superseded by that of ipecacuanha, which is milderand safer. The powdered roots and 
leaves enter into the composition of cephalic snuffs, which cause sneezing, and are 
employed as a counter-irritant in cases of headache, ophthalmia, toothache, etc. The 
plant contains a volatile oil, and a crystalline substance called asarine, to which it seems 
to owe its active properties. The genus asaruwm is distinguished by twelve horned 
stamens, distinct from each other and from the style, and by a bell-shaped three-lobed 
perianth. A. ewropeum has a very short stem with two shining kidney-shaped leaves 
on long stalks, from the axel of which springs a single drooping greenish-brown flower. 
—A nearly allied species, A. canadense, a native of Canada, is stimulant and diaphoretic, 
and is used under the name of CANADA SNAKEROOT, instead of aristolochia serpentaria. 
It is also called WiLp GinexEr, and used as a spice, being of a warm aromatic quality, 


and not acrid, like its European congener. 
AS’BEN. See Arr. 


ASBESTOS, a mineral very closely allied to tremolite, actinolite, and hornblende, and 
which, along with tremolite and actinolite, is often ranked among the varieties of horn- 
blende. It consists chiefly of silica, magnesia, lime, and oxide of iron, and is of a fine ~- 
fibrous character, the fibers sometimes combined together in a compact mass, sometimes 
easily separable, elastic and flexible. It is generally of a whitish or greenish color. 
The variety called rock-cork very much resembles cork, is soft and easily cut, and so 
light as to swim in water. Rock-leather and rock-wood are varieties somewhat similar to 
rock-cork, but not so light. The finest fibrous variety with easily separable fibers is 
called amianthus (from a Greek word signifying wnpollutidle, as A. is from a Greek word 
signifying indestructible), because cloth made of it was cleansed by passing it through 
fire. This cloth was used by the ancients to enwrap dead bodies placed on the funeral 
pile, so as to preserve the ashes of the body unmixed. Asbestos is found in Savoy, the 
Tyrol, Corsica, Canada and the United States. A very fine quality of asbestos was dis- 
covered in Canada in 1874, The inventions of H. W. Johns, of New York, have greatly 
extended the uses of this mineral, It is now employed for fire-bricks and crucibles, for 
boiler coverings, for the radiating surfaces of heating apparatus, as an absorbent in 
lamps, as an insulator, and for a great many other purposes in connection with manu- 
tactures, such as making paints, roofing material, cement, coatings and sheathing. 


a Asaph. 
( Sl Ascaris 


The asbestos paint forms an almost fireproof coat which protects wood against sparks 
and light flames. Made into a lining felt, asbestos serves as a good insulator for heat, 
and has great value for packing pistons, hot-air joints, etc. Exposure to a very high 
degree of temperature effects no change in sheets of asbestos, which merely glow with 
a white heat. The kind produced in Canada is almost pure white and very fibrous. It 
can be spun into fine thread and woven into rope or yarn. These uses of asbestos are 
comparatively recent, for while it was known that the ancients employed it for its 
durable qualities when exposed to intense heat, it was not used for practical purposes 
during many centuries. The mining of it is now a regular and important industry, and 
in the year 1895, 1,010 tons were mined in the United States. 


ASBJORNSEN, Perer CurisTEN, 1812-85; b. Christiania, Norway. While support- 
ing himself as a family tutor, he studied medicine and zoology, and devoted much time 
to the collection of peasant folk tales and traditions. His first work, Norwegian Folk- 
lure, 1842, was written in conjunction with Jérgen Moe, and wasfollowed by several sim- 
ilar collections of popular stories, a complete edition of which was issued in 1879. A. 
has made ornithological and zoological explorations along the coast of Norway, and dis- 
covered some rare animal forms. 


ASBURY, Francis, b. England, 1745, d. Va., 1816 ; the first bishop of the Methodist 
Episcopal church ordained in the United States. He obtained rudimentary education 
in a village school; at the age of 138 was converted; at 14 was apprenticed to a trade; 
at 16 became a local preacher; at 22 was received by Wesley into the itinerant 
ministry; and at 26 landed in Philadelphia as a missionary to America. It was but 
three years after the building of the first Methodist church in the country, and there were 
only about 600 persons of the faith, chiefly in Philadelphia and New York. When the 
revolution began, A. sympathized with the people, and while Mr. Rankin, who was his 
ecclesiastical superior, returned to England, A. remained, though, like many other non- 
jurors, he was subjected to suspicion, and at one time to imprisonment. After about 
two years of surveillance the authorities concluded that the scruples of A. and other 
preachers were not political, but religious, and he was permitted to gofree. Heimproved 
his opportunity, and when the war closed there were 88 Methodist ministers at work, 
and the membership reached 14,000. In 1784, the several societies were organized inte 
an Episcopal church, and A. was chosen bishop. Thenceforward his life was devoted . 
to preaching and the superintendence and extension of churches. His labors were © 
incessant, and his biography is itself a good history of the growth of Methodism in 
America. He never married, lest a wife should distract attention from his great work. 
He was always poor, and always generous. In 1785, he laid the foundation for the first 
Methodist college, and afterwards formed an educational plan for the whole country by 
making districts with at least one classical academy in each. He was rather stout, of 
medium height, with a fresh countenance and a penetrating eye. Wesley alone was his 
superior as a practical worker and organizer, and the two were alike in zeal and spirit. 
During his ministry it is estimated that A. traveled more than 270,000 m., visiting every 
part of the country; preached more than 16,000 sermons, ordained over 4000 ministers, 
and presided at 224 conferences, It is largely due to the labors of this indefatigable 
apostle, that Methodism in America owes its excellent organization and wonderful 
growth. His only written works were his journals in 8 vols., which are personally and 
historically of great value. 


ASBURY PARK, a city and summer resort in Monmouth co., N. J., n. of Ocean 
Grove, from which it is divided by Wesley lake. It is situated on the Atlantic ocean, 
im.s. of Long Branch. It is on the Pennsylvania, Central of New Jersey, and New 
Jersey Southern railroads. There are 800 hotels and boarding-houses, many private 
dwellings, churches, public halls, several newspaper offices, a graded school, banks, - 
electric lights and street railways. The sale of liquor is prohibited. A. was founded 
1869 and chartered as a city in 1897. Permanent pop. about 5000; summer pop., 25,000 
to 50,000. 

AS'CALON, or AsH’KELON, a ruined city of Palestine, situated on the shore of the 
Mediterranean, 36 m. w.s.w. of Jerusalem, and 12m. n. by w. of Gaza. It was in ancient 
times a fortified city, and the principal town of one of the five lordships of the Philistines. 
Its name often occurs in the history of the people of Israel in the Old Testament, where 
it is represented as falling at an early period into the hands of the tribe of Judah. Herod 
the great embellished it with baths, palaces, and fountains; but in the subsequent wars 
with the Romans, it suffered much damage. There was a celebrated temple of Derketo, 
the Venus of the Syrians, at A., which is recorded to have been plundered by the 
Scythians, 6308.c. After continuing long under the dominion of the Roman empire, 
the city came into the possession of the Saracens in the 7th century, In 1099, a great 
battle was fought on the plains of A., between the crusaders and Saracens, when the 
Christians gained a decisive victory. The city, however, a number of years after, was 
recaptured by the Moslems, and held by them as a strongly fortified place until 1153, 
when it was taken by the crusaders under Baldwin III. In 1187, it was retaken by the 
Saracens, but afterwards (1192) fell into the hands of Richard Ceeur de Lion. Subse- 
quently, being more ‘than once dismantled and repaired_during the wars between 
Richard and Saladin, it was reduced to desolation by sultan Bibars in 1270. 

AS'CARIS, a genus of entozoa, or intestinal worms, of the order nematoidea of Zedar, 
Cuvier, etc., and of the division sterelmintha of Owen. The ascarides have a body 
approaching to cylindrical, but thickest in the middle. They inhabit the intestines 


Ascendant, 782 


Asceticism. 


of animals. The speciesare numerous. One of the best known is A. lumbricoides, often 
called the common round worm, which occurs in the intestines of man and of some of the 
lower animals, as the hog, ox, horse, etc., and which often occasions severe disease, and 
sometimes death, particularly when it ascends from the intestines to the stomach. Its 
presence even in its most ordinary situation in the small intestines, is attended with 
unfavorable effects upon the general health: and the greater the number present—which, 
however, is not usually large—the greater, of course, is the injury; although when they 
remain in the intestines, worms of this species are less injurious and less annoying than 
other and even much smaller intestinal worms. In subjects otherwise diseased, they 
occasionally find their way out of the intestines into the closed serous cavities of the 
body, and even pass through ulcerated parts of the external integument; but the mouth 
is formed only for suction, and is provided with no means of boring through the healthy 
intestine. An immense number of remedies (anthelmintics or vermifuges) have been 
proposed and used in order to expel this parasite, some of which are very effectual. 
They do not in general kill the worms, but act by making their dwelling-place dis- 
agreeable to them (see VERMIFUGE). It is, however, remarked by Kiichenmeister, in 
his work on parasites, that the treatment of cases of this description is as yet purely 
empirical, because, although there must be a condition of the intestinal canal which 
favors the thriving of worms, we are by no means certain what it is. 

The A. lumbricoides is ordinarily, in size and appearance, pretty much like the common 
earthworm (lumbricus terrestris), from which resemblance it has received its specific 
name, although the resemblance is rather in general form than in more essential charac- 
teristics. It has been seen 15 in. in length. Its mouth consists of three fleshy tubercles, 
which can be spread out upon the intestine to form a broad circular sucker, and within 
which there is a small tube capable of being protruded. The alimentary canal consists 
of a muscular gullet and stomach, and a thin-walled intestine. Between the muscular 
layers of the body is produced a pale reddish oily matter, with a strong and very peculiar 
odor, which is gradually communicated to spirit in which the worm is preserved. The 
males are smaller than the females, and much more rare. The females produce eggs in 
great numbers; but it is uncertain if ever they are developed within the intestine in which 
the parent worm resides. They are certainly capable of being developed elsewhere, and 
probably the young enter the intestines of the animals of which they are eventually to 
be the parasites, after having spent a certain stage of their existence in very different 
circumstances: the worm in a very young state having never been found in the intestines 
of man or of quadrupeds, the situation of its perfect development. The inhabitants of 
damp valleys are believed to suffer more than others from the A. lumbricoides. It is said 
also to be particularly frequent in persons who are much accustomed to eat raw leaves 
and roots; and it has been supposed that the young, may exist, perhaps in an encysted 
state, in the bodies of insects or other very small animals which are accidentally eaten 
along with such food. 

A, vermicularis is another species usually referred to this genus, and is the only other 
species troublesome to mankind. It is known as the thread-worm or maw-worm, and is 
very common both in children and adults, It infests chiefly the lower part of the intes- 
tines, and particularly the rectum, great numbers being often present together, and occa- 
sioning intolerable itching, irritation, and loss of sleep, although there is not in general 
much serious injury to health. The same anthelmintics employed against other intestinal 
worms are found efficacious also in the expulsion of this; and clysters are often employed 
with great success. The thread-worm is white, not more than half an inch in length,’ 
the male much less. Some recent authors of high reputation have separated this species 
from A., and call it oxyuris vermicularis, but the term ascarides is often employed in 
medical works with exclusive reference to it; and indeed this name, derived from the 
, Greek askarizo, to jump or move briskly, probably owes its origin to the liveliness of 
motion which this species exhibits. It has been recently discovered that its nervous 
system is very highly developed, consisting of many ganglia, with connecting and rami- 
fying cords. 


ASCENDANT,. In astrology, the easternmost star in a horsocope is the A., or ‘‘ house 
of life.’ It was deemed to have the most influence on destiny, or to give the 
strongest indication of the future; so it is said when one’s prospects improve, ‘his star 
is in the ascendant.” 


ASCENSION, one of the comparatively few single islands on the globe, being about 
685 m. to the n.w. of St. Helena, and almost as far to the s.s.w. of St. Matthew. It is 
said to have received its name from the circumstance of its having been discovered by a 
Spanish navigator on Ascension day. It is nearly in the middle of the south Atlantic, 
the lat. of its fort being 7° 55’ 55"s., and its long. 14° 25'5''w. A.is 8 m. long by 6 
broad; its area being about 85 sq.m. Though it was discovered as early as 1501, yet it 
remained uninhabited till 1815, when, in connection with Napoleon Bonaparte’s deten- 
tion in St. Helena, the English took possession of it. It is now used as a naval victual- 
ing station and hospital. The population, according to a report made in 1890, number 
240, chiefly officers and sailors. Like St. Helena, it is of volcanic origin, and generally 
mountainous—one peak rising to a height of 2870 ft. From the extreme dryness of the 
climate, which, however, is healthy, the surface is nearly destitute of verdure. 


783 Asceticiam. 


Among indigenous productions are the tomato, castor-oil plant, and pepper; European 
vegetables are cultivated. See Mrs. Gill’s Siz Months tn A. (1879). 


ASCENSION, Rien (Lat. ascensio, a rising; Ger. gerade aufsteigung), the name given in 
astronomy to one of the arcs which determine the position relatively to the equator of a 
heavenly body on the celestial sphere, the other being the declination. See ARMILLARY 
SPHERE. It is the arc of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries (q.v.) 
and the point at which the circle of declination passing through the star cuts the equator. 
Measured always from w. to e., right A. on the heavens corresponds to longitude on the 
earth. The right A. of a heavenly body is ascertained by means of the transit instru- 
ment and clock. The transit instrument determines its meridian passage, and the 
transit clock gives the time at which this takes place. When the first point of Aries 
is in the meridian, the clock stands at 0 hours, 0 minutes, 0 seconds, and it is so arranged 
as to indicate 24 sidereal hours, the time that elapses between two successive passages of 
that point. The reading of the clock, therefore, at the passage of any heavenly body 
gives its right A. in time, and this, when multiplied by 15, gives the same in degrees, 
minutes, and seconds. The right A. is usually given, however, in time. The old term, 
oblique A., was given to the right A. of the point of the equator that rose simultaneously 
with the heavenly body; and the difference of the oblique and right A. was called the 
‘‘ascensional difference.” 


ASCENSION, a parish in s.e. Louisiana, on both sides of the Mississippi, s.w. and 
w. of Amite river and lake Maurepas ; 324 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 19,545, inclu. colored. The 
soil is alluvial and frequently inundated, but is extremely productive in corn, cotton, 
rice, sugar, and molasses. Judicial seat, Donaldsonville. 


ASCENSION DAY, or Hoty Tuurspay, one of the great religious festivals of the 
Episcopal and also of the Roman Catholic church. It is held on the fortieth day after 
Easter, and is intended to commemorate the ascension of Christ into heaven. It is one 
of the six days occurring in the year for which the church of England appoints special 
psalms, and the same church also particularly recommends it as a fitting day for the 
receiving of the communion. Ascension day has been observed from the earliest times 
of the Christian church. St. Augustine believes it to have been instituted either by the 
apostles themselves, or the primitive bishops succeeding them. Connected with the 
religious observances of this day were certain civic ones, which in some parts of England 
and Scotland are continued to this day—viz., beating the bounds, or riding the marches, 
though their religious connection is apparently forgotton. See Rogation Days and 
PERAMBULATION. 


ASCET'ICISM. Among the Greeks, askés’s denoted the exercise and discipline prac- 
ticed by the athletes or wrestlers, who had to harden their bodies by exertion and to 
avoid all sensual and effeminating indulgences. In the schools of the philosophers, 
especially of the Stoics, the same word signified the practice of mastering the desires 
and passions, or of severe virtue. In these senses it passed into the language of the early 
Christians. The language of St. Paul in comparing the Christians to wrestlers who had 
to contend with Satan, the world, and the flesh, contributed tothis. But the philosophy 
of the time had more todo with it, which held the freeing of mind from matter to be the 
means of union with God; or, at least, that the refraining from all luxurious pleasure 
was the way to restore the soul to its original purity. To understand the vast influence 
that ascetic ideas have exercised on the Christian religion, we must look beyond the 
bounds of its history. Their root lies in the oriental notion that the absolute or all is 
the only real existence; and that individual phenomena, especially matter in all its 
shapes, are really nothing, and are to be despised and avoided, as involving the principle 
of separation from the absolute. The east, accordingly, is the native soil of A. The | 
glowing imagination of the oriental carries the practice of it to a monstrous extravagance, 
as is seen in the frightful self-tortures of the yogis and fakirs, the suicides in the sacred 
Ganges and under the wheels of Juggernauth, and the practices now or recently preva- 
lent of offering children in sacrifice, and of burning widows; most of which, however, 
have been humanely suppressed by the efforts of the British government. Buddhism, which 
may be considered as a kind of puritan revival or reformation—the methodism of the Indian 
religion—carried the principle beyond its previous bounds. In its contemning the 
world, in its inculcating a life of solitude and beggary, mortification of the body, and 
abstinence from all uncleanness and from all exciting drinks, the object was to keep as 
distant and detached as possible from this ‘‘ vale of sorrow” (see BuppHIsmM and NtIrR- 
VANA). The sober Chinese, and the more moral and rational Persians, never carried 
asceticism to these extravagances; and the earnest Egyptians sought to confine it to 
monogamy of the priests, abstaining from the flesh of swine and from beans, rigid purity, 
circumcision, moderate flagellation, and frequent contemplation of death (which there 
were arrangements for bringing to remembrance, even in the midst of festivities). 
These are certainly milder forms of A., but the principle is the same. 

It isin the light of this fore-history that we must consider Judaic and Christian ascet- 
icism. In the oriental mind, especially in Egypt, circumcision, avoiding of all unclean- 
ness, and fasting, were signsof humiliation before God; and in the Mosaic ritual they 
were conditions of the favor of the holy Jehovah. Voluntary vows, abstaining even 


Asch. 784 


Ascidia. 


from lawful food, wine, etc., were held to have a special purifying, consecrating efficacy, 
particularly for prophets and men of special callings. But self-castigation continued for 
fang foreign to the sobriety of Judaism, and even hermitism came into established prac- 
tice only shortly before Christ, in Palestine among the Essenes (q.v.), in Egypt among 
the Therapeute (q.v.); though doubtless Jewish A. had become more stern and gloomy 
since the exile in Babylon. 

A. was far less congenial to the reflective nations of the west, above all to the cheer- 
ful Greeks. A Greek felt himself entitled to enjoyment as well as his gods; hence Greek 
religious festivals were pervaded by cheerfulness. The only exception appears to be the 
Eleusinian mysteries, which never took hold of the people generally, and the passing 
phenomenon of the Pythagorean fraternity. The attack made by the Socratic school 
upon the body as the prison of the soul—a view reminding one of the east—and the 
extravagant contempt for the elegances and even decencies of life, professed by the later 
Stoics and Cynics, were no genuine fruits of the popular Greek mind: and we must 
also ascribe to the infusion of oriental philosophy the ascetic tendencies of Neoplatonism, 
in holding abstinence from flesh and from marriage as chief conditions of absorption into 
the divinity. 

It was into the midst of these ideas that Christianity was introduced. The Jewish 
converts brought with them their convictions about fasting. Fasting and Nazaritic 
observances were thought sanctifying preparatives for great undertakings; and the incul- 
cation of abstinence from marriage, on the ground of the expected speedy re-appearance 
of Christ, falls in with the same notion, namely, that the flesh, that is, the sensuous part 
of our nature, is the seat of sin, and must therefore, before all things, be rigorously 
chained. The old oriental traditions of A.; the spirituality of Christianity, pointing 
away from earth to heaven; opposition to the corruption of the heathen world; the dis- 
tinction made between belief and knowledge, as a higher and lower stage of iatelligence, 
leading to a corresponding distinction of a higher and lower stage of virtue: all com- 
bined to make the Christians of the first two centuries hold aloof from the world and its 
wisdom, and favor abstinence from marriage, more especially on the part of the clergy. 
This ascetic spirit began as early as the commencement of the 2d c. to court trial in 
the perilous practice of men and women living together under vows of continence. 
We find Cyprian dissuading from the dangerous experiment, and even the authority of 
the church interposed to the same effect. But during the first three centuries no irrevo- 
cable vows yet bound the devotees to a life-long A. Fasting was also comparatively 
rare. 

But the tendency to outward manifestations now began to grow stronger. The 
inward and spiritual life of the Christians had greatly declined; and if the previous 
bloody persecutions had driven individuals from human society into the deserts, the 
growing secularization of the church, after Christianity became the state religion, had 
the same effect to a still greater degree. All this paved the way for the chief manifes- 
tation of A.—namely, monasticism, which the church found herself compelled by the 
overwhelming tide of opinion within and without to recognize, and to take it under her 
protection and care. See Monacuism. From the African church, represented by Ter- 
tullian and Augustine, a spirit of gloomy and crushing supernaturalism spread deeper 
and deeper over the western church generally, intensifying the ascetic tendencies, and 
leading to still more marked separation from a despised world. There were not want- 
ing healthier minds—as Jovianus, Vigilantius, and others—to raise their voices against 
fasting, monkery, and the outward works of A. generally; but such protests were vain, 
and became ever rarer. 

From the 11th c., the Cathari, Waldenses, and other sects, though ascetics themselves 
in a way, yet assailed the external A. of the church; the classic Petrarch fought on the 
same side; and so did Wickliffe, Huss, and Jerome of Prague, in their premature strug- 
gles at reformation. After a preliminary skirmish by Erasmus, the struggle was decided 
in the reformation of the 16the. The fundamental principle of that movement, that 
salvation is secured by justification through faith, and not through dead works, struck 
at the root of monkery and mortification in general. But the victory has not been so 
complete as is often assumed. The ascetic spirit often shows itself still alive under 
various disguises even in Protestantism. The Mennonites inculcated arigid A.; and 
with the Shakers of America, celibacy is practiced as avirtue. The essence of A. is to 
hold self-denial and suffering to be meritorious in the sight of God, in and for itself, 
without regarding whether it promotes in any way the good of others or the improve- 
ment of the individual’s own character. In this light, many traits presented by Puri- 
tanism, Methodism, and Quakerism appear ascetic. It is not impossible that vegetari- 
anism, total abstinence, and other recent austerities, though advocated on other grounds, 
recommend themselves to the feelings of many from their falling in with this deep- 
seated propensity to A.; which seems a relic of that dread of the malignity of the invis. 
ible and supernatural powers which haunts the human mind in an unenlightened and 
Savage state. Je 

Even in the Roman church, ascetic practices have been modified in recent times; 
fastings are less rigorous, and the seif-sacrifice of conventual life is more directed to 
beneficial ends. Mohammedanism has undergone the same change. In the Greek church, 
monasticism had always a rdlder form. 


x Asch. 
785 Aseha lta 


A3CH, at. in the w. of Bohemia, 100 m. w. n. w. from Prague. It has cotton, linen, 
and woolen manufactures. Pop. 15,557. 

ASCHAF’FENBURG, the chief t. on the right bank of the Main, in the Bavarian dis- 
trict of Unterfranken (lat. 50° 1’ n., long. 9° 7’ e.). It is built upon an eminence, and 
has botha healthy and attractive situation; but the streets are narrow, irregular, and 
slope steeply towards the river. The castle of Johannisberg, built between 1605-14, by 
Johann Schweikhardt, elector of Mentz, and the favorite hunting residence of many of 
his successors, forms a quadrangle, with towers at each corner, and overlooks the whole 
town. Besides the collegiate church, the military barracks, and the town-hospital. A. 
possesses a Roman villa, built by the late king Louis, in imitation of the Castor and Pol- 
lux edifice discovered at Pompeii. It is celebrated for its manufacture of colored papers. 
besides carrying on a considerable trade in wood, building-stone, tobacco, wine, ete. 
Pop. 790, 18,275, principally Catholics. A. existed as early as the invasion of Germany 
by the Romans, who built a castle here. In 974, Otto L., duke of Swabia and Bavaria, 
founded the collegiate church, which greatly increased the prosperity of the place. 
After Otto’s death, it came into the possession of the archbishops of Mentz, and remained 
with them until the dissolution of the Germanic empire. In 1814, along with the prin- 
cipality of which it is the capital, it was ceded to Bavaria by Austria. 


ASCHAM, Roger, a distinguished English writer and classical scholar, was b. in 1515 
at. Kirby Wiske, in Yorkshire. He received his early education in the family of Sir 
Anthony Wingfield, and in 1530 entered St. John’s college, Cambridge, where he took 
his degree of M.A. in 1536. The study of the classics, especialiy Greek, had recently 
been revived at Cambridge, and the natural bent of A. impelled him with ardor to these 
studies. His reputation as a classical scholar soon brought him numerous pupils; and 
there being at that time no Greek chair, he was appointed by the university to read 
lectures in the public schools. He at first opposed the then new method of pronuncia- 
tion which is still used in England; but afterwards adopted and defended it. His 
leisure hours were devoted to music, penmanship, in which he excelled, and archery. 
In defense of the latter art, he wrote, in 1554, a treatise entitled Zovophilus, the pure 
English style of which, independently of its other merits, ranks it among the classical 
pieces of English literature. For this treatise, which was dedicated to Henry VIII., he 
was rewarded with an annual pension of £10, equivalent to about $500 of our present 
money. About the same time, he was appointed university orator. In 1548, on the 
death of his former pupil, Grindal, he was called to supply his place as master of 
languages to the lady Elizabeth. In this office he gave the highest satisfaction; but at 
the end of two years abruptly resigned it, on account of some offense he had taken at 
some persons in the princess’s household. That he did not lose favor at court, however, 
is manifest, from his having soon after been appointed secretary to Sir Richard Morysine, 
ambassador to the court of Charles V. He spent three years in Germany, and published 
an account of his observations in that country. He also made a short tour in Italy. 
During his absence, he had been appointed Latin secretary to Edward VI. On his 
return, after the death of the king, the interest of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, 
secured his appointment to the same office under Mary; his pension aiso was doubled. 
His prudence and moderation preserved him from offending by his Protestantism. After 
the death of Mary, Elizabeth retained him at court in the double capacity of secretary 
and tutor, which he discharged till his death, in 1568. His principal work, The 
Schoolmaster, a treatise on classical education, was published in 1571 by his widow. His 
Latin letters and poems have been frequently reprinted. The best edition of the former 
is that of Elstob (Oxford, 1703). To an edition of his English works, by the Rev. J. Bennet 
(1767), is prefixed a life by Dr. Johnson.—AscuHam, a case for the reception of the bow, 
arrows, strings, and other accoutrements of the archer, derives its name from the author 
of the Tozophilus. 

ASCHE, Rasst, b. at Babylon, 353 a.p.; the first and principal editor of the ‘‘ Tal- 
mud,” on which he worked 30 years, leaving the finishing to his disciples, Abina and 
Jose. He was a man of great learning. 


ASCHERSLE'BEN, a t. in the district of Magdeburg, in the province of Prussian 
Saxony, lat. 51° 46’ n., long. 11° 27’ e. It is situated on the river Eine, is 82 m. distant 
from Magdeburg, and has a pop. of (1890) 22,898. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied 
in agriculture and gardening, but its trade is not very important. It has, however, 
considerable manufactures of woolens, linens, earthenware, etc. In the vicinity are 
some ruins erroneously supposed to be those of the old burgh of Ascania, the original 
seat of the house of Anhalt. = 


ASCIA'NO, a t. of north Italy, 12 m.s.e. from Siena, on the left bank of the Ombrone. 
Pop., 7541. 


ASCIANS, or Ascrr, people near the equator, who have the sun over their heads, and 
consequently have no visible shadow, twice a year. 


ASCID'IA, aLinnzean genus of marine mollusca, now much restricted as a genus, but 
the type of a family called ascidiade. The name ascidians is also commonly employed 
to designate all those tunicated mollusca which form the order saccobranchiata of Owen, 
or in which respiration is carried on by means of gill-sacs (branchial sacs) ; and these are 


pepsi 786 


divided into compound and solitary ascidians (aggregata and solitaria). The ascidians, 
along with the other ¢wnicata, are acephalous, or destitute of a head, and are inclosed, 
not ina shell, but in an elastic tunic with two orifices, composed of a substance appar- 
ently identical with the cellulose of plants, consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. 
Within the external tunic is a muscular membrane, regarded as corresponding to the 
mantle of other mollusca, and the openings of which agree with those of the tunic. The. 
greater part of the cavity of the mantle forms a branchial sac, the lining of which, 
folded in various ways, constitutes the gills Granchia); and into it currents of sea-water 
are continually brought by the respiratory movements, passing out through the vent or 
anal orifice. Multitudinous cé/éa in the mouth and branchial sac, cause by their action 
this continual flow of water. The motion of the cilia is apparently quite involuntary. 
By this flow of water, the particles of food requisite for the animal are brought in, so 
that the atration of the blood and the supply of the stomach are carried on together and 
by the same means, The esophagus or gullet opens from the branchial sac, which is’ 
indeed regarded as probably an expansion of the upper part of it—a dilated pharynx. 
Under the branchial sac is the stomach; and the alimentary canal, which is more or less 
tortuous, finally returns upon itself, so that the two orifices are not far separate. The 
liver consists of follicles produced into tubes, and communicating with the stomach by 
a single opening. There is a heart and a circulation of blood, with the remarkable 
peculiarity of alternations in its course, the circulation every now and then pausing and 
being reversed. The transparency of many of the ascidians permits these and other 
internal movements to be easily observed. The nervous system is very simple, consisting 
of asingle ganglion, situated between the mouth and the anal orifice, and which sends 
out filaments to both of them, and other branches over the surface of the mantle. The 
mantle is capable of contracting suddenly to eject a jet of water, and along with it any 
body the presence of which is disagreeable. It also contracts and ejects water, if the 
animal is touched, and this appears to be the only means of defense which these crea- 
tures possess. There is no trace of eyes or of other organs of special sense. 

The ascidians are found in all seas, and often constitute an important part of the food 
of fishes. Some of them are occasionally used as human food, as cynthia microcosmus on 
the shores of the Mediterranean. Many of them are very small, but some attain a size of 
5 or 6 in. in diameter, and when touched, eject water to a considerable height, 
the largest of them to about 3 ft. They are all fixed by the base, in their mature 
state, to some solid substance, as a rock or seaweed; sometimes by the intervention of a 
stalk or peduncle. In some kinds (socital ascidians), the peduncles of a number of indi- 
viduals are connected by a tubular stem, and to some extent they have a common 
circulation of blood, although each has its own heart, respiratory apparatus, and digestive 
system; and if a ligature is drawn around the peduncle of one so as to cut it off from 
the common circulation, circulation takes place in it as in a solitary ascidian. In other 
kinds (more strictly called compound ascidians—which designation, however, is by some 
authors applied to those just described, whilst these are called aggregate ascidians), the 
tunics of many are united into a mass, and they form systems like zoophytes. The 
compound system sometimes bears a general resemblance to an actinia. Very frequently 
it forms a slimy crust upon alge, shells, etc., or projects in globular or conical masses, 
‘‘more like a Jump of inanimate matter than a being endowed with vitality” —‘‘ a curious 
and interesting internal organization, veiled by the coarsest exterior.” The individuals 
are sometimes connected by a gelatinous flesh, which consists of cellulose, and there is 
sometimes a calcareous deposition in this connecting substance as in the compound 
polypes. The individuals in these systems have always sprung by generation from one, 
and both the solitary and compound ascidians propagate by eggs. The young have the 
power of active locomotion, resemble tadpoles in form, and swim by means of a vibra 
tile tail, which disappears when they settle, being usually detached by contraciion at the 
base. The sexes are supposed to be distinct only in some of the ascidians. The ovaries 
are usually large, and the ova are carried away by the stream which passes through the 
animal. It isin the solitary ascidians that the highest organization is to be observed, 
and in which alone a distinction of sexes appears. In them, a muscular ring surrounds 
the mouth, and can be closed to exclude what is unfitto enter. Within this aperture there 
is also a fringe of tentacula, short and simple, or longer and minutely divided. In the 
compound ascidians, gemmation does not begin till the single animal has been fully 
developed; thereafter, bud after bud is produced, according to the plan upon which the 
compound system is constructed, and “the procreative force of the germ-mass finally 
exhausts itself in the formation of male and female organs, in which that force is agair 
mysteriously renewed under its two forms of the spermatozoon and the germinal vesicle, 
by the combination of which the reproductive cycle again begins its course.” 

The name Ascipran Zoopuyves (zoophyta ascidioida) has been used to designate 
those zoophytes or poiypes which form the class polyzoa of Thompson, bryozoa of 
Ehrenberg, and which in certain features of their organization resemble the A., although 
in other respects they widely differ from them The aleyonidium anG alcyonella, 
already noticed in the article aleyonium, belong to this class. See PoLypi and ZoopuyTsr. 

ASCLEPIADA'CEZ, or AscLepia'‘DE&, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous 

lants, mostly shrubs, often with twining stems, almost always with milky juice. The 
eaves are entire, and have cilia between their stalks in place of stipules. The flowers are 


787 Asclepiadace ®& 
Asclepias. 


peculiar in their structure, although symmetrical and regular. The calyx is divided inta 
five segments, the corolla into five lobes; there are five stamens, and the stigma 
has five angles. The filaments are usually united so as to form a tube, which 
is generally furnished with a coronet of peculiar hood-shaped appendages; the 
anthers are two-celled, the pollen grains cohering in wax-like masses, which fall 
out of the anther cells, and become attached to glands at the angles of the stigma; 
there are two ovaries and two styles very close together, and often very short, with one 
dilated stigma common to both. The fruit cousists of two follicles, or, by abortion, of 
one only, having numerous imbricated seeds with thin albumen, the ends of the seeds 
terminatingin longdown. There are about 1000 known species, chiefly natives of warm 
climates. Some of them are cultivated in gardens and hot-houses, upon account of their 
curious or beautiful flowers, among the most familiar of which are some of the species 
of asclepias (g.v.) or Swallow-wort; perhaps none of them is more highly or deservedly 
esteemed than stephanotis floribunda, the fragrance of which equals its beauty, and 
which, since its introduction into British hot-houses, has been sought for the bridal 
garlands of the highest aristocracy. No hot-house climber is better known than hoya 
carnosa, at each flower of which a drop of honey is always found to hang. A number of 
species are medicinal, as Indian sarsaparilla (q.v.) (hemidesmus indicus); mudar (q.Vv.) 
(calotropis gigantea), so highly prized in the East Indies; sarcostemma glaucum, the 
ipecacuanha of Venezuela; tylophora asthmatica and secamone emetica, the roots of which 
are used as emetics, and in smaller does as cathartics, and the former of which is 
reckoned among the most valuable medicinal plants of India; eynanchum acutum, which 
yields a purgative called Montpelier scammony, and véncetovicum officinale, which 
possesses similar properties. Argel (q.v.), much used for adulterating senna, belongs to 
this order.—The down of the seeds is sometimes employed as a substitute for silk or 
cotton (see ASCLEPIAS); and the stems of not a few species afford useful fibers, as those 
of the asclepias syriaca (see ASCLEPIAS), the mudar (q.v.) and other species of calotropis, 
natives of India and Persia, hoya viridiflora, holostemma rheedianum, etc. The mudar or 
yercum fiber is very highly extolled by Dr. Royle (fibrous Plants of India). The bark of 
marsdenia tenacissima, a small climbing-plant, yields a fiber called jetee, of which the 
Rajmahal mountaineers make bowstrings, remarkable for their great elasticity, which 
they are supposed in some measure to owe to the presence of caoutchouc. The fiber of 
M. roylei is used in Nepal. Orthanthera viminea, which grows at the base of the 
Himalayas, and has long leafless wand-like stems of 10 ft. in height, yields a fiber of 
remarkable length and tenacity, and which is supposed to be peculiarly suited for rope- 
making. The fibers of leptadenia jacquemontiana and periploca aphylium are used in Sinde 
for making the ropes and bands used in wells, as water does not rot them.—The milky 
juice of most species of A. is acrid, but in some it is bland, and they are used for food, 
as is the milk itself of the kiriaghuna or cow-plant of Ceylon (gymnema lactiferum). A 
few species, as marsdenia tinctoria, a native of Silhet, yield indigo of excellent quality. 
The flowers of the genus stapelia have a strong smell of carrion, and flies sometimes lay 
their eggs upon them, as it were by mistake.—No species of A. is a native of Britain.— 
The order is generally regarded as nearly allied to apocynacee. v 


ASCLEPIAD, an order of men in Greece of whom the most were trained as phy- 
sicians. They claimed to be descendants of the god Aisculapius, In the course of 
their initiation and progression the Hippocratic oath was a part of the ceremony. At 
the close of their studies they had a ceremony of consecration, after which they were 
allowed to practice the healing art. 


ASCLEPI’ADES, a Greek physician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, who flourished during 
the early part of Cicero’s life. He has been confounded with several other persons of 
the same name, and, in consequence, our accounts concerning him are both confused 
and contradictory. He seems to have wandered about considerably before he finally 
settled at Rome, as we read of his being at Alexandria, Parium on the Propontis, and . 
Athens. It is not known either when he was born or when he died. A. was opposed 
to the principles of Hippocrates in medicine. Pliny, who professes very little respect 
for him, reduces his medicinal remedies to five: abstinence from flesh, abstinence from 
wine under certain circumstances, friction, walking, and ‘‘ gestation” or carriage exercise, 
by which he proposed to open the pores, and let the corpuscles which caused disease 
escape in perspiration, for his leading doctrine was that all disease rose from an inhar- 
monious distribution of the small, formless corpuscles of which the body was composed. 
He is said to have been very popular with the Romans on account of his pleasant and 
simple cures. His maxim was that a physician ought to cure surely, swiftly, and agree- 
ably—a thing which, unfortunately, is not always possible. A. is also alleged to have 
been the first who distinguished between acute and chronic diseases, but his knowledge 
of anatomy was apparently very slight. The fragments of his which remain have been 
gathered together, corrected, and published by Gumpert, under the title, Asclepiadis 
Bithyni Fragmenta (Weimar, 1798.) 

ASCLEPIAS, or SwALLOw-wort, a genus of plants, the type of the natural order 
asclepiadacee. ‘The corolla is wheel-shaped and reflexed; the coronet fleshy, and each 
of its hooded tips has a horn. The species are generally upright — seldom climbing and 
twining —herbaceous plants with opposite, whorled, or alternate leaves. They are 


5 i 788 


mostly American. The flowers are disposed in simple umbels between the leaf-stalks,— 
A. syriaca, Syrian or Virginian swallow-wort, sometimes called Virginian silk, appears 
to bea native of North America, and not of Syria, as was supposed. It is frequently 
cultivated in flower-gardens. It has an unbranched stem 4 to 7 ft. high; thick, ovate 
leaves, covered with a grayish down on the under side; and large, stalked, nodding 
umbels of many dull ‘red flowers, which diffuse a strong and sweetish odor. The 
whole plant is full of an acrid white milk, which contains caoutchouc. The young 
shoots are eaten in North America like asparagus, as those of A. stipitacea are in Arabia. 
A brown well-tasted sugar is prepared in Canada from the flowers; and the silk-like 
down of the seeds has been used for the manufacture of textile fabrics, either alone, or 
alongwith woolor silk, but is more frequently employed for the preparation of wadding, 
and for stuffing mattresses and pillows. The plant appears, however, to be chiefly 
valuable for the fiber of its stalks, which is used. for the manufacture of thread, cloth, 
ropes, nets, etc., in many parts of North America, and upon account of which it has 
been recommended for general cultivation in Europe. ‘The fiber is said to be of very 
superior quality. The plant rapidly extends by its creeping roots, and_readily becomes 
a weed, where it has been introduced.— The roots of several other North American 
species are used as diaphoretics and expectorants, as A. incarnata, A. tuberosa, etc. 
The latter is a very ornamental garden-flower, and is called butterfly weed and pleurisy 
root in the United States, where it is frequent on stony and sandy grounds. 


AS'COLI (anciently, Asculwm Picenum), an old city of Italy, capital of the province 
Ascoli-Piceno, and the seat of a bishop, lat. 42° 50’ n., long. 18° 87’ e. Itis built ona 
hill, on the right bank of the Tronto, which formed the boundary between the late 
Roman and Neapolitan territories. Pop. ’81, 11,199. From the Adriatic, it is distant 
16 m. w.; from Ancona, 53 s._ Its harbor (Porto d’Ascoli) has some coasting-trade, 
and is defended by twoforts. The town is beautifully situated, commanding a fine view 
of the fertile valley through which the river flows, and of the rugged Apennines, which 
here rise to an elevation of 7212 ft. 


ASCOLI, Grazrapio Isat, a celebrated philologist, was born in Goritz, in 1829. At 
first he was destined for mercantile life, but following his great inclination and talent, 
soon turned to comparative philology, and studied without instruction so ardently and 
so successfully, that in his 16th year he published a highly creditable work on the idioms 
of the Friuli language. On account of his following greater work, Studi¢ orientali é 
lingutstict, which established the indications of numerous Semitic elements in Etruscan, 
he was called to Milan, where he has been professor of linguistics since 1860. Here he 
displayed extraordinary activity, and attracted many students; indeed, almost all the 
present distinguished Italian philologists, as Dall’Oca, Morosi, Guissani, studied under 
him. Ascoli is one of the most prominent judges of sound-changes in the Indo-Ger- 
manic languages, and has made many discoveries in this department, and has firmly 
established his new views. In this he anticipated the investigations of recent physiol- 
ogists on the conditions and methods of development of the sounds of human language, 
and by this means has established the connection of physiology of sound with philol- 
ogy. “This work has been widely recognized, and has exerted great influence. The 
following works show his investigations : Fonologia comparata del sanskrito, del greco e 
del latino (1870), Studii erttici (1861-T7). In 1878 he founded the Archivio glottologico 
italiano. In 1889 he was made a Senator. 


AS’COLI-PICE’NO, one of the four provinces of the Marches, in central Italy, for- 
merly in the papal territory; 809 sq.m.; pop. 790, 214,927. In the province are branches 
of the Apennine mountains, and four or five small rivers. Wine, oil, honey, corn, fish, 
silk, and wool are produced. Chief town, Ascoli. 


ASCOT HEATH, an English race-course in Berkshire, 26 m. from London, near the 
London and Southern railroad. The annual meeting in June is, for a large portion of 
the public, one of the important events of the year. 


ASCUTNEY MOUNTAIN, a rocky mass, 3300 ft. above sea-level, in Windsor co., Vt. 
Its top presents a splendid panorama, 


ASELLI, ASELLIO, or ASELLIUS, Caspar, a celebrated Italian physician, was b. at 
Cremona, about the year 1581. He served at first as a military surgeon, but afterwards 
became professor of anatomy and surgery at Padua. In 1622, while at Milan, where he 
was in the habit of spending a great portion of his time, he discovered the lacteal vessels. 
Before A.’s time, anatomists had supposed that the chyle was carried from the intestines 
into the liver by the mesenteric veins. Happening one day to dissect a living dog, he noticed 
for the first time the multitude of little vessels, which suck up the nutritive portion of 
the food. At first, he took them for nerves, and did not pay particular attention to 
them; but on pricking one with the point of his scalpel, a white liquid spirted out, and 
the discovery flashed on him ina moment. He seems, however, never to have under- 
stood or described them with complete accuracy. He d. at the age of 45, leaving a 
treatise on the subject of his discovery, which was published a year after his death. It 
is entitled De Lactibus, sive Lacteis Venis, Quarto Vasorum Mesaraicorum Genere, Novo 
Invenio, Dissertatio, and has several times been reprinted. 


ASEL'LUS, in ichthyology, a generic name now disused, but by which the cod and other 
gadide were formerly sometimes designated. It is retained in the pharmacopeeias, in the 
name of cod-liver oil, olewm jecoris asell.—The same generic name is now employed, in 
a different department of natural history, to denote a genus of small isopod crustaceans. 


789 rs 


ASEPTICISM. See ANTISEPTICE. 


A'SES. The singular of this name in old Norse, is As, pl. Aes’r; in Gothic, Ans; in 
Saxon, Os (Hs), TheA. are a race of gods in northern or Scandinavian mythology (q.v.), 
though not the o.dest, yet the most powerful, like the Jupiter dynasty among the Greeks. 
They are usually considered as numbering twelve gods, and as many goddesses. The gods 
are—Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niord, Freyr, lyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Widar, Wali, Uller, and For- 
seti; the best known of the goddesses—Frigga, Freyja, Idunna, Eira, and Saga. The wor- 
ship of the A., or the Odin religion, was rooted not only among the nations of Scandinavia, 
but among the Germanic races generally, at least in its outlines. Besides other traces, 
proofs of its prevalence are to be found in a multitude of Gothic, Saxon, and old high 
German proper names,many of which continue still in use, though their connection with 
German paganism passes unperceived: Oswald, Esmond, Oswin, Anselm, Ansgar, etc. 

ASGARD (from As, ‘‘ god,” and gard, ‘‘ home”), the home of the Norse gods, or the 
Scandinavian Olympus. It was said to stand in the middle and highest part of Ida’s 
plain, which is the center of the universe. There the AXsir (gods) built a court, or hall, 
with seats for twelve, and one high-seat for Odin, the all-father; and also a lofty abode 
called Vingolf, for the goddesses. The gods worked diligently, played at games, were 
rich in precious things, and happy until three maidens from Jétunheim, ‘‘ giant’s world,” 
‘crossed the plain and entered Asaheim, when corruption began to spread among the 
inmates. A. had many mansions, the largest and noblest of which was Gladsheim, 
‘‘home of gladness,” while another not so large, but fairer and brighter than the sun, 
was called Gimli. The latter mansion will stand when heaven and earth shall have been 
‘destroyed by fire, and will be the dwelling-place of brave and upright men. There is a 
historical explanation of this myth: that Asaheim was a country east of the Don in Asia, 
where there was a city of Asgard in which ruled a chief named Odin, or Woden; that 
‘Odin, fearing subjection by the Romans, led his people across Russia to Sweden and 
settled at Sigtuna (Upsala); that his priests or chief men founded other settlements, 
and established the worship of their ancestors; that in lapse of time the man Odin and 
his chiefs came to be looked upon as gods. No date can be settled for such a migration; 
but from 120 to 80 B.c. has been thought probable, for then Mithridates Eupater was 
defying the armies of Rome. The Norse civilization and religion were undoubtedly of 
Aryan origin. See Austr. 


ASGILL, JoHNn, an eccentric English Jitéérateur, born in the year 1659. He studied 
for the bar, and at intervals during the whole of his checkered life transacted legal 
business in some form or other; but having early displayed a predilection for writing 
political pamphlets, he soon became involved, in spite of his cleverness, in serious 
‘pecuniary difficulties. Fortunately for him, parliament had just passed an act (1699) for 
‘the resumptior of forfeited estates in Ireland, and commissioners were appointed to settle 
‘claims. A bright vision flitted across the mind of the much-harassed man. He sailed 
‘for the sister isle, and found the whole country wrangling in law-suits. His talents, and 
‘the favor of the commissioners, secured to him a lucrative practice; and he even acquired 
-sufficient influence to obtain a seat in the Irish parliament. Some time, however, before 
‘taking possession of his seat, A. had published a most extraordinary pamphlet, entitled 
An Argument proving that, according to the Covenant of Hternal Life revealed in the Scrip. 
tures, Man may be translated hence into that Hternal Life without passing through Death, 
although the Humane Nature of Christ himself could not thus be translated till he had passed 
through Death (1700). Much to A.’s surprise, the public flew into a rage against this 
absurd production; the Irish parliament voted it a blasphemous libel, and the astonished 
author was expelled from the house after four days. In 1705, A. returned to England, 
and entered the English parliament as member for Bramber, in Sussex. But the fame 
of his unlucky pamphlet haunted him perpetually, and at last proved a Nemesis; for the 
English house, resolving to be not less virtuous than the Irish one, took up the treatise, 
condemned it to be burnt by the common hangman, as profane and blasphemous, and 
expelled A.on the 18th Dec.,1707. After this his circumstances rapidly grew worse, 
until at last he found something like peace in the King’s Bench and the Fieet, between 
which two places his excursions were confined for the term of his natural life. Here he 
continued to practice professionally, and—for he never succeeded in overcoming this 
weakness—to indite innumerable pamphlets on political and theological topics. He d. 
in Nov., 1788, 


» ASH, Fraz'inus, a genus of trees belonging to the natural order oleacew, and distin- 
guished by very imperfect flowers, in which the calyx is obsolete, and the corolla either 
wanting or 3 to 4-partite; the fruit is a samara, a seed-vessel foliaceous at the extremity. 
The leaves are deciduous, and are pinnate with a terminal leaflet. There are about fifty 
species, mostly natives of Europe and of North America.—The Common Asx (F- excel- 
stor) grows wild in the middle and s. of Europe and n. of Asia. It is an undoubted 
native of Britain. The flowers are quite naked; the leaves have five or six pairs of leaf- 
lets. The flowers appear before the leaves in spring, and the tree is not covered with 
leaves until the season is far advanced, losing them again early in autumn. It is, 
however, a most beautiful and umbrageous tree, highly ornamental in parks; but in parks 
or hedgerows it is extremely injurious to the grass or crops immediately around it. It 


AchEHzO: 790 


she, 


rises to the height of 100 to 150 ft., generally with a smooth stem. The wood is white, 
tough, and hard, much valued by wheelwrights, cartwrights, coach-makers, joiners, and 
turners. It is also excellent for fuel. Sometimes it becomes irregular in the disposi- 
tion of its fibres, and finely veined, and is then prized by cabinet-makers. The wood 
of the young trees is almost as valuable as that of the old. Indeed, the value of the 
timber is greatest in trees of which the growth has been rapid, as it exhibits the char- 
acteristic toughness in the highest degree. The A. prefers a Joamy soil, but grows in 
almost any, and succeeds in situations too elevated or too exposed for most other trees. 
It has of late been extensively planted in elevated situations in some parts of the n. of 
Scotland, and there, in the more sheltered glens, it grows to a large size. Cultivation 
has produced and perpetuated a number of varieties, of which the most remarkable are 
the weeping A., with boughs bent almost straight down to the ground; the curt-leaved A., 
with dark-green wrinkled or curled leaves; and the entire-leaved A., a very curious vari- 
ety, with many or all of the leaves simple (not pinnated), which has been erroneously 
regarded by some botanists as a distinct species, and named /. simplicifolia, F’. hetero- 
phylla, etc.—The SMALL-LEAVED A. (Ff. parvifolia) and the LentTIsK A. (F. lentiseifolia) are 
both natives of the shores of the Mediterranean, and are very graceful and ornamental 
trees. —The AMERICAN A., or WHITE A. (7, americana), is readily distinguished from the 
common A. by its lighter bark and paler green leaves. The flowers have a calyx, and 
the leaflets are shortly stalked and entire (those of the common A. being sessile and ser- 
rated). It is abundant in New Brunswick and Canada, but becomes rare to the s. of 
New Jersey. The trunk often rises more than 40 ft. undivided. The wood is used for 
the same purposes as that of the common A.—The Rep A., or BLack A. (Ff. pubescens), 
is very similar, but of smaller size, and has a deep brown bark. It is most abundant in 
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, especially in swampy ground.—The Buiack A., 
or WatER A. of the New England states, New Brunswick, etc. (/. sambucifolia), is a 
large tree with buds of a deep blue color.—The BLuE A. of Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
etc. (F. quadrangulata), is also a large tree. The branches are quadrangular, the young 
shoots having on the angles four membranes which extend their whole length.—The 
GREEN A. (/. juglandifolia), readily recognized by the brilliant green of its young shoots, 
is chiefly found in the middle states; and the Carouina A. (/ caroliniana), remarkable 
for the great size of its leaflets, chiefly in the southern states. Besides these, North 
America produces a considerable number of other species or varieties. The wood of 
all of them is used for somewhat similar purposes to that of the common A.—In the s. 
of Europe grows the Manna A., or FLowERiNG A. (/ ornus, called ornus europea by 
some botanists), whose flowers have a 4-partite calyx, and four small yellowish-white 
petals. The tree has much resemblance to the common A. From it the substance called 
Manna (q.v.) is obtained by means of transverse incisions in the bark; but in very favor- 
able situations, it flows spontaneously during the greatest heat of summer. Manna is 
chiefly collected in Calabria and Sicily. <A nearly allied species, /. rotundifolia, a native 
of Greece and the Ionian islands, yields it also in perhaps equal quantity. ‘The common 
A. is said sometimes to produce the same exudation in the same warm climates. See 
illus., Botany, vol. II., figs. 25, 26, 31, 82. 

THE Mountain A. is the Rowan Tree (q.v.), and belongs toa different natural order. 
Its resemblance to the A. is chiefly in its leaves. 


ASHANGO, a tribe occupying a plateau of western Africa, south of the Ogowé, 2380 
miles from the Atlantic coast. They are subdivided into various lesser tribes, among 
which are the Obongo, a race of yellow dwarfs, whose average height does not exceed 
four feet four inches. See Du Chaillu, A Journey to Ashango-Land (1867). 


ASHANTY’ or ASHANTEP’, since 1896 a British province in western Africa, on the Gold 
Coast, in lat. 5° to 9°n., andlong. 0° to4°w. Itismountainous, well watered, and unhealth- 
ful, especially in the lower alluvial districts. The principal rivers are the Volta, Prah, 
and Assinie. Pop. 1,000,000, of whom a fifth are warriors. The land is extremely 
fertile, producing maize, millet, rice, yams, tobacco, sugar, cocoa, the pineapple, and 
other fine fruits, with gums, dyewoods, and timber. The principal exports are gold- 
dust and palm-oil, tegether with slaves. The natives are remarkable for their skill in 
certain articles of manufacture; their cottons are beautiful, as also their earthenware 
and sword-blades. The capital is Coomassie (q.v.). 

The beginnings of the A. kingdom are obscure, but its traditions point to an emigra- 
tion some hundreds of years ago from a region n. of the Kong mountains, probably 
caused by the spread of the Mohammedan empire of Timbuctoo. Our first positive 
glimpse of it is got in the year 1700, when Coomassie was made the capital by Osai Too- 
too L., who conquered Akim, Assin, Gaman, Denkira, and other neighboring states, and 
became a sort of feudal sovereign over a large district. , In their course of conquest over 
the Fantees, the Ashantis became involved in war with the British (1807-26), and were 
finally driven from the sea-coast. In 1873-74, in consequence of disputes arising in 
connection with the cession of the Dutch forts to Britain, they were again involved in a 
war with the same power; and an army under Sir Garnet Wolseley forced its way to the 
center of the kingdom. After a severe battle at Amoaful, and several days’ fighting, 
Coomassie was taken, Feb, 4, 1874, and burned on the 6th, and though the rainy season 
had set in, the army returned in safety to the coast. In 1895 the King of Ashanti 


hangs 
791 re re 


(Prempeh) having molested the English settlers on the coast, a strong British force was 
sent again to Coomassie, which it reached with little resistance. The king was forced to 
submit to English authority, and the kingdom became a British province (January, 1896). 

ASHBORNE, or AsHBurN, a market t. of Derbyshire, England, a short distance 
from the left bank of the Dove, in a fertile valley, amid beautiful scenery, 13 m. n.w. 
from Derby. The streets are pretty regular, the houses mostly of brick. The parish 
church of A. is supposed to have been erected in the 13th century. 


ASHBURTON, Lord ALEXANDER BaRrrna, b. in 1774, a younger son of Sir Francis 
Baring, bart., was, in early life, for many years commercially engaged in the United 
States and the Canadas, in the service of the great London mercantile house founded by 
his father. On the death of the latter, in 1810, he became the head of the firm of Baring 
Brothers & Co., and in 1812 was elected M.P. for Taunton. He represented that place, 
Callington, and Thetford, on the liberal interest, till 1831, and in 1832 was returned for 
North Essex as a moderate conservative. In the short administration of Sir Robert 
Peel (1884-35), he was president of the board of trade, and master of the mint, and was 
created baron A. by patent in April, 1835. This title had been conferred in April, 1782, 
on the celebrated lawyer, John Dunning, who had married Alexander Baring’s aunt, 
and it became extinct on the death of his cousin, the second lord A., in 1823. In 1842, 
lord A.’s knowledge of business, and thorough acquaintance with American institutions, 
customs, and modes of thought, caused him to be appointed special ambassador to the 
United States, to settle the north-west boundary question, and other disputes, that then 
threatened to involve the two countries in war. In August of the same year, he con- 
cluded the famous treaty of Washington, commonly called the A. treaty, by which the 
frontier line between the state of Maine and Canada was definitively agreed to. By this 
treaty, seven twelfths of the disputed ground, and the British settlement of Madawaska, 
were given to the United States, and only five twelfths of the ground to Britain; but it 
secured a better military frontier to England, and included heights commanding the St. 
' Lawrence, which the award of the king of Holland, who had been chosen arbiter, had 
assigned to the Americans. By the 8th and 9th articles, provisions are made for putting 
an end to the African slave-trade; and the 10th article provides for the mutual extradi- 
tion of suspected criminals. Lord A. opposed free-trade, but strongly supported the 
penny-postage system when first proposed by Rowland Hill in 1837. He formed a 
valuable collection of old paintings. His death took place May 18, 1848.—His eldest 
son, William Bingham Baring, second lord A. of this creation, b. in 1799, and educated 
at Oriel College, Oxford, entered parliament in 1836, as member for Taunton, and in 
Sept., 1841, was appointed secretary to the board of control. In Feb., 1845, he became 
paymaster-general of the forces, and treasurer of the navy. In 1855 he was made 
commander of the legion of honor, and in 1860 he was president of the geographical 
society. He d. in 1864. 


ASHBURTON RIVER, a stream of western Australia, rising in the mountains west of 
the Great Desert, and flowing 400 miles northwestward into the Exmouth Gulf. 


ASHBURTON TREATY. See UNITED STATES. 


ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a small t. near the source of the Mease, a tributary, of the 
Trent, in the n.w. of Leicestershire. Pop. in 1891, 4535. Leather making is the principal 
manufacture, but nail-making, malting, wool-stapling, iron-smelting, and the manu- 
factures of stockings, hats, and tire-bricks are carried on. In the neighborhood are 
collieries; and saline springs containing common salt in greater proportion than the 
sea ; and ironstone, limestone, and fine clay are found. A canal 30 m. long, without 
a lock, connects the t. with Coventry. The ruins of A. castle stand on a height on the 
s. side of the town. Mary Queen of Scots was once confined in this castle. 


ASHBY, TURNER, 1824-62 a confederate officer in the civil war, celebrated as a leader 
of cavalry. He was made a brigadier-general in 1862, and was killed in June of that 
year in an engagement near. Harrisonburg, Va. 


ASH’DOD. See Azorus. 


ASHE, aco. inn.w. North Carolina, bordering on Tennessee and Virginia; 300 sq. m. ; 
pop. ’90, 15,628, with colored. A mountainous region, good for grazing, but not for 
crops. Co. seat, Jefferson. 


ASHE, Joun, 1720-81; an American general in the revolution; b. North Carolina, 
came to America, 1727. He was a representative in the North Carolina colonial assembly, 
and presiding officer for three years. It is said that he was the first man to suggest the 
provincial congress, of which he was a prominent member. He joined the army early 
in the war, and led a force in 1775 to take Fort Johnson. He was with Gen. Lincoln 
in 1779, and was defeated by Prevost at Briar Creek. In 1781 he was a prisoner of war, 
but on parole. 


ASHE, THOMAS SAMUEL, 1812-87, b. in North Carolina, was for several years in the 
state legislature; was elected to the confederate house of representatives in 1861; to the 
confederate senate in 1864, and represented his district in the United States congress, 
1873-77. He was a judge of the state supreme court. 


Asher, FO9 
Ashton, ( v2 


venth of Jacob’s sons and the third by Zilpab, Leah’s handmaid, 
PS rr ee We ts twelve tribes of Israel. His birth is assigned to 1914 B.C. Gad 
was A.’s full brother. When they left Egypt the tribe of A. was the ninth in strength, 
numbering 41,500 ; when they entered Canaan they had increased by 11,900, and become 
fifth in size. Their geographical position was along the sea-shore from Carmel, with 
Manasseh on the s., Zebulon and Issachar on_the s.e., and Naphtali on the n.e. The 
tribe had become unimportant in the time of David, perhaps dispersed among the Sido- 
nians, whom they could not subdue. Asher had four sons and one daughter. 


ASHES, the remains of animal and vegetable bodies after burning. It is not strictly 
correct to speak of the ashes of a mineral, When lead is exposed to heat, it turns to 
dross, which has the appearance of A., but is merely the lead combined with oxygen. 
In the same way, volcanic A., as they are called, are only a finer kind of pumice-stone, 
the solidified scum of molten lava. The ashes of organic substances destroyed by fire 
consist of the fixed salts contained in these substances. In land-plants, the most im- 
portant are salts of potash, along with silica and lime; in sea-plants, soda takes the 
place of potash. By lixiviation of the A., the potash or soda is dissolved and separated 
from the insoluble mass, and is then purified by crystallization. The A. of sea-plants 
contain also more or less iodine. Peat and turf ashes contain, besides alkalies, more or 
less clay and sand ; the same is true of pit-coal, which sometimes contains iron. 

At one time, the A. or inorganic ingredients of plants were considered unessential to 
their existence. But the progress of vegetable chemistry has taught that a certain pro- 
portion of saline food is necessary to the development of plants. The analysis of the A. 
of the different kinds of vegetable substances has since become of great interest. 

The A. of animal bodies do not differ greatly from those of vegetables. Bone-A. 
consist essentially of lime united with phosphoric acid. This bone-earth is very valu- 
able as manure for grain. In well-wooded countries, A. from burnt wood form an 
article of considerable trade. They are much used in the arts, as soap-boiling, bleach- 
ing, dyeing, glass-making, etc. "Wood-A. are also used in washing and other domestic 
processes as a cheap preparation of potash (q.v.). ; 

The covering of the head with A. has long been a common sign of mourning among 
eastern nations, indicative of the very deepest distress. Instances of this are mentioned 
in Scripture. Penitents in the early Christian church signified their sorrow and humili- 
ation in like manner, by standing at the door of the church in “‘ sackcloth and ashes.” 
See AsH- WEDNESDAY. 


ASHEVILLE, city and co. seat of Buncombe co., N. C., on the Southern railroad, one 
mile east of the French Broad river, and about 275 miles west of Raleigh, It is situated 
2205 feet above the sea, among magnificent mountain scenery, has a ladies’ college, 
academies, large hotels, banks, and daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. Shoes, ice, 
tobacco, and flour are the chief industries. Adjoining the city is the great Vanderbilt 
estate, known as Biltmore. Pop. of city, 1890, 10,235. 


ASHIKAGA, a line of military rulers (shoguns, or ‘‘tycoons’’), or lieutenants of the 
mikado, who ruled Japan, 1335-1578, the last being overthrown by Ota Nobunaga. 


ASHKENAZIM, the name of a northern people mentioned in the 10th chapter of 
Genesis, located in Armenia or its neighborhood. At the present time the German and 
Polish Jews are termed Ashkenazim, as opposed to the Sephardim, the Spanish and 
Portuguese Jews. They have separate synagogues, with a somewhat different ritual 
and a different pronunciation of Hebrew, but there is no doctrinal distinction, and they 
show no disinclination to social intercourse and intermarriage. 


ASHLAND, a co. in n.e. Ohio, intersected by the Atlantic and Great Western, and 
the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago railroads ; 390 sq.m. ; pop. 90, 22,223. The 
surface is hilly, but the soil is remarkably fertile in grain and well suited to cattle- 
raising and dairy products. Co. seat, Ashland. 


ASHLAND, a co. in n.w. Wisconsin, on lake Superior ; intersected by the Wisconsin 
Central railroad ; 2150 sq.m. ; pop. 790, 20,063. Iron ore is found, and there is a ridge, 
1200 ft. high, called Iron mountain. Co. seat, Ashland. 


_ASHLAND, village and co, seat of Ashland co., O., on the New York, Lake Erie and 
Western railroad; 50 m. w. of Akron and 65 s.w. of Cleveland. It has churches, 
several newspapers, a public library, miscellaneous manufactures and a trade in grain. 


i Ps us seat of Ashland University, non-sectarian, founded in 1878. Pop. 1880, 3000; 
890, 3566. 


_ASHLAND, a borough of Schuylkill co., Penn., in the coal region, 12 m. from Potts- 
ville, on the Philadelphia and Reading, and Lehigh Valley railroads. It has churches, 
collieries, banking facilities, schools, a public hall, foundries, machine shops, planing- 
mills, etc., and is the center of the anthracite coal fields of this part of the State. 
Several newspapers are published here. Pop. 1890, 7346. ; 


ASHLAND, city and co. seat of Ashland co., Wis., on Chequamegon Bay, one of the 
finest harbors on Lake Superior. Steamers connect it with all lake ports, and it is situated 
on the Wisconsin Central, Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, the Northern 


Asher. 
793 Ashton: 


Pacific and Chicago and Northwestern railroads. It is 185 m. n.e. of St. Paul. and con- 
tains churches, banks, several lumber mills, charcoal plant, steel plant, flour mills, brown 
stone quarries and extensive coal and merchandise docks. Ashland is the point from 
which the product of the large iron mines of the Gogebic range is shipped, the ore docks 
being of great extent. Settled in 1854 and incorporated in 1863, it became a summer 
resort, and since 1876 has made rapid growth. It was charteredasacity in 1887. Several 
daily and weekly papers are published. Pop. ’90, 9956; has since increased. 


ASHLAR, or ASHLER, building-stone squared and hewn, as distinguished from rubble, 
or rough stones which are used as they come from the quarry without being dressed. 
A. is laid in regular courses in building, and is of various kinds, according to the style 
of working that side of the stone which is to form the facing of the wall. Thus, there 
are tooled A.—the marks of the tooling being either random or in grooves ; polished A., in 
which the face of the stone is rubbed smooth; and rustic A.,in which only the joints 
are accurately hewn, the face of the stone being left projecting irregularly. Quarriers 
apply the term A. to squared stones before being hewn. 

ASHLEY, a co. in s.e. Arkansas, bordering on Louisiana ; 927 sq.m.; 90, 18,295, inclu. 
colored. Corn and cotton are the staples. Co. seat, Hamburg. 


ASHMOLE, Extras, a celebrated antiquary, was b. at Lichfield on the 23d May, 1617. 
In 1633, when only 16 years of age, he commenced the study of law, and five years after, 
he was admitted to practice as a solicitor in chancery. During the civil wars, he 
embraced the side of the royalists, and was appointed captain in lord Ashley’s regiment, 
and controller of the ordnance; but at the same time exhibited his love of study by 
joining Brazenose college, Oxford, where he sedulously applied himself to mathematics, 
natural philosophy, astronomy, and astrology. In 1646, he became acquainted with sey- 
eral famous astrologers; amongst others, William Lilly, whose conversation had a great 
charm for him; and in 1650, he published a work of Dr. Dee’s, to which he subjoined a 
treatise of his own. Continuing with singular perseverance his researches in this dim 
region of superstitious philosophy, he was enabled, in the course of two or three years, 
to issue his Zheatrum Uhymicum Britannicum, which procured for him a high reputation, 
and the friendship even of men like John Selden. In 1658, appeared his Way to Bliss, a 
work on the philosopher’s stone—the last he published in connection with astrology. 
At the ~estoration of king Charles various honors and emoluments were conferred upon 
him. In 1682, he presented to the university of Oxford a very fine collection of rarities, 
which belonged to persons of the name of Tradescant, now known as the Ashmolean 
museum. He d. 1692. . 


ASHMUN, JEuupi, an American philanthropist, was b. at Champlain, in the state of 
New York, in 1794, He was educated with a view to the Christian ministry; but eventu- 
ally became editor, in Washington, of a monthly magazine called The Repertory. In this 
periodical he advocated the views of the African Colonization society for founding a 
colony of liberated negroes on the west coast of Africa. In 1821, he published a life of 
the Rev. Samuel Bacon, who had fallen a victim to an unsuccessful attempt to realize 
these views in the previous year. Learning the difficulties which surrounded a second 
attempt at planting a settlement in Africa, A. resolved to devote himself to the good 
work. Receiving an appointment as one of the agents of the African Colonization 
society, he conducted a body of liberated negroes from Baltimore, and landed at cape 
Mesurado, the seat of the infant colony, in the autumn of 1822. Dr. Ayres and the other 
agents of the society having meanwhile abandoned the settlement from severe illness, he 
assumed the superintendence of affairs as the sole representative of that body. Here, for 
more than six years, he devoted his powers and his lite to the establishing, on a fair 
and solid basis, this colony, so full of hope for the American negro. He showed great 
courage and tact in opposing the united forces of the natives at the outset of his man- 
agement, and no less ability in after-negotiations with the chiefs, by which the colony 
acquired very considerable accessions to its territory. His health at length becoming 
sadly impaired, he bade adieu to the settlement, then recently cailed Liberia, in Mar., 
1828, and landed at New Haven, Conn., in a state of great exhaustion. After a brief 
revival, he relapsed, and d. on the 28th Aug., 1828, in his 35th year. 


ASHTABU’LA, a co. in n.e. Ohio, on lake Erie ; intersected by the Lake Shore and 
Michigan Southern, and the Ashtabula, Youngstown and Pittsburg railroads ; 700 
sq.m. ; pop. 90, 43,655. Co. seat, Jefferson. 

ASHTABULA, a city in Ohio, in a county and on a river of the same name, three miles 
from lake Erie, and 54 miles n.e. of Cleveland, is entered by the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern and other railroads. It contains churches, a public library, graded schools, 
and publishes several newspapers. It has a rolling mill, shaft factories, manufactures of 
farm implements, rubber clothing, etc., and does a large business in the shipment of coal 
and transshipment of iron ore. The harbor at the river’s mouth is a fine one. Pop. 
1890, 8388. 

ASH’TAROTH. See ASTARTE. 

ASHTON-UNDER-LINE, a t. in the s.e. of Lancashire. Pop. in ’91, 40,494, It returns 
one member to parliament. It is a great seat of the cotton manufacture, The popu- 
lation is also employed in bleaching, dyeing, and calico-printing, in collieries, and 
in the manufacture of machines, bricks, etc. To the w. of the t. is a large moss or 


Ash. 794 


Asia. 


shaking bog, containing fir-trees full of turpentine, and black oak, with a loamy bottom 
at the depth of 10 feet. 


ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent (q.v.), so called from the Roman Catholic 
ceremony of strewing ashes on the head as a sign of penitence. This custom, probably 
introduced by Gregory the great (590-604), was sanctioned by pope Celestin III. in 1191, 
and afterwards generally prevailed. Before mass, the ashes were consecrated on the 
altar, sprinkled with holy water, and signed three times with the cross, while the priest 
recited the words, Memento quod cinis es, et in cinerem reverteris/ (‘‘ Remember that 
thou art dust, and must return to dust!” Next, they were strewed on the heads of the 
officiating priests, the clergy, and the assembled people. The ashes were said to be those 
of the palms consecrated on the preceding Palm Sunday (q.v.).—The Protestant church in 
Germany does not celebrate A. In the church of England, it is observed by the stricter 
members, but without anything of the ceremony from which it derives its name; and 
the commination—a series of denunciations against impenitent offenders—is appointed to 
be read in the service for this day. 


ASIA, the largest division of land on the globe, generally regarded as the birthplace 
of the human race, and the most ancient seat of civilization. Its superficial area, in- 
cluding islands, has been estimated at from 16 to 20,000,000 sq.m., and its pop. at 
840,000,000. This enormous mass of continent lies almost entirely in the northern di- 
vision of the eastern hemisphere, while its world of islands extends across the equator 
on the south-east. On three sides, it is surrounded by the ocean; but on the w.,, is 
partially connected with Africa and Europe. The continental mass is more than four 
times as large as Europe. Some idea may be formed of its vast extent by the calculation 
that, though it contains more than half of the whole population of the globe, the num- 
ber of its inhabitants is so small compared with its area, that Europe may be said to be 
three times more densely populated. The coast-line is about 33,000 m. in length; and 
on the s. and e., is diversified by seas, bays, and gulfs, affording advantages to naviga- 
tion and commerce far superior to those of Africa, but inferior to those possessed by 
Europe and America. On the w. side, the Dardanelles and the sea of Marmora may be 
regarded as but a slight interruption of the great table-lands of Europe and A. which 
form the continent of the old world. 

Horizontal Configuration.—A. is bounded n., by the Arctic ocean; e., by the Pacific 
ocean; s., by the Indian ocean; and on the w., by Europe, the Black sea, Archipelago, 
Mediterranean, and the Red sea. On the extreme n.e., the peninsular land of 
Kamtchatka is separated from North America only by the narrow Bebhring’s strait. 
On the s.e.,a bridge of numerous islands—Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Papua, etc.—ex- 
tends towards Australia. The body of the continent may be regarded as a trapezium, 
of which the offsets, consisting of several large peninsulas, bear some resemblance to 
those of Europe; though in A. everything is on a more gigantic scale. Thus, one of 
these offsets, the peninsula of Arabia, is four times as large as France. On the w. ex- 
tends the peninsula of A. Minor, or Anatolia, divided from Europe by the strait of Con- 
stantinople, the sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles, with the Black sea on the n., 
and the Levant on the south. On the s. of A., the peninsular configuration may be 
divided into three principal masses, corresponding to the southern coast of Europe: 
Arabia may be considered as a counterpart to Spain; Italy, with its neighbor-island, 
Sicily, is represented by Hindustan and Ceylon; and, as in Europe, the broken Grecian 
peninsula is connected with A. by a bridge of numerous islands extending on the s.e., 
so, in A., the eastern peninsula (or India beyond the Ganges), lying between the bay 
of Bengal and the Chinese sea, is connected with Australia on the s.e. by the vast 
Eastern archipelago. This world of islands is divided into the several groups of 
the Philippine islands, Borneo, Celebes, Molucca islands, Sumatra, and Java, Timor, 
and the numerous adjoining isles. The e. coast of A. is characterized by the deep 
indentations of the Pacific ocean in the Chinese sea, Yellow sea, and seas of Japan, 
Okhotsk, and Kamtchatka; all fringed with numerous islands, and separated by the 
peninsula of Corea, the island of Saghalien, and the peninsula of Kamtchatka. On the 
u., the Siberian coasts are also deeply indented; but rather by the embouchures of 
large rivers than by arms of the sea. The whole length of continental A., from the 
Dardanelles to the Japan islands, is 6000 m.; its breadth, from Malacca to the n.e. ‘cape 
of Siberia, is 5800 m.; with its islands it extends from 10° s. lat. to 78° n., and from 26° 
e. long. to 190° e. or 170° w. Such an extent of surface must include all varieties of 
soil, climate, and production. 

Vertical Configuration.—Equally grand are the features of this continent when re- 
regarded vertically: it has the most extensive lowlands, the most immense table-lands, 
the highest chains of mountains, and the most elevated summits in the world; tracts: 
doomed to everlasting snow or scorching sterility, salubrious valleys of continual ver- 
dure, and noisome jungles of the rankest growth. The table-lands of Asia occupy two: 
fifths of the whole continent. The eastern extremity is 2000 m. broad; the western, less 
than 1000. The whole mass may be regarded as consisting of two parts, separated, or, 
to speak more properly, perhaps, connected by the lofty, snow-covered mountain-isth- 
mus of the Hindu Kush. These great divisions are styled respectively: 1. The eastern 
plateau, including the table-land of Tibet and the desert of Gobi; 2. The western plateau, 


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or table-land of Iran. The former, a vast four-sided mass, considerably larger than the 
whole area of Europe, extends 2800 m. from the mountain chain, Hindu Kush, to the 
Tonquin gulf in China, On the s., the plateau is divided from the plains of Hindustan 
by the Himalaya mountains, which have a mean height of 18,000 ft., while several of 
their summits rise from 25,000 to 29,000 ft. above the level of the sea, Even the passes 
over this enormous range of mountains are almost as high as the summit of Mt. Blanc. 
Here Dhwalagiri, long supposed to be the Mt. Blanc of the Himalayas, and with pre- 
cisely the same signification, viz., ‘‘white mountain,” rising to 26,826 ft., leaves all the 
peaks of the Andes far below: while Kunchinjinga reaches to 28,156 ft., and Mt. Everest, 
now believed to be the loftiest summit in the world, attains the height of 29,002 ft. 
Cultivation is found at 10,000 ft. above the sea; while flocks graze some 4000 ft. higher. 
In eastern Tartary and Thibet, the ground is cultivated at a height only 2000 ft. lower 
than the summit of Mt. Blanc. On the e., the table-land of Tibet is bounded by the 
Chinese mountain-ranges Yun-ling and Khing-khan, which, towards the s., are connected 
with wild Chinese alpine regions of which little is known; while towards the n., they 
extend into another mountainous region, where the eastern chain of Shangpe-shan op- 
poses to the Pacific ocean a wall of rock 3000 ft. high. On the n., the chain of the 
Alta¥ mountains, 3000 m. long, and divided into several groups, forms the boundary 
between the great plateau and the plain of Siberia, which is larger than the whole area 
of Europe. 

The western plateau, or table-land of Iran, rises generally about 5000 ft. above the sea; 
but in some parts to 7000 ft.; descending again, however, in the central and southern 
parts, where it spreads out into sandy and gravelly plains, to 2000 and 1200 ft. It has 
been divided into three sections: the plateau of Iran proper; the Median-Armenian 
alpine region; and the Anatolian table-land. The first division, or the plateau of Iran, 
has a mean altitude of about 3000 ft. Salt plains, with gravel and sand, form large 
portions of the surface, and mountain-walls on all sides hem it in. On the northern edge 
ascend the Persian mountains; on the e., the steep and lofty parallel chains of the Indo- 
Persian boundary mountains; and on the s., the plateau, for 1000 m. along the Persian 
gulf and Arabian sea, is bounded by the wild terraced regions of Beloochistan and 
Farsistan. The second division, or the Median-Armenian alpine region, includes the 
mountainous regions of Armenia, Kurdistan, and Azerbijan. Here the table-land is 
compressed to about half its general width. From this plateau, of which a part is men- 
tioned in Scripture as ‘‘ the mountains of Ararat,” rises the volcanic cone commonly styled 
Mt. Ararat, to the height of 17,212 ft. above the sea level. Anatolia, the third and most 
westerly division of the table-land, is bounded along the shores of the Black sea by 
mountains rising to 6000 or 7000 ft., and partly covered with forests; on the s.w., 
the Taurus chain of mountains beginning in the islands of Rhodes, Cos, etc., extends in 
several ramifications through a part of Asia Minor, runs in a single range along the coast 
of Karamania, and in the e. has an occasional height of 12,000 and 13,000 ft. 

The western plateau, thus divided into three sections, is full of diversities of soil and 
scenery. A great part of the table-land of Ivan (or Persia) is extremely barren and arid, 
which serves to explain the enthusiastic terms in which the Persian poets have spoken 
of the beautitul valleys found here and there among the mountains. The coasts of the 
Persian gulf are sandy wastes. Between Irak and Khorassan, a desert of clay, covered 
with salt and nitre, varied only by patches of verdure here and there, occupies 27,000 
sq.m., and joins the wide sandy desert of Kerman. A great part of Beloochistan is an 
arid plain, covered with red sand. 

Besides these central masses, there are several detached mountain chains and 
plateaus. The Ural mountains, forming the land-boundary between Europe and Asia, 
and separated from the Altai chain by salt lakes, marshes, and deserts, are divided into 
three sections: the northern, central, and southern Ural. ‘The second of these divisions 
is rich in minerals—gold, platina, magnetic iron, and copper. On the isthmus between 
the Black sea and the Caspian, the alpine ridges of the Caucasus reach a height of from 
10,000 to 11,000 ft., while individual peaks tower up to the gigantic height of 17,000 or 
18,000 ft., as, in the still faintly voleanic peak of Elbruz (18,493 ft.) and Kasbeck 
(16,523)—both, however, on the northern or European side of the main mass of the 
Caucasus. The high lands of Syria rise gradually from the neighboring deserts to the 
height of 10,000 ft. in Libanus and Antilibanus, and slope steeply in terraces down to the 
narrow coast-lands of Pheenicia and Palestine. The plateau of the Deccan, in India, 
rises to an average height of from 1500 to 2000 ft., and is divided on the w. from the 
narrow coast-level of Malabar by the western Ghauts, 4700 ft.; on the e., from the 
broad level coast of Coromandel, by the eastern Ghauts. On the n., it is divided 
from the low plains of Hindustan by the Vindhya and Malwah mountain chains; and, 
on the s., the Ghauts unite at the sources of the Cavery, and form the Neilgherry (or 
Blue mountains, 8760 ft. high), the loftiest in the peninsular portion of Hindustan. 
These slope steeply down to a low narrow plain, then rise again to a considerable height 
in the Aligherry range, sink into the sea at cape Comorin, and reappear in the group of 
Adam’s Peak in Ceylon. The Malayan mountains, or chains of the eastern peninsula, 
may be regarded as offsets of the Siue-shan, and extend to the extreme s. point of A, 
reappearing with volcanic peaks in the Sunda islands. 

The six great Lowlands of A. are, 1st, The Siberian lowland in the n., which is by 
far the largest. It stretches from the northern declivities of the Altaf and Ural mount- 


T.—26 


Asiae 796 


ains to the shoresof the Arctic sea, and is, for the most part, cold, gloomy, and barren. 
2d, The Bucharian lowland, or the wild sterile waste between the Caspian sea and lake 
Aral, much of it beneath the level of the sea. It is composed to a large extent of gravelly 
soil. 8d, The Syrian and Arabian lowland, the s. of which is hot and arid, with almost 
no oases; but the n. is watered by the Tigris and Euphrates. 4th, The lowlands of 
Hindustan, comprising the great Indian desert, 400 m. broad, together with the vast 
and fertile plains of Bengal, generally called the valley of the Ganges, and ranking, per- 
haps, next to China as a region of fertility. 5th, The Indo- Chinese lowlands, comprising 
the long levels of the Burman empire, through which flows the Irrawaddy, and the rich 
resions of Cambodia and Siam. 6th, The Chinese lowlands, commencing in the e. at 
Pekin, and extending as far s. as the tropic of Cancer, containing 210,000 sq.m., or an 
area seven times the size of Lombardy. It is watered by a copious river system and 
numerous canals, and may be regarded as a vast garden, exceeding in productiveness all 
other parts of the world. ; belt ; 

Hydrography.—The hydrography of A. displays as striking a variety as the structure 
of its land. The alpine regions send down in some directions torrents of water, which 
form rivers almost rivaling in magnificence those of America, and which flow for hun- 
dreds of miles through plains of unsurpassed fertility. On the other hand, there are wide 
stretching tracts, like the deserts of Africa, destitute of water, and doomed to eternal 
sterility. Only one large sheet of water, lake Hamoon or Seistan (q.v.), refreshes the 
high table-land of Iran. The low steppe of Turan contains the Caspian sea (q.v.), the 
largest of all lakes, and lake Aral (q.v.)._ In the valley of Cashmere lies lake Ular, 40 
m. in circumference, and the only considerable sheet of water in the Himalaya chain. 
At the northern base of this mountain-chain Jake Palte is remarkable for its annular 
form. In Thibet and the Altai mountains, lakes are very numerous. 

One of the most striking characteristics of Asian river-systems is found in its double 
rivers, or two streams rising in the same region, flowing in almost parallel directions, 
and either uniting, or nearly so, before entering the sea. Among these twin rivers may 
be mentioned—the Syr-Daria and Amu-Daria, flowing into lake Aral; the Euphrates and 
Tigris, in western A., surrounding the plain of Mesopotamia, uniting at Koona, and 
together flowing into the Persian gulf; the Ganges and Brahmaputra; and the Yang-tze- 
kiang and Hoang-ho, in China, rising near each other, then widely separated in their 
courses, but again approaching each other, and both falling into the Yellow sea, only 100 
miles apart. 

The six great river-systems of A., comprising rivers which will be found fully noticed 
under their respective names, are—the Mesopotamian, that of north-west India, that of 
north-east India and Thibet, the Indo-Chinese, the Chinese, and the Siberian. The first 
comprises the two famous streams, the Tigris and Euphrates. The second comprises the 
Indus with its tributaries. The third system comprises the Brahmaputra and Ganges. 
The fourth system comprises the rivers of the Indo-Chinese peninsula; the chief of which 
are the Irrawaddy, the Martaban or Saluen, the Me-nam, and the Me-king or Cambodia. 
The fifth system is the Chinese. It comprises four great streams, all of which flow in an 
eastern or north-eastern direction into the Pacific; the Hong-kiang, or Canton river; the 
Yang-tze-kiang (or Son of the Sea); the Hoang-ho, or Yellow river; and the Amur. The 
sixth system comprises the large rivers of Siberia, the principal of which are the Obi, 
the Yenisei, and the Lena. They all have their sources in the Altaian mountains; flow 
n. or nearly so; and for 800 or 900 m. before their embouchure, traverse a dreary, flat, 
monotonous waste, until their sluggish waters creep into the Frozen sea. 

Geology.—The geographical structure of A. is so complex, the different formations 
are so broken up and scattered, that a general description would be unintelligible. We 
must refer to separate notices, where the geological structure and phenomena of circum- 
scribed districts willbe given in detail, and the reader will, in this way, be enabled to 
form a correct impression of the geology of Asia as a whole. See Inpra, CHINESE Em- 
PIRE, THIBET, etc. 

Natural History.—The vast extent of A., and its great diversities of climate, natu- 
rally lead us to expect in it a great variety of natural productions, both animal and vege- 
table. This expectation is heightened when we consider how completely this vast con- 
tinent is divided into separate portions by mountain ranges of great altitude, and how 
extensive the mountainous tracts themselves are, as well as the great extent of the ele- 
vated plateaux or table-lands, and when we add to these considerations that of the pecu- 
liar character of wide regions—wastes of sand—level steppes—and extensive districts of 
which the soil is strongly impregnated with salt. Accordingly, we find, both in the 
flora a fauna of Asia, all the variety which such considerations might lead us to 
expect. 

The most northerly part of the continent, however, differs comparatively little in its 
productions from the corresponding parts of Europe and America. It exhibits the same 
arctic flora, with differences comparatively inconsiderable. Pines, birches, ana willows 
form, as in the other continents, the last forests of the n.; but upon account of the more 
severe climate, they do not reach a limit so northerly as in Europe, and particularly in 
the w. of Europe. Some of the common plants of Europe are abundant as far e. as 
Kamtchatka: the crowberry (empetrum nigrum), so plentiful in the moors of Scotland, 
is still more plentiful throughout Siberia; the same vaccinia (bilberries, etc.) ard rubi 
(brambles, etc.) abound in the Kamtchatkan forests as in those of Scandinavia. There 


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are, however, interesting differences. Heaths are comparatively rare in Asia, its flora 
agreeing in this respect with that of America, rather than with that of Europe. The 
larch, which in Europe occurs only on the central mountains, extends far northward at 
the mouth of the Obi to the utmost limits of arborescent vegetation; probably a mere 
variety of the same species, although it has been described as distinct. In Kamtchatka, 
a different kind of birch replaces the common birch of Europe as a forest tree, and the 
Siberian stone pine is different from that of the s. of Europe. Siberia in its less 
‘rigid regions produces a luxuriant vegetation, of which herbaceous plants of unusually 
surge size fora cold or temperate climate are a characteristic feature; as species of rhu- 
barb, angelica, and cow-parsnip (heraclewm), some of which are now well known in Brivain. 
it is indeed from the central and eastern temperate parts of Asia that the cultivated 
species of rhubarb are derived, and from the same region the rhubarb root, so valuable 
in medicine, is brought. In the abundance of grossulariacee (currants), the warmer 
parts of Siberia resemble North America, although most of the species are different. 

To the s. of the Altaian mountains, the flora of Asia corresponds in part with that 
of the great eastern plain of Europe; but it exhibits also peculiarities which may in some 
measure be ascribed to the saline character of large districts, the stony or sandy desola- 
tion of others, and the elevation of the great central plateau. The flora of Asia Minor 
and of Syria has a general resemblance to that of the s. of Europe, although exhibit- 
ing also features which belong rather to that of India or of Africa. Shrubby labiate are 
particularly characteristic of this region, from which not a few of them have found their 
way into the gardens of Europe and of other parts of the world, upon account of their 
fragrance, their medicinal qualities, or their use for the grateful seasoning of food. The 
tropical flora of Arabia abounds in trees which yield fragrant balsams and resins, par- 
ticularly of the natural order amyridacee. Indeed, both the warmer temperate and 
the tropical regions of Asia excel other parts of the world in the number and variety of 
the odoriferous drugs which they produce, with odors of the most various characters, 
from myrrh and frankincense to asafcetida. Arabia has long been noted for the produc- 
tion of coffee, which is now also pretty extensively cultivated in other warm parts of A. 
The date-palm is as characteristic of Arabia as it is of Egypt. Acacias and mimosas also 
abound.—The flora of Persiain part resembles that of Arabia, although it is less tropical, 
and the altitude of its mountains gives to it in some places an extremely different char- 
acter. The abundance of scttaminew is regarded as particularly characteristic of India; 
and plants of this order yield ginger, galangal, cardamoms, turmeric, and other articles 
of commerce, amongst which not the least important is a kind of arrowroot. Its 
leguminose are also very numerous, both herbaceous and shrubby, or arborescent, many 
of them exhibiting great beauty of foliage and splendor of flowers; some producing use- 
ful kinds of pulse; others timber, gum, medicines, etc. The number of valuable medici- 
nal plants which belong to the Indian flora is very great, as is also that of dyewoods; 
and it abounds in fine fruits, of which the mango and mangosteen may be particularly 
noticed. Cucwrbitace (gourds) are very numerous; as are also trees of the genus ficus 
(fig), some of which produce caoutchouc, and amongst which are the sacred peepul and 
the banian-tree, so remarkable for the roots which descend from its branches to become 
new stems, and for the extent of ground which it canopies. Palms are numerous in the 
tropical parts of A., and particularly in its south-eastern regions, but less numerous than 
in the tropical parts of South America. The cocoa-nut is one of the most common palms 
in the vicinity of the sea. Some of the Asiatic palms are valuable for the sago which 
they yield. The natural order dipteracee is one of those that are peculiar to India and 
south-eastern A., and includes some of the noblest timber-trees; but the Indian teak, so 
valuable for ship-building, is of the order verbenacew. The flora of the eastern peninsula, 
Siam, Cochin-China, and the south-eastern part of A. generally, differs considerably from 
that of India, and exhibits, if possible, a richer variety. The change from the Indian flora 
is still greater in the islands, and a resemblance to that of Polynesia and of Australia 
begins to appear. The bread-fruit takes the place of its congener, the jack of India. 
These regions produce nutmegs, cloves, and other spices. The lawracew are abundant, 
yielding cinnamon, cassia, and camphor. Gutta-percha has recently been added to the 
number of the most valuable exports. China and Japan have many plants peculiar to 
themselves, and are remarkable for the prevalence of the ternstr@miacee, the natural 
order to which the tea-plant and the camellia belong. It is scarcely necessary to mention 
how extensively tea is cultivated in China, and how important it is in the commerce of 
the world. The diversity of climate, however, both in China and Japan, is so considera- 
ble, as to imply no small diversity of productions. In like manner, the Himalaya moun- 
tains possess a flora very different from that of the Indian plains, and which in some of 
its most characteristic features, particularly inthe prevalence of large rhododendrons and 
magnolias, has been found remarkably to agree with the floray of the southern parts of 
the United States; whilst at still greater altitudes there is a strong resemblance to that of 
more northern regions, or of the European Alps; forests of pines appear, and along with 
them the deodar, a cedar scarcely, if at all, different from the cedar of Lebanon. The 
inountains of Java also produce oaks and other trees resembling those of the temperate 
zone, although the species are peculiar. But many parts of A. have as yet been very im- 
perfectly explored. 

Many of the cultivated plants of Europe are known to be natives of A., and others 


798 


A sia. 


eso. As the cradle of the human race, and the scene of the earliest 
mea re ee to suppose that it supplied the first fruits and other vegetable 
productions which man sought to improve by cultivation; and of some which, as the 
apple and the cherry, are probably natives of Europe, it seems probable that the first 
improved varieties were introduced from A. We do not know with certainty of what 
part of the earth some of the principal cereal plants or grains are natives—as wheat, 
barley, oats, and rye; but there seems great probability in the supposition that they are 
of Asiatic origin. Rice certainly is. It has been cultivated from time immemorial in 
some of the warm parts of A.; and its introduction into other quarters of the world is 
comparatively recent. Maize—introduced from America—is now to be reckoned 
among the most important cultivated plants of A., and its cultivation is rapidly extend- 
ing, asis that of the potato. Wheat, oats, barley, rye, beans, peas, and buckwheat, are 
the principal crops of regions similar in climate to those in which they are cultivated in 
Europe. Barley and buckwheat are cultivated in the Himalayas at the extraordinary 
elevation of almost 12,000 ft.,and crops of barley are to be seen even at 15,000 ft. 
above the sea. Millet of different kinds, durra, and other grains of inferior importance, 
are cultivated to some extent in India and other warm regions; also different kinds of 
pulse. The banana and plantain are of the same importance as in other tropical countries; 
and the yam and cocco or eddoes contribute largely to the supply of human food. The 
sugar-cane is cultivated in the warm parts of A., but not with so much spirit or success 
as in America, although it is a native of the East and not of the West Indies. Pepper is 
one of the native productions of the East Indies, and is extensively cultivated. Tobacco, 
whether or not any species of it is indigenous to A., is now produced in large quantities. 
Indigo is extensively cultivated in India, and the opium poppy too extensively. Differ- 
ent species of cotton are natives of India and have long been cultivated there and in 
China. Hemp is cultivated in India, not for its fiber but to afford the means of intoxi- 
cation; and flax chiefly for the oil of its seeds; but both hemp and flax are extensively 
cultivated for their fibers in other parts of A.; and Jndia and the other tropical regions 
produce many plants valuable for their fibers, among which are species of musa, corchorus 
(yielding the jute of commerce), and urtica (nettle). Among the crops of India is sesa- 
mum, valued for the oil of its seeds. 

It seems probable that we are indebted to the warmer temperate parts of A. not only 
for the orange, the lemon, and all the other species of the genus ctrus, but also for the 
olive, the peach, and nectarine, the apricot, the fig, the mulberry, and the vine, with 
many other of the fruits now most generally esteemed and cultivated. Chinaand Japan 
being the seats of an ancient civilization, many useful plants have long been cultivated 
there, which have scarcely yet found their way into other parts of the world. Floricul- 
ture has been practiced there with great assiduity from a remote antiquity; and varieties 
of hydrangea, camellia, tree peony, chrysanthemum, etc., have, from time immemorial, 
been scarcely, if at all, less numerous than those of the tulip and hyacinth in Holland. 

The zoology of A. is not less interesting than its botany. Amongst domestic animals, 
the most important are the ox and buffalo, the sheep, the goat, the horse, the ass, the 
camel, and the elephant. A number of species of ox and buffalo are natives of A., from 
more than one of which the domesticated races appear to have derived their origin. Very 
distinct from all the others is the yak (q.v.) of Thibet, a creature which is of great use 
to the inhabitants of the elevated regions of the Himalayas, and is to them almost what 
the reindeer is to the Laplander. The sheep and goat are natives of the mountainous 
parts of central A. The horse and the ass seem to belong to the same regions; and all 
of these have been domesticated from the earliest times. The camel is of incalculable 
value as a beast of burden in the regions of heat and drought, and as affording the 
means of traversing the great deserts. It is used principally in the s.w. of A. and in 
India. The elephant is a native of the tropical parts of A., but is of a different species 
from that of Africa. The reindeer constitutes the chief wealth of some of the tribes of 
the n. Dogs are also used by some of the Siberian tribes for drawing their sledges. 
Different races of dogs are domesticated in different parts of A., and a small kind is 
fattened for its flesh in China; but in the Mohammedan parts of A., the dog is reckoned 
an unclean animal, and is known chiefly as a prowler about towns and villages, and a 
devourer of offal. 

The tropical parts of A. abound in monkeys, of which the species are very numerous. 
Among them are some with long and some with short tails, but none with prehensile 
tails, like the sapajous of America. Many are altogether tailless, and among these is the 
orang-outang, found in the south-eastern islands. A much larger ape, called the pongo, 
has been said to exist in Borneo, but it is still a doubtful species. The same warm 
regions abound in bats, many of which are of large size, and feed upon fruits, not upon 
insects. The flying lemur or colugo is another remarkable animal of the Indian archi- 
pelago.—Bears are found in all parts of A.—the white bear in the extreme n., and other 
formidable species in the more temperate parts; whilst the tropical regions produce bears 
which are by no means ferocious, and feed chiefly on insects, fruits, and honey. Badgers 
are also found in A., and quadrupeds of several other plantigrade genera, allied to the 
bear, but of comparatively small size and inoffensive habits, as the beautiful panda : 
(ailurus) of the n. of India, and the binturongs (éetides) of Malacca and the neighboring 
archipelago.—-Animals of the weasel family (mustelide) are numerous, among which the 


, 799 


Aata, 


teledu (mydaus meliceps) of Java rivals the skunks of America in the horrible stench with 
which it surrounds itself for defense. More important are the sable and the sea otter, pur- 
sued in the northern regions upon account of their furs.—Of the dog family, or canida, 
A. has not only wild dogs, but also wolves, foxes, hyenas, and jackals; the two former 
abounding chiefly in the colder, the two latter in the warmer regions. The arctic fox 
inhabits the most northerly shores and islands. The warmer parts of A. produce a num- 
ber of species of the allied family of the viverride, among which are the mangouste or 
Indian ichneumon—famous, like the Egyptian ichneumon, for the destruction of serpents 
—and the civet, from which is obtained a celebrated perfume.—Of feline animals, the 
most dreadful are the lion and tiger; the latter of which is peculiar to A., abounding in 
the warm regions of the s. and e., never extending westward beyond the mountains and 
deserts which separate India from Persia; but, on the contrary, advancing far to the n., 
beyond the limits to which the lion advances, and even to the confines of Siberia. The 
leopard, the ounce, and many other cats, some of them large and dangerous, are found 
in A., especially in the warmer parts of it. Among them may be mentioned the chetah, 
or hunting-leopard, tamed for the chase in India.—A few small marsupial (or pouched) 
quadrupeds (phalangers) are found in the Moluccas, and form one of the links by which 
the natural history of A. is connected with that of Australia. —The gles or rodentia, on 
the contrary, are numerous in all parts of A., and many species are peculiar to it. 
Squirrels, marmots, rats, mice, hares, etc., are common in all except the most northerly 
regions. The brown rat, now so common in Europe, is said to have emigrated from 
Persia so recently as the beginning of the 18th century. Lemmings abound in Siberia 
and the Tartarian deserts, of which the jerboa is also an inhabitant. Porcupines are 
frequent in the warmer parts of A., and the beaver is found in the n.—Of edentate 
quadrupeds, the pangolins (manis) alone are Asiatic, and these are confined to the tropi- 
cal regions.—Of pachydermata, there are, besides the elephant, the horse, etc., already 
mentioned, several species of rhinoceros, wild boars, the babyroussa, and a species of 
tapir; all, except the wild boar, natives of the warmest climates. One of the most inter- 
esting facts, however, connected with the natural history of A., is the abundance of 
remains of the mammoth, or fossil elephant, in the coldest parts of Siberia, its tusks 
still affording a considerable supply of ivory.—Of ruminating animals, besides those 
of the ox kind, already mentioned, and the sheep and goat, there are deer, antelopes, 
and musks or musk-deer. The reindeer and elk are natives of Siberia; further s., the 
species of deer are much more numerous, and the same countries produce many spe- 
cies of antelope. The musks are found in the central and southern parts of the conti- 
nent; one of them, a native of the highest mountains, yielding the much-prized perfume 
from which it derives its name.—A. possesses vultures, eagles, and other falconide, owls, 
ravens, and“other birds of the crow kind, herons, storks, cranes, etc. Swans, geese, 
ducks of various species, and many other anatide, frequent its waters, some of them 
abounding even in the coldest regions. Albatrosses are very numerous on the Kamtchat- 
kan shores; flamingoes on those of the more southern countries. Pigeons abound, 
and among them is the turtle-dove. The gouras of the Indian archipelago are birds of 
the pigeon family, of which one species is almost as large as a turkey. ‘There are many 
kinds of thrush, finch, warbler, bunting, sparrow, and other birds identical with or allied 
to those of Europe, among which is the nightingale, often mentioned by the Persian 
poets, and many also, particularly in the warmer regions, which are peculiar and char- 
acteristic. Of these may be mentioned the splendid birds of paradise of the south-east- 
ern islands, peacocks, pheasants, etc. The gallinaceous birds of A. are numerous, and 
from this continent were probably derived the domestic poultry of other parts of the 
earth. The abundance of the parrot tribe constitutes a point of resemblance between 
the tropical parts of A. and other tropical countries, but lories are peculiar to the East 
Indies. The ostrich inhabits the deserts of Arabia as well as of Africa. The cassowary 
is found in the south-eastern islands. The edible swallows’ nests of the East Indian 
coasts have long been celebrated.—Lizards and other saurian reptiles are very abundant 
in the warmer parts of A.; and great crocodiles and gavials infest the rivers of the East 
Indies. Boas, pythons, and other great serpents are found in the tropical regions, which 
produce also many venemous serpents. The cobra da capello is one of the most dreaded. 
But the temperate parts of A. have also venemous serpents, scarcely less dangerous. 
Some of the East Indian tortoises are remarkable for their great magnitude, and turtles 
are found in the seas.—Both the salt and fresh waters of A. produce many kinds of fish. 
The salmonide of the rivers of Siberia supply an important part of the food of its inhab- 
itants. The goldfish, now so well known in Britain, is a native of China. Some of the 
fish of the tropical parts of A. have attracted attention from the peculiarity of their form 
or habits. Insect life is exceedingly abundant in the warm parts of A., as in all other 
warm countries. Bees are numerous, and honey is produced in great quantities. 
Of other. insects, it seems only necessary here to mention the silk-worm, which was 
introduced from A. into Europe; and the locust, which sometimes devastates great 
tracts of the Asiatic countries bordering on the Mediterranean and the Black sea, and 
occasionally extends its ravages into regions further w. Of molluscous animals, the 
pearl-oyster deserves particular notice, upon account of the important pearl-fisheries 
which exist in different places. 

Lithnography.—The whole population, consisting of 840,000,000 people, may be divided 


§00 " 


Asia. 


into the Mongolian, Aryan, and Semitic groups. The first of these includes all the peoples 
and tribes in the e., n., ands.e. of Asia; the second (see ARYAN Racer) embraces the 
inhabitants of northern India, Afghanistan, Persia, and part of Asiatic Turkey; the third 
includes the Syrian, Hebrew, and Arabian races (see ETHNOLOGY). ; 

A further subdivision and classification may be made as follows: 1. The Hast-Asian 
group, including the peoples of Thibet, China, Japan, Corea, and the Indo-Chinese penin- 
sula: all alike in the use of monosyllabic languages. This last people, however, must be 
subdivided into western and eastern, the former comprising the inhabitants of the Bur- 
man empire, Pegu, Laos, and Siam, having affinities with the Hindoos; and the latter, 
comprising the inhabitants of Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, have affinities with 
the Mongolian of Thibet and China. 2. The Zartar group, including the Turcomans, 
Mongols, and Tungusians, who are spread over the whole table-land of central Asia and 
the neighboring lands in the n. The Turcoman family is divided into three sections 
—the first including the east Turcomans, inhabiting Tashkend, Khiva, Balkh, and Usbekis- 
tan: the second including the so-called Tartars of the Urals and the neighborhood of 
Astrakhan and Kazan; the third including the Turks or Osmanli. With the exception 
of a few small tribes in Siberia, all the Turkish varieties are Mohammedans, use the 
Arabic alphabet, and employ numerous Arabic words in their dialects. 3. The Siberian 
group, including the Samoiedes, people of Kamtchatka, etc., speaking languages which 
have only recently been studied by philologists. 4. The Malay-Polynesian group, mixed 
with Australasian negritos, are spread over all the islands of Polynesia and the Indian 
archipelago. The Malayan people of Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the peninsula of Malacca, 
the Sunda islands, Moluccas, and Philippines, have an incipient literature, which has 
been formed under Moslem and (since the 16th c.) under European influence. The 
South sea islanders are clearly divided into two races by physical form, color, and lan- 
guage. Onerace is allied to the Australasian negrito, and the other to the Malayan. In 
most of the islands, there is a partial intermixture of the two races, but generally the 
distinction is obvious. It is probable that all the copper-colored Polynesians belong to 
the same family with the people of the Indian archipelago. 5. The Deccan group, includ- 
ing all the people employing the Tamul, Carnatic, Telugu, and Singalese languages, all 
having acertain measure of civilization and a literature. 6. The [ndo-Germanic or Aryan 
group, marked and subdivided by the three languages, Sanscrit, Persian, and Armenian. 
About thirty distinct nations, each having a peculiar dialect and literature, belong to the 
first subdivision; the second includes the peoples of Beloochistan, Afghanistan, Persia, and 
Kurdistan; the third, the Armenians, All these families have literatures partly written 
in dead languages—the Sanscrit, Pali, Zend, and old Armenian. 7. The heterogeneous 
tribes inhabiting the Caucasus, whose affinities are not yet settled. 8. The Semitic group, 
including all the peoples whose languages are related to the Hebrew and Arabic. 

feligions.-—The same Asian characteristic of variety and wide contrast is found in the 
creeds as in the countries and tribes of people: the Brahminical religion of India; the 
doctrines of Buddha, Confucius, and of Lao-tse in China; the worship of the grand 
lama in Thibet; the creed of Islam in several varieties in Arabia, Persia, and India; the 
rude heathenism of the north; the various sects of native Christians in Armenia, Syria, 
Kurdistan, and India; the Greek church in Siberia; these and other forms of faith or 
religious profession display diversities and contrasts nearly as striking as those of Asian 
geography. Christianity, now the religion of Europe and America, owes its origin to 
Asia. For an account of the existing religious systems of Asia, see articles MoHAMME- 
DANISM, Inp1iA (feligion), BuDpHIsM, LAMAISM, etc. 

Civilization.—The number of people civilized—in the Asiatic sense of the word—is far 
greater than that of wild and nomadic hordes; but culture here, when arrived at a certain 
point, assumes a stationary character, widely differing from the restless intellectual 
activity and industrial progress of Europe. The laws of states, families, industry, 
commerce, art, and science are, in India and China, so many branches of one fixed and 
permanent religious system, which has maintained its sway through many centuries, and 
would long remain unchanged, if left undisturbed by European influence. The Arabs, 
Persians, and Turks, collectively known as the easterns, are distinct in civilization from 
the Hindus and Chinese. The institution of slavery among the former, of caste among 
the Hindus, and the civil and political equality of China, are distinguished marks. The 
Turk is a monotheist and fatalist ; the Hindu is either a mystical pantheist or polytheist, 
acknowledging a multitude of gods; the Chinese is rather a utilitarian moralist. 

Industry.—The industry and commerce of the Asiatic continent bear no adequate pro- 
peyagn to its capabilities—such as they are, they will be described under the different 
countries. 

Political Aspect.—The political institutions of A. present to us some striking contrasts. 
While the barbarous hordes in the n. live almost without the idea of government, and 
scarcely know that the Russian czar claims them as his subjects, and the nomadic 
tribes, under their khans or sheiks, have a sort of patriarchal government, subordinate 
to higher powers, the most extreme forms of monarchy and despotism have existed 
among the more cultivated nations. The government of China is an absolute monarchy 
in form, but, in fact, is strictly limited by the force of tradition. The emperor is appar- 
ently unlimited in authority; but it is an essential duty of an emperor to rule exactly 
according to the precepts handed down by his ancestors. Reverence for ancestors and 


SOL Asia. 


their institutions is, therefore, the sole presiding and conservative principle which has 
so long preserved the great Chinese empire from political changes. A., now so passive, 
ancientiy cook an active part in the great movements of the world’s history; contended 
against Egypt and Greece, and afterwards contributed to the greatness and glory of the 
Macedonian and Romanempires. From the n. of the Caspian sea came the vast hordes 
of the Huns, who spread themselves abroad over Europe. The armies of Genghis Khan 
and Tamerlane overran the Slavonian plains, while the Arab caliphs, with their fanatical 
troops, established their religion and government in three quarters of the world. Under 
the Osmanli fell the eastern Roman empire, and still the Turk maintains a political posi- 
tion in Europe, but one now becoming very feeble and insecure. In proportion as 
Europe has advanced, A. has declined in political power, so as to countenance the theory 
of a gradual movement of the spirit of civilization and progress from the eastern to the 
, western world. So soon as the Asiatic nations have reached a certain moderate pitch of 
culture, the history of civilization ceases so far as they are concerned, and is followed 
by the mere chronology of states or dynasties. It would appear that all great future 
changes in the destinies of the peoples of Asia must proceed from European impulses, 
When Portuguese ships had rounded the cape and so reached India, a new era of Asian 
history began. The Portuguese, the Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danes, and English 
planted their standards on Indian soil. The English speedily extended their dominion 
here, and soon overshadowed all the other European powers; though the Portuguese and 
French still maintain their footing in Hindostan, and the French, the Spaniards, and the 
Dutch own large territories in Further India or the Indian archipelago. Lately England 
has increased her influence in the extreme w. of Asia, having secured the right to occupy 
Cyprus, while guaranteeing the defense of the Asiatic dominions of the porte. Mean- 
while Russia has extended her sway over Siberia, Caucasia, and Turkestan; securing 
thus the keys of China and the approaches to Persia. Even in some of the nominally 
independent powers, European influence is very powerful; the throne of Persia, for 
example, is surrounded by European diplomatists. And while Russia and Britain are 
striving to share between them supremacy in Asia, the French and the Americans have 
a large share of the commerce of the eastern coasts. 
The following table gives an approximate estimate of the area and population of A., 
according to the more important existing political divisions: 


STATE. ein Population. 

Chinese Empire: 

CNA ELOVGM mierda aiyicly sips tec eleaw em sie’ vee tevihe stiness rican st esas wovevesresnace nese 1,336,841 386,000,000 

Dependencies, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, Jungaria, and East Turkestan 2,881,560 16,680,000 
EP RUie oP OU GL oteerwale atest etn cents siety isla a cree tier pacer srevetatatetar a cislers et atoll el ster otatels arelnitiets ete ef evaietc 147,655 41,388,313 

EN eMa eae ad eis aPeatw e Ie e ee c se Seema wh Sok Siam <n wishes Gis Syitn pds 99454 cle gaia e'e bhi0 ois 13,300 3,000,000 

IH OEO RE 9 Cgudéc an oti. bode sead hd pehs ods con pop nOOsremoUr Onan aqoanoopuSee oad Jaen 37,900 
PAA LAM tetnterete al eelotel rote aia lasetalet eters ole, steleveytieteisehs o/s aiels 6's wisiele Ceieis Waccisiticis ejets Sieveleieislscs.0 fe 0 173,700 6,000,000 
EGU Sea tote chore tote ett tere stata atete tte eta lel -fottarete etetenetshefor ice che ltetatste snclets erat ct atelaicvelalsie(s' "s/s" Sor Soc 628,000 9,000,000 
INA TETVRETY 55°95 obS0 US d cide.6 Sha OO OOS odo COSU Ob OS AANA CHEN OBGO! GOs GUebde siereitieretsis 278,562 4,000,000 
RGHTIS EAN eee ore tertteratc orci state sete loiereorsiaterslste steesefelctctclchcra sie s(atelsve'aiafel o cfavererere’s/wistete\cic sloyeigie > 20,000 1,000,000 
Baluchistan (Independent) ..... Pee meee isaac ater os Gctie te ctlsic 5 ose cia 2 YRS cla oe > ein 6 8 8 130,000 255,000 
Sigm (lad spend ene). meee: terse etetese tan isers arate iets alclel sicvapielevete.a ese cies tels core ctelers HR00tONOL 200,000 5,000,000 
Turkish Possessions : 

Asia. MINOT. + chet] deuce laeieere creme teem tetaietyels ete bretolsiosereelelsiciel-felels/icielcbeleye ete’ Sodio Ghiggos 204,618 9,123,432 

Armenia and Khurdistanenaemccne skies ce ce sialofeteua spaicdhatsieinaa the icLarcia c) telcielaicneibie sleace ates 89,264 2,457,400 

MALODObAMIA js) «.«, J wise vasdo spptalas nie eae Gta Sat RAE. mM Aaieleh stacks s Ae ee ie 100,205 1,350,280 

MITIN Me sine ss +s oe s+ Weis Saemmarye AER AY eee Pe ee eee ae Sipe aisipte, sis & bh. o mnt 115,144 2,676,943 

VAC eee eRe ear: OPA gas len Ge ary seed EARN Ae 173,700 6,000,000 

Total tor Asiatic Turkey *...3:5.. fase Cea ae. SR eee eA 682,931 21,608,055. 

British Dependencies : 

PRSPMNEMOPINY foils ira ti v's bbs owe te ok coe OM MEER EMRE coset ccs verber recess ass 80 41,910 

Pema GR eats dns a>» ase «soho here ROMS esccene EES TERT LO Oe ET ELT 75,000 eee 

Sokotra ..... 2 PSone sae tame celts Meee ta see each enka doe chars 10,000 


SBTIVOINS LS AIA te letete aide sc > die «sre, o.s's,e op et nla BER IU oYe Caras dra 's sinless S'skels » Radtais ects aiatane 


Asia. 802 


Asola. . 
ear eens 
STATE. sq. miles. 
se 
sleNiavetesosie Siclers Ghelsioisreivia.® 31,106 175,000 
iti th Borneo .+--+-+ Gcevecrcudeswides osesececees eee 
Peto vor cool che te Salsisis seein eeise sea 25,365 3,008,466 
eR OY SOS ol 42 SAG8SAG 3,580 209,286 
CPC NEG geo shee er Reis tele speaines apie 29 221,441 
Hong Kong. cesses cccccscccccsccccccsccccccesscvescees 
eee arent.) Sah Ftv 964,993 221,172,952 
British Provinces .....ccesccceccecccesccccscceveceors 
Pacts mere hewn stele AES AningoUs On 595,167 66,050,479 
Natty States cnc crarcicre & wiels wie'snis. oince7sl slersingsle/ers) walwie arefere “aia 
Burmah Frontiers .....ece cece cececcccccss cece cssseessvecs sepals ace bier aehotieetersts ts : 
Kim feels hc dbe de'vioa'e dade GaSe ena ghe cabins Ode Bie ni Gide nee boners ein cmate 2,818 30,458 
STRICT Perinat e.sce wloidis| esis w cvs cie,ro 0°47 ¥olwiererataicleie ain ouns ora 'eresere 
a, sfoie tolavelereraiare 372,969 
Bhar States, <6 icici eclels cress atuastrn terest glelevatainimnen cere eteastors SSO OD aa va 
wecelaicteneretete Braere 0 
Rajputana, Ctc.....eseeereceecceccceecr erence eeeseees cc ccee ceueee eer 
oie eave a 1 
British Baluchistan ys o1 «os oie e's nyse sieraieesietnets lel leleielnie sie aiaisii= aiecatelete sore : 
alr ebeietate 2,186 25,000 
Andaman and Nicobar Islands .......++.++++- ececece Move elaiste sivie eroivie «\elaiels : : 
Tabu an sarccitstec eiers 0 vss fesls.e\sieibicis teleletlaln clalersjala/eiats eisisietae Seite Teale | AGISOOD AGO HI COOE 301 5,853 
DUAN Aarcrerhate le eae. 0 chee Aejale eevee cio talelehetainlofelersiataceis 
evar 35,706 512,342 
Straits Settlements ........scccecscecseressons oa vals leloiacerciae sieleeietonen tie Aisles D, i 
sian D dencies : 
beet NSM eieictieicess 92,000 2,500,000 
OHATAM osc gale sacle teretss alaleieis, aaternabers) cieiatererae stele total fei eibiers 
Khi Role arepetereteteletane ctsle 22,320 700,000 
DIVE seis Shae eeisksa eicthecas sivseiere sat eistele, atoleiecaisls.cVstelsie ore ole eile cietars Series 
Cc 3o3 ale LES Peas aa Pe 180,843 8,156,376 
RULCASUB x Fs cersve/eltinie’e sie’ eveleinye es wis fo aafereale oe ater ofeteterare eictelerelialelyietetantetere 
Turkestan cos vec ccs cite cs cosas slr ce tecbitiec ccheeccice cares csieteee tere atetniein ate fentereters 409,414 3,777,866 
Dg ESE a APO DOUATISEDOOON ACOSO ASO DE IGLOS OOS LI TIOLIIC ApICICIC 
Siberia. (b's Me Udaw db ciads Seed age tees cain ante rake te Mat a eee ae oem 4,833,496 4,903,281 
ADOTID Yo:s a a s:seetre ieicle nialstand s efeioleetaleis ole yaisis alatatee site eje\eieis ieee PO IO OO exerts 
Total Asiatic Dominions. ..........seeee0e ora clave siciate cic levawssre/eleleinta sietersreve etecaneterstets eee 6,564,778 19,234,687 
French Dependencies : 
279,597 
Hrench Indian. triccce ies aoe ee Serene ee casi foleie'f setae ees ea ole erareareisrelate 200 IY; 
32 000 
Anam (dependent territory) cc20.scteas oe vcnds ees coteecscee te tee 46,320 5,000, 
Campodia as s.0.0i tathsinn teananeac yn amiee ds aen mien canes oe oe ROR en net mE eee 38,600 1,500,000 
Cochin-Ohing s6 + aap.ncqo s5cds-byastiancack Sarradas Seer ek aie ca ane 23,082 is 
Blam wv. teeab ences heh i aries s<anee coheed s poe res ey Pe eae hee 110,000 
Tonquin. Rucigyadrs cl. we ees were vaeras Wenner ae, Male aoe ees 34,740 | 9,000,000 
Portuguese Dependentiest. Ni... sce. ares en tear meee nL ee eee 7,900 939,320 
7 191.172 
Spanish Dependencies sc. oy fake bx derives cae b i ota nee ee ee 116,256 7,121,172 
Dutch Dependencies). fe swnps ous cn a) os on eae ee ae eiershate eva em cree POP Oe 736,400 32,800 000 


——vwosSsSs——————{wowooooaaDDDOD———— SSS 

ASIA, CENTRAL. This term is usually, in its geographical sense, used of the region 
lying between the Altal mountains and the Persian gulf, and includes part of Siberia, 
all Turkestan, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, and part of Persia. An earlier usage—that 
of Humboldt—gave this name to the khanates of Bokhara and independent Tartary. In 
Russian official language, central Asia is an administrative division of the empire lying 
to the s.w. of Siberia, and comprising, with part of what used to be called Siberia, the 
recent Russian annexations in Turkestan. Russian central Asia is divided into the gov- 
ernments of Akmollinsk, Semipalatinsk, Turgai, Uralsk, Semiretchensk, Syr-Daria, Saref- 
chan, Kuldja, Amu-Daria, the Trans-Caspian territory, and Ferghana. ‘The total area 
is given at 1,201,000 sq. m., and the pop. 4,390,000. 

ASIA’GO, at. of n. Italy, 22 m. n. from Vicenza. It stands on a ridge, among the 
southern spurs of the Alps. It is celebrated for the manufacture of straw-hats, and also 
for carpenter-work and turning, Pop. about 2000, The surrounding district, known as 
the ‘seven communes,” is well wooded, and abounds in sheep and cattle. See Servi 
Communt. 

ASIA MI'NOR, the ancient name of what is now 
Tonia, was the early seat of Grecian civilization. 
Lycia, Caria. PaplJagonia, Bithynia, Lydia, P 
padocia, ete., with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, an 
Here, from the obscure era of Semiramis (abo 


called Anatolia (q.v.). Here, in 
and here were the countries of Phrygia, 
amphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Galatia, Cap- 
d many other great and famous cities. 
ut 2000 years B.C.), to the time of Osman 


803 aol 


{about 1300 a.p.), the greatest conquerors of the world contended for supremacy; and 
here took place the wars of the Medes and Persians with the Scythians; of the Greeks 
with the Persians; of the Romans with Mithridates and the Parthians; of the Arabs, 
Seljuks, Mongols, and Osmans with the weak Byzantine empire. It was here that Alex- 
ander the great and the Romans successively contended for the mastery of the civilized 
world. But, notwithstanding all these wars, the country still continued to enjoy some 
measure of prosperity till it fell into the hands of the Turks, under whose military des- 
potism its ancient civilization has been sadly brought to ruin. 


ASIATIC SOCIETIES, various associations for the study of the languages, antiqui- 
ties, and history of the eastern continent. The Dutch founded one in Batavia, in 1780; 
the royal A. society of Bengal was founded at Calcutta in 1784 by Sir Wm. Jones. One at 
Paris dates from 1822; one in Great Britain, 1828; the A. society of Ceylon was formed in 
1845; the German oriental the same year; the A. society of China in 1847; the American 
oriental society in 1842. 


ASINAIS, an Indian tribe in Texas, called ‘‘ Cenis” in La Salle’s works. Missions 
were established among them by the Spaniards early in the 18th century. They were 
agriculturists, and lived in large circular cabins, of which some held a dozen or moré 
families. As a tribe they have not been known since the 18th c., and seem to have been 
. long extinct. : 


ASINALUN’GA, or Srna Lonea (anc. Ad Meusulas), at. of Tuscany, n. Italy, in the 
province of Siena, 22 m.s.e. from Siena, on the Siena railway. It is beautifully 
situated on hills bordering the Val di Chiana, and is a well-built t., with wide and well- 
paved streets, anda handsome collegiate church, in which are many fine paintings. 
Population about 9000. 

ASKABAD, a town of Russian Turkestan, the political centre of Trans-Caspia, situated 
on the Trans-Caspian Railway, 299 miles southeast ef Mikhailovsk, the seaward terminus. 
It was occupied by the Russians in 1881. 


ASKEW, or ASCOUGH, ANNE, one of the sufferers for Protestant opinions at the 
dawn of the reformation in Engiand. Having embraced the views of the reformers, 
she was turned out-of-doors by her husband, a gentleman of Lincolnshire, and a zealous 
Roman Catholic. On this she went up to London to sue for a separation; but was 
eventually arrested on a charge of heresy, and was examined by the bishop of London 
and others on the doctrine of transubstantiation, the truth of which she denied. After 
further examination and torture by the rack, she was burned at the stake, in Smithfield, 
July 16, 1546. 

ASKR (Anglo-Saxon, ask, an ‘‘ ash tree’), the name in Norse mythology of the first 
man created by the gods. 

AS’MAI, or ASMAYI, Apu Saip ABD-EL-MELEK IBN Koraisp EL-Asmai, b. about 
740 A.D.; preceptor to Haroun-al-Raschid, and an important representative of Arabic liter- 
ature in the 8th century. Sir Henry Rawlinson cails A.’s history of the kings of Persia 
and Arabia previous to Islam, ‘‘ perhaps the most valuable and authentic historic volume 
in the whole range of Arabian literature.” His romance of Antar has been called ‘the 
ae ef the desert.” He d. about 830 a.p., leaving several pupils who became cele- 

rated. 


ASMANNSHAU'SEN, a village in the jurisdiction of Riidesheim, Nassau, is famed for 
the wine which is produced on the slate-mountains in its vicinity. Of this there are two 
kinds, red and white, the former of which is greatly preferred. It has a rich red color, 
like Burgundy, possesses a rare aromatic flavor, and is noted for its uncommon strength 
and fire. It is said to be the best produced on the Rhine. 

ASMODE'US (properly, ASCHMEDAI, ‘“‘the destroyer”), an evil genius or demon 
mentioned in the later Jewish writings. A. was described as the author of many evils. 
In the book of Tobit (q.v ), he is represented as slaying the seven husbands of Sara, and 
hence, in modern times, has been jocularly spoken of as the destroying demon of matri- 
monial happiness. In the Talmud, A. is described as the prince of demons, and is said 
to have driven Solomon from his kingdom. 


ASMONZE’ANS. See MaccaBEEs. 
ASMONE’US, or ASSAMONEUS. See MACCABEES. 


ASO'CA, Jonesia asoca, an Indian tree of the natural order lequminose, sub-order 
cesalpinee, remarkable for the beauty of its red and orange flowers. The leaves are 
abruptly pinnate, shining, and very beautiful. The A. is often mentioned in Indian 
poetry, and is connected also in various ways with the Hindoo mythology. 


ASO'KA, AsHoka, or DHAR-MA-SOKA, sovereign of India, son of Bindusara, b. about 
300 B.c. He attempted to kill his father and was banished, but returned as his father 
was dying, killed all except one of his brothers, and seized the throne. Conversion to 
Buddhism quite changed his nature, and he built many monasteries, and left monuments 
that show his rule to have extended over the greater part of Hindostan. 


ASO'LA, a fortified \. of northern Italy, in the province of Brescia, situated on the 
left bank of the Chiese, 19 m. w.n.w. from Mantua. It isa place of great antiquity. 


Asopus. 804 


Aspen, 


ASOPUS, god of the river Asopus, and hushand of Methope, by whom he had numer. 
ous daughters, who were abducted by the gods. When Zeus carried away Ajgina, Asopus 
rebelled, and suffered death by lightning in consequence. 

ASOTIN, a co. ins. eastern Washington, on the Idaho border, formed in 1883 from part 
of Columbia ; 640 sq.m.; pop. 90, 1580. It is watered by Snake river and other streams, 
has a mountainous surface, a temperate climate, and a fertile soil. Co. seat, Asotin. 

ASP, Aspis, a venomous serpent, the name of which has come down from ancient 
times; the vague descriptions of ancient authors, however, causing uncertainty as to the 
species. It is very generally supposed to be the naja haje, the el haje or haje nasher 
of the Arabs, which is very common in Egypt, Cyprus, etc., and often appears in hiero- 
elyphic and other sculptures as one of the sacred animals of ancient Egypt. It is some- 
times from 8 to 5 ft. in length, of nearly equal thickness throughout, with a gradually 
tapering tail; brownish, varied with dark and pale spots; the scales of the neck, back, 
and upper surface of the tail slightly carinated; the tail about one fourth of the whole 
length of the animal. The neck is capable of considerable dilatation, through the 
distension of its loose skin, although not so much as that of the nearly allied cobra da 
capello of India (naja tripudians). The dilatation of the neck takes place when the 
serpent is irritated. The jugglers of Egypt are accustomed to perform tricks with this 
serpent, as those of India with the cobra da capello, causing it to dance to their music; 
after they have first, however, carefully extracted the poison-fangs. It is very venom- ~ 
ous. Several varieties exist at the cape of Good Hope, one of which is nearly white; 
and one is called spuugh slang, or spitting snake, by the colonists, from its supposed 
power of ejecting its poison to a distance whenVirritated; the poison which distills from 
the fangs in such circumstances being probably carried off by the forcible expirations 
which the creature makes—a characteristic, however, not exclusively belonging to a 
particular variety.—Other serpents of the same family, vperide, are by some believed 
to be the true asp, particularly opera echis and V. cerastes. The former is of a grayish 
or yellowish brown color, with rays and eye-like spots on the upper parts: it is found 
both in India and the n. of Africa. The latter is of agrayish color, and has a very broad 
heart-shaped head, a short obtuse rounded muzzle, and the superciliary or eyebrow scales 
remarkably developed, so that one of them is often produced into a sort of spine: it 
inhabits the deserts of northern Africa.—The name asp is now generally given to vipera 
aspis, a native of the Alps, found also in the s.e. of Europe and in Sicily, which much 
resembles the common viper, but is more slender, and has a larger head; it is also more 
venomous, 

ASPAR'AGINE, 0.H:NH, { CONH: 4 0, talline subst hich exist 

» CoHsNHs } GOOTH 20, is a crystalline substance which exists 
ready formed in common asparagus, in the marsh-mallow, in comfrey, in potatoes, in 
chestnuts, in the leaves of the deadly nightshade, in licorice root, in the milky juice of the 
lettuce, in the tubers of the dahlia, and in the young shoots of vetches, peas, beans, etc. 
According to Piria, the young shoots of these plants, when formed in the light, contain as 
much asparagine as when they are grown in the dark, but the asparagine disappears as the 
plant arrives at the flowering stage. Other chemists, including Pasteur, find that vetches 
grown in light are free from asparagine. This substance is readily obtained from the 
expressed juice of the young shoots of asparagus, of young vetches, etc., which, after filtra- 
tion and evaporation to a sirup, soon deposits it in crystalline prisms of a right rhombic 
form. These crystals dissolve freely in boiling water, the cooled solution having a 
mawkish and cooling taste, and a slight acid reaction. Asparagine exhibits two remark- 
able transformations. (1.) When its aqueous solution is heated with alkalies or acids it 
is decomposed into aspartic acid, C,H; NH2(COOH)2, and ammonia ; from this and other 
reactions, there is no doubt that it should be regarded, according to modern views, as 
the amide (q.v.) of aspartic acid. (2.) While a solution of pure asparagine-crystals remains 
unchanged, if any albuminous matter is present the solution passes into fermentation, and 
the whole of the asparagine is converted, by the assimilation of hydrogen, from the pig- 
ment into succinate of ammonia, a reaction which may be expressed as follows: 


Asparagine. Succinate of Ammonia, 
CsHsNHs | Con H:0 + Hs = CaH.(COONH,)s. 


Like most of the amides, this substance unites both with acids and alkalies, but the 
resulting compounds are of little general interest. ‘That asparagine plays an important 
part in the physiology of plants, is obvious from its wide distribution. 


ASPARAGUS, a genus of plants of the natural order liliaceew, having an almost bell- 
shaped six-partite perianth upon an articulated stalk, six stamens, one style, with three 
recurved stigmas, and the cells of the berry two-seeded. The species of this genus are 
herbaceous or shrubby plants, natives chiefly of the s. of Europe and of Africa, with 
abortively dicecious flowers; the stem is unarmed in some, in others thorny; at its first 
sprouting leafless, and covered with scales at the top; afterwards very much branched, 
with, numerous fasciculate, generally bristle-like leaves. The most widely diffused 
species is the common A.., A. officinalis, a native of Europe, which grows on the banks 
of rivers and on the sea-shore, in meadows and bushy places, especially in sandy soils, 
occurring in a few places in Britain, and is also in general cultivation as a garden vege- 
table; its young shoots, when they first sprout from the earth, forming a much esteemed 


805 Aspen.” 


article of food, which, however, is only ina slight degree nutritious. These sprouts con- 
tain a peculiar crystalline substance called asparagine, and have a specific action on the 
urinary organs, so that their long continued use in very large quantities is apt even to 
produce bloody urine. They are no longer retained in the pharmacopeeia, but both the 
shoots and the roots of A. are still occasionally used as a diuretic in dropsies, and as 
a lithic to dissolve urinary calculi. For these purposes the root is preferred, and is admin- 
istered in the form of an infusion or decoction.—The thick and tender kinds of A. 
are most esteemed for the table. It is one of those plants which have been much 
increased in size and considerably altered in general appearance, by cultivation, being 
seldom more than a foot high in its wild state, and not much thicker than a goose-quill, 
whereas it has been obtained in gardens more than half an inch in diameter, and ita 
stems rise to the height of 4 or 5 ft. It was a favorite vegetable of the ancient 
Romans. It is generally planted in rows, at distances varying from 1 to 24 ft. Litter 
or vegetable mold is spread over it in autumn. It is allowed to occupy the same 
ground for many years, and the shoots are not gathered for use till the plants are four 
years old. Some of the growers of A. for the London market have 100 acres under this 
crop.—The seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee, and are recommended for 
that use upon the continent even at the present day. <A kind of spirit has been made 
from the fermented berries. The young shoots of several other species are also eaten, as 
those of A. tenutfolius, A. acutifolius, and A. albus, natives of the s. of Europe; the 
Jast of which is much used in Spain and Portugal as a salad, in soups, and as a boiled 
vegetable. On the other hand, the sprouts of the bitter A., A. scaber, which is very 
similar to the common A., are uneatable, on account of their great bitterness. See illus., 
FLOWERS, vol. VI. 


ASPARAGUS STONE. See APATITE. 


ASPA’SIA, one of the most remarkable women of antiquity, was the daughter of 
Axiochus, and born at Miletus. The circumstance that in Athens all foreign women, 
whatever their character, were equally esteemed, or rather disesteemed, and that their 
children, even when begotten in wedlock, were held illegitimate, has originated the 
erroneous notion that A. was a courtesan. She certainly broke through the restraint 
which confined Athenian matrons to the seclusion of their own homes; for after her union 
with Pericles, who had parted from his first wife by her own consent, her house became 
the rendezvous of all the learned and distinguished people in Athens. Socrates often 
visited her. Her eloquence and knowledge of politics were extraordinarily great. Her 
husband—though, strictly speaking, the Athenian law would have refused this appeila- 
tion to Pericles—was honored with the title of Olympian Jove, while she herself was 
dignified with the name of Juno. From the comic writers and others she received 
much injustice. It was Hermippus, the comic poet, who took advantage of a temporary 
irritation of the Athenians against Pericles, to accuse A. of impiety; but the eloquence 
of the great statesman disarmed the enmity of the judges, and procured her acquittal. 
Her influence over Pericles must have been singularly great, although this has obviously 
been exaggerated, and even caricatured. The brilliant but not historically accurate 
Aristophanes charges her with the origin both of the Samian and Peloponnesian war, 
the latter on account of the robbery of a favorite maid who belonged to her. Plutarch 
vindicates her against such accusations; and Thucydides, who details minutely the 
causes of the Peloponnesian war, does not once mention her name in connection with 
these. After the death of Pericles, A. married Lys'icles, a cattle-dealer (an important, 
lucrative, and dignified profession in ancient times), who, through her influence, soon 
became an eminent man in Athens. 


ASPE, a t. of Valencia, Spain, in the province of Alicante, and 21m. w. from Alicante, 
near the river Elcha. It is pretty well built, but the streets are narrow and winding. It 
has flour-mills and oil-mills, also soap-manufactories and brandy distilleries. There isa 
considerable trade in wine. Pop. about 8000. 


ASPECTS, in astronomy, are certain positions of planets with respect to one another, 
as seen from the earth. In the days of astrology, there were five aspects—con- 
junction (indicated by the symbol 4), sextile (>), quartile (a), trine (A), opposition ( ). 
Two planets are in conjunction when they have the same longitude; the aspect is sextile 
when they are 60° apart; quartile, when the distance is 90°; trine, when it is 120°; and 
at 180° they are opposite to one another, or in opposition. Astrology ascribed to these 
A. great influence over the fate of individuals and of nations. The only two of the terms 
now in use are conjunction and opposition. 


ASPEN, or TREMULOUS POPLAR (pop'ulus trem'ula, see POPLAR), a tree whicn grows 
plentifully in Europe andin Siberia. It is anative of Britain, and is frequent in Scotland, 
where it is found even at an elevation of 1500 ft. above the sea. It has received the 
specific name tremula, from the readiness with which its leaves are thrown into a tremu- 
lous motion by the slightest breath of wind—a property for which, indeed, the aspen- 
leaf has become proverbial. The leaves are nearly orbicular, but broadly toothed, so as 
almost to exhibit angles. The footstalks are compressed, which favors the readiness of 
motion. It grows quickly, with a straight stem, reaching to a height of from 60 to 80 
oreven 100 ft. In unfavorable situations, 1t becomes dwarfish. The wood is soft, porous. 


henueeia S06 


light, white, and smooth; it does not make good fuel, but is very fit for the turning-lathe, 
and especially for being made into troughs, trays, pails, etc. It is deemed excellent for 
arrows. If the stem be peeled and allowed to dry before it be cut down, the wood 
becomes harder, and it is then capable of being used as timber for the interior of houses, 
and on this account the tree is of great importance in many districts, and the more so as 


it succeeds in any soil, although it prefers one which is moist and gravelly. The bark | 


contains a great quantity of a bitter alkaloid, salican. The charcoal made from this tree 
can be used in the manufacture of gunpowder.—Populus tre'pida, a very similar species, 
a native of North America, is called the American A. It is regarded by some as a mere 
variety. Very similar, also, is another North American species, P. grandidentata. See 
illus., HAZEL, ETc., vol. VII. 

ASPEN, city and co. seat of Pitkin co., Col., on the Roaring Fork of Grand river, and 
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé and Denver and Rio Grande railroads ; 30 miles west 
of Leadville. It was a mere mining camp in 1880, but was incorporated in 1883. It has 
silver mines, smelting and concentrating works, foundries, banking facilities, churches, 
a high school, daily and weekly newspapers. Pop. ’90, 5108. 

ASPENDUS, a city of Asia Minor, on an isolated hill near the river Eurymedon, at 
the extremity of the plain of Perga. It was founded by a colony from Argos 500 years 
before Christ, and reached high prosperity, as the ruins attest. 


ASPERGIL'LUM, a remarkable genus of lamellibranchiate conchiferous moilusca, in 
which the shell has the form of an elongated cone, terminating at the larger end in a disk, 
which is pierced with numerous small tubular holes, the little tubes of the outer range 
being largest, and forming a sort of ray around it. The animals of this genus are borers, 
some of them living in sand, others burrowing in stone, wood, or thick shells. A. javanum 
is popularly called the watering-pot, and the same resemblance has suggested the name 
A. (from the Latin aspergo, to sprinkle). The most interesting circumstance in the struc- 
ture of the shelly tube of A. is the presence of two small valves, incorporated in the 
substance of the tube, to which they beara very small proportion. ‘‘They there form 
the stamp,” says Owen, “‘ of its true affinities, but subserve as little any ordinary final 
purpose as the teeth buried in the gums of the fetal whale.” The affinities are with mol- 
lusca inhabiting bivalve shells. A rudimentary bivalve shell is found, in like manner, 
cemented into the shelly tube of the fossil teredina, which bored the drift-wood of the 
London clay. : 

There is also a genus ASPERGILLUS in botany, containing many of the small fungi 
commonly known by the name of mould (q.v.), which occur on decaying substances of 
various kinds. Some of the species are peculiar to diseased animal tissues. 


AS'PERN, or Gross As'PERN, a Village of Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 5m. 
e.n.e. of Vienna. Pop. about 700. This village and the neighboring one of Essling are 
celebrated as the scene of a sanguinary battle in the summer of 1809, between the French 
army under Napoleon I. and the Austrians under archduke Charles. Afte: the battle of 
Eckmiihl, in which the Austrians were defeated, the archduke retired to the left bank of 
the Danube, leaving the road to Vienna open to the French. On the 12th of May, 1809, 
the French army entered Vienna, when the archduke concentrated his forces on ths 
opposite bank of the river. Napoleon threw bridges over the river, and on the 21st the 
French army began crossing to the attack. The Austrians at first seemed to give way; 
but when about half the French had crossed the river, they returned to the charge, and 
almost surrounded the enemy in the narrow plain between the two villages. Here 
ensued the battle of A., a terrific conflict, the grand object of the contending hosts 
being the possession of the villages. At the close of the day, it remained undecided; but 
next morning it was renewed with fury on either side, when, after terrible slaughter, 
Napoleon ordered a retreat, and his shattered ranks retired to the little island of Lobau, 
in the middle of the river, whence they afterwards slowly withdrew to the right bank. 
The loss on the side of the Austrians was given at 4000 killed and 16,000 wounded; that 
of the French at double that amount. Marshal Lannes, the most daring among the 
French generals, was among the slain. Both the villages were reduced to heaps of ruins. 


ASPE'RULA. See WoopruFr. 


ASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM, is the name given to a bituminous substance of asolid con- 
sistence. See BrruMEN. It probably owes its origin to vegetable matter which has been 
subjected to a slow process of decomposition or decay, resulting in the production of a 
bituminous coal, from which, by volcanic agency, the A. has been distilled and diffused 
over the neighboring district. The largest natural deposit of A. is in the island of Trini- 
dad, where the plain known as the Pitch lake is found. See Trrnmap. The A. from 
Trinidad is largely used for ships’ bottoms, and is reputed to kill the teredo or borer, 
which proves itself so very destructive to the wood of ships in tropical regions. A. is 
also found on the shores of the Dead sea in large quantity, and is known to the Arabs by 
the name of hajar mousa, or Moses’s stone. It likewise occurs in South America at 
Coxitambo near Cuenca, in Alsace, and other parts of the European continent, in east 
Lothian and Fifeshire (Scotland), in Shropshire, ete. 

During the manufacture of coal-gas, much tarry matter is evolved from the retort, 
and is received in the coolers or condensers. If this tar be subjected to partial distilla- 
tion, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and an artificial A. is left behind, which 
possesses the principal properties and can be employed for the majority of purposes to 


807 reise. 


which native A. is applied. The various kinds of A. have a pitchy odor, are of a black 
or dark-brown color, but do not soil the fingers; are insoluble in water, sparingly soluble 
in alcohol; but are in great part dissolved by ether, oil of turpentine, and naphtha. 
Petroleum (q.v.), or rock oil, is a native liquid bitumen, which largely exudes from crev 
ices in rocks in many districts, and is essentially A. dissolved in naphtha. The specific 
ravity of A. is very near that of water, ranging from 1000 to 1100. When set fire to, it 
Earn readily with a smoky flame, and is often used in the smaller gas-works as fuel, 
by being allowed to run very slowly into the furnace-fires. A., besides being employed 
for coating the exterior of ships’ bottoms, is also used, in a heated condition, for saturat- 
ing timber which is intended for piles in the construction of breakwaters, river-bridges, 
and other situations where the combined action of the air, water, and minute animals 
would soon render ordinary wood rotten and useless. Wooden houses may be preserved 
in the same manner by a coating of A. applied externally; and ground-flooring placed in 
damp situations is much the better for the spaces between the planks being filled up with A. 
About 1840, A. began to be generally used for foot-pavements in cities, and also for 
floors of cellars and out-houses. For purposes of this nature it is heated in portable 
boilers, into which, at a certain stage of the preparation, there is poured a quantity of 
thoroughly dried sand, gravel, or powdered limestone, which is well mixed with the 
liquid A. The mixture is then spread on the spot prepared for it; and when cool, forms 
a hard kind of pavement. Of this method of forming footways, high expectations were 
at first formed; but latterly the process of asphalting has gone out of use in England, as 
it is found not to be so durable as stone, and therefore, in ordinary circumstances, more 
costly. In Paris, however, asphalting is still extensively practised in the more spacious 
thoroughfares. The better kinds of A. are used inthe manufacture of the black varnish, 
which is employed in forming the enamel which coats the variety of leather known as 
patent leather, <A. is not of itself used in medicine, but its natural solution in naphtha, 
viz., petroleum, is a valuable agent when applied either externally or internally. The 
synonyms of A. are—native pitch, mineral pitch, Jews’ pitch, Dead sea bitumen, compact 
bitumen, Trinidad bitumen, and maltha. 


ASPHALTIC COAL, a coal-like substance in the cavities of the older rocks, having 
evidently fallen into the fissures while in a liquid or very plastic state. It is considered 
to be a species of very old asphalt that has lost most of its oil and become compact from 
age. It is found in carboniferous rocks, in New Brunswick and West Virginia; and in 
Ohio and Kentucky, in the devonian. 


ASPHODEL, Asphédelus, a genus of plants which has by many botanists been 
made the type of a natural order asphodelew, now, however, generally regarded as 
forming part of the order “liacew. The asphodelee are either fibrous-rooted or bulbous- 
rooted. Among the latter are onions, hyacinths, squills, star of Bethlehem, etc.; among 
the former, asparagus, A., etc. The roots of the asphodels are fleshy and thick. 'The 
species are not very numerous, and are mostly natives of the countries around the Mediter- 
ranean sea. The yellow A. (A. luteus) and the white A. (A. albus) have long been known 
in Britain as garden-flowers. The yellow A. has an unbranched stem 2 to 8 ft. high, 
much covered by the sheathing bases of the long narrow leaves. The leaves of the 
white A. are all radical, and its flowers are in branched clusters. Both species flower 
about the time when spring passes into summer. 

ASPHYX'IA (Gr.) means literally a cessation of the pulsation from any cause, but is 
usually applied to the condition resulting from the blood in the body no longer being 
brought into the proper relations to the atmospheric air by respiration, so as to allow a 
sufficiently free exchange of carbonic acid for oxygen. See Resprration. A., or 
suspended respiration, may result from several causes. No air, or but a scanty supply, 
may be admitted, as in strangulation, drowning, choking, or disease in the windpipe; 
the chest may be prevented from expanding either from a superincumbent weight or 
paralysis, as when a man breaks the upper part of his neck above the phrenic nerve, 
thus paralyzing the diaphragm; and again, although there may be every capacity for 
respiration, the air itself may be in fault, and contain too little oxygen in proportion to 
other elements, as carbonic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, which act as poisons when 
inhaled. Aquatic animals may be asphyxiated either by depriving the water they inhabit 
of oxygen, or impregnating it with the gases just mentioned. 

As this condition of A. advances, in drowning or otherwise, the small vessels of the 
lungs become gorged with blood, which the heart has no longer power to force freel 
through them, the right side of the heart and pulmonary artery become filled with ELL 
while but little returns to the arterial or left side of the heart. 

The person becomes pallid, except in such vascular parts as the lips, cheeks, and 
finger-tips, which become blue; and soon the blood, no longer aérated, produces the 
phenomena of poisoning by carbonic acid. After some slight convulsive movements, 
the person becomes insensible, the pulsations of the heart grow gradually feebler, and at 
last cease altogether. In man this occurs in from a minute and a half to five minutes, 
Some persons, no doubt, as the Ceylon divers, can by habit do without a fresh suppl 
of air for a longer period; and some diving animals have an arrangement of blood- 
vessels by which they are enabled to be under water for a long time. Restoration of 
asphyxiated persons may be attempted with hopes of success at a very long period after 


Asphyxiants. 808 


apparent death. The object of all methods is of course to fill the lungs with fresh air. 
One of the most efficient is that of the late Marshall Hall: lay the person down at once 
with his head on his left arm, open the mouth, and draw the tongue forwards, then roll 
him gently over towards the left till he is nearly quite over on his face, then on to his 
back again, making the body by its own weight compress the chest, which, on expansion 
by its elasticity, fills with air. Repeat this about 16 times in a minute. This remedy 
nearly superseded all others for the restoration of still-born infants and other asphyxi- 
ated persons, before the introduction of the method of Dr. Sylvester, an account of 


which is given under RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL. 


ASPHYX'IANTS, Chemical substances inclosed in shells or other projectiles, and 
which act by producing a suffocating and poisonous effect. The French secretly made 
experiments with asphyxiating shot at Brest in 1851. The principle of these missiles 
seems to have been to carry into an enemy’s ship the means of generating deadly gases 
which would suffocate the crews between decks. Scientific artillerists dread and dis- 
countenance these noveities; they have learned to regard war almost as a mathematical 
science, or, at any rate, as an elaborate application of such science; and they see nothing 
but savage cruelty in the ‘‘ diabolical chemistry” of asphyxiants. General Sir Howard 
Douglas, in a late edition of his Naval Gunnery, says: ‘“‘'The author learns, with great 
regret, that some awful experiments have been made with fearful success, in the royal 
arsenal, with asphyxiant projectiles, combining in a frightful degree incendiary with 
suffocating effects.” Adverting to sick and wounded men on board a ship-of-war, he 
exclaimed: ‘‘ What shall be said of that inhuman system preparing for naval warfare in 
this age of enlightened humanity, which would advisedly, purposely, and deliberately 
consign the whole of these, and all other survivors, to indiscriminate death or mutila- 
tion? A ship may be sunk in action; yet there is always time to remove the sick and 
wounded, and save the survivors; but who shall approach a ship on fire to rescue her 
crew from the sudden and awful effects of that merciless and barbarous system, the 
object of which is to set fire to her at heart, and, if possible, blow her up?” The earl 
of Dundonald, captain Norton, Mr. Macintosh, and many pther inventors, some years 
ago brought asphyxiating compositions before the notice of the English admiralty and 
war-office; and the French arsenals were known to possess many such in store. Some 
of these compositions are liquids which burn fiercely, and lignite wood and canvas 
readily; some are contained in shells which, on bursting, scatter the suffocating and 
burning substances all around; and some assume other forms. 


ASPIC, a savory meat jelly moulded into a regular form, and containing portions of 
fowl, game, fish, and the like, usually with hard-boiled eggs and sliced pickles. 


ASPIDIUM. See Fern, MALE. 


ASPINWALL, a t. in Colombia, virtually, however, a colony of the United States. 
It is situated at the Atlantic extremity of the Panama railway, in lat. 9° 22’ n., and 
long. 79° 55’ w., being about 8 m. to the n. of the old Spanish port of Chagres, 49 m. 
from Panama, and equidistant from the great trading capitals of Valparaiso and San 
Francisco. From its commanding position as a place of transit, A. is one of the busiest 
and most prosperous towns in the new world. It monopolizes the benefits of the traffic 
in both directions, to the almost utter exclusion of the rapidly decaying Panama. The 
climate of A., formerly very unhealthy, has been greatly improved by drainage. A. de- 
rives its name from Mr. Aspinwall, the originator of the Panama railway; it is also 
called Colon. The town was burned by insurgents, 1885, 


ASPIRATE, the name given to the letter 2 in grammar, as marking, not an articulate 
sound, but a breathing (Lat. spiro, I breath). It is also applied to a class of consonants, 
There is felt at once to be a relation, accompanied by a difference, between p and f, t 
and th, etc. To express the difference, the Greeks called the first of such a pair psilon 
(bare), the second dasu (rough); the Latin grammarians adonted the terms lene and 
aspirate, probably from the erroneous notion that the difference consists in the addition 
of the sound of 4. There being no sound and no character in Latin corresponding to 
the Greek 6 (theta), the Romans represented it by ti; and this misleading expedient is 
continued for representing this aspirate and several others in all the alphabets derived 
from the Roman. According to some the word ought to be asperate, ie., ‘‘ roughened.” 
Of the sixteen mutes in a complete system (see LerrErs), eight are lene, each having its 
corresponding aspirate. 


Lene— ip, © t, d, KO Smee 
Aspirate—f, v, th(in), th(ine), ch, gh, sh, zh. 


In the corresponding words ot allied languages, nothing is more common than 
the interchange of an aspirate and a lene: Ex., Lat. pater, Eng. father; Gr. thura, 
Ger. thir, Eng. door; Lat. cap(ut), Fr. chef, Eng. chief; Ger. weib, Eng. wife. Aspi- 
rated letters are also frequently interchangeable with one another: thus, Gr. ther, a 
wild beast, is in Lat. fera,; Lat. facere, to do, becomes in Span. acer. 


ASPIRA'TORis the name of an apparatus employed to draw air or other gases through 
bottles or other vessels. It is of great use in the examination of gases by the analytical 


809 Sep ny Sani 


ehemist. The simplest form of the apparatus is that represented in the figure, where 
A is a large vessel capable of being filled with water, having a tube with stop-cock 
at B, a second tube with stop-cock at C, and a thermometer introduced at D. In work- 
ing, the apparatus is filled with water; the tube C is attached 
to the vessels through which the gas is to be drawn; and the 
stop-cocks at C and B being opened, the weight of the water es- 
caping at B acts as suction, and draws in the gas from the tube 
C and the attached bottles or other vessels. ‘The thermometer 
at D denotes the temperature of the water, and subsequently 
gas, contained in the reservoir, while the upright turn of the 
tube B keeps any air from entering the reservoir by that route. 
—A more complicated form of A., but one which is much 
more convenient to experiment with, is that known as Brun- 
ner’s A.; the principle of action, however, is the same. 


ASPIS, or CLUPEA, an ancient fortified t. of Carthage, about 
50 m. e. of that city, onthe sea, and having an accessible harbor. 
Manlius and Regulus landed here in the first Punic war; in the 
third war the town sustained a siege, and it is noticed in the 
records of the Julian civil war. It was an important episcopal 
see from 411 to 646 A.p., and the last place where the African 
Christians made resistance to Moslemism. 


ASPLE'NIUM, a genus of ferns, of the order or sub-order 
polypodiacee, The species are numerous, and widely diffused 
both in the northern and southern hemispheres. Many of 
. them are of great beauty; and the small size of some recom- 

mends them to cultivators of ferns who find themselves much 
Aspirator. limited as to space. Some of the species bear the English name 
spleenwort, as A. trichomanes, A. viride, A. adiantum-nigrum, etc., 
having been formerly supposed efficacious in removing obstructions of the viscera. 
From tie same circumstance the name A. (Gr. a, privative, and splen, the spleen) is 
derived. They have now fallen completely into disuse, but were at one time very 
much employed, principally in the form of a syrup. They were administered not 
only in cases of cough, asthma, diseases of the liver, and cutaneous diseases, but even in 
stone and gravel. But perhaps none of them was so extensively used as the species 
which is styled in old books common spleenwort (A. ce'terach), now the type of a dis- 
tinct genus, and known as ce'terach officinarum. Some of them, as A. trichomanes and 
A. adiantum-nigrum, are frequently called maidenhair. See illus., Ferns, vol. V. 


ASPROMON’TE, a mt. near Reggio, in s.w. Italy, near which, Aug. 28, 1862, occurred 
the fight between Garibaldi’s volunteers and the Italian troops under Pallavicini, Gari- 
baldi was defeated and captured. 


ASPROPOT’AMO. See ACHELOUS. 


ASQUITH, Herbert Henry, was born in York, England, Sept., 1852. He was edu- 
cated at the College of London School and Balliol College, Oxford ; studied law and 
was admitted to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1876; elected to Parliament in 1886 ; ap- 
pointed Queen’s Counsel in 1890, and Home Secretary in 1892. 


ASS, Hquwus asinus, a well-known quadruped, usually referred by naturalists to the 
same genus with the horse (q.v.), but which it has recently been attempted to make the 
type of a distinct genus (asnus), including all the solid-hoofed quadrupeds (solidungula 
or eguide, see Horsk) except the horse itself. The distinction is founded on the short 
hair of the upper part of the tail and the tuft at the end of it, the darker stripes with 
which the color is marked, and the absence of the hard horny warts which are found on 
the hinder-legs of the horse, although the forelegs exhibit warts in a similar position. 
The long ears of the A. are one of the characteristics of the species, but they are longer 
in domestication than in a wild state. It is usually also distinguished by a black cross 
over the shoulders, formed by a longitudinal and a transverse streak, the general color 
being gray; but when the general color is darker or lighter than usual, the cross is often 
less apparent, or to be observed with difficulty. The facial line is arched. 

Some uncertainty still exists as to the origin of the domestic A.; a number of wild 
races having been Cescribed, some of which are perhaps, like the wild horses of America, 
the progeny of animalsthat have escaped from domestication. The probability, however, 
appears to be that the A.is a native of central Asia, where it is found in a perfectly wild 
state, in Tartary, Mesopotamia, Persia, etc., on the banks of the Indus, and even to the 
southern extremity of Hindustan; but its range does not extend so far northward as that 
of the wild horse—a circumstance which may perhaps partly account for the inferiority 
of the domestic A. in northern climates. The wild A. is found both in mountainous 
districts and in plains; vast troops roam over the great Asiatic deserts, migrating, accord: 
ing to the season, in summer, as far northward as the Ural; in winter, southward to the 
borders of India. It is fond of bitter and saline herbage, and of brackish water. It was 
first accurately described by Pallas, under the name kowlan, which it bears on the high 
steppes around the Caspian sea. It was, however, well known to the ancients, and is 


Ree eainneey: 810 

called onager and asinus sylvestris by Pliny, who also mentions, under the name hemionus, 
another species (egwus hemionus), & native of the same regions, now called the kiang, or the 
dziggethui. The latter name appears to be of Turkish origin, and to signify mountain A., 
but seems to be sometimes applied to the one of these species and sometimes to the other. 
This seems also to be the case with some of their other eastern names, as khur or goor, 
and is a source of no little confusion.—The cross on the shoulders is less observable in the 
koulan than it usually is in the domesticated A. It ought also to be mentioned that, in 
one remarkable particular, the domesticated A. agrees with the eguus hemionus, and differs 
from the koulan, the infra-orbital foramen of the skull being situated much lower. But 
the kiang neighs like a horse, and the other brays. The harshness of the voice of the 
A. is ascribed to two small peculiar cavities situated at the bottom of the larynx. 

The allusions to the wild A. in the Old Testament, and particularly in Job xxxix., 
naturally excite the surprise of readers acquainted only with the dull domestic drudge, 
the emblem of patience and stolidity; but to this day they are beautifully appropriate to 
the wild A. of ‘‘the wilderness,” which has the ‘‘barren land” or ‘‘salt places” for 
its dwelling, and ‘‘the range of the mountains” for its pasture.—The wild A. has a short 
mane of dark woolly hair, and a stripe of dark bushy hair runs along the ridge of the 
back from the mane to the tail. It has longer legs, and carries its head higher than the 
domestic A. Its troops have always a leader. It is a high-spirited animal, very fleet 
and very wary, trying to the utmost the powers of the hunter. It is a principal object of 
the chase in Persia, where its flesh is prized as venison is in Europe, and it is accounted 
the noblest of game. Xenophon, in his Anabasis, describes the wild A. as swifter of 
foot than the horse, and its flesh as like that of the red deer, but more tender. 

The domestic A. is also, in Arabia, Persia, Syria, and other eastern countries, a much 
finer animal than as it is usually seen in Europe, although in Spain the favorable 
influence of a more genial climate upon its development is visible, perhaps also of better 
treatment, the A. being more highly valued. The A. is much used for riding in the 
East. From Judges v. 10, we learn that, at a very early period, the great were accus- 
tomed to ride upon white asses, and a preference is given to white asses in the east to 
this day. The A. has been domesticated from the earliest times; but it does not seem to 
have been introduced into Europe till a comparatively recent date. In Britain, it is 
employed chiefly by the poor, but might probably with advantage be much more gener- 
ally employed than it is. Its price is scarcely one twentieth of the price of the horse, and 
it can be kept at one fourth of the expense, delighting in the coarse herbage which other 
animals reject, and satisfied with comparatively scanty fare. The obstinacy ascribed to 
the A. seems to be very generally the result of ill treatment; and proverbial as it has 
become for stupidity, it is probably quite equal in intelligence to the horse. 

There are two hybrids between the A. and the horse—the Mule (q.v.), bred between 
the male A. and the mare; and the Hinny (q.v.), the offspring of the horse and the 
female A. 

The milk of the A. contains more sugar of miik and lesscaseine than that of the cow, 
and is therefore recommended as a nutritious diet in cases of weak digestion. Its use- 
fulness in cases of consumption has been long known, and it was often prescribed as a 
kind of specific when that disease was treated on principles very different from those 
which regulate its treatment now. 

The leather called shagreen (q.v.) is made by a peculiar process from the skin of the 
A., which also affords excellent leather for shoes, and the best material for drums. The 
bones of the A., which are very solid, were used by the ancients for making flutes. See 
illus., MamMmatta, vol. IX. 


ASSAB’, or Sasa, a bay of the Red sea, west coast, near Bab-el-Mandeb. It is about 

16 m. long by 5 m. wide; it is bordered on the w. by high land; in its front are two coral 

islands, one of which, with cape Luna, forms a harbor for small craft. In 1869 an Italian 

steamship company bought the whole bay for a coaling station between the Suez canal 

ee ens Since 1884 the Italian government has improved the harbor and built a 
ighthouse. 


ASSAI, a beverage very much used at Para and other places on the Amazon, and 
which is prepared from the fruit of certain species of palm nearly allied to the cabbage 
palm of the West Indies. See AREcA and CABBAGE Paum. The A. palms are remark- 
ably slender trees; the most common species (ewterpe oleracea of Martius) rising to the 
height of 60 or 80 ft., with a smooth stem only about 4in. in diameter. The fruit 
is small, in size and color resembling sloes, but is produced in great quantity upon 
branched spadices, which are thrown out horizontaily beneath the crown of leaves. It 
consists of a hard seed, with a very thin covering of a firm pulp or flesh. The tree 
grows in swamps flooded by the high tides. Boys climb the trees for the fruit, upon 
which warm water is poured, and by rubbing and kneading, a liquid is procured, con- 
sisting simply of the pulp of the fruit and water, which is constantly vended in the 
streets of Para, and of which the inhabitants are extremely fond. This is A. It is athick, 
creamy liquid, of a purplish color,and a flavor like that of a freshly gathered nut. It iscom- 
monly used along with the bread made from manioc (q.v.), called farinha, and either with 
or without sugar. Half the population of Para make a daily meal of A. and farinha; and 
upon this hundreds are said chiefly to subsist.—The stem of the A. palm is sometimes 
used for poles and rafters, and its terminal bud as a cabbage or as a salad with oil and 


A 7 
81 1 een caitation, 


vinegar; but it is too much valued upon account of its fruit to be often cut down for 
these purposes, — Another species, euterpe Catinga, is found in forests of a dry 
sandy soil and very peculiar vegetation, known as catinga forests. The beverage made 
from it is sweeter than the common kind, but the produce of the tree is much smaller. 


ASSAL’, an important salt-lake in the e. of Africa, 25 m. s.w. of Tajurrah, the chief 
seaport of Adel, lat. 11° 40’ n., long. 42° 40’'e. Its length is 8 m.; its breadth, 4. It 
lies in a land remarkable for its wild, waste, and sterile character. A. is inclosed on all 
sides but the e. by hills, and is nearly 760 ft. below the level of the sea. Abyssinian 
caravans resort to it for the purpose of carrying off the salt which incrusts its shores, like 
ice, sometimes to the depth of half a foot. It has been supposed that it was at one time 
connected with the bay of Tajurrah. 

ASSAM’, a province at the n.e. extremity of British India, stretching in n. lat. from 22° 
to 28°, and in e. long. from 90° to 98°, and containing in 791, 5,476,833 inhabitants on an 
area of 49,004 sq. miles. In 1874 it was formed into a separate administration (including 
Cachar) under a chief-commissioner. It forms a part of the basin of the lower Brahma- 
putra, and is intersected also by about 60 other rivers. Being thus irrigated, as it were, 
by nature, A. abounds in wood, and is very fertile. Among its indigenous productions 
isthe tea-plant. Inthe year 1893, 1,322,131 acres were devoted torice. The other products 
are tea, oil seeds, sugar cane, other food grains, gold, ivory, amber, musk, silver, iron, 
lead, petroleum, and coal. From Bengal the principal imports are woolens, India fabrics, 
salt, opium, glass, earthenware, tobacco, betel, etc. 

In 1826, at the close of the first Burmese war, A. was ceded to the British. The 
upper portion of the province, however, was conferred, as a separate principality, on 
the native rajah, whom the Burmese had expelled; and it was only in 1888, that in 
consequence of his misgovernment, the entire country was actually placed under British 
administration. Since then, the province has exhibited a noticeable improvement, for 
which, considering that the population is only about 60 to the square mile, there is still, 
however, almost unlimited scope. The great evil is the prevalence of earthquakes, 
few months passing without a shock or two. 

ASSAROT’TI, Orravio GIOVANNI BATTISTA, 1753-1829, founder of schools for deaf 
mutes in Italy. He studied for the priesthood and became lecturer on theology to the 
society of the Pietists. Hearing of the Abbé Sicard’s experiments with mutes, he began 
with a single pupil in 1801, and hadslowly gathered a small number, when, in 1805, Na- 
poleon heard of his work and provided a schoolhouse and revenue to support 12 pupils. 
He kept the schoo: with success until his death. 


ASSASSINATION, the act of taking the life of any one by surprise or treacherous 
violence, either by a hired emissary, by one devoted to the deed, or by one who has taken 
the task upon himself. Generally the term is applied to the murder of a public personage 
by one who aims solely at the death of his victim. In ancient times assassination was. 
not unknown and was often even applauded, as in the scriptural instances of Ehud and 
Jael, and inthe murder of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogeiton (q.v.); but assas- 
sination by enthusiasts and men devoted to an idea first becomes really prominent in the 
religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries. To this class belong the plots against 
the life of Queen Elizabeth, while the horrible succession of assassinations of Roman 
emperors is simply a series of murders prompted by self-interest or revenge. Omitting 
these last, which are noted elsewhere, the following list includes the most important 
assassinations, arranged in chronological order. In general fuller accounts of the persons 
mentioned will be found under their particular headings : 


SUITS Ceesh meee ee aks ate eee seer etecle oA lose, ailele co etn ghee) oo Us We! oH. 8 Mar. 15, B.C. 4. 
ThOniAs DECKSE ath eee Ba ts. Se acd Anes a hanes Ceateom Rial. ots Dec. 29, A.D. 1170 
Alberfireibtinperon. of German WIA. teams o. kis nese sn. May olsen ito 1308 
Janes (eo PScoslands ae cae en Sees ah Bh cla hoshie bree sith Feb. 21, Se 1487 
ATGSeA NTO Geil CGECT IIIT ater ain Bride cpaeie a's) s Bate ils alae Rin oH o5 Jan. 9, o 1537 
Cardinal Beaton We wns s etee e Pt ows a eta d Mets inte’ teins Mavi 20 sal eo dl 46 
David Riccid Bee Pee ies sas. es ie SOE: OR ee Mar:. 9, See eth OG 
Lord ‘Darnley. Yi. Mane ere tet eso tts dis. Me onto Piatt ED tl O 6. Seml e LDOT 
Sames; Warl of Murra yeewewenten et alate Ss SH.) Take: ats Janis Qo wii ail bTO 
William of Oral gente See sabre teh me beets Oe et LIS deal. Pee Jalyn 10g wis 1984 
Henry III. of France, by Jacques Clement....... ..- ..-..-- SAUER Saif LOCO 
Henry lV. of France; by Ravailac: 2 A asiat ae os he oat 2 Mayprl4) ..‘*: ~1610 
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, by Felton............. Re ee Aug. 28, ‘* . 1628 
PPablonsteiny. 6) 1 PLoS ple ee Se ele Wal akia Bale nota s Risto 5 .-Feb. 25, : 1684 
Archbishop Sharp........- EL feted RMSE OSES <a alaG Mr wits alas PURLBY, Shy certs caha Oa 
Gectavnsi LLof Sweden. ..ce orien es ees Joniarsl).¢. died. Mar.: 29, ay 1792 
Marat, by Charlotte Corday. ....0..sesecee eee e cece etree eee eet FUL] TO iene aaa nee 
Seen tober.) at. Cair0; niki ue peateete ciel rie alate bod SON bie ees ie June 14, es 1800 
PaulOgar of Russia... 2.5.5 Sask. De a ORE erie oe ee Meee eee ale ee Mars24.4 49 a5 1801 
Spencer Perceval, premier, by Bellingham................-+-.++- .May 11, ae LC) 
Kotzepiomphe. dramatist. |. «2/0 scuct aa niele wee) Gidates eee bd = iene Maria23.te fe 1819 
DUC ee Grle sh iedk. 5 ck FE SMa ed SLD ees oboe Hs ete Olas aa L620 


Charles III., Duke of Parma ...... Ce Fak cleats Mar. 26; died Mar, QT, he 1854 


Assassins, 812 


Assay. 


Abraham Lincoln, by Booths ssssenereeeeeeee os »April 14 ; died April 15, A. D. 1865 


Li i ’ Servi s UX ae. cas es URC-LG: 1868 
Mavanalaeed BRET oko Pee Dec. 28; died Dec. 30, “1870 
Georges Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, by communists.....-...-.. May 24, “f 1871 
Earl of Mayo, governor-general of India... ..-++..++-0++sseeeeees Feba. 9, 4 1872 
Sultan ADGUI-AZIZ. ...sccccccc recesses cece cree eee tures renens June 4, 1876 
Alexander II., Czar of Russia. .....++seseeeeeee eee st sete ee sees Mar. 13, pei a es | 


James Abram Garfield, at Washington, by Guiteau. .July 2; died Sept. 19, Fo) WEL. 
Lord Frederic Cavendish and T. H. Burke, Phoenix Park, Dublin May 6, ‘* 1882 
President Carnot of France, at Lyons...........-seeeeeecceseseee June 25, by 1894 
Stefan Stambuloff, in Sofia, Bulgaria.........seeeeeeeeeseeeoeens July 15, ‘“* 1895 


In the foregoing list no mention is made of plots or attacksending in failure. Several 
of those who fell had previously escaped more than once. The Assassination Plot in 
English history was a conspiracy by some Jacobites to murder William III. in 1696. It 
is doubtful whether Louis XIV. and James II. were privy to the scheme. The chief 
conspirator was Sir George Barclay. ‘The king was to have been assassinated at Turn- 
ham Green on his return from a hunting-party, but one of the forty conspirators sent 
word to the king, the hunting-party was postponed, a number of the conspirators were 
arrested and nine were executed. A catalogue of unsuccessful attempts at assassination 
would be too long for insertion here, but the most important within the last hundred 
years have been directed as follows: Against Alexander III. of Russia, repeatedly ; 
‘Alfonso XII. of Spain, in 1878 and 1879; Amadeus of Spain, 1872; Duc d’ Aumale, 
1841; Prince Bismarck, 1866 and 1874 ; Francis Joseph of Austria, 1853 ; George HI. of 
England, 1786 and 1800; George IV., when regent, 1817; Humbert I. of Italy, 1878 ; 
Isabella IT. of Spain, 1847, 1852, 1856; Louis Philippe, six attempts from 1835 to 1846 ; 
Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India,1878 ; Napoleon I., by infernal machine, 1800 ; Napoleon 
III., twice in 1855, and Orsini’s attempt in 1858 ; Queen Victoria, June 10, 1840, May 
30, 1842, July 3, 1842, May 19, 1849, and March 2, 1882; William I. of Germany, 1861, 


1875, and twice in 1878. 


ASSASSINS, a military order, a branch of the secret sect of the Ismuilis (q.v.). 
The secret doctrines of these Ismaelites, who had their headquarters in Cairo, declared 
the descendants of Jsmael, the last of the seven so-called imaums, to be alone entitled to 
the califate; and gave an allegorical interpretation to the precepts of Islam, which led, 
as their adversaries asserted, to considering all positive religions equally right, and all 
actions morally indifferent. The atrocious career of the A. was but a natural sequence 
of such teaching. The founder of these last, Hassan-ben-Sabbah-el-Homairi, of Persian 
descent, and imbued with the free-thinking tendencies of his country, had, about the 
middle of the 11th c., studied at Nishpur, under the celebrated Mowasek, and had 
subsequently obtained from Ismaelite dads, or religious leaders, a partial insight into 
their secret doctrines, and a partial consecration to the rank of dai. But on betaking 
himself to the central lodge at Cairo, he quarreled with the heads of the sect, and 
was doomed to banishment. He succeeded, however, in making his escape from the 
ship, and reaching the Syrian coast, after which he returned to Persia, everywhere 
collecting adherents, with the view of founding, upon the Ismaelite model, a secret 
order of his own, a species of organized society which should be a terror to his most 
powerful neighbors. In 1090, Hassan conquered the fortress of Alamut, in the Persian 
district of Rudbar; and continued to increase in strength, intimidating princes and 
governors by a series of secret murders, and gaining possession of several fortified 
castles, with their surrounding territories, both in the mountain range south of the 
Caspian, in Kuhistan, and in the mountains of Syria (Massiat). The internal constitu- 
tion of the order, which had some resemblance to the orders of Christian knighthood, 
was as follows: First, as supreme and absolute ruler, came the Sheikh-al-jebai, the 
prince or old man of the mountain. His vicegerents in Jebal, Kuhistan, and Syria were 
the three Dai-al-kebir, or grand priors of the order. Next came the Dais and Refiks, 
which last were not, however, initiated, like the former, into every stage of the secret 
doctrines, and had no authority as teachers. To the uninitiated belonged first of all the 
Fedavies or Fedais—i.e., the devoted: a band of resolute youths, the ever ready and 
blindly obedient executioners of the old man of the mountain. Before he assigned to 
them their bloody tasks, he used to have them thrown into a state of ecstasy, by the 
intoxicating influence of the hashish (the hemp-plant), which circumstance led to the 
order being called Hashishim, or hemp-eaters. The word was changed by Euro. 
peans into Assassins, and transplanted into the languages of the west with the signifi- 
cation of murderers. The Lasiks, or novices, formed the sixth division of the order, and 
the laborers and mechanics the seventh. Upon these, the most rigid observance of the 
Koran was enjoined; while the initiated, on the contrary, looked upon all positive 
religion as null., The catechism of the order, placed by Hassan in the hands of his dais, 
consisted of seven parts, of which the second treated, among other things, of the art of 
worming themselves into the confidence of men. It is easy to conceive the terror which 
so unscrupulous a sect must have inspired. Several princes secretly paid tribute to the 
old man of the mountain. Hassan, who died at the age of 70 (1124 a.D.), appointed as 
his successor, Kia-Busurg-Omid, one of his grand-priors. Kia-Busurg-Omid was 
succeeded in 1188 by his son Mohammed, who knew how to maintain his power against 


Assassing, 
813 Assay. 


Nureddin and Jussuf-Salaheddin. In 1163, Hassan IT. was rash enough to extend the secret 
privilege of the initiated—exemption, namely, from the positive precepts of religion— 
to the people generally, and to abolish Islam in the Assassin state, which led to his 
falling a victim to his brother-in-law’s dagger. Under the rule of his son, Mohammed 
II., who acted in his father’s spirit, the Syrian Dai-al-kebir, Sinan, became independent, 
and entered into negotiations with the Christian king of Jerusalem for coming over, on 
certain conditions, to the Christian faith; but the templars killed his envoys, and 
rejected his overtures, that they might not Jose the yearly tribute which they drew from 
him. Mohammed was poisoned by his son, Hassan III. who reinstated Islamism, and 
thence obtained the surname of the New Moslem. Hassan was succeeded by Moham- 
med III. a boy of nine years old, who, by his effeminate rule, led to the overthrow of 
the order, and was eventually murdered by the command of his son, Rokn-eddin, the 
_seventh and last old man of the mountain. In 1256, the Mongolian prince, Hulagu, 
burst with his hordes upon the hill-forts of Persia held by the Assassins, which 
‘amounted to about a hundred, capturing and destroying them. ‘The Syrian branch was 
also put down about the end of the 13th c., but remnants of the sect still lingered for 
some time longer in Kuhistan. In 1352, the A. reappeared in Syria, and indeed they 
are still reported to exist asa heretical sect both there and in Persia. The Persian 
Ismaelites have an imaum, or superintendent, in the district of Kum, and still inhabit 
the neighborhood of Alamoot under the name of Hosseinis. The Syrian Ismaelites live 
in the district of Massiat or Massvad. Their castle was taken from them in 1809 by the 
Nossaries, but afterwards restored. See Hammer, Geschichte der Assassinen (Stutt. and 
Tiib. 1818); Guyard, Fragments (1874). 


ASSAULT. In the sudden and vigorous attack on a fortified post, which is called an 
A., the troops are told-off into ‘‘storming-parties,” ‘‘supports,” and ‘‘ firing-parties. ” 
The storming-parties are those who take the most terrible duty, being that of making a 
forcible entry into the place. The firing-parties or musketeers seek to shield the storm- 
ing-parties as much as possible from the fire of the enemy; they spread themselves out in 
extended order to keep down the fire of the garrison—aiming at any soldier who may 
show his head above the parapet, and seeking to disable the artillerymen by firing into 
the embrasures. 


ASSAULT AND BATTERY. The words “ Assault” and ‘‘ Battery” are commonly 
used together, for the reason that the two offenses which they indicate are usually com- 
mitted together. But the wrongs are separate and distinct. 

An assault is an attempt or offer to inflict bodily injury upon another, accompanied 
by such circumstances as denote, at the time, an intention, coupled with the present 
ability to do violence to the person. Battery is the actual infliction of threatened vio- 
lence ; the consummation of an assault. Mere words of abuse will not constitute an 
assault ; nor will a threat or offer to do violence, when it clearly appears that he who 
makes the threat or offer has no intention or no present ability to carry it into execution. 
But an actual intent or an actual present ability to injure the person is not necessary. 
It is sufficient that these are apparent and that the circumstances are such as to cause the 
person threatened to believe, on reasonable grounds, that such apparent intent and ability 
are real. Thusthe pointing of an unloaded gun at a person whois ignorant of the fact 
that it is not loaded, the circumstances indicating an intention to shoot, will amount to 
an assault. The least touching of another’s person, in anger or willfully or negligently, 
whether with the hand or with a stone or other weapon, is a battery. 

Both assault and battery may, in some cases, be justifiable. Thus a father or a 
schoolmaster may chastise a child, within proper bounds and in the process of rightful 
discipline. Soa person is justified in using all necessary means, even though obliged 
to resort to force, to protect and defend his person, the person of his servant, or of one 
of his family, or his real or personal property. The force employed in defense, how- 
ever, must be no greater than the emergency requires; for any excess of violence the 
person using it will be responsible. 

Assault and battery are both civil and criminal offenses. As civil wrongs they are 
classified under the head of torts, and as crimes under that of misdemeanors. 

In the domain of criminal law, certain assaults are known as aggravated assaults, 
and are followed by a more severe punishment. Such are assaults with intent to kill o1 
with intent to commit rape, and assaults upon magistrates in courts of justice, with 
knowledge of the official character of the persons assaulted. 


ASSAY’, or ASSAYING, is the process employed in determining the proportion of pure 
metal in a metallic ore or in an alloy. This method of analysis is more generally followed 
in the examination of compounds of silver and gold, but is likewise resorted to in the 
investigation of ores of iron, copper, tin, zinc, bismuth, antimony, mercury, and lead. 
In manufactured articles, also, such as silver-plate and gold-plate, some foreign metal 
(generally copper) is present, to impart hardness to the metal; and in Great Britain, each 
article is assayed at the Goldsmiths’ hall, previously to being sold, so as to determine 
the exact richness of the metal whereofit is made. In the A. of compounds containing 
silver, the apparatus employed is a cwpel—a small basin-shaped vessel made of bone-ash; 
and a muffle, composed of fire-clay, about 8 in. in length and 8 to 4 in. in diameter, 
shaped like a miniature railway tunnel, open at one end, closed at the other end, and 
having numerous slits or air-holes along the side. The more simple A. of silver con: 


A eeciein 814 


Asse 


ists i ination of argentiferous leadore. By a preliminary process, the sulphur 
Lee eat apy: ae weighed fragments of the mixed lead and silver being 
placed on cupels, the latter are introduced into the mufile, which has been previously 
heated in a furnace, where it still remains. The fire is then increased, and air being 
admitted to the muffle, the oxygen of the air unites with the lead, forming oxide 
of lead (PbO), which in part volatilizes through the openings in the side of the 
muffle, and in other part sinks into the porous bone-earth of which the cupel is made. 
Whilst the lead is thus carried away, the silver remains behind asa molten metallic 
globule, and when the last traces of lead-fumes leave the silver bead, the latter suddenly 
lightens, and immediately thereafter becomes brilliant and white. On being slowly 
allowed to cool, the globule of silver may be weighed, and the amount of pure metal 
thus @etermined. The use of the cupel during this process has led to the term cupellation 
being employed in place of A. When silver contains copper, which it does in ordinary 
coinage and silver-plate, it becomes necessary to mix lead with the alloy before attempt- 
ing to separate the copper. The manner in which the lead is generally added is to roll 
the alloy of silver and copper in a piece of sheet-lead or lead-foil, and place the whole 
package on the cupel. During the heating in the muffle, the lead oxidizes as usual, and 
in part passing into the bone-earth of the cupel, carries the copper with it, The amount 
of lead required to effect the separation of copper from silver in this way is given in the 
following table: 


Standard of silverin Amount of copper Quantity of lead Quantity of lead in 
one part. Alloy in one necessary for one relation to that 
part. part of alloy. of copper. 
1000 0 2, part. 
950 50 3 parts. 60 tol 
900 100 7 hi Ute 
800 200 10 i be | 
700 300 12 nie 40 “1 
600 400 14 4 30 ‘1 
500 500 IG*to1T 3 ying | 
400 600 16: Sey Sort Pid Bike 3 
300 700 IGM 23 “1 
200 800 1625217 sas Les | 
100 900 164 fees 18 #354 
Pure copper. 1000 16-2 aes 160 


The metailurgic chemist, while performing an A., can determine, by the examination 
of the stains on the cupel after the process has been finished, what metal may have 
accompanied, and been separated from, the silver, even in minute quantity. Thus, lead 
alone imparts a straw-yellow or orange stain; copper, a gray or dark-brown tint; and iron, 
a black stain. 

During the A. of silver by the foregoing or dry method, a certain loss of metal 
generally occurs, which averages 2 parts in 1000; and this circumstance has induced the 
authorities in the mints of Great Britain, France, and other European kingdoms, as well 
as the United States, to adopt a hwmid process for the A. of silver, which will determing 
the value of a silver alloy to within 0.5 (or half a part) in 1000. The humid or wet A. 
consists in dissolving the compound of silver in nitric acid of density 1.25, and there- 
after adding a solution of common salt (chloride of sodjum, NaCl), which causes the 
precipitation of the chloride of silver AgCl in white flocculi. The common galt is 
made of a definite strength, and is poured out of a measured or graduated vessel, till all 
further precipitation of the silver ceases, when the amount required of the solution of 
Set salt is read off, and by a simple calculation its equivalent in pure silver is 
obtained. 

The A. of g3ld ores isconducted in a manner similar to that of silver. When the ore 
contains gold, lead, and copper only, it suffices to mix more lead with it, and heat in the 
cupel in the muffle furnace, when the lead and copper sink into the cupel, and the gold 
forms a globe on the upper surface. The proportion of lead required is regulated by 
the amount o* copper present in the alloy. 


Proportion of gold contained in one Quantity of lead necessary 
part of the alloy. to completely remove the 
copper by cupellation. 
1000 thousands 1 part. 
900 of 10 parts. 
800 si 16 73 
700 ie 99 «<6 
600 “i ee bel 
500 ys 96 
400  ‘* and under, SA 


When the gold is accompanied by silver as well as copper, iron, and lead, it is neces- 
sary in the first place to subject the alloy to the A. process in the ordinary way, which 


815 Assetyn, 


gets rid of the copper, iron, and lead, but leaves the silver still incorporated with the 
gold. The weight of this residual button gives the combined weights of the silver and 
gold present in the alloy. The method of separating the silver from the gold is called 
parting, and consists essentially in acting on the alloy with hot nitric acid, which dissolves 
away the silver, forming the soluble nitrate of silver, AgNOs, and leaves the gold 
undissolved. When the silver is present in small proportion, the gold assumes a pro- 
tective influence, and keeps the nitric acid from acting on the silver; and to effect this 
separation satisfactorily, it is necessary that there should be about three parts of silver to 
one of gold. As that proportion does not occur naturally, or in any kind of manufac- 
tured gold-plate, it is requisite to incorporate some silver with it. This is generally 
-accomplished by taking the proper quantities of gold and silver, wrapping them up in a 
‘piece of lead-foil, and heating on a cupel. The lead, during its disappearance from the 
heating vessel, causes the most intimate amalgamation of the silver and gold, which are 
left on the cupel as a metallic button. The latter, on being allowed to cool, is beaten 
out on an anvil with a smooth hammer, and is then passed through steel rollers, which 
yield a ribbon of alloy about the thickness of an enameled address-card. The ribbon of 
metal being coiled up, is technically called a cornet, and when introduced into the flask 
with nitric acid, the entire solution of the silver is accomplished, whilst the gold is left 
as a brown-colored spongy mass, of the shape and size of the cornet. To give the metal 
the appearance and compactness of ordinary gold, the very friable metallic ribbon is 
gently transferred from the parting glass to a crucible by inverting the former into the 
latter; and the liquid which runs in with the gold being poured off, the crucible and its 
contents are raised to a red heat in a furnace, when the gold recovers its beautiful yeilow 
color and metallic luster, and at the same time becomes soft and flexible. The gold is 
now pure, and in a fit condition to be weighed, and the amount obtained indicates the 
proportion of pure goldin the original alloy. As the quantity of silver which is required 
to be present during this process, in order that the parting by nitric acid may readily 
take place, is three parts of silver to one of gold, it is customary to call this department 
of a gold A. quartation or inquartation. 

During the A. of silver or of gold, it is necessary to guard against any sudden increase 
or decrease in temperature. Independently of the probable loss of metal through the 
fracture of the cupels, it is found that when the final buttons of pure metal are obtained 
on the red hot cupel, if great care be not taken to cool the whole very slowly, the bead 
of gold or silver spits, and little portions are thrown off. 

The mode of. assaying gold now described cannot always be followed out in the 
examination of jewelry and other manufactured articles, as, though only a few grains 
are required for the A., yet the removal of such might entail the destruction of the 
article, and in such circumstances the touchstone is resorted to. This stone was originally 
brought from Lydia in Asia Minor, and consisted of a cross-grained quartz saturated with 
bituminous matter, but black basalt and other stones are now employed for the same 
purpose. The manner of using the stone is todraw a streak upon it with the auriferous 
article; and from the color of the streak the richness of the gold can be very accurately 
determined by the practiced assayer. The subsequent action of nitric acid on the golden 
streak serves still further as a means of determining the purity of the metal, as the acid 
readily dissolves the copper and silver, and leaves the gold. 


ASSAY OFFICE, Unirep States. An assay office differs from a mint only in the 
fact that it stopsshort of the coinage. Bullion is received here, is assayed in order to de- 
termine the precise proportion of fine gold or fine silver which it contains, is refined and 
melted for coining, and shipped to a mint for the latter purpose. Assay offices were 
established in New York city, 1854 ; in Denver, Col., 1864; in Boisé city, Idaho, 1872: 
Since then the office in Denver has been made a branch mint, the branch mint in Char- 
lotte, N. C., established 1835, has been changed into an assay office, and other assay offices 
have been established in Helena, Mon., and St. Louis, Mo. The A. office in New York 
has a superintendent, assayer, and melter and refiner, The others have an assayer In 
charge and a melter,. 


ASSA'YE, a village in the territory of the Nizam, lat. 20° 18’ n., and long. 75° 55 e. It 
stands in the doab, or fork, of the Juah and Kaitna. A. claims notice chiefly as the 
scene of the first great victory of the duke of Wellington, then major-gen. Wellesley, 
won on the 23d Sept., 1808. The British troops in action were only about 4500, while 
the Mahrattas under Scindia and the rajah of Berar numbered 50,000, of whom 10,000 
were commanded by French officers. Ninety-eight pieces of cannon, 7 standards, all 
the baggage, and a large part of the ammunition of the Mahrattas fell into the hands of 
the conquerors, whose military supremacy was soon acknowledged over a great portion 
of India. In 1851, a medal was struck in commemoration of the victory. 


ASSEGAI (a Berber word), a short spear used by natives of South Africa, especially 
the warlike Zulus, with a very thin shaft of hard wood of about five feet in length, and 
an iron blade secured by astrip of raw hide. When used for throwing the blade is convex 
on one side and concave on the other, for the purpose of transmitting a rotary motion. 


AS'SELYN, JAN, 1610-60; a Dutch painter, pupil of Isaiah Vandervelde, and dis- 
tinguished in landscape and animal pictures. He was one of the first Dutch artists 
to introduce Claude Lorraine’sfresh and clear manner, There are several of A.’s pictures 
in the galleries of Amsterdam. 


Assemani, 816 
Assembly. 


ASSEMA'NI, StepHen Evopivs, 1707-82 ; nephew of Joseph Simon. He followed his 
uncle’s studies, and was also librarian in the vatican, but was promoted to be archbishop 
of Apamea. He left a work on oriental manuscript literature. 


SSE Y ‘(assemblée), in the conduct of an army, is the second beating of the 
Aen ents? a ara at Tian the soldiers strike their tents if encamped, roll them up, 


and stand to arms. 

ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, in Scotland, Ireland, and the United States, denotes the 
highest court of the Presbyterian church. It differs from. the Anglican convocation at 
once in its constitution and in its powers, representing as it does both the lay and the 
clerical elements in the church, and possessing supreme legislative and judicial author- 
ity in all matters purely ecclesiastical. The general A. of the established church of 
Scotland consists of representatives, clerical and lay, from all the presbyteries of the 
church, The royal burghs of Scotland also return elders to the general A. of the estab- 
lished church, and each of the Scottish universities sends a representative. ‘The A. 
meets once a year, in the middle of May, at Edinburgh, and sits for 10 days. Its 
deliberations are presided over by a moderator, whose election is the first step in the 
proceedings, after a sermon by his predecessor. In former times, this office was some- 
times filled by laymen: among others, in 1567, by George Buchanan. In modern times, 
the moderator is always a clergyman. 84 presbyteries, composing 16 synods, return 
members to the general A. of the established church of Scotland. Its relation to the 
state is represented by a royal commissioner, who exercises no function in the A. beyond 
that of adding by his presence the sanction of the civil authority to its proceedings. The 
other functionaries are a principal and a deputy clerk, both clergymen, a procurator, and 
an agent. All business not dispatched during the session of the A. is referred to acom- 
mission, with the moderator as convener, which meets immediately after the dissolution 
of the A., and again quarterly. The general A. of the free church of Scotland, which 
has 16 synods comprising 71 presbyteries, and of the Irish Presbyterian church, is sim- 
ilarly constituted, the principal point of difference being the absence of the royal com- 
missioner. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian church in the United States com: 
prised, 1890, 213 presbyteries (80 synods), mostly in the northern states. Unsuccessful 
efforts to reduce the large number of representatives (one for every 24 members of 
a presbytery) have been made for successive years. This assembly meets annually in 
May, but has no stated place of assembly. The General Assembly of the (southern) 
Presbyterian church comprised, 1890, 71 presbyteries (18 synods), which seceded from 
the northern body in 1861, and have refused to enter into the old relations. This body 
meets annually in May. The United and the Cumberland Presbyterian churches have 
their annual general assemblies, the Reformed Presbyterian church its ‘‘ General Synod.” 


ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL (France). The states-general (q.v.), convoked by Louis 
XVI. of France, and opened May 5, 1789, consisted of the two privileged orders, clergy 
and nobles, and of the tiers-état or commons. ‘The privileged orders refusing to join the 
third estate and deliberate ina common chamber, the latter, of its own authority, June 
17, assumed the title of Assemblée Nationale, and the right to act in the name of France. 
The court attempted to annul this resolution in a royal sitting, June 23; but the deputies 
of the third estate, along with the liberal members of the other two orders, had bound 
themselves by oath not to separate until they had given France a constitution, and had 
declared every attempt at violence on the part of the court, treason. They refused to 
quit the common hall, and the court yielded, and commanded the nobles and clergy to 
join the national A, This was the beginning ot the revolution, and the A. proceeded 
with astounding rapidity to metamorphose old France. The abolition of all privileges 
on the 4th of Aug. was followed by that of hereditary jurisdiction, and of restraints on 
religion and the press, and by the declaration of the rights of man (q.v.). In Feb., 1790, 
the monastic orders were suppressed, and all remnants of feudalism swept away; in 
March, lettres de cachet and the oppressive salt-tax were abolished; in June, all orders 
and titles of nobility. In July, non-Catholics had the property confiscated from their 
ancestors restored; Jews were relieved from personal taxation; and game-laws done 
away. A decree of Oct. 18 abolished the cruel criminal penalties of Louis XIV. In 
Jan., 1791 all corporations and guilds were abolished, and free-trade introduced. In 
Feb., political rights were conceded to Quakers; in May, the customs at city gates 
were abolished; in June, the torture: the violation of the secrecy of letters was also 
Coca erat In Sept., all citizens, of whatever color or religion, received polit- 
ical rights. 

The principles on which the assembly proceeded were the sovereignty of the people, 
the independence of the communes, the limitation of the royal power through a condi- 
tional veto (q.v.), the separation of the political authorities, and the responsibility of 
ministers. Accordingly, the A., shortly after it was constituted, declared that to it 
alone, subject to the royal veto, belonged the legislative power. Several decrees, in 
Sept., 1789, determined that the legislative body should form only one chamber, and 
should be renewed every two years; other decrees declared the king inviolable, and the 
throne inalienable. A decree of 7th Nov. forbade the deputies to undertake the place 
of ministers; in Dec., the new organization of the communes was begun, Jan., 1790, 


Assemani, 
8 1 7 Assembly. 


France was divided into departments; in April, trial by jury was introduced; in May, it 
was declared that the right of war and peace belonged to the nation alone, that is, to 
the A. 

In regard to finance, which had been the immediate cause of the assembly’s being 
convoked, the reforms were equally thorough. It was decreed at the outset that taxes 
were to be apportioned and raised without regard to rank or person. Then followed the 
approval of a loan of 80 millions of francs. A decree of Nov., 1789, ordered the publi- 
eation of the public accounts; anotherin Dec. established a national bank. In Mar., 1790, 
appeared the first law sanctioning the sale of 400 millions’ worth of the national domains; 
and in April, another ordering the issue of assignats (q.v.) on the national property; in 
Oct., these assignats were declared to bear no interest. These measures were followed, 
in the beginning of 1791, by a series of laws regarding coining, taxation, encouragement 
to industry, revenue-management, etc. A committee of the A. appointed to reform 
church matters, made a complete overturn of the old ecclesiastical system. After a 
declaration that Catholicism had ceased to be the state religion, tithes were abolished, 
anil church property confiscated. Church ornaments and valuables were appropriated as 
patriotic gifts to the state; the civil jurisdiction of the bishops was taken away, and 
monks and nuns were freed from their vows. The clergy were put under a civil consti- 
tution. Each department was a see, and the communesruled and paid bishop and curés. 
All the clergy were amenable to the civil courts, without appeal to the pope or the inter- 
ference of any ecclesiastical authority whatever. Every clergyman had to take an oath 
accepting this constitution, which led to the emigration of a number, and subsequently 
to enactments of excessive rigor against refractory priests (prétres tnsermentés). 

The A. having thus laid the revolution on a foundation of 8250 decrees, and having 
sworn to the new constitution, and got it accepted by the king, closed its sittings, Sept., 
30, 1791. From its having framed the constitution (which lasted only 12 months), this 
assembly is usually called the constituent A. It made way for the LeGisLATIVE ASSEM- 
BLY, which was to reform the civil and criminal laws in accordance with the spirit of the 
new constitution, A decree had provided that no member of the constituent should be 
returned to the legislative A. But the democratic party received such preponderance at 
the elections, that the A. forgot its mission from the very first, and commenced a war 
with the remnants of the royal authority, which ended, Aug. 10, 1792, with the over- 
throw of the throne and the suspension of the king. The constitution had provided for 
an appeal to the nation in extreme cases, and the legislative A. now exercised that right 
by convoking a national cowvention (q.v.), which, being invested with the powers of the 
sovereign, was to decide on the fate of the monarchy, and remodel the whole political 
system. 

The title of national A. has been assumed by various other parliamentary bodies, 
originating in popular commotions, and aiming at radical political changes; as the French 
A. that met after the revolution of Feb., 1848, followed, April, 1849, by a legislative A.; 
the German national A. at Frankfort; and the Prussian national A. Under the existing 
French republic, the senate and the chamber of deputies unite to form the national A. 


ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES, or WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY, a celebrated convocation 
appointed by the long parliament for settling the doctrine, liturgy, and government of 
the church of England. It consisted of 120 clergymen and 30 laymen—10 of whom 
were lords and 20 commoners—together with 4 clerical and 2 lay commissioners from 
the church of Scotland. Among the more distinguished of the divines were Usher, 
Saunderson, Reynolds, Brownrigg, Ward, Twisse, Lightfoot, Gataker, Burges, Goodwin, 
Calamy, and Nye; of the laymen, Selden, Prideaux, the two Vanes, Rouse, Pym, 
Whitelocke, St. John, and Maynard. The Scottish divines were Henderson, Gillespie, 
Rutherford, and Baillie. 25 of those whose names were contained in the ordinance call- 
ing the assembly, which was dated 12th June, 1648, never appeared at the discussions, 
one or two of them having died about the time of the first meeting, and the others fear- 
ing the displeasure of the king. To supply the place of these absentees, some additional 
members, called the superadded divines, were summoned to attend. This notable 
assembly held its first meeting on the 1st of July, 1648, and continued to sit till the 22d 
Feb., 1649, during which time it had met 1163 times. Its most important work was 
concluded long before that time. One of the first things it did was to give its sanction 
to the Solemn League and Covenant, against which Dr. Burges alone stood out for several 
days. The Presbyterians formed a large majority in the assembly, and exercised a 
corresponding influence on its decisions. In doctrine, the members were almost unani- 
mous; but on the subject of church government, opinions extremely opposite were main- 
tained with keenness, especially on the question touching the sphere and limits of the 
civil power in matters ecclesiastical. The principal fruits of its deliberations were the 
Directory of Public Worship, submitted to parliament April 20, 1644; the Confession of 
Faith, Oct. and Nov., 1646; the Shorter Catechism, Nov. 5, 1647; and the Larger Catechism, 
Sept. 15, 1648. These several formularies, which contain a clear and rigid embodiment 
of Calvinistic theology and Presbyterian church government, constitute to this day the 
authorized standards of the Presbyterian churches of Scotland, Ireland, and England. 
The Directory of Public Worship was ratified by both houses of parliament, Oct. 2, 1644, 
and the doctrinal part of the Confession of Faith in Mar., 1648. An order of the house 
of commons, Oct. 13, 1647, ordained that the Presbyterian form of church government 


ery 818 


should be tried for a year, but no further legislation followed. Waat has hitherto been 
xnown as to the details of the proceedings of this remarkable convocation, has been 
derived chiefly from the Letters of Baillie, and Lightfoot’s Journal._See Hetherin ton’s 
History of the Westminster Assembly (1843); and the 2d volume of Masson’s Life of Milton, 
published in 1871 (pp. 509-527), where a list of the members, with brief biographic 
notices, is given. 

ASSEN, a t. in the Netherlands, 154 m. by rail s, of Groningen ; pop. abt. 8000. A. 
is on the Horn-Diep, and has canal communication with the Zuyder Zee. Certain 
tumuli near the place are called ‘‘ giants’ graves.” 


ASSENT, ROYAL, is the regal act by which the sanction of the crown to bills which 
have passed through both houses of parliament is given. 


ASSER, Joun, the learned and congenial biographer of Alfred, was a monk of St. 
Davids, from the Latin name of which, Menevia, he is termed in the old records Asserius 
Menevensis. About the year 880, his reputation for learning and piety procured him an 
invitation to the court of Alfred, where he resided at intervals during the rest of the king’s 
life, assisting him in his studies, and enjoying an affectionate confidence, of which he 
seems to have been every way worthy. ‘The king promoted him to various dignities, 
and finally made him bishop of Sherburn. The Saxon Chronicle fixes the date of his 
death in the year 910. Several works have, with more or lest authority, been attributed 
to A. The only one undoubtedly his, by which we can now judge of him as a man and 
a writer, is his Annales Rerum Gestarum Aelfredi Magni. This simple and most inter- 
esting narrative was first published in 1574 by Archbishop Parker, Its trustworthiness 
has recently (1842) been questioned by Mr. Thomas Wright, in the article ‘‘Asser” of his 
Biographia Britannica Litteraria. 'This gentleman has assuredly made the most of the 
objections to its reliability that can be legitimately urged. Lingard and Dr. Pauli have 
replied to these, and, at present, the general impression of scholars of Anglo-Saxon litera- 
ture is that there is no good reason for doubting its general accuracy and fidelity. The 
best edition is that of Wise (Oxf., 8vo., 1722). 


ASSES, FrAst or. See Foous, FEAST oF. 


ASSESSORS may be defined as persons who are sometimes associated with judicial 
functionaries, to assist in the argument and procedure before them, and to advise their 
judgments. They are called A. because, according to the Latin derivation and literal 
meaning of the word, they sit sede by side with others. They may be usefully employed 
by persons in judicial stations whose previous education and pursuits scarcely qualify 
them for the duties cast upon them. A. are usually barristers or advocates learned in 
the law, and familiar with judicial proceedings. By the 5 and 6 William IV. c. 76, 
commonly called the municipal corporation act, it is, by section 87, enacted that the 
burgesses shall annually elect from among those qualified to be counselors, two auditors 
and two A., the former to audit the accounts of the burgh, and the latter to revise the 
burgess list. In the ecclesiastical law of England, a bishop, who is a spiritual judge, is 
assisted by his chancellor, as the episcopal assessor, and who, in fact, holds courts for 
the bishop. But in the case of a complaint against a clergyman, for any ecclesiastical 
offense under the church discipline act (the 3 and 4 Vict. c. 86), the bishop is directed 
to inquire into the matter, assisted by the three A., of whom the dean of his cathedral, 
or one of hisarchdeacons, or his chancellor, must be one, and a sergeant at law, or an 
advocate who has practiced five years in the court of the archbishop of the province, or 
a barrister of seven years’ standing, another. 

The judges of the common law courts, and the queen’s counsel, being sergeants, are, 
as a condition of their offices, A. of the house of lords, advising the house on points of law 
which may be propounded to them by their lordships. 


ASSETS. This is one of those terms in the law of England which in itself bears 
evidence of a Norman origin. It isderived from the French word assez, or more exactly, 
in Norman-French, assetz, ‘‘enough” or ‘‘sufficient,” signifying the property of adeceased 
person, which is sufficient in the hands of his executor and heir for the payment of his 
debts and legacies. In strictness, therefore, the term is not applicable to the property of 
a person who dies intestate, and without any debts to be paid. In general acceptation, 
however, it is understood to mean the property left for distribution by a deceased per- 
son, whether testate or intestate; and in commerce, and also in bankruptcy and insol- 
vency, the term is used to designate the stock in trade and entire property of all sorts 
belonging to a merchant or to a trading association. 

A. are either personal or real, the former comprehending such goods, chattels, and 
debts as devolve on the executor; and the latter including all real estate, whether devised 
or descending to the heir at law. In connection with this distinction, A. are also said 
to be A. by descent, and A. tn hand, the former of these being recoverable from the heir 
to whom the land descends, and so far as such lands will extend—A. in hand, again, 
signifying such property as a person leaves to his executors sufficient for the clearing of 
burdens and bequests affecting his personal estate, A. are also in their nature either legal 
or equitable, according to the nature of the remedy which may be used by creditors against 
the executor or heir. Where there are several creditors of equal degree, the executor is 
bound to pay him who first obtains judgment for his debt; and he cannot resist on the 
ground that nothing will be left for the other creditors. If, after exhausting the whole 


A r 
8 Ps a] Assignate 


A. which have come to his hands, by the payment of debts in due order, he be afterwards 
sued by a creditor remaining unpaid, he is entitled to protect himself by an allegation 
that he has fully administered, or technically by a plea of plene administravit; and upon 
this plea the creditor is entitled to judgment that he shall be paid out of any other A. 
that shall come to the defendants, which is called a judgment of A. in futuro. 

A. is not a technical term in Scotland, but it is nevertheless much used in the legal 
business of that country. 


ASSID'IANS. See CuHasipiM. 


ASSIEN’TO, i.e., treaty, a word specially applied to a compact between Spain and 
sorne foreign nation, according to which the Spanish government conferred upon the 
latter, under certain conditions, the monopoly of the supply of negroes for its American 
colonies. It was Charles I. of Spain who first concluded an A. with the Flemings. 
Next, a similar compact was entered into with the Genoese (1580 A.p.), the Portuguese 
(1696), and on the accession of Philip V. to the Spanish throne in 1702, with the French 
Guinea company, which from that time took the name of A. company, upon the under- 
standing that for ten years it should have the exclusive right of annually importing 4800 
negroes of both sexes to the continent and islands of Spanish America. The A. was next 
transferred to England at the peace of Utrecht in 1713, and made over by government to 
the South Sea company for 30 years, permission being also granted to the company to 
send yearly, during the term of contract, a ship, carrying 500 tons of goods, to these 
Spanish colonies. The misunderstandings that grew out of this last clause contributed 
not a little to the war that broke out between the two nations in 1739. At the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, the English company having still four years to run, their rights 
were guaranteed to them; but they relinquished them at the Madrid convention of 1750, 
upon the payment of £100,000, and the concession of certain commercial advantages. 


ASSIGN, To, in law, signifies to transfer or grant over to a third party a security, a right 
of credit, or other right, whether in possession or in reversion, granted by a party indebted 
or under obligation to the party assigning. The words of assignment are to A., transfer, 
and set over, and they operate to transfer both real and personal property. A chose in 
action (q.v.), contrary to the ancient principle, can now be assigned in England indirectly 
by the common law, and directly according to the principles recognized in the practice 
of equity. See INSOLVENCY. : 


ASSIGNATION is a legal term in Scotch conveyancing, analogous to the English word 
assignment (q.v.), by means of which the holder of any right, or the creditor in any 
obligation, or the proprietor of any subject not properly feudal (see FEUDAL SysTEM), 
transfers his right or estate to a third party. The party making the A. is called the 
cedent, and the partyin whose favor the A. is made is called the assignee or cessionary, 
and the act of assignment thus made is irrevocable, an element in the deed which has 
been traced to the practice of the French law, a source from which the Scotch lawyers of 
the 16th c. borrowed so much—the court of session itself being a mere copy of the par- 
liament of Paris. A direct conveyance of a debt in France was termed wn transport; 
the granter, cédant, and the grantee, cessionnaire; and these terms, derived from a Latin 
origin, were introduced into the Scotch law; and hence the names of the parties to an A., 
as we have stated. Unlike the English common-iaw view of the assignment, the Scotch 
A. has the effect of investing the assignee with the whole right, which was in the cedent, 
although according to the ancient practice, the A. gave, not simply the sum or subject 
assigned, but also the deed or written evidence of the right or thing assigned, a form 
arising from the circumstance of the instrument having been regarded as of the nature of 
a mandate or power of attorney to the assignee to make his claim and to act as in right of 
the cedent. In modern practice, however, it is usual to employ simply the terms ‘‘ assign, 
convey, and make over,” which correspond with the real character of the deed. 


ASSIGNATIONS, paper currency of Russia, issued by Catherine II., about 1770, to 
assist in carrying on the war against Turkey. Like similar experiments in other countries 
before and afterwards, the A. started at par, but rapidly declined to less than 25 per ct. 
About 20 years later, the A. were the general currency; but traders began to refuse them, 
and the most stringent edicts of Paul failed to force them into good standing. In the 
war with Napoleon, heavy issues were made, the value keeping steadily at about four 
roubles of paper to one of silver. The rate rose somewhat after the peace, and fluctuation 
became so troublesome that the government fixed the value by special law. In 1839, the 
silver rouble was made the unit, and the value of A. fixed at 84 for1 of silver. At the 
same time bills of credit were issued which have taken the place of the A. 


AS'SIGNATS. After appropriating to national purposes the land belonging to the 
church, the French national assembly (se¢é ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL), instead of bringing it 
into the market at a time of insecurity, when its value was depreciated, issued bonds on 
the security of it, which were called assignats, as representing land assigned to the 
holder. This paper-money consisted chiefly of notes for 100 francs (£4) each, though 
many of them were for sums as low as ten or five francs, and even lower; and the first 
issue amounted to 400,000,000 frances. The first A., which were issued in the spring of the 
year 1790, bore interest; but subsequent issues did not. The facility of this plan of pro- 
viding government income led to its being repeatedly had recourse to, as the property 
of wealthy emigrants—persons who alndoned their country in alarm—fell into the 


} 


Assizer™ 340 


hands of the rulers, and was confiscated, till the amount rose to the enormous sum of 
45,578,000,000 francs, besides a great number of forged A. manufactured abroad, and 
smuggled into the kingdom. Tie value of the A. naturally soon began to decline, and 
confidence once gone, the declension became fearful. In June, 1793, 1 franc in silver 
was worth 8 francs in paper; in Aug., 1t was worth G6» fhe state took the most extreme 
measures to compel the acceptance of A. at their full nominal value. The effects of 
these were to cause the A. to flow back into the public treasury, to raise the prices of all 
commodities, and to make every one aycrse to have any dealings with the state. One 
of these consequences was attempted to be met by fixing a maximum of prices. But. no 
ore could compel producers and dealers to produce and sell at a loss; so that all busi- 
ness became disorganized. At last the value of A. came almost to nothing. Millions 
of individuals had suffered incalculable loss, and only a few, who had bought public 
lands with the A. that cost them little or nothing, had enriched themselves at the 
expense of the community. In Mar., 1796, a louis d’or (24 francs) brought 7200 francs 
in A. After this, they were withdrawn from the currency in 1796, and redeemed at 
3 of their nominal value, by mandats, a new kind of paper-money, which enabled 
the holder at once to take possession of public lands at the estimated value, while A. 
could only be offered at a sale. The mandats also soon fell to a seventieth of their 
nominal value, and were returned to government in payment of taxes or of land. 

At length, in July, 1796, the system of paper-credit, so obstinately persisted in by 
government and so disastrous in its results to the pudlic, came to an end, A law was 
passed, declaring that every one was entitled to transact business In whatever circulat- 
ing medium he pleased; that the mandats should be taken at their current value; and 
that the taxes be received either in coin or mandats at that rate. The A. were executed 
on a coarse kind of paper, and the devices were so meager as to be easily counter- 
feited. 


ASSIGNEE IN BANKRUPTCY. Sce AssIGNMENT ; INSOLVENCY. 

ASSIGNMENT in American law isa transfer or making over (in writing usually) 
to another of property in possession or in action, or of any right therein; or the 
transfer of one’s interest in property. Almost any valuable thing, present or prospect- 
ive, may be assigned; but there are things excepted, such as the commission or pay of 
a public officer, the salary of a judge, right of action for fraud, rights pendente ite, per- 
sonal trusts, or the duties of a guardian. To be valid in law, the subject of A. must at 
the time have an actual or prospective existence, although courts may hold an A. good 
where value rests on possibility only. Negotiable bills are assigned by mere indorse- 
ment, and then the holder can sue in his own name. In such case even an equitable 
defence that might exist between the maker and the original acceptor is barred out. 
The majority of assignments are made by insolvent debtors for the protection of credit- 
ors, and to obtain discharge from further obligation, and these are regulated by special 
statutes in most of the states. In some of these an A. must be for the benefit of all 
creditors equally. Personal chattels are usually transferred by bills of sale; sometimes 
by mere memorandum; any words showing the intent will answer. No consideration 
is necessary to support A. of aterm. An A. ofa policy of insurance, by consent of the 
underwriter, by statute, or otherwise, vests in the assignee all the rights of the assignor; 
but as such an instrument is not negotiable, the A. is only in equity, and even that may 
be forestalled by condition to the contrary expressed in the policy. An A. of dower is 
an act by which the share of a widow in a deceased husband's real estate is set apart for 
her, and may be made by the heir or his guardian, or the person in possession of the 
Jand subject to dower; or after legal proceedings by direction of the court, if voluntary 
A. be refused. 

ASSIMILATION. See NUTRITION. 


AS SING, LupmILua, b. 1821; a German biographer, the daughter of Dr. A., and 
niece of Varnhagen von Ense. She was taken by her uncle after the death of her 
parents, and filled the place of a child to him, receiving thereby a superior education. 
She wrote for newspapers and reviews, and in 1857 a biography of Elisa, countess Von 
Ahlefeldt. She edited and published after her uncle’s death, two vols. of his Denk- 
wirdigkeiten ; in 1860, Alexander von Humboldt’s letters to, andin 1861-62, the diaries 
of Varnhagen von Ense, The political matter in the diaries so offended the court, that she 
Was prosecuted as a traducer of the royal family and other persons, and sentenced to 
eight months’ imprisonment. But she had gone to Florence, and the punishment could 
not be inflicted. She immediately published the remaining volumes of the obnoxious 
diary, to which the court answered by the form of a trial and sentence to further impris- 
onment for two years. She was unhappily married, 1874: d. 1880. 

AS'SING, Rosa Marta, 1783-1840 ; a German poetess, sister of Varnhagen von Ense. 
When young she was a teacher. In 1816 she married Assing, a physician in Kénigs- 
berg, who took her to Hamburg, where her house soon became the resort of literary 
people, of whom one of the most eminent was the poet Chamisso. Mrs. A.’s poems 
were issued in a volume a year after her death. 


ASSINIBOIA, district in Canada, formed in 1882 out of the Northwest Territory, 
containing abt. 95,000 sq.m. It is bounded on the n. by Saskatchewan, on the e. by 
Manitoba, on thes, by the U.S., and onthe w. by Alberta. In A. are Qu’appelle, 
South Saskatchewan, and Souris rivers, Important places, Regina, the capital, on the 


821 Acie 


Canadian Pacificrailroad, Qu’appelle, Moose Jaw, Livingstone, Chesterfield, forts Walsh 
and Pelly. See MANITOBA. 


ASSIN’IBOINE, a river of British North America, rising in lat. 51° 40’ n., and about 
long. 105° e. Near lat. 50° n., and long. 96° w., at Fort Garry, it falls from the n.w. 
into the Red river (q.v.), which discharges its waters into lake Winnipeg. At a point 
140 m. from its mouth, the A. is 230 ft. broad; its course measures about 400 miles. 
The river gives name to atribe of Indians partly in Canada and partly in the United 
States. 


ASSIN’IBOINES, an Indian tribe of the Dakota famify, dwelling in the United States 
and British America, on the Montana border. They were once a part of the Yankton 
Sioux nation, but separated from them nearly 300 years ago, and since then have gen- 
eraily been their antagonists. It is said that the name A. is not used, other Indians 
calling them Stone Sioux, or Assinipwalak. There are about 2000 in the United States, 
and rather more in British America, where they extend from Mouse river to the Atha- 
basca. The Methodists and Roman Catholics have missions among them. 


ASSI'SI (Asss?wm), a t. of central Italy, is built upon a steep hill, in 48° 5’ n. lat., ~ 
and 12° 33’e. long. Pop. about 6000. Itstands in a singularly picturesque situation, and is 
surrounded by a wall flanked with, towers, and overhung by a lofty citadel in ruins. It 
is the birthplace of St. Francis, who here founded the convento sacro, the first monas- 
tery of the mendicant order that bears his name, a large and beautiful structure, and one 
of the earliest specimens of the Gothic style of architecture in Italy. The church and 
the galleries of the monastery contain fine paintings by Cimabue, Giotto, and other old 
masters. Besides the convento sacro. there are 11 other monasteries in A. Of these, 
the largest is the portiuncula, which has a richly decorated church, with a cupola by 
Vignola. In the last century, this place was a great resort of pilgrims, visiting the tomb 
of the saint, of whom 100,000 are said to have been assembled here on one day. 

A. occupies the site of the ancient Assisium, a municipal t. of Umbria, and pre- 
sents the remains of the forum, the baths, and the aqueducts of the days of the Romans. 
In the piazza, or square, there stands a beautiful portico of the ancient temple of 
Minerva, consisting of fluted Corinthian columns and a pediment. There are abundance 
of olive-trees, and some fine mineral springs in the vicinity. The t. has given title to 
a bishop since 240 4.pD. It has manufactures of needles and files. 


_ ASSISTANCE, WRIT oF, a direction by a proper court to the sheriff to put a party 
in whose favor judgment has been given, in possession of that to which the judgment 
declares him entitled. 


ASSIZE. This word, literally signifying a ‘‘sitting” or “session,” isa term used in 
the principal European legal systems, and very much in the same sense, or rather senses, 
in all, for it has more than one distinctive meaning. As is common with regard to most 
of our ancient legal technicality, the Latin language, in the first instance (ass¢deo), and 
then the French (assis), appear to have led to its introduction into the phraseology of the 
law of England, and, it may be added, also of Scotland, although in the latter country it 
has a more limited application in judicial procedure than in England, A. being in Scot- 
land the old technical expression for a jury. In England, this word may also signify a 
jury, and it is sometimes used to denote an ordinance, decree, or law. But in modern 
practice, it is commonly applied to the sessions or sittings of the judges of the superior 
law-courts, held periodically in each county, for the purpose of administering civil aud 
criminal justice. These courts came into use in room of ancient justices in eyre, 
Justicia rei in itinere. 'They are now appointed by commissions issued twice a year to 
the judges of the high court of justice, two ‘judges being generally assigned to each 
circuit. (These are the general commissions; special commissions are occasionally 
granted to certain judges to try certain causes and crimes.) By accompanying writs of 
association, certain persons are directed to be associated with the justices and sergeants, in 
order to take the assizes, etc., that a sufficient supply of commissioners may never be want- 
ing. But, to prevent the delay of justice by the absence of any of them, there is also isssued 
of course, a writ of s¢ non omnes, directing that, if all cannot be present, any two of them 
{a justice or sergeant being one) may proceed to execute the commission. These com- 
missioners or judges of A. are sent twice in every year on c¢rcuits all round the kingdom to 
try by a jury of the respective counties the truth of such matters of fact as are then under 
dispute in the courts of Westminster hall; and occasionally a third circuit is appointed 
in the course of the year, for the purpose of jail delivery. The circuits (formerly eight) 
are, since 1875, seven in number—the midland, the south-eastern, the Oxford, the north- 
ern, the north-eastern, western, the north and south Wales circuit; and in going them, 
the judges or commissioners sit by virtue of four several authorities: 1. The commission 
of the peace ; 2. A commission of oyer and terminer ; 3. A commission of general jail 
delivery. The other authority is, 4. That of nisi prius, which is a consequence of the 
ancient commission of A. being annexed to the office of justices of A. by the statute of 
Westminster the second (13 Edw. I. c. 30); and it empowers them to try all questions of 
fact issuing out of the courts at Westminster that are then ripe for trial by jury. These 
by the ancient course of the courts, were usually appointed to be tried at Westminster 
in some Easter or Michaelmas term, by a jury returned from the county wherein the 


Assize. 892, 


Association. 


i se; but with this proviso, nzsi prius, unless before the day prefixed 
Seca ena come into the county in question, which in medern times they 
have invariably done in the vacations preceding; so that the trial has always, in fact, 
taken place before those judges. And now, by the effect of the statute 15 and 16 Vict. 
ce. 76 (the Common Law Procedure Act, 1852), the course of proceeding is no longer even 
ostensibly connected with a proviso at Nisi Prius, but the trial is allowed to take place: 
without the use of any such words in the process of the court, and, as a matter of course, 
before the judges sent under commission into the several counties. In the terms: 
Assize of Clarendon, Assize of Northampton, Assize of Arms, Assize of the Forest, etc., 
the word is used in the old sense as an equivalent for edict or decree. These edicts, says 
Stubbs, in his Constitutional History of England, are the only relics of the legislative work 
during the period of the reign of Henry II., and he compares them to the capitularies of 
the Frank Kings, or the edicts of the Roman praetors. This was the earliest meaning 
of the word, but secondarily it came to mean a form of trial established by some law, and 
lastly the court that held such trials, the last meaning being that which is accepted at. 
the present time. In the expression ‘‘ Assize of Jerusalem ”’ it simply means a law. 


ASSIZE OF CLARENDON. See CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF. 


ASSIZE OF JERUSALEM, a body of laws originally framed by Godfrey de Bouillon 
(q.v.) and the other crusaders after the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, based in its 
essential features upon the system of France, and faithfully reflecting the spirit of the 
feudal civilization at the height of its development. It is composed of two parts, 
the first relating to the assize of the high court of justice, a sort of council of state 
presided over by the king or in his absence by one of the great officials of the crown, 
and comprising all the liege vassals of the kingdom ; the second providing for a court of 
burgesses presided over by the viscount of Jerusalem, forming a kind of lower house. 
A careful revision of both civil and criminal laws by an able body of jurists resulted in 
the drawing up of two codes, called the Letters of the Holy Sepulchre, from the fact that 
they were kept in a coffer in the church of the Holy Sepulchre. These were destroyed 
when Saladin captured the city in 1187, and the assizes of Jerusalem, as we know them, 
are the work of jurists who, after the removal of the Christian seat of government to 
Acre, attempted to reproduce as much of the former legislation as survived in existing 
customs or could be recalled to memory. The collection of laws as made by these so- 
called wltramarine jurists passed from Jerusalem to Cyprus, from Cyprus to Constanti- 
nople, and thence to the Morea, adapting itself in each instance to the customs of the 
people among whom it was established, but retaining throughout as its prevailing char- 
acteristic, an absolute independence of all such authority as did not originate in the 
feudal system. See M. Beugnot’s collection, 1841-48, 


ASSIZES. See ASSIZE. 
ASSMANNSHAUSEN. See ASMANNSHAUSEN. 
ASSOCIATED PRESS. See PRESS ASSOCIATION. 


ASSOCIATE SYNOD, AssocrATE PRESBYTERY, etc., designations adopted among the 
dissenters from the church of Scotland. See UNrTrED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. .Amer- 
ica has also an associate synod and an associate reformed church, both sprung from the 
Scottish secession. 


ASSOCIATION. See CO-OPERATION ; also, SocteTres, LEAGUE, COMPANY. 


ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, This is a phrase of great importance in the philosophy of 
the human mind, as expressing the most pervading fact at the foundation of our intelli- 
gence. By giving, therefore, a somewhat full exposition of this subject, we are able to 
explain, at once, a considerable number of the complex phenomena of mind in a more 
satisfactory way than by treating the several phenomena separately. What is meant by 
association of ideas, is familiarly illustrated by such occurrences as the following: When 
we see the sky becoming overcast, we think of rain as about to follow, the notion of rain 
not having previously been present to our mind. When we hear the church-bells, we 
are apt to think of the crowds in the street, or of some of the other circumstances of 
public worship. When we pass a house, we are reminded of its occupier ; and meeting 
& person we know, we may be carried in thought to his office, and from that to other 
persons holding the same office, and so on. If an object is before my eyes, as a moun- 
tain, [am said to receive an impression or sensation of it, in consequence of the actual 
presence of the thing ; but it is possible for me to remember the mountain, or to have an 
idea of it, when far away from the reality, in which case there must be some power in 
the mind itself, different from the susceptibility to present objects, a power of retain- 
ing, reviving, or resuscitating those states at first induced by contact with the actual. 
Besides the sights, and sounds, and touches caused by contact with real things, we aré 
greatly occupied with sights, sounds, and touches remembered, anticipated or imagined, 
which is to live in a world of ideas; and it is in this world that the process termed asso- 
ciation has its sphere. When an idea is brought before the mind without its original, as 
when I picture to my mind the late duke of Wellington, the circumstance is owing to the 
mention of his name, or of some incident connected with him ; and my remembrance of 
bis personal appearance, as I have seen him when alive, is said to be the result of an 
association existing in my mind between two ideas, so that the one is able to recall or restore 


82 3 Reahniatians 


the other. The association between names and things comprehends one of the most 
extensive applications of the power in question. 

The circumstances under which one idea brings forward another into the view are 
principally these two—viz., first, previous provimity; and second, lékeness. 'The terms 
‘contiguity’ and ‘‘ similarity” are used in mental philosophy toexpress them, The first 
is exemplified in the examples of association given above; for in most of those it will be 
found that the conjoined notions have been frequently in the view at the same time, in 
consequence of which they have, as it were, grown together, or become part of the same 
whole. ‘Thus, we have often noticed the darkened sky followed by a shower; the two 
facts have occupied the attention simultaneously, and, in virtue of some power belonging 
to our mental framework, they have cohered into an inseparable couple or aggregate in 
the mind. ‘This is proximity, or contiguity. When one idea suggests another which 
was never in company with it before, it is generally through the force of some likeness 
between the two. I meet an old man in the street with a very peculiar face, which 
reminds me of the bust of Socrates. These two things had never accompanied one ano- 
ther in my mind before, and therefore it could not be the force of proximity that made 
the second to arise at the instigation of the first; but there was a certain amount of like- 
ness or similarity between the old man’s features and the features of Socrates, as repre- 
sented to us in the bust; and it is a fact of our constitution, no less certain and no less 
important than the foregoing, that in cases where something now before the mind hasa 
strong cast of resemblance to something formerly observed or conceived by us, but not 
at present thought of in any way, the present is apt to recall that past idea, whatever it 
may be. By the force of likeness, the traveler in new countries is constantly reminded 
of the scenes and objects familiar to him, and so is induced to draw comparisons between 
the one and the other. Identification and comparison both imply that things are brought. 
together by virtue of their similarity, they not having been in company before. The 
principle of proximity operates most in memory, habit, and routine; similarity has to do 
with invention and originality, and is essential to the processes of reason and imagina- 
tion. 

Law of Contiguity.—The principle of association by proximity is not confined to 
ideas. We must state it in a more comprehensive form, in order to comprise the full 
sphere of its application; for our mechanical habits are formed through the very same 
power of our constitution that enables us to recall or remember ideas. The taught 
movements of a soldier or of a skilled workman are connected together so firmly that 
one succeeds to another almost of its own accord. Everything of the nature of acquisi- 
tion supposes a plastic property in the human system, giving permanent coherence to 
acts that have been performed together. 

The following is a general statement of the law under consideration: 

Actions, sensations, states of feeling, and ideas, occurring together, or in close succession, 
tend to grow together, or cohere in such a way that when any one of them ts afterwards pre- 
sented to the mind, the others are apt to arise. 

And first, as to association of actions, or voluntary movements. When we perform 
a train of movements without any further aid of the will than to commence the series, 
there must be a fixed connection between each and the one that follows, and this con- 
nection may be either instinctive or acquired. There are various cases of instinctive 
trains, such as the action of the heart, lungs, and intestines, and the movements of 
deglutition, When a morsel of food reaches the back part of the mouth, the muscles of 
the throat seize hold of it, and transmit it to the stomach, independent of our will. 
The connected movements in this case are provided for in the original structure of the 
nervous and muscular system. In walking, there is partly an instinctive tendency to 
alternate the limbs, and partly a confirming acquisition, the result of practice. But in 
those complicated operations that human beings are taught to execute in the various 
avocations of life, the associating principle is everything. The apparently simple and 
easy act of taking food is a complicated acquisition; in other words, an extensive group 
of associated movements. The seizing of the morsel is followed by the movement of 
the arm that carries it to the mouth; the mouth is opened simultaneously; after which 
follow the processes of biting and chewing; all which take place with the certainty of a 
machine, and without effort or attention directed to them. These associations were 
originally built up by slow degrees. ‘‘ As a general rule, it takes many repetitions to 
cement so firm a union between successive and simultaneous movements as is implied in 
the above instance.” ; 

A good example of the association of movements is furnished in our requirement of 
spoken language, as in committing to memory words, sayings, and passages of books. 
When a child has perfectly acquired the Lord’s prayer, the chain of association is so 
‘firmly knit, that the articulation of the words ‘‘Our Father” is followed irresistibly 
with those next succeediny, and so on to the end. The cohesion in this case is between 
the vocal movements corresponding to the enunciation of the words. Having gone 
many times through this one definite succession, the stream of nervous power, in some 
way that we cannot at present explain, acquires a tendency to fall into this one definite 
track, and in future to bring on the movements in the exact order that they have so fre- 
quently followed. 

It is not merely actual movements that can be joined together in this way, but the 


824 


ideas of movement; for a man, meditating in language, and not speaking out his 
thoughts, can consolidate his trains so as to remember them afterwards. 

When we proceed to sensations and the ideas, or subsequent traces, of sensations, and 
take along with these the variety of our movements with their ideas, we find an unlim- 
ited scope for the associating principle; and the consequences of its operation spread 
far and wide in the domains of our happiness, our knowledge, and our active capacity. 
It is only possible here to present a few illustrative examples. ; 1 

Tn the various mechanical acquirements, which include the whole of special handi- 
craft, industry, and skill, as well as the use of the bodily members in the more general 
actions of daily life, there may be traced the linkings of actions with actions, or actions 
with sensations and ideas. 'The helmsman steering a ship associates in his mind each 
deviation of the needle from the proper point with the specific muscular exertion to be 
applied to the wheel to rectify the ship’s direction. The workman fabricating in wood, 
metal, or stone, acquires a firm connection between each aspect of the material and the 
muscular power to be applied to bring it one step nearer the desired form. The power 
of copying anything we see, as in writing, drawing, molding, etc., when completely 
mastered, is made up of associations between a visible appearance and the train of 
movements calculated to reproduce it. After practice, all this is done, as it is called, 
mechanically, or without those operations of considering, willing, and remembering di- 
rections, that are essential to the learner in a new art. The associations that grow up 
after a certain amount of practice, are in this case associations between movements and 
appearances to the eye, or sensations of sight. In the greater number of crafts, the eye 
is the guiding sense to the operator, but not in all. Sometimes the effect is vocal, as in 
performing music, and in making and tuning musical instruments, in speaking, etc. In 
other arts, the touch is the guiding sense, and in some, as in cookery, the tuste and 
smell direct the operator. Each accomplished workman has in his mind many hun- 
dreds, not to say thousands, of couples or aggregates of definite movements with other 
movements and with sensations, contracted in the course of his apprenticeship to his 
calling. 

If we inquire into the circumstances that favor and promote this extensive circle of 
acquisitions, we shall find several that may be named as of importance. In the first 
place, a natural activity of temperament, or an abundant flow of power to the active mem-. 
bers, as shown in a great and various mobility of the frame, is a good basis of bodily 
acquirements. When the force of the system runs feebly towards the muscular frame- 
work, being perhaps expended in other ways, as in the thinking powers, more time is 
requisite to attain difficult mechanical arts. Another important circumstance is the 
acuteness or delicacy of the sense involved in the operation. A keen eye, sensitive to 
minute degrees of effect, is wanted in all the various occupations that turn on visible 
appearances; a good ear is indispensable to music and the arts of producing sounds; and 
so on. With a naturally dull sensibility to flavor, no man can easily become a good 
cook, or a taster of tea or wine. The third consideration is the natural power of adhesive 
association belonging to the individual character. Some minds have originally a more 
powerful adhesiveness than others, either for things generally, or for special departments. 
We see this when a number of boys come together at school, and in apprentices learning 
together. Some are always found taking the start of the rest in rapidity of acquire- 
ment; and although the reason may be found in some of the other circumstances now 
mentioned, yet observation shows that when everything else is allowed for, there remain. 
natural differences in the rapidity with which the adhesive bond is cemented; some 
acquiring without effort what others take both time and labor to accomplish. The 
fourth principal circumstance is the znterest taken in the work, or the degree to which it 
engages the feelings of the learner. This is a material consideration, accounting for the 
acquisitions made in matters that we have a strong taste for, without our having a pre- 
eminence in those other points that constitute natural capacity. These four conditions 
apply more or less to acquisition generally. 

A detailed exemplification of this great principle of our nature might be given through 
all the departments of the human intellect. The acquirements of speech, as already 
said, contain a wide range of instances. The adhesion of language is partly in the vocal 
organs, partly in the ear, and partly in the eye, when we come to written and printed 
characters. The associations of names with things, with actions (as in obeying directions 
and command), and with other names (in acquiring foreign languages), are a gradual 
growth favored by such conditions as the above. The acquirements in science, fine art, 
aud business, and in everything that constitutes skill or knowledge, proceed upon this 
plastic property of the mind. It also enlarges the sphere of our pleasures and pains. 
There are connections established in the mind between our states of feeling and the 
things that have often accompanied them, so that the accompaniment shall have power 
to revive the feeling. It is thus that we contract affections, both benevolent and malevo- 
lent, towards persons and things, our friends, our home, our country, our property, our 
pursuits, 

This power of stirring up dependent associations to an extent that may be almost 
called unlimited (although there are limitations), is peculiar to the animal organization. 
Nothing parallel to it occurs in the mineral or vegetable world. It is a property of 
mind alone, and has its seat in the nervous tissue. We know that growth or change is 


Association. 


825 Association. 


requisite to the pee of the adhesion; for it proceeds most rapidly in youth, health, 
and nutrition, and decays in old age, and during exhaustion and disease. And even to 
keep our acquisitions from fading away, it is requisite that they should be occasionally 
revived, <A language acquired in early years may be utterly lost, by disuse. Sustained 

ractice seems particularly necessary in early education; children’s acquisitions are very 
Fable to disintegrate, if not kept up and confirmed by new additions. 

Law of Similarity.—This may be expressed as follows: 

Present actions, sensations, thoughts, and emotions tend to revive their LIKE among 
previous impressions. 

If the mind worked only by the principle of contiguity, nothing would ever occur to 
us except in some connection already formed. But some explanation is necessary as to 
the precise relationship subsisting between the two distinct forces of mental resuscitation, 
jin order to show at once their distinctness and their connection. When the cohesive 
‘link between any two contiguous actions, sensations, or ideas is confirmed by a new 
occurrence or repetition, it is perfectly obvious that the present impression must revive 
the sum-total of the past impressions, or reinstate the whole mental condition left on the 
occasion immediately preceding. Thus, if | am disciplining myself in the act of draw- 
ing a round figure with my hand, any present effort must recall the state of the muscular 
and nervous action, or the precise bent acquired at the end of the previous effort, while 
that effort had to restore the condition at the end of the one preceding, and soon. But 
this reinstatement of a former condition by a present act of the same kind, is really and 
truly a case of the principle before us, or of like recalling like; and without such recall, 
the progressive adhesion of contiguous things would be impossible. It would appear, 
therefore, that similarity is tacitly assumed in the operation of contiguity, and is indis- 
pensable to the process by which our acquisitions are gradually built up. Why, then, 
do we set up the associating force of likeness as something independent and distinct? 
To answer this question we must advert to the fact that in those cases where the same 
impression is deepened by every new repetition, the old and the new are not merely 
similar, they are zdentical, and the resuscitation takes place without fail, and as a matter 
of course. But in going deeper into the explanation of the human intellect, we encounter 
many classes of similars, where there is not absolute identity, but the mixing up of acer- 
tain amount of diversity with the likeness actually existing. The botanist classing 
together all the plants of the same order, as, for example, the rosaceew, has to be struck 
with the occurrence of certain common characters—viz., the properties that distinguish 
the order—in the midst of great varieties in all other respects. It is important that he 
recognize these general marks, whether the plants be trees or shrubs, whether they be 
poisonous or wholesome, and under many other diversities. It is exceedingly important 
in science, in the business of life, and even in the creations of fine art, that the mind 
should take cognizance of likeness surrounded by unlikeness; which is the case that 
renders it necessary to characterize as distinct the associating force now under discussion. 
In the case of perfect identity between a present and a past impression, the past is 
recovered, and fused with the present, instantaneously and surely. So quick and 
certain is the process, that we lose sight of it altogether; we are scarcely made aware of 
the existence of an associating link of similarity under such circumstances. But when 
we pass from perfect to imperfect or partial identity, we are more readily led to perceive 
the existence of this link of attraction between similars, for we find that the restoration 
sometimes does not take place; cases occur where we fail to be struck with a similitude: 
the spark of resuscitation does not pass between the new impression and the old dormant 
one. Then it is that we recognize differences between different minds; one man tracing 
resemblance and making out identity better than another. Moreover, we can assign 
reasons connected with the culture of the individual, which partially explain superiority 
or inferiority in this important faculty; just as we have pointed out the conditions 
favorable to the rapid growth of the adhesive bond of proximity. The failure in rein- 
stating an old impression by virtue of a present one like it, is solely ascribable to the 
want of perfect identity. When, in some new presentation of an object, the old familiar 
form is muffled, obscured, distorted, disguised, or in any way altered, it is just a chance 
if we recognize it; the amount of likeness still remaining will have a tendency to revive 
the object, while the points of difference or unlikeness will operate against the revival, 
and tend to restore things of their own kindred. If we hear a musical air that we are 
accustomed to, the new impression revives the old as a matter of course; but if the air 
is played with complex harmonies and accompaniments which are strange to us, it is 
possible that the effect of these additions may be to check our recognition of the melody; 
the unlike circumstances may repel the reinstatement of the old experience more strongly 
than the remaining likeness attracts it. If our hold of the essential character of the 
melody is but feeble, and if we are stunned and confounded by the new accompaniments, 
there is every probability that we shall not be put upon the old mental track made by 
the same air; in other words, we shall not identify the performance. 

A few examples may next be given to show the workings of this associating power, 
and the consequences thence arising. The intellectual operations known under the 
names classification, generalization, induction, and deduction, all proceed upon the 
discovery of likeness among things lying wide asunder in space and time, and very 
often veiled by diversity. Thus, in order to include in one yist all the species of the 


826 


Associations, 


rose, botanists have had. to trace the characters of the genus through its various members, 
wherever they occur, and under the greatest differences in every other respect. It takes 
a keen identifying faculty—that is, a strong natural tendency for the resurrection of like 
to meet like—to see the resemblance of some of these species to the rest; and it has 
happened in many departments of knowledge that a class has remained incomplete for 
a time, purely from the disguised character of some of the individuals. So in the process 
termed induction, by which a general law is arrived at by comparing instances of it 
everywhere, there must be an attraction of similars, in order to bring together in the 
mind the collection of particulars that the induction is based upon. Thus, Newton 
assembled in his view the various transparent bodies that he had found in the course of 
his experiments to refract or bend light strongly, his only intellectual instrument for 
doing so being the bond of likeness operating as a power of recall. Having looked at 
them in company, he saw that some were remarkable for their weight or specific gravity, 
and others for containing inflammable ingredients; upon which he raised the general 
induction, connecting these two properties with high refrangibility. Then, deductively, 
he applied this generalization to the diamond, which refracts light more than any other 
known substance; and as it is not a heavy material, he extended the other inference to 
it—namely, that it was made up of some inflammable material, an inference afterwards 
confirmed by the discovery that it is crystallized carbon. Many of the greatest discov- 
eries in science have turned on the identification of modes of action never before 
supposed the same, as when Franklin was struck with the resemblance between the 
atmospheric thunder and lightning and the phenomena of common electricity. 

Another wide field for the operation of the same principle is the region of dlustrative 
comparisons, whereby two things widely remote are brought together, in the view either 
to elucidate one another, or for the sake of ornament and poetic effect. Most men of 
genius in literature and poetry have contributed original illustrations, similes, metaphors, 
or comparisons in the course of their compositions. Shakespeare carries the palm in this 
faculty. The writings of Bacon are remarkably rich in those that serve the purpose of 
exposition. Science is with him the ‘‘interpretation” of nature: final causes are ‘‘ vestal 
virgins;” they have no fruit: fallacies are ‘‘ idols.” Edmund Burke, another master of 
illustrative comparison, has termed revolutions the ‘‘ medicine” of the state, and regular 
government its ‘‘ food.” 

If we inquire into the circumstances that render one mind more prolific in new 
identifications and comparisons than another, apart from difference of original capacity, 
we must refer mainly to the fact that the one has had the greater previous familiarity with 
the class of things thus brought up by the attraction of similarity. A mathematician is 
the most likely person to bring up comparisons from mathematics; a botanist is prepared 
to identify plants; a traveled man provides illustrations from foreign countries; a 
historian, from history. The sailor is notoriously rich in nautical similes and illustra- 
tions. When any one not specially versed in a subject is yet prone to draw upon it 
profusely in the way of comparison, we must then refer to great natural endowment as 
the sole explanation. But our space does not allow us to dwell further on the subject. 
(For the full exemplification of both the associating principles and of the complications 
that they give birth to, see Bain on The Senses and the Intellect). 

The earliest known attempt to lay down the laws whereby thought succeeds te 
thought, is that contained in Aristotle’s treatiseon memory. He enumerates three dif 
ferent principles of mental resuscitation—viz., similarity, contrariety, and co-adjacency. 
He has been followed by most other philosophers as regards all the three principles. It 
is now, however, clearly seen and generally admitted that contrariety is not an inde- 
pendent associating force. When a thing suggests its opposite or contrary, it will be 
found that the two have been previously together in the mind, and have therefore 
acquired a mutual hold by contiguity. Such, for example, is black and white, wet and 
dry, health and sickness, prosperity and adversity, etc. Contraries, in fact, have a 
natural inseparability; they are of the class of relatives like father and son, which imply 
each other necessarily, and have no meaning except by mutual reference. It requires no 
new principle of our constitution to account for suggestion in this particular case. More- 
over, when things are strongly contrasted with one another, as high position before ¢ 
fall, the mind is greatly impressed with the shock of transition, and so retains a lively 
recollection of the sequence, having by that means a greater tendency to pass from the 
one to the other. Thus, then, the enumeration of Aristotle is reduced to the two prin- 
ciples that we have now expounded. 

Hobbes recognized the principle of contiguity as the foundation of reminiscence; but 
the Aristotelian philosopher, Vives, who wrote in the 14th c., was the first to specify in 
minute detail the various circumstances that determine the adhesive bond of recollection. 
Hume’s enumeration is well known to have comprised the three principles of resem- 
blance, contiguity, and causation, which he illustrates as follows: ‘‘A picture naturally 
leads our thoughts to the original [resemblance]. The mention of one apartment in a 
building naturally introduces an inquiry or discourse concerning the others [contiguity]. 
And if we think of a wound, we can scarce forbear reflecting on the pain which follows 
it [causation].” Causation, however, is merely a case of contiguity; so also we may 
say of order in place, and order in time, which have been given as distinct principles. 

An attempt has been made to generalize similarity into contiguity, but without 


8 2 "i Associations, 


suecess. For a full and critical view of the history of these laws, see Sir W. Hamilton’s 
edition of Reid. 


ASSOCIATIONS, SECRET AND BENEVOLENT. Secret Societies constitute a power 
separate from and independent of that which is recognized as the supreme power, hence, 
when organized for political purposes they are generally looked upon as disorganizing 
and to be feared. The opportunities and temptations which they present to the pursuit 
of political objects forbidden by the laws, are so great as to justify all governments in 
prohibiting them under whatever pretense it may be attempted to introduce them. 
But it may, nevertheless, have happened at particular emergencies, and during times of 
very imperfect civilization, that valuable service has been rendered by such combinations 
and they have, to a considerable extent, supplied the defects of the rude arrangements 
of the ordinary government. The most important of the ancient political societies was 
the Pythagorean (see PyTHaGgoras), which achieved perfect success, teaching wisdom 
and effecting a total change in the manners of the country. The Gnostics (q.v.), also, 
were, to a certain extent, secret associations, although religious as well as political. 
The Assassins (q.v.) or Ismailites, organized after the death of Mohammed, was the most 
powerful of all the secret associations known, since its members spread themselves all 
over Asia, and were a terror wherever encountered. In the latter part of the eleventh 
century arose the Crusaders, and from these sprung the Knights Templar (q.v.). A 
third great secret society of the middle ages was called the ‘‘ Secret Tribunals of West- 
phalia,” a strong organization looked upon with fear, as it held sway over the eccle- 
siastical and temporal. At the present time there are in the United States over 300 secret 
societies. This includes all the fraternal, benevolent, social, insurance, political, re- 
ligious, temperance, and other orders, whose members take an obligation and hold 
secret sessions. Many of these are already described at length in articles under their 
respective titles, so it will be unnecessary to more than mention them here. The more 
important of these are the FREEMASONS (q.v. under Masons), with a membership of 
651,028 ; the Opp FELLOWS (q.v.), membership, 634,835; Knicurs TEMPLAR (q.V.), 
membership, 82,497 ; Goop TEMPLARS (q.v.), membership, 484,789; GranpD ARMY OF 
THE REPUBLIC (q.v.), membership, 385,155 ; and many other smaller and less important 
associations, as the Patrons oF HUSBANDARY, more commonly known as GRANGERS 
(q.v. under GRANGE) ; FENIANS (q.v.); ORANGEMEN (q.v.); Ku-Kuux (q.v.); MoLuy 
MaGurIrEs (q.v.), and MAFFIA (q.V.), 

The general feeling among the Colonists preceding the war of the Revolution was 
antagonistic to secret societies of any kind that were particularly English in origin and 
character; but at the same time, a feeling grew of the need of some such organization 
for the purpose of attaining a higher degree of religious, social, and political freedom 
than was accessible through the ordinary avenues of civil life, under the existing forms 
of government, and efforts were made to organize societies that were truly and solely 
American. Asa, result of these efforts the Rep Men Societies founded on the customs 
and traditions of the North American Indians were formed about 1770, and became very 
popular, especially in Pennsylvania and Maryland. A reorganization took place in 
Baltimore in 1833, when it became known as the ImPpROVED ORDER OF RED MEN, 
which has a present membership of 108,000. Connected with this, is the Degree of 
Pocahontas for women, having a membership of 11,302. Another society, truly American, 
formed a few years later than the Red Men was Tammany (q.v.). The ANCIENT ORDER 
oF FoRESTERS was established in England in 1745. The first society of that name in 
America was organized in Philadelphia in 1880. The present membership in this country 
is 76,425. It is a purely beneficial and benevolent organization providing medical 
attendance and burial for members whenever necessary, and endowments for widows 
and orphans. A fourth degree was added in 1885, known as “ Companions of Foresters,” 
ora woman’s degree of the Order. Tur Sons oF TEMPERANCE is the name of a 
society organized in New York in 1842, with total abstinence as a basis, and it was, 
when organized, a sort of benefit association, but this feature has since been removed. 
The membership was by the last reports about 50,000. THr ANCIENT ORDER OF 
HIBERNIANS is a social and benevolent organization, having for its object the liberation 
of Ireland. It has existed in Ireland since the middle of the century. The American 
branch, consisting of Irish-Americans and their sons, has a membership of over 5000. 
The annual National Convention is held in. New York on May ist of each year. 
Tue ORDER OF UNITED AMERICAN M&cHANICS was founded in 1874. It is composed 
of skilled mechanics of American birth, and is both social and benevolent in its objects. 
Its present membership is over half a million. See also Lasor, Kniaurs or. For 

eneral statistics of total number of Trades Unions and their membership, see AMERICAN 
(3 See or LApor (q.v.). THE Kniauts or Pyrnras is the name of a body 
organized in Washington, D. C., in Feb., 1864, and composed exclusively of clerks of 
the several departments of the Government. The ritual was prepared by Robert A. 
Champion, but the association owes its existence to Joseph Dowdall, of Columbus, Ohio. 
It is in a most flourishing condition, and has a membership of over 125,000. The 
BENEVOLENT PROTECTIVE ORDER OF ELKS, composed principally of members of the 
dramatic profession, was organized in New York, Feb. 16th, 1868. The meetings are 
held every Sunday evening, the business meeting being followed by a social session, 
which includes the drinking of a toast at precisely eleven o’clock, ‘‘'To our absent 
L—27 


Assolant, 828 


Assyria. 


brothers.” There were in 1890, 198 lodges in the United States. In 1871, a charter was 
obtained from the State Legislature of New York for the organization of a Grand 
Lodge, and this now holds annual meetings in New York City. In 1878, the ELxs 
Mutua BENEFIT AssocrATION was formed ‘‘ for the relief of the sick and the needy, 
and the burial of the dead,” and they also purchased a large burial plot in Evergreens 
Cemetery, which was dedicated June 1st, 1879. See also Crispin, Knricuts or Sr. 
These are only a very few of the best known of these organizations at the present 
time. Indeed, almost every profession has one or more of these Benefit Associations, 
all of which render eflicient aid to their members when necessary. The Mutual Benefit 
Insurance Companies and Associations have increased so rapidly of late years that their 
number is almost legion. These companies usually consist of a limited number of 
members, each of whom pays a fixed sum on the death of any of their number. One of 
the most important of these companiesis the Roya, ArcaNuM. It was organized in 
June, 1877, in Boston, Massachusetts, and incorporated under the laws of that state. Its 
total membership, in 1890, was 106,207, the number of deaths had been 4772, and the 
total amount of benefits paid, $13,965,528. The Iron HALL was organized in 1881, and 
in 1891, its total membership was 62,000, while its total disbursements had been $5,075,537. 
The Knicuts or Honor and the ORDER OF AMERICAN WORKINGMEN are even larger. 


ASSOLANT, JEAN-BapTiste ALFRED; b. Aubusson Creuse, France, 1827. He 
visited America, and on his return contributed articles to the Revue des Deux Mondes, 
which in 1858 he collected into book-form as Scenes of Life in the United States. He wrote 
a number of stories and romances, contributed to or edited many of the leading Parisian 
journals, and published numerous collections of his political and miscellaneous articles. 
He died in 1886. 

ASSOUAN’, Essuan’, or Eswam’, the ancient Syene, a t. of upper Egypt, on the 
e. bank of the Nile, near the borders of Nubia, 110 m. s. of Thebes, in lat. 24° 5’ 30” n., 
and long. 82° 55’e. There are few remains existing of the ancient city. Some granite 
columns present themselves among the ruins, but do not seem of an early date; and part 
of a temple still remains with a dilapidated portico. Of the town-wall, that part which 
lies to the s, of the old t. is still standing; and beyond it is the cemetery of A., where 
there are numerous tombs, mostly cenotaphs, with Arabic inscriptions. In the neigh- 
borhood there are several granite quarries, some of them remarkable for remains of ancient 
materials that had been cut from the rock, and partially hewn, and for antique inscrip- 
tions and tablets, announcing the removal of blocks and the reign of the Egyptian 
monarch by whose orders they had been quarried. 

The ancient name Syene is the Coptic word sowan or suan, signifying “‘ opening;” 
and the modern one is formed by adding the Arabic el, ‘‘ the,” softened into és, viz. 
Fs-suan, ‘‘the opening.” <A.and its vicinity are highly interesting to geologists and 
mineralogists; that kind of granite called syenite receives its name from the town. 

ASSOUCY, CHARLES COYPEAU D’, 1604-79 ; a French poet, who called himself ‘‘ the 
emperor of burlesque,” a title which others changed to ‘‘Scarron’s ape.” Hewas the 
author of many burlesque works, none of them especially brilliant. 


ASSUMPSIT, in law, a comprehensive title for a wide class of actions. Hapress A. is 
an undertaking made orally or by writing not under seal, or as matter of record, to per 
form an act or to pay money. Implied A. is an undertaking presumed in law to have 
been made by a party, from his conduct, although he has made no express promise; on 
the ground that everybody is supposed to have undertaken to do what, in point of law, 
is just and right. In practice, A. is a form of action for the recovery of damages, for 
non-performance of a parole, or simple contract. A. may be distinguished also as 
special or common. Special A. includes action on written agreements, or for dereliction 
where a contract exists or may fairly be implied, such as professional neglect on the part 
of a physician, or by common carriers. Common A. is usually an action for satisfaction 
for goods sold or money lent. Non-A. is the usual plea under which the defendant may 
give in evidence most matters of defense. 

ASSUMPTION, a town and river of Quebec, Canada. About 8 m. below the village, 
the river flows into the St. Lawrence, or rather into the Ottawa, nearly opposite to the 
lower extremity of the island of Montreal.—A., or Asuncion, is also the name of the 
capital of Paraguay, on the left bank of the river of that name. It has a pop. of 45,000. 
and has a trade in hides, tobacco, timber, wax, and Paraguay tea. The city was founded 
in 1555 by the Spanish, and soon became a place of importance, though not of beauty, 
being ill-built, dirty, and disagreeable. The surrounding country is rich in pastures, and 
also produces crops of wheat, maize, sugar, tobacco, honey, wax, ete. See ASUNCION. 


ASSUMPTION, a parish of s.e, Louisiana, w. of the Mississippi; 835 sq. m.; pop. °90, 
19,629, inclu. colored. It is one of the best sugar districts in the country, the soil being 
remarkably fertile. Judicial seat, Napoleonville. 


ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN MARY. A festival of the Rom. Cath. church. In the 
‘ith ¢., the idea originated that the soul and body of the Virgin had been carried up to 
heaven by Christ and his angels. The Roman Catholic church, therefore, has, ever 
since that period, kept the 15th of Aug. in memory of Mary’s translation into glory; 
although, from the 4th c. until then, it had kept the same day in memory of her death. 


ASSURANCE. See INSURANCE. 


’ B29 Assolant. 


Assyria. 


ASSYRTIA (called Athura on Persian cuneiform inscriptions, and Assura on the 
Median) was the northernmost of the three great countries that occupied the Mesopotamian 
plain. It was bounded on then. by the Niphates mountains of Armenia; on thes. by 
Susiana and Babylonia; on the e. by Media; and on the w., according to some, by the 
Tigris, but more correctly by the water-shed of the Euphrates, for many Assyrian ruins 
are found to the w. of the Tigris. It was thus about 280 m. long from n. to s., and 
rather more than 150 broad from e. to w. This plain is diversified by mountain- 
chains on the n. and e., and watered by the Tigris and its affluents, between two of 
which—the Zab rivers—lay the finest part of the country, called Adiabené. As it was 
the boundary-land between the Semitic people and Iran, it became the scene of 
important political events. Its extraordinary fertility enabled it to support a large 
population. The high degree of prosperity and civilization reached by its inhabitants 
in very early times is attested not only by ancient writers, but by the extensive ruins 
of mighty cities, by the canals and contrivances for irrigation, and by the many 
proofs— urnished by recent excavations—of an acquaintance with the arts and sciences. 
The ruins of many cities are grouped around Nineveh; while lower down, the Tigris 
exhibits an almost unbroken line of ruins from Tekrit to Bagdad. Under the Moham- 
medans, this fine country is now almost a desert. 

History.—Ancient authorities differ widely from each other respecting the rise and 
progress, the extent and the duration, of the Assyrian empire. Ctesias, a Greek of 
Cnidus, court-physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, is quoted by various ancient writers; 
and his information, though utterly incredible and fabulous, has been followed by most 
classical historians, and by the whole series of ecclesiastical writers. Many ingenious 
but futile attempts have been made to reconcile his history with the Scripture narrative. 
Berosus, a priest of Bel at Babylon, who wrote about 268 B.c., and Herodotus, differ 
widely from Ctesias, but are confirmed in many important particulars by the Bible, and 
by the continually increasing evidence derived from cuneiform inscriptions. 

In the Bible narrative, we are told that Nineveh was founded by Asshur from Baby- 
lon (Gen. x. 11). The latter city, therefore, must have been the capita! of a more ancient 
empire, as Berosus asserts, and recent discoveries go far to prove, though Greek writers 
maintain the reverse. The next notice we have of A. does not occur till 770 B.c., when 
Pul, king of A., invaded Palestine, but was bought off by Menahem, king of Israel. 
Tiglath-pileser, who succeeded Pul (738 B.c.), conquered Syria, and carried off many of 
the Jews into captivity. Next, Salmanezer (730 B.c.) subdued Israel, which, at the insti- 
gation of the Egyptians, had refused to pay tribute. The next is Sennacherib (713 B.c.), 
who attacked Egypt, and threatened Judah under Hezekiah. He was slain by his two 
sons, and succeeded by his son Esarhaddon, who was also master of Babylon (2 Chron. 
Xxxiil. 11), which, under Nabonassar, had been independent of Nineveh since 747 B.c. 
ery little credit is to be attached to the expedition of Holofernes recorded in the book 
of Judith. 

After this, the empire appears to have gradually decayed, until at last, in the reign 
of Sardanapalus IJ., or Saracus, a league was formed for its destruction between Nabo- 
polassar, governor of Babylon, and Cyaxares, king of Media, which was strengthened 
by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, son of the former, to Nitocris, daughter of the lat- 
ter. The war and siege are said to have been interrupted by an invasion of the Scyth- 
ians, which drew off Cyaxares; but at length Nineveh was taken and destroyed about 
606 B.c., or, according to Rawlinson, 625. In the time of Darius Hystaspes, ‘A. rebelled 
without success in conjunction with Media. In the time of Herodotus, the capital had 
ceased to exist; and when Xenophon passed it, the very name wes forgot, though he 
testifies to the extent of the deserted city, and asserts the height of the ruined walls to be 
150 ft. An inconsiderable town seems to have existed on its ruins in the reign of Claudius; 
and the last notice we have of Nineveh in the classics is in Tacitus. 

According to the Greek legends, the Assyrian empire was founded by Ninus. To 
this monarch and his consort Semiramis are ascribed expeditions on an incredibly magnifi- 
cent scale against Bactria, Ethiopia, and India. We are told that Semiramis led an army 
of 3,000,000 infantry, 500,000 cavalry, and 100,000 chariots, and a fleet of 2000 ships, and 
was encountered by forces more numerous still, and defeated; that she returned to Nin- 
eveh, where she soon afterwards died, and was reckoned among the gods, and was suc- 
ceeded by her son, Ninyas, an effeminate prince. The succeeding part of the history as 
related by Ctesias is equally false, though that writer managed to make the ancient 
world give credit to his narrative in preference to that of Herodotus. He gives a list of 
monarchs from Ninus to Sardanapalus, which is now considered to be a clumsy forgery. 
According to him, for 30 generations after Ninyas, the kings led a life of luxury and 
indolence in their palace; the last of them, Sardanapalus, made a vigorous defense 
against Arbaces, the rebel governor of Media, but finding it impossible to defend Nineveh, 
he set fire to his palace, and burnt himself with all his treasures; this event took place 
1306 years after Ninus. Now, the above account represents Nineveh to have perished 
nearly three centuries before the real date, which was about 605 B.c., and is utterly 
incompatible with Scripture. Herodotus assigns to the empire a duration of 520 years, 
and Berosus of 526 years. In order to reconcile these conflicting accounts, historians 
have supposed that Nineveh was twice destroyed, but this supposition is now generaily 
rejected. However, that Nineveh was actually destroyed by fire is proved from the 


830 


‘Assyria. ; 


condition of the slabs and statues found in its ruins, which show the action of intense 
a became a Median province, 605 B.c., and afterwards, in conjunction with Baby- 
lonia, formed one of the satrapies of the Persian empire. In 331 B.c., at Gaugamela, 
near Arbela, in A., Alexander defeated Darius Codomannus. In 312 B.c., A, became 
part of the kingdom of the Seleucid, whose capital was Seleucia, on the Tigris. It 
was afterwards subject to the Parthian kings, whose capital was Ctesiphon, and 
was more than once temporarily in possession of the Romans. When the Persian 
monarchy of the Sassanides was destroyed by the successors of Mohammed, A. was 
subject to the caliphs. Their seat was Bagdad from 762 A.D. till 1258. It has been 
under the Turks from 1638, at which period it was wrested from the Persians. 

We shall now proceed to mention a few historical points that have been satisfac- 
torily ascertained from the cuneiform inscriptions. For these we are indebted to 
Rawlinson’s Herodotus. 

It has not been ascertained when A. first became independent of Babylon (q.v.). The 
seat of government was first at Asshur (now Kileh-Shergat), on the right bank of the 
Tigris, 60 m. s. of the later capital, Nineveh. At this place have been found the bricks 
and fragments of vases bearing the names of the earliest known Assyrian kings, for 
Ninus and Semiramis are to be considered as mere inventions of Greek writers. The 
earliest known king is Bel-lush, one of a series of four. These reigns probably occupy 
from 1273 to 1200 n.c. Of the next series of six, the names of five are recorded on the 
famous Kileh-Shergat cylinder, the earliest purely historical document as yet discovered 
in Mesopotamia. 

Tiglathi-nin, the last of the Kileh-Shergat series, was succeeded by his son, Asshur- 
dani-pal, the warlike Sardanapalus I. of the Greeks. He made Calah, the modern 
Nimrud, his capital, lying 40 m. further n., on the left bank of the Tigris. His annals 
are very complete. Among other conquests, he mentions that he had taken tribute 
from Tyre, Sidon, and other Phcenician cities. He was the founder of the n.w. palace 
at Nimrud, which, next to that of Sennacherib at Koyunjik, is the largest and most 
magnificent of all the Assyrian edifices. The greater portion of the sculptures now in 
the British museum is from this building. 

Sardanapalus I. was succeeded by his son Shalmanubar, whose deeds are briefly 
recorded on the black obelisk now in the British museum, the full account being ap- 
parently reserved for the colossal bulls, which seem to have been the usual dedication 
after a victory. Of his campaigns, the most interesting to us are those in which he 
defeated Benhadad of Damascus, and his murderer and successor Hazael. According 
to his own account, Shalmanubar defeated Hazael, killing 16,000 of his fighting-men, 
and capturing more than 1100 chariots (884 B.c.). The obelisk also records the tribute 
paid by Yahua, son of Khumri, i.e., Jehu, son of Omri, king of Israel. Now Jehu 
was son of Jehoshaphat, and had done his utmost to extirpate the family of Omri; but 
probably Jehu, like other usurpers, was anxious to identify himself with the family 
yeuce he had dispossessed, and of course the Assyrians accepted the title he gave him. 
self. 

Lva-lush, probably the Pul of the Scriptures, is recorded on a pavement-slab from 
Nimrud to have received tribute from Samaria, Tyre, Damascus, Idumea, and Palestine, 
which assertion agrees with the account given (2 Kings xv.) of the 1000 talents paid by 
Menahem. With this king ends the first dynasty, in which we have 18 monarchs from 
Bel-lush to Iva-lush (1278-747 B.c.). 

The later Assyrian empire begins with Tiglath-pileser IT. (747 B.c.), and ends with the 
destruction of Nineveh (625 B.c.). It is plain from Scripture that the empire wasin a 
flourishing condition during the reigns of those kings who came in contact with. the 
Hebrews, and this account exactly accords with the monuments, but contradicts Her- 
odotus. Probably, on the accession of Tiglath-pileser IJ., Babylon had revolted, and 
this partial rebellion had reached Herodotus in an exaggerated form. The annals 
of this prince exist only in a very fragmentary state. The name of his successor, Shal- 
maneser, has not yet been found on the monuments. The capture of Samaria is usually 
ascribed to this prince, but his successor, Sargon, expressly asserts that Samaria was 
taken by himself in his first year. Sargon’s palace at Khorsabad, near Nineveh, 
furnished the valuable series of monuments now in the Louvre. Sargon was succeeded 
by his son Sennacherib. He fixed the seat of government at Nineveh, and employed 
the forced kabor of 360,000 men to repair the great palace. Later in his reign, he built 
anew and more magnificent edifice, which he decorated with sculptures representing 
his various exploits. This is the palace excavated by Layard. It contained at least 
three spacious halls—one of them 150 ft. by 125, and two long galleries, one of 200, the 
other of 185 ft., besides innumerable chambers. The excavated portion covers above 8 
acres. The annals of Sennacherib extend only to his eighth year. He relates at length 
his successful attack upon Babylon, his invasion of Judea, the submission of Hezekiah, 
and his deportation of 200,000 Jews. This expedition is not to be confounded with the 
second invasion, in which he failed ignominiously, and which is not recorded on his 
monuments. His assassination very shortly after his return to Nineveh, after his 
second expedition, readily accounts for this silence. 


831 Assyria, 


Esarhaddon, his son and successor, held his court sometimes at Nineveh, sometimes 
at Babylon.. Bricks bearing his name have been discovered at Jiil/ah, and a tablet at 
Babylon dated in his reign. This explains how Manasseh was brought to him at 
Babylon, when he was led captive from Jerusalem (2 Chron, xxxiii.). No record has 
as yet been discovered of this expedition against Palestine. His edifices are not inferior 
to those of his predecessors. He employed Greek and Pheenician artists, and to them, 
probably, we owe the beautiful bas-reliefs that adorn the edifices of his erection. ‘The 
decline of the empire probably commenced with Asshur-bani-pal II. The arts of peace 
flourished, while the military vigor of the nation declined. The sculptures of this reign 
are decidedly superior to the earlier in spirit, delicacy, and freedom from convention- 
ality. The slabs show that hunting, not war, was this king’s favorite pursuit. He was 
succeeded by his son Asshur-emit-ili, the last king of whom any records have yet been 
discovered. It is uncertain whether Nineveh was destroyed under him, or under a 
successor, the Saracus of Berosus, the effeminate Sardanapalus of the Greeks. The 
character usually given of this last king, as a debauchee throwing off his indolent habits, 
and after performing prodigies of valor, perishing by a glorious death, rather than 
surrender, is derived solely from Ctesias. All we distinctly know is that, finding him 
self betrayed to the Median king by Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, he set fire to 
his palace and perished in the flames. 

We may here note a singularJy important cuneiform discovery made by Mr. George 
Smith, of the British museum, and the substance of which was made public at a meeting 
of the Biblical archzological society in Dec., 1872. While engaged on an examination 
of the collection of Assyrian tablets in the British museum, Mr. Smith lighted upon a 
curious series of legends, including a copy of the story of the flood. On discovering 
these documents, which were much mutilated, he searched over all the collections of 
fragments of inscriptions, consisting of several thousands of smaller pieces, and ulti- 
mately recovered 80 fragments of these legends. The tablets were originally at least 12 
in number, forming one story or set of legends, the account of the flood bein; on the 
11th tablet. Of the inscription describing the flood, there are fragments of three copies, 
containing duplicate texts. These texts belong to the time of Asshur-bani-pal (c¢rca 660 
B.C.), and were found in the library of that monarch in the palace of Nineveh. The 
original text, according to the statements on the tablets, belonged to the city of Erech, 
and appears to have been either written in or translated into the Semitic Babylonian at 
a very early period. Mr. Smith is of opinion that its composition cannot be placed later 
than the 17th c. B.c., while it may be much older. The Assyrian story of the deluge is 
both like and unlike the Scripture narrative. The flood is sent as a punishment for sin; 
the builder of the ark is called Sisit (the Xiswthrus of the Greeco-Chaldzean Berosus); he 
gathers into the vessel all his male and female servants, all the sons of the army, and all 
the beasts of the field; the storm of rain lasts only six days, and yet submerges the whole 
earth; all life is destroyed; Sisit sends forth a dove which can find no resting-place, and 
returns; then a swallow, which is also forced to return; then a raven, which does not 
come back. The ark rests on a mountain, the animals are liberated, an altar is 
built by the grateful patriarch, and Bel, the great god, makes a ‘‘covenant” with 
Sisit. The minuter details of this Assyrian legend diverge greatly from the Hebrew 
account, and lead to the conclusion that in each we have an independent tradition 
of some great natural catastrophe in the early ages of human history. Mr. Smith 
notices that the Biblical narrative is the version of an inland people; the name of the 
ark in Genesis means a chest or box, and not a ship; there is no notice of the sea 
or of launching, no pilots are spoken of, no navigation is mentioned. The inscription, 
on the other hand, belongs to a maritime people; the ark is called a ship, the ship is 
launched into the sea, trial is made of it, and it is given in charge to a pilot. This seems 
to point to the Persian gulf as the birthplace of the old legend. Mr. Smith returned in 
1874 from Chalda, and gave an account of his valuable discoveries in a work entitled 
Assyrian Discoveries (1875). Believing that many more legends and histories lay beneath 
the ruins of the ancient cities of Chaldea, he was on his way to prosecute his third 
exploration, when he succumbed to the hardships and privations of the task, and died 
at Aleppo in August, 1876. 

Government.—The government was despotic, as suited the character of the people. 
The empire was a mere congeries of kingdoms bound to the supreme authority only by 
certain obligations of paying tribute, giving presents, and showing due respect. Each 
kingdom retained its own rulers, laws, and religion, although we do find some attempts 
to rule by satraps and collectors of tribute. Tiglath-pileser also boasts, in an inscrip- 
tion, of having punished and crucified the Chaldzans. who refused to worship his gods. 
In consequence of this imperfect organization, the empire was exposed to frequent 
revolts of the subject nations, when such opportunities offered as a disputed succession, 
or want of energy in the ruling prince. Then the labor of conquest had to begin anew, 
and it was sought to diminish the danger of the central power by inflicting severe 
punishments on the rebels. The history of the Jews has made us familiar with one of 
these devices—viz., the wholesale deportation of the inhabitants of the offending district. 
It may be readily believed that such an empire, though imposing from the magnificence 
and wealth of the capital, yet, from the impoverishment and weakness of the subject 
states, was continually liable to fall to pieces, and was ill fitted to resist an attack from 


Ast. 832 


A-stay. 


without. That A. did actually last for five centuries, was owing to a long succession of 
warlike princes, and to the energy of the population. 


Religion.—The religion of the Assyrians was nearly identical with that of the Babylo- 
nians. It was a gross polytheism, their gods being thousands in number, and each 
village having its own particular deity. From thousands of theological tablets now in 
the British museum, it is known that each divinity had many names, and some 
of them as many as fifty titles besides. Again, many deities that are prominent 
in the Babylonian pantheon are either unknown or occupy a subordinate position 
in the Assyrian. Besides, the same gods did not remain equally popular through- 
out. The supreme god was Asshur, probably the deified patriarch, His worship 
was confined to Assyria. He is generally associated in the inscriptions with Min 
and Nergal (2 Kings xvii. 30), who are represented by the man-bull and the man- 
lion. The winged globe, so often seen in the sculptures, from which a figure with a 
horned helmet shoots his arrows, is supposed to be the emblem of Asshur. Next in 
rank is the governing triad, answering to the Pluto, Jupiter, and Neptune of the classical 
mythology; the next group corresponds to Aither, the sun and the moon; then five 
inferior deities, representing the five planets. Each god is associated with a goddess. 
Mylitta, or Beltis, is the “‘queen.” The male and female powers of the sun are repre- 
sented in the Scripture phrase, ‘‘ Adrammelech and Anamelech, gods of Sepharvaim’”— 
that is, of Sippara, a town a few miles above Babylon. Bel-merodach was originally an 
inferior deity, son of Héa, the fish-god; but, under the later Babylonians, we find him 
monopolizing the greater part of the homage which used previously to be divided 
among several. Nisroch (2 Kings xix. 37) has not been yet ascertained. Nebo (Isaiah 
xlvi.) is one of the five planetary gods, and corresponds to Mercury. The systems of 
notation, divisions of time, the planets and stars, animals and metals, divination and 
astrology, were all more or less closely connected with theology. 

Ethnology.—The Assyrians have been assigned by some ethnologists to the Aryan 
race, but it is now generally acknowledged that they were a branch of the Semitic 
family of nations, and therefore were members of the same grand division of the human 
race as the Syrians, the Phoenicians with their colonies, the Jews, and the modern 
Arabians. In the 20th c. s.c., Semitism, as a distinct ethnic element, appears to have 
first developed itself. The original races, variously called Scythic, Turanian, or Tartar, 
appear to have once been spread over the whole space from the Caucasus to the Indian 
ocean, and from the Mediterranean to the mouths of the Ganges. Their type of 
language has continued to our time to exist in four fifths of Asia, and in some of the 
remoter corners of Europe, as among the Finns, Lapps, Turks, and Hungarians. In 
Mesopotamia, and in the valley of the Nile, where natural advantages induced men 
early to form settled communities, the rude and inartificial type of language was 
developed into Hamitism, and afterwards still further improved into Semitism. Then 
seems to have commenced a series of migrations. Asshur went forth probably at this 
time from Babylon to A., Abraham and his followers to Palestine, the Joktanian Arabs 
to Arabia. From these seats, Semitism was afterwards carried to Cyprus, to the 
southern seaboard countries of Asia Minor, to Carthage, Sicily, Spain, and western Africa. 

The traditions of A. indicate a very early connection between Ethiopia, Arabia, and 
the cities on the Euphrates. Mesopotamia undoubtedly contained a large proportion of 
Arabians, and this accounts for the fact that Herodotus styles Sennacherib king of the Ara- 
bians and Assyrians. The Chaldeans, coloniesof whom were planted in Armenia by the 
Assyrian kings, are supposed by some to have been a foreign tribe, which had emigrated 
from the north, and become a priestly caste. But the Akkad race, of which the Chal- 
dean is a tribe, is with more probability thought to have inhabited Babylonia from 
the remotest times, and by it the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia was originated. 
Probably the art of picture-writing was possessed by the Hamitic tribes who lived in the 
valley of the Nile, and passed eastward to the Euphrates. The Akkad language appears 
to have been formed before Semitism attained its peculiar development and organiza- 
tion. Long after Semitism had become predominant in Mesopotamia, the Akkad or 
Chaldean alphabet continued to be the scientific language in which all the tablets 
relating to mythology, astronomy, or science, as well as most historical and official records, 
were written. This alphabet was adopted with certain modifications by the Semitic 
tribes, which became predominant in Assyria. The cuneiform characters were elaborated 
from forms of natural objects, and gradually became phonetic from being symbolic, and 
for convenience of engraving, assumed the form of arrow-heads, instead of the rounded 
and flowing forms which are introduced by the use of plastic materials. After the Aryan 
race had spread more extensively in western Asia, the Persian monarchs, when they 
wished to make any communication to their subjects generally intelligible, found it 
necessary to publish it in three languages belonging to the principal divisions 
of human speech; hence the trilingual inscriptions of Behistun, etc., which consist of an 
Indo-European, a Tartar, and a Semitic column, _ It is still necessary in many places to 
employ three tongues, representatives of the three families, Persian, Turkish, and 
Arabic.—See Lenormant, La Langue Primitive de la Chaldée. 

Antiquities, Civilization, etc. —The excavations carried on by M. Botta, French consui 
at Mosul, and by Layard near Mosul, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, have led, as we have 
partly seen, to very interesting discoveries. The palaces and buildings that have been 


833 A-stay. 


laid open are full of sculptures, all covered with inscriptions, in deciphering which con- 
siderable progress has been made, and more may be expected. Among the most 
remarkable monuments now in the British museum are two winged, human-headed lions, 
12 ft. high, and as many in length; winged human-headed bulls of similar dimensions with 
the lions; winged sphinxes; and the famous obelisk of black marble, sculptured on the four 
sides. On this last are represented avictory, a prisoner prostrate at the feet of the king, 
and foreign people offering tribute, and leading such animals as the Bactrian camel, 
elephant, lion, and rhinoceros—animals found only in lands far east of the Tigris. The 
bas-reliefs are very numerous, exhibiting especially war and hunting. The march, the 
onset, the pursuit, the siege, the passage of rivers, the submission and treatment of cap- 
tives, secretaries noting the number of heads taken in battle, and the amount of spoil; 
the chase of the lion, of the antelope, of the wild ass, and other animals—such are the 
favorite subjects of the Assyrian sculptor. Nor are they treated in the conventional 
style of Egypt, but in a manner which, for grace, spirit, correctness, and delicacy of 
execution, excels everything else known in Asiatic art. The artists sometimes follow 
modes of representation different from ours; for instance, a bull has five legs given him, 
in order that from all points of view he may be seen with four; a ladder stands edgeways 
against a wall, to show it is nota pole. But a truthful impression is always aimed at, 
and it is this that gives these sculptures their value. The labor bestowed on the careful | 
finish of a priest’s dress, and in the tasteful decoration of an article of furniture, proves 
them to be the work of an ingenious and painstaking people. From the bas-reliefs we gain 
but little information respecting the private life of the Assyrians. There are a few 
which represent the foddering of cattle, women riding on mules, etc. 

It is natural to expect that Nineveh—a wealthy and luxurious city—imported many 
of the products of other countries, yet the manufactured goods would mainly be of home 
production. The jars, bronzes, glass bottles, carved ornaments in ivory and mother-of- 
pearl, engraved gems, bells, earrings, arms, utensils, are of excellent workmanship. 
The ornaments especially are in good taste, and evince no inconsiderable skill in the 
working of metals. Transparent glass was not unknown, nor the use of the lens as a 
magnifying agent. The Assyrians knew the principle of the arch, the use of the lever 
and roller, and the construction of aqueducts and drains. In the arts of peace, they 
appear to have been not inferior to any ancient nation; while their conquests, and the 
long duration of their empire, suffice to prove their capacity for war.—See Rawlinson’s 
Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World, Chaldea, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and 
Persia ; and Mr. George Smith’s Assyrian Discoveries (1875), and his Babylonia (new ed., 
by Sayce), and Sayce’s Assyria (1885). See illus, NINEVEH AND AssyYRIA, Vol. X., p. 
654. 

AST, GzorGcE ANTON FrieprRicH, 1778-1841 ; a German philologist. He was pro- 
fessor of classical literature at Landshut, and at Munich in 1826. Among his works are 
a Manual of Esthetics, Life and Writings of Plato, and an edition of Plato. 


AS'TACUS. See CraArrisH and LOBSTER. 


ASTAR'TE (styled Ashtaroth in the Old Testament), the name of the chief female deity 
of the Pheenicians, Carthaginians, and Syrians (Syria Dea), also worshiped by the Jews 
in times when idolatry prevailed. A. was the original from which the Greeks borrowed 
their Aphrodite (q.v.). As Baal was god of the sun, A. was goddess of the moon. Her 
chief temples were in Tyre and Sidon. According to ancient accounts, her worship was 
of a licentious character. The oldest known image of her—that in Paphos—represented 
her simply under the form of a white conical stone. In Canaan and Phoenicia she was 
subsequently typified under the form of a cow, or sometimes she had only a cow’s or 
bull’s head; still later, her emblem became a star; and finally, she was conceived of as 
the *‘ queen of heaven,” sitting on a lion, her head surrounded with rays, and in the one 
hand a thunderbolt, in the other a scepter. See illus., NrinEVEH AND AssyrtiA, vol. X., 
fig. 7. 


ASTAR'TE, a genus of mollusca, with bivalve shells, the type of a family astartida, 
very closely allied to the venertdw or Venus family. Itis interesting chiefly with reference 
to geologic changes and the history of life and organization, because only a few species 
seem now to exist, and these limited to the north Atlantic and Arctic oceans, whereas the 
fossil species are extremely numerous, commencing with the das period, and distributed 
over the whole world. The astartidse may be regarded as having given place to the 
veneride, which commenced with the oolitic period, and are among the most abundant 
bivalve mollusca of the present time. 

ASTATIC NEEDLE, a magnetic needle for which the influence of the earth’s mag 
netism has been evaded or neutralized. A needle would become A. if it were placed 
with its axis vertical at the magnetic pole, and it would point indifferently to any part of 
the horizon. A needle is usually made A. by fastening below it to the same axis a second 
needle of equal directive force, having its poles reversed. The influence of the earth’s 
magnetism on the two needles, being equal and opposite, is neutralized, and the pair is 
then free to respond to any other magnetic influence which may be presented to it. The 
A. N. is an important part of most galvanometers. 


_A-STAY’, the position of an anchor when, during heaving, the cable forms an angle 
with the surface of the water in line with the stays of the ship, | 


Aster. 8 34 


Astor. 


ASTER (Gr. a star, from the form of the flowers), a genus of plants of the natural 
order composite, which Lindley has therefore chosen to call asteracew. The ray and the 
disk are of different colors. The genus contains a great number of species, both herba- 
ceous and shrubby, which have been arranged into six or seven groups, regarded by 
many as distinct genera. One species only, A. tripoliwm or tripolium vulgare, the sea star- 
wort, isa native of Britain. [tis common in salt marshes. A number of perennial species 
are in cultivati n a: garden flowers, of which the New England A. (A. nove anglia) and 
the Michaelm.s daisy (A. tradescanti), both natives of North America, are perhaps the 
most common, and, with some of the other species, are prized as among the comparatively 
few flowers to be seen at that dull season when autumn is giving place to winter. But 
the best known and most valued of all the asters is the China A. (A. chinensis), a summer 
annual, of which many varieties are in cultivation, and new ones are continually intro- 
duced. It was brought from China in the earlier part of the 18th century. The varieties 
exhibit great diversities of form and color. The plant delights in a rich free soil. In 
the northern parts of Britain, the seed is generally sown in April in a hot-bed, or in pots 
under a frame, and the young asters are planted out in the open air in May. They flower 
from July to the end of autumn, and contribute much to the liveliness of the flower- 
garden.—A. argophyllus, or haatonia argophylia, is a shrub, a native of Van Diemen’s 
land, smelling strongly of musk. The whole plant has a whitish aspect. It grows to a 
considerable size, but succeeds in the open air only in the very south of England. 


ASTER, ExNnesT Lupwie von, 1778-1855 ; an engineer ; a lieutenant in the army of 
Saxony in 1800, and captain in 1809. Napoleon took an interest in his plan for the for- 
tification of Torgau and adopted it, employing A. to superintend the work. <A. soon 
after went into the service of Russia, took the command of a Cossack force, and fought 
at Bautzen and Leipsic. Returning to Saxon service in 1813, he became a colonel ; two 
years later, in the Prussian engineer corps, he was engaged at Ligny and Waterloo. After 
the last battle he was promoted to be general, and made inspector of Prussian fortifica- 
tions, winning a world-wide reputation in the construction of the defenses of Coblentz 
and Ehrenbreitstein. He was made commander of both fortresses ; in 1827, lieutenant- 
general ; in 1842, general of infantry. Ten years afterwards he was made a councilor of 
state. He left essays and other works posthumously published. 


ASTERABAD’. See ASTRABAD. 
ASTE’RIAS AnD ASTERI ADE. See STARFISH. 


ASTERISK (Gr. a little star), a sign or symbol (*), used in writing and printing either 
as a reference to a note at the bottom or on the margin of the page. The obelisk 
or dagger (+), and many other marks, are similarly employed ; but when there are several 
references on the same page, it is now common to use the numerals 1, 2, 8, etc. The A. 
and other similar signs may have any arbitrary meaning assigned to them, at the will of 
the writer, an explanation being previously given what the signification is to be. The 
Greek grammarians, or critics, used the A. to mark a passage that had been unjustly 
suspected, but was to be held as genuine, or a passage in any way remarkable ; the obe- 
lisk, again, marked an interpolated or an objectionable word or passage. 


AS'TEROIDS. See PLANETOIDs. 


ASTEROPHYL'LITES (Gr. aster, a star, and phyllon, a leaf), a generic name, under which 
are included many of the most abundant fossil plants of the coal-measures. The leaves 
are arranged in a stellated manner around the stems or branches. The A. are ranked 
among the exogenous or dicotyledonous fossils, but they are of doubtful affinity. See 
illus., Coan AND Rock Satt, vol. IV. 


ASTHMA is a disease characterized by the breathing, previously natural, becoming 
difficult, and accompanied by wheezing and a distressing sense of tightness in the chest. 
A. generally appears at first after some inflammatory affection of the respiratory mucous 
membrane, and more especially in those who have led dissipated lives. In others, it is 
clearly hereditary, and frequently affects several members of the same family. A. may 
be habitual, or may occur in spasms, generally preceded by some premonitory symp- 
toms, as In some by great drowsiness ; others, says Dr. Hyde Salter, ‘‘ know by extreme 
wakefulness and unusual mental activity and buoyancy of spirits; and I knew one case 
in which an attack of ophthalmia occurred.” 

T he spasms may occur at any hour ; but in nineteen out of twenty cases they awaken 
the patient from sleep between three and four in the morning. The horizontal position 
facilitating the flow of blood to the right side of the heart, and therefore to the lungs, the 
disadvantage at which the muscles of respiration are placeci, and the greater readiness 
with which sources of irritation act during sleep, explain this fact. 

Persons subject to A. scarcely dare fall asleep after any imprudence in diet ;' if they 
continue awake till their supper is fairly digested, and the stomach empty, they may go 
to sleep fearlessly, and have a good night’s rest. The asthmatic paroxysm is thus 
described by Dr. Salter, the latest authority on this common but terrible disease : ‘‘ The 
patient goes to bed and sleeps two or three hours, becomes distressed in his breathing, 
“ae begins to wheeze, so as to waken those in adjoining rooms. He awakes, changes 

Is position, falls asleep again and again, and the miserable fight between A. and sleep 
may go on, till the increased suffering does not allow the patient longer to forget him. 


885 Aster. 


Astor, 


self for a moment; he becomes wide awake, sits up in bed, throws himself forward, 
plants his elbows on his knees, and with fixed head and elevated shoulders, labors for 
breath like a dying man.” 

If the spasm is protracted, the oxygenation of his blood is imperfectly performed, 
owing to the scanty supply of air, and his extremities get cold and blue, but at the same 
time the violent muscular efforts at respiration cover him with sweat. The pulse is 
always small. The muscles of the back and neck attached to the ribs, act as extra- 
ordinary muscles of respiration. The chest enlarges during the paroxysm, but in it 
there is almost perfect stagnation of air. The respiratory tubes affected are very small, 
and the parts at which they are so constricted are constantly shifting. 

The remedies for A. are numerous, but not to be depended on. They consist in 
paying attention to the digestive system, and in anti-spasmodics, either taken internally or 
by inhalation. 


ASTI (Asta Pompeia), a city of Piedmont, in the government of Alessandria, lies on 
‘the left bank of the Tanaro, on the railway from Turin to Genoa, 264 m. e.s.e. of Turin. 
Pop. about 17,000. It is a large town, with walls considerably dilapidated, and the 
streets generally very narrow and irregular. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a court 
of justice anda royalcollege. There is carried on a considerable trade in silk and woolen 
fabrics, leather, and hats, as well as in wines and agricultural produce. <A. is a town 
of high antiquity, having been famous for its pottery before its capture by the Gauls in 
400 B.c. On the occasion of its being again taken and destroyed in an irruption of the 
Gauls, it was rebuilt by Pompey, and received the name of Asta Pompeia. In the 
middle ages, A. was one of the most powerful republics of upper Italy. It was cap- 
tured and burnt by the Emperor Frederick I. in 1155; and after a series of vicissitudes, 
it came into the possession of the Visconti of Naples, by whom it was ceded to the 
French, in whose hands it remained till the middle of the 16th c., when it came into the 
possession of the dukes of Savoy, as it stillremains. Alfieri was born here, 1749.—The 
district of Asti, one of the six subdivisions of the government of Alessandria, is bounded 
on the w. and n. by the province of Turin, s. by Alba, s.e. by Alessandria proper, and 
n.e. by the province of Casale. The surface is hilly and picturesque. The soil rests 
upon limestone abounding in fossils, and is fertile, producing corn, fruit, and wine. It 
is celebrated for a fine white wine resembling champagne, called vino d@’ Asti. Silk is 
one of its most important products. 


ASTIG'MATISM, a defect in vision caused by the refraction of light by the eye differ- 
ently in different planes. To an eye thus affected a pinhole in a paper may appear 
round, but when the paper is moved a little, the circular hole will seem to be an ellipse, 
and by further removal it will show like a straight slit. A cylindrical or spherico- 
cylindrical lens will correct this defect in the sight. See Eyr, DISEASES OF THE. 


ASTLEY, Puruip, 1742-1814; an English equestrian, learning the art of riding by 
seven years’ service in the cavalry. He established the first circus in London, and there 
and in Dublin and Paris, with Antoine Franconi, put up nearly 20 theatres or places for 
equestrian display. He wrote Astley’s System of Equestrian Education, and two smal. 
works on military matters. 

ASTOL’PHUS, or AstuLPHusS, a Lombard king succeeding Rachis, in 749 a.p. He 
seized upon Ravenna and threatened Rome, but, on petition of pope Stephen II., Pepin 
of France in 754 crossed the Alps and defeated A., who obtained peace only after surren- 
‘dering all his conquests. As soon as the French king departed, A. again menaced Rome, 
and again Pepin came to the help of the pope, shutting A. up in Pavia. While prepar- 
ing for a new campaign, A. fell from his horse, and died three days later. He left ne 
amale heirs. 

ASTON, Luisr, a German authoress of some note, but principally known for her zeal 
in behalf of the ‘‘rights of women.” She was b. about 1820, in the vicinity of Halber- 
stadt, and at an early age was married to a wealthy English manufacturer. Their union 
was not happy; perhaps her peculiar views of society and of the proper position of her 
sex contributed to the estrangement of their sympathies. After separating from her 
husband, she attracted public attention, especially in Berlin, by appearing on the streets in 
man’s dress, smoking cigars, etc. This conduct brought. her into several collisions with 
the police, and she was twice forced to leave the city. During the Slesvig-Holstein war, 
however, she found a nobler sphere for her woman’s nature, and displayed the greatest 
heroism and self-sacrificing devotion as an hospital nurse. She has written various books; 
the principal are Wild Roses (1846) and Frieschdrler-Reminiscenzen (1849), each of which 
contains 12 lyrical poems, none very able; Meine Hmancipation, Verweisung, und fechtfer- 
tigung (1846); a novel, Aus dem Leben einer Frau (1847); Revolution und Contre revolution 
(1849). In 1851, she married Dr. Meier of Bremen. 


ASTOR, JoHNn JAcos, an enterprising merchant, founder of the ‘‘ American Fur 
Company,” was b. in a village near Heidelberg, in Germany, 1768. After spending some 
years in London, he sailed to America in 1783, and soon invested his small capital in 
furs. By economy and industry, he so increased his means that after six years he had 
acquired a fortune of $200,000. Although the increasing influence of the English fur 
companies in North America was unfavorable to his plans, he now ventured to fit out 


es 836 
Astral. 

two expeditions to the Oregon territory—one by land, and one by sea—the purpose of 
which was to open up a regular commercial intercourse with the natives. After many 
mishaps, his object was achieved in 1811, and the fur-trading station _of Astoria (q.v.) 
was established: but the war of 1812 stopped its prosperity for a time. From this period 
A.’s commercial connections extended over the entire globe, and his ships were found in 
every sea. He d. in 1848, leaving Pie y amounting to $30,000,000. He left a legacy 
of $350,000 for the establishment of a public libr in New York. (See Washington 
Trving’s RP ee wealth was mainly inherite by his son WILLIAM, who continued 
to auement it till his death in 1875, when he is said to have left $50,000,000. He added 
$200,000 to his father’s bequest fora public library. He was known as the “landlord of 
New York” from the extent of his property in that city. 


ASTOR, WILLIAM WALDORF; b. Bennington, Vt., 1848, son of John Jacob Astor. 
He studied law in order to qualify himself for assuming the management of the Astor 
estate, but never practised. He was elected to the N. Y. state assembly, 1877, and to the 
senate, 1879; was defeated as a candidate for congress, 1881; was appointed minister 
to Italy, 1882, a position he held till Mar. 1, 1885. His father’s death in 1890 made him 
the head of the family, and the inheritor of an estate estimated at $200,000,000. He 
published the romances Valentino (1885) and Sforza (1889), purchased the Pall. Mali 
Gazette (1892), and founded the Pall Mali Magazine (1893). 


ASTOR'GA, EMANUELE D’, a musician, celebrated partly on account of his personal 
history, was b. in Sicily in 1680. His father, a baron of Sicily, in the contest respecting 
the annexation of the island to Spain, was delivered over to the enemy by his own 
mercenary soldiers, and was executed in 1701; while his wife and son (Emanuele) were 
barbarously compelled to witness the tragedy. The wife died on the spot, and the son 
fell into a state of unconsciousness. Afterwards, through the interest of the Spanish 
princess Ursini, he was educated in a monastery at Astorga in Leon, from which he 
derived his name. Here he especially devoted himself to music, and made such progress 
that he was invited to the court of the duke of Parma. His patron, erroneously suspect- 
ing that his daughter was receiving his addresses, sent him away to the court of the 
emperor Leopold. After Leopold’s death, A. traveled through Europe, and is supposed 
to have d. in a Bohemian monastery. His best work is the Stabat Mater, a masterly 
composition, of which the original score is preserved in Oxford. 


ASTORIA, formerly a large village in Queens co., N. Y., now incorporated in Long 
Island city (q.v.). Itis at the junction of the East river and the sound, opposite Hell- 
gate, and was for many years a favorite summer residence for New Yorkers. 

ASTORIA, city and co. seat of Clatsop co., Ore., on the s. bank of the Columbia River, 
about 8m. from its mouth. It was founded as a fur-trading station in 1811, and named 
after the chief proprietor, John Jacob Astor. It was incorporated as a city in 1876. It 
is the centre of the salmon fishing, having two-thirds of the fish-canneries on the Colum- 
bia river. It makes large foreign and domestic shipments of salmon, lumber, oil, leather, 
wheat and flour. It has an excellent system of water-works, banks, churches, news- 
papers, good schools, and a hospital conducted by the Sisters of Charity. A railway 
conte it with the Northern Pacific is in process of construction (1897). Pop. 1890, 
6184. 

ASTOR LIBRARY, in the city of New York, founded by John Jacob Astor, and 
largely increased by his son, William B. Astor. The edifice on Lafayette place is excel- 
lently adapted to the purpose, and occupies nearly the whole of a lot 235 by 120 ft. It 
is of brick, of the Byzantine order, finely ornamented with brown-stone moldings. The 
original library room is 100 by 64 ft., and 50 ft. high, and is reached by 86 marble steps. 
This building was opened Jan. 9, 1854, but it soon became too small for its purpose, and 
William B, Astor erected a building adjoining, exactly corresponding in style and size, 
which was opened Sept. 1, 1859. The grandson of the founder, Mr. John Jacob Astor, 
conveyed to the library, by deed of gift, three lots of ground adjoining, 75 ft. front by 
100 ft. in depth, and in 1879 erected thereon an addition to the present library building, 
65 ft. in front by 100 ft. deep, which was opened in 1881. With this addition the library 
possesses a front of 195 ft. and a depth of 100 ft., with an increased capacity for books 
amounting to 120,000 volumes. For the year" 1894 tke income of the library was 
$47,054.05, the number of bound volumes was 260,611 and the daily average of persons 
using the library was 287. Samuel J. Tilden directed in his will, dated April 23, 1884, 
that his executors should obtain from the legislature an act of incorporation for an 
institution to be called The Tilden Trust which should establish and maintain a free 
library and reading room in the City of New York. On the settlement of the litigation 
over his will, The Tilden Trust found itself possessed of the testator’s fine private 
library together with a large amount of personal and real property for the new Institu- 
tion, the value of the entire endowment being estimated at $2,000,000. On May 23, 
1895 a consolidated corporation was formed under the name of The New York Public 
Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations. This brought the Astor Library under 
the control of the executive department of the consolidated institution, but the existing 
staif of the Astor Library was retained. This arrangement has increased the resources 


of the Astor Library and enabled it to add greatly to the number of its books. See NEw 
YORK PuBLIc LIBRARY. 


ASTRABAD’, at. in then. of Persia, capital of the province of the same name, is 
built at the foot of the northern slope of the Elbruz mountains, on a small river which 
runs into A. bay, at the s.e. extremity of the Caspian, from which it is distant 20 miles. 
Lat. 36° 50’ n., long. 54° 31’ e. It was long the residence of the Kajar princes, from 
whom the prescut shah of Persia is descended ; but on account of its situation in a 


837 eiots 


remote corner of the kingdom, it was not advanced to the dignity of the metropolis of 
Persia. Teheran, at the foot of the chain of mountains which separates Iran from 
Mazanderan, became the capital; and since then the importance of A. has considerably 
sunk. It is still inclosed by a dry ditch and mud-wall, 3 m. in circumference, but 
its great towers have disappeared. Trade has increased since the establishment of a 
Russian consulate. The causeway constructed by shah Abbas is kept in good repair, 
and connects A. with Khorassan, Afghanistan, ete. Pop. 15,000. The t. is a very 
unhealthy residence during the summer rains. 


ASTRE’A, daughter of Zeus and Themis, or of Astreeus and Aurora, was the goddess 
of justice, the last of all the goddesses who left the earth when the golden age had 
passed away and men began to forge weapons and perpetrate actsof violence. She took 
her place in heaven as the constellation Virgo in the zodiac.—Greek art usually repre- 
sented her with a pair of balances in her hand, and a crown of stars on ber head.—A. is 
also the name of one of the planetoids (q.Vv.). 


ASTR2E’A. See Cora and MADREPORE. 


ASTRAG'ALUS, a bone of the foot, which, by a convex upper surface and smooth 
sides, forms, with the leg-bones, the hinge of the ankle-joint. Its lower surface is 
concave, and rests on the os ca@leis, or heel-bone, to which it is attached by a strong liga- 
ment.- In front, it has a round head, which rests in the concavity of the scaphoid, 
another bone of the tarsus, and upon an elastic ligament, its pressure upon which gives 
in a great measure the necessary elasticity to the foot: it is at this joint that inversion 
and eversion of the foot take place. It will be seen that the A. is a bone of great import- 
ance to the member, as it supports the weight of the body in standing, and enters into 
most of the movements of the foot. It is occasionally displaced, generally in front of 
the outer ankle. 


ASTRAG’ALUS, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminose, sub-order papil- 
tonacee. The pod is more or less perfectly 2-celled. The leaves are pinnate, with a 
terminal leaflet. The species are numerous, natives chiefly of the temperate and colder 
parts of the old world, shrubby, and often spiny, or unarmed and herbaceous. A num- 
ber of the shrubby species yield the substance called tragacanth (which see under Gum). 
A. boéticus, an annual, native of the s. of Europe, with upright branching stems, is 
cultivated in Hungary, Germany, and other parts of Europe, for its seeds, which are 
roasted, ground, and used as a substitute for coffee, or mixed with it to improve its 
flavor.—The sweet milk-vetch, or wild licorice (A. glycyphyllos), a native of Britain and 
other parts of Europe, perennial, with long and very thick roots, which penetrate deep 
into the soil, and almost prostrate stems, 3 ft. in length, is occasionally cultivated 
for food of cattle, yielding a very abundant herbage. Cattle are not fond of it at first, 
but are said to become fond of it after being’ accustomed to it for some time. The roots 
have somewhat of the sweetness. of licorice. 


ASTRAKHAN’, originally a province of the Mogul empire, but united with the Rus- 
sian empire in 1554. At present, A. forms one of the s.e. governments of Russia in 
Europe, and is bounded on the s. by the Caspian sea and the Caucasus; on the w., by the 
country of the Don Cossacks; on the n., by the government of Saratov; and on the e., 
by Orenburg. Area, 91,327 sq.m.; pop. ’92, est. 878,991. The province of A. is almost 
entirely a barren waste, the only fertile portions being the banks of the Volga, which 
divides the province into two equal parts. Salt is procured from the marshes of the 
steppes, considerable numbers of cattle are reared, and the annual value of the stur- 
geon-fishing in the Volga is very great. The climate varies from 70° F. in summer, to 
13° in winter. The population is composed of diverse elements—Russian, Tartar, 
Georgian, Armenian, Bokharese, Persian, and Hindoo. 

ASTRAKBAN, the chief t. of the government of the same name, is situated on an island 
of the Volga, and near the Caspian sea, in lat. 46° 21’ n., and long. 48° 4’ e. It is the 
seat of a Greek archbishop and an Armenian bishop; has Greek, Roman Catholic, Prot- 
estant, and Armenian churches; many mosques, an Indian temple, a gymnasium, a sem- 
inary for priests, a botanical garden, and many manufactories. Pop. ’91, 104,856. The 
houses are mostly of wood, and irregularly built. The fisheries in the Volga supply 
occupation to great numbers of the inhabitants of A. and its neighborhood. The prin- 
cipal exports are leather, linen, and woolen goods, salted sturgeon, caviare, and isinglass, 
Imports consist chiefly of gold-embroidered silken goods from Persia, silk stuffs, woolen 
goods, rice, rhubarb, raw silk, drugs, etc. From July to Oct. the neighborhood of A. 
is frequently visited by swarms of locusts.—A. is the name of a fine description of fur, 
the produce of a variety of sheep found in Bokhara, Persia, and Syria. 


ASTRAL SPIRITS. The star (Gr. astron) and fire worship of the eastern religions 
rested on the doctrine that every heavenly body is animated by a pervading spirit, form- 
ing, as it were, its soul; and this doctrine passed into the religio-physical theories of the 
Greeks and Jews, and even into the Christian world, In the demonology or spirit- 
systems of Christendom in the middle ages, A. 8. are conceived of sometimes as fallen 
angels, sometimes as souls of departed men, sometimes as spirits originating in fire, and 
hovering between heaven, earth, and hell, without belonging to any one of these prov- 
inces. Their intercourse with men and their influence were variously represented, 


Astringents. 83 8 
Astronomy. 


according to the notion formed of their nature. _ As the belief in spirits and witchcraft 
reached its height in the 15th c., the demonologists, or special students of this subject, 
systematized the strange fancies of that wild period; and A. 8. were made to occupy 
the first rank among evil or demoniacal spirits. Paracelsus, however, and others attrib- 
uted to every human being an astral spirit, or sidereal element, in which the human 
soul, or spirit proper, is thought to inhere, and which lives for a time after the person 
dies 

ASTRINGENTS, medicines employed for the purpose of contracting the animal fibers 
and canals, so as to check fluxes, hemorrhage, and diarrhea. The drugs most com- 
monly used as A. are alum, catechu, oak-galls, rhatany-root, etc. Many of the vegetable 
A. owe that property, in whole or in great part, to tannin. A severe degree of cold isa 
powerful astringent. 

ASTROCA’RYUM (from the Gr. astron, a star, and karyon, a nut), a genus of palms, 
of which about sixteen species are known, natives of tropical America, remarkable for 
the abundance of acute and formidable spines—in some cases a foot long—with which 
almost every part—stem, leaves, spathe, and fruit-stalk—is armed. They have beauti- 
ful pinnated leaves; some of them are lofty, others are of very moderate height, as 8 to 
15 ft., whilst some are almost or altogether stemless. The fruit of some species is eat- 
able—a juicy pulp covering a stony seed—as the fruit of the Murumurt palm (A. 
murumuru), the pulp of which is said to resemble a melon in flavor, has a sort of musky 
odor, and is highly esteemed. It is a palm of only about 8 to 12 ft. high, abundant 
about Parad and elsewhere on the Amazon. Cattle roam the forests in quest of its fruit, 
and swine fatten on the seed, which they crush with their teeth, although to break it 
requires a smart blow of a hammer, and in hardness it almost resembles vegetable ivory. 
Another edible fruit is that of the Tucuma’ palm (A.tucwma), abundant in the same regions. 
These fruits are about an inch long, the murumurt ovate, the tucumé almost globular. 
The tucumaé palm is 30 to 40 ft. high, the stem encircled with narrow rings of black 
spines, which are disposed with beautiful regularity. The Tuctm palm (A. vulgare), a. 
species quite distinct from the tucuma, and more lofty, is of great importance to the: 
Indians, and in places where it is not indigenous, is cultivated with care for the sake of 
the epidermis of its unopened leaves, of which they make cordage, very useful for bow- 
strings, fishing-nets, etc. The fiber is at once fine, strong, and durable, and may yet. 
perhaps become important as an article of commerce. Beautiful hammocks are made 
of tuctim thread, which are sold at about £3 each, or if ornamented with feather-work 
borders, at twice that sum. Martius, in his great work on palms, has, by mistake, rep- 
resented the tucumé instead of the tuctim palm as yielding this fiber. See Wallace, Palm. 
Trees of the Amazon, Lond., 1853. The fiber is obtained by cutting down the terminal 
bud or column of unopened leaves which rises from the center of the crown of foliage. 
The tender leaflets are then carefully stripped of their epidermis, in pale, ribbon-like 
pellicles, which shrivel up almost to a thread. These are tied in bundles and dried, and 
are afterwards twisted into thread, or made into thicker cords, by mere rolling and man- 
ipulation. 


AS'TROLABE (from two Greek words signifying ‘‘to take the stars”), the name 
given by the Greeks to any circular instrument for observing the stars. Circular rings, 
arranged as in the armillary sphere (q.v.), were used for this purpose. <A projection of 
the sphere upon a plane, with a graduated rim and sights for taking altitudes, was known 
as an A. in the palmy days of astrology, and was the badge of the astrologer. The A. 
has been superseded by the more perfect instruments of modern astronomy. 


ASTROLOGY meant originally much the same as astronomy, ‘‘the knowledge of the 
stars,” but was at length restricted to the science of predicting future events, especially 
the fortunes of men, from the positions of the heavenly bodies. This was considered the 
higher, the real science; while the mere knowledge of the stars themselves, their places. 
and motions (astronomy), was, tilla very recent period, cultivated mostly with a view to 
(judicial) astrology. A. is one of the most ancient forms of superstition, and is found 
prevailing among the nations of the east (Egyptians, Chaldeans, Hindoos, Chinese) at 
the very dawn of history. The Jews became much addicted to it after the captivity. 
It spread into the west and to Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. Astrologers 
played an important part at Rome, where they were called Chaldeans and mathema- 
ticians; and though often banished by the senate and emperors under pain of death, and 
otherwise persecuted, they continued to hold their ground. The Roman poet Manilius, 
author of an astronomical poem still extant, was addicted to A.; and even Ptolemy the 
astronomer did not escape the infection, which in his time had become universal. It 
accords well with the predestinarian doctrines of Mohammedanism, and was accordingly 
cultivated with great ardor by the Arabs from the 7th to the 18th century. Some of the 
early Christian fathers argued against the doctrines of A., others received them ina 
modified form. In its public capacity, the Catholic church several times condemned the 
system; but many zealous Catholics, even churchmen have cultivated it. Cardinal d’Ailly, 

the eagle of the doctors of France’ (d. 1420), is said to have calculated the horoscope 
of Jesus Christ, and maintained that the deluge might have been predicted by A. For 
centuries the most learned men continued devoted to this delusive science; Regiomon- 
tanus, the famous mathematician Cardan, even Tycho Brahé and Kepler, could not 


Astringents. 
839 Aptionansys 


shake off the fascination. Kepler saw the weakness of A. as a science, but could not 
bring himself to deny a certain connection between the positions (‘‘ constellations”) of 
the planets and the qualities of those under them. The Copernican system gave the 
death-blow to A. When the earth itself was found to be only one of the planets, it 
seemed absurd that all the others should be occupied in influencing it. The argument 
has really little force, but it produced the effect. Belief in A. is not now ostensibly pro- 
fessed in any Christian country, though a few solitary advocates have from time to time 
appeared, as J. M. Pfaff in Germany, Astrologie (Bamb., 1816). But it still holds sway in 
the east, and among Mohammedans wherever situated. Even in Europe the craving of 
the ignorant of all countries for divination is still gratified by the publication of multi- 
tudes of almanacs containing astrological predictions, though the writers no longer 
believe in them. 

; Many passages of our old writers are unintelligible without some knowledge of astro- 
logical terms, numbers of which have taken rootinthe language. In the technical rules 
’ by which human destiny was foreseen, the heavenly houses played an important part. 
Astrologers were by no means at one as to the way of laying out those houses. A very 
general way was to draw great circles through the n. and s. points of the horizon, as 
meridians pass through the poles, dividing the heavens, visible and invisible, into 
twelve equal parts—six above the horizon, and six below. These were the twelve houses, 
and were numbered onward, beginning with that which lay in the e. immediately below 
the horizon. ‘The first was called the house of life; the second, of fortune, or riches; 
the third, of brethren; the fourth, of relations; the fifth, of children; the sixth, of 
health; the seventh, of marriage; the eighth, of death, or the upper portal; the ninth, 
of religion; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of friends and benefactors; the twelfth, 
of enemies, or of captivity. The position of the twelve houses fora given time and place 
—the instant of an individual’s birth, for instance—was a theme. 'To construct sucha 
plan was to cast the person’s nativity. The houses had different powers, the strongest 
being the first; as it contained the part of the heavens about to rise, it was called the 
ascendant, and the point of the ecliptic cut by its upper boundary was the horoscope. 
Each house had one of the heavenly bodies as its Jord, who was strongest in his own 
house. 

ASTRONOMY (Gr. astron, a star, nomos, a law) teacbes whatever is known of the 
heavenly bodies. A. may be properly divided under three heads,—Astro-mechanies, which 
deals with the mathematical laws governing the heavenly bodies; astro-physics, treating 
of their physical and chemical constitution; and astrometry, which includes the art of 
making measurements with astronomical instruments, This last branch is sometimes 
called practical A. 

Such parts of this extensive subject as are deemed suited to the present work, will be 
found under their appropriate heads, such as ABERRATION OF LIGHT, CIRCLE, COMET, 
Equator, Frxep Stars, LIBRATION, PARALLAX, PLANETOIDS, PLANETS, PRECESSION, 
REFRACTION, SOLAR SystTEM, Sun, Timez, TRANSIT INSTRUMENT, etc. A brief sketch of 
the history of astronomical discovery is all that can be attempted in the present article. 

The history of A. dates from a very early period. It is the most ancient of all the 
sciences. The Chinese, Hindoos, Chaldeans, Egyptians, and even the Greeks, are known 
to have investigated the heavens very long before the Christian era. But with the first 
four nations, A. may be said to have been a sentiment rather than a science—a vague 
notion built up out of crude speculations, rather than acorrect theory founded on sys- 
tematic observation. In China, A. was intimately associated with state politics; the 
Indians, Chaldeans, and Egyptians made it a matter of religion; and each of these 
nations applied it to astrological purposes. In Greece alone was it prosecuted for its own 
sake. 

The Chinese, Chaldeans, Hindoos, and Egyptians each claim the honor of having 
been the first students of A., and each has had advocates to support itsclaim. The Tir- 
valore tables (asserted by the Hindoos to belong to an epoch of 3102 years B.c.—the com. 
mencement of the Cali-yug, or iron age, of their mythology—at which period aconjunc-~ 
tion of the sun, moon, and planets is said to have occurred) are, so far as their date is 
concerned, altogether unreliable. Modern calculations have conclusively proved that no 
such conjunction could possibly have taken place at the time specified; and the elements 
of the tables are, in the general opinion of scientific men, of a character far in advance 
of the actual observations of that period. There is no doubt that the epoch is fictitious 
—that the date of these tables is fixed much earlier than their internal evidence justifies; 
but it is matter of dispute whether they were the result of the observations of Hindoos 
themselves at some later period before the Christian era, or whether they were con- 
structed after that era from data furnished to them by the Arabs or Greeks. Those 
who hold the former view, quote the well-known mathematical attainments of the Indians, 
and their aversion to intercourse with foreigners, as arguments in its favor; those who 
support the latter, point out that the tables are a mean between those of Ptolemy and 
Albategnius, or Al Batani, a distinguished Arabian astronomer, and therefore likely to 
have been derived from these two sources. Those who are interested in the question of 
the originality of these tables, may refer to Delambre, and to Bailly’s Hist. de ?_Astrono- 
mie Indienne. 

The Chinese have astronomical annals claiming to go back 2857 years B.c. In these 


840 


Astronomy. 


+s little record of anvthing but of the appearance of comets and solareclipses; and 
snereiae tis rate SHER aIe they tell nothing, save the fact and date of their occur- 
rence. Professional astronomers were compelled to predict every eclipse under pain of 
death. The popular idea was that an eclipse was a monster having evil designs on the sun, 
and it was customary to make a great noise by shouting, beating of gongs, etc., in orderto 
frighten it away from its solar prey. The many eclipses which the Chinese report have 
been recalculated, but not more than one anterior to the time of Ptolemy could be veri- 
fied. At an early period, however, the Chinese appear to have been acquainted with 
the luni-solar cycle of 19 years (introduced into Greece by Meton, and since known as 
the Metonic cycle), and they had also divided the year into 3653 days. Solstitial observ- 
ances are said to nave been made by a gnomon in the 11th C. B.C. o the burning of all 
scientific books by one of their princes (Tsin-Chi-Hong-Ti), 221 B.c., the Chinese attrib- 
ute the loss of many theories or methods previously in use. The precession of the equi- - 
noxes was not known to the Chinese until 400 A.p., but long prior to that they were 
familiar with the motion of the planets. 

The mass of evidence seems in favor of the plains of Chaldea being the primal seat 
of observative A. The risings and settings of the heavenly bodies and eclipses were sub- 
jects of observation and notation by their priests at a very remote period. Simplicius 
and Porphyry mention that Aristotle had transmitted to him from Babylon, by order of 
Alexander the great, a catalogue of eclipses observed during 1903 years preceding the 
conquest of that city by the Macedonians. Ptolemy gives six of the eclipses from this 
catalogue, but the earliest does not extend further back than 720 B.c. The probability 
therefore is that the statement of Simplicius, as to their early date, is an exaggeration. 
In these observations, the time is only given in hours, and the part of the diameter 
eclipsed within a quarter; but rough as they are, they are the earliest reliable observa- 
tions extant; and a comparison of them with modern observations, led Halley to the dis- 
covery of the doctrine of the moon’s acceleration—that is, that she now moves round the 
earth with greater velocity than formerly. It is remarkably illustrative of their habit of 
diligent observation, that the Chaldeans were acquainted with the cycle of 65854 days, 
during which the moon makes about 223 synodical revolutions, and experiences the 
same number of eclipses, alike, too, in order and magnitude, comparing cycle with 
cycle. The clepsydra as a clock, the gnomon for determining the solstices, and a hemi- 
spherical dial for ascertaining the positions of the sun, were used by the Chaldeans, and 
they have the credit of the invention of the zodiac and the duodecimal division of the 
day. 

“The Egyptians, it is supposed, were the first instructors of the Greeksin A. They 
do not, however, appear to have observed much for. themselves. The meaning of what 
data they have left behind them can be guessed at only ina few instances. No mention is 
made by Ptolemy of the idea ascribed to them, that the planets Mercury and Venus 
moved round the sun; the probability therefore is, Ptolemy not being likely to overlook 
such a novel theory, that they entertained no such notion at the time of his visit, but that 
it is an after-thought of more recent ages. From the accuracy with which some of the 
pyramids face the cardinal points, there isa supposition that they must have been erected 
for astronomical purposes; but if it be true, as is stated, that Thales taught the Egyp- 
tians how to find the height of the pyramids by the shadow, and that the latter informed 
Herodotus that the sun had twice been seen to rise in the west, the conclusion is that 
the A. of the ancient Egyptians was very meager and absurd. 

Up to this time, A. is little else than tradition. 'The Greeks have the honor of elevat- 
ing it into a reliable history, and to the dignity of a science. Thales (640 B.c), the 
founder of the Lonic school, laid the foundation of Greek A. He it was who first prop- 
agated the theory of the earth’s sphericity. ‘The sphere he divided into five zones. He 
predicted the year of a great solar eclipse, but this it is now supposed he must have 
casually succeeded in doing—the Greeks at this time having no observations of their 
own to guide them—by means of the Chaldean saros, or period of 18 years and 10 days, 
which gives a regular recurrence of eclipses. He made the Greeks, who, prior to his 
time, were content to navigate their vessels by the Great Bear—a rough approximation to 
the north—acquainted with the lesser constellation of that name, a much better guide for 
the mariner. His system, however, contained a good deal of absurdity. Among other 
things, he held that the stars were composed of fire, and that the earth was the center 
of the universe. The successors of Thales held opinions which in many respects are 
wonderfully in accordance with modern idéas. Anaximander, it is said, held that the 
earth moved about its own axis, and that the moon’s light was reflected from the sun. 
To him is algo attributed, on somewhat slender authority, the belief in the grand idea of 
the plurality of worlds. Anaxagoras, who transferred the Ionic school from Miletus to 
Athens, is said to have offered a conjecture that, like the earth, the moon had habitations, 
hills, and valleys. 

Pythagoras (500 B.c.), who was the next astronomer of eminence, was very far in ad- 
vance of his predecessors. He promulgated, on grounds fanciful enough, the theory, 
the truth of which, however, has been since established, that the sun is the center of 
the planetary world, and that the earth circulates round it. Pythagoras also first taught 
that the morning and evening star were in reality one and the same planet. But the. 
views of Pythagoras met with little or no support from his successors until the time of 


8 41 Astronomy. 


Copernicus. Between Pythagoras and the advent of the Alexandrian school, nearly a 
couple of centuries later, the most prominent names in astronomical annals are those of 
Meton (432 B.c.), who introduced the luni-solar cycle, as already intimated, and, in con- 
junction with Euctemon, observed a solstice at Athens in the year 424 B.c.; Callippus 
(830 B.c.), who improved the Metonic cycle; Eudoxus of Cnidus (870 B.c.), who brought 
into Greece the year of 3654 days, and wrote some works on A.; and Nicetas of Syra- 
cuse, who is reported to have taught the diurnal motion of the earth on its axis. 

To the Alexandrian school, owing its existence to the munificent Ptolemies, we are 
indebted for the first systematic observations in A. Hitherto the truths of A. rested 
on no better evidence than the conjectures of sagacious minds, and these being opposed. 
to the testimony of the senses, met with but little acceptance from the world. The 
Alexandrian school originated a connected series of observations relative to the consti- 
tution of the universe. The positions of the fixed stars were determined, the paths of 
the planets carefully traced, and the solar and lunar inequalities more accurately ascer- 
tained. Angular distances were calculated with instruments suitable to the purpose by 
trigonometrical methods, and ultimately the school of Alexandria presented to the world 
the first system of theoretical astronomy that had ever comprehended an entire plan of 
the celestial motions. The system we know to be false, and inferior to the Pythagorean 
notions; but it had the merit of being founded upon a long and patient observation of 
phenomena, a principle which finally brought about its own destruction, while the pre- 
vious theories were the results of pure hypothesis. 

The most interesting circumstances connected with the early history of the Alexan- 
drian school are the attempts made to determine the distance of the earth from the sun, 
and the magnitude of the terrestrial globe. Aristarchus of Samos—the pioneer of the 
Copernican system, as Humboldt calls him—is the author of an ingenious plan to ascer- 
tain the former. See ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS. 

Among other eminent members of this school were Timocharis and Aristyllus, who 
made the observations which, together with observations of his own, enabled Hippar- 
chus (q.v.) to discover the precession of the equinoxes; Eratosthenes (q.v.), who was the 
first who attempted to determine on true principles the magnitude of the earth, and to 
clear, as Humboldt expresses it, ‘‘ the description of the earth from its fabulous tradi- 
tions;’ and Autolycus, whose books on A. are the earliest extant in the Greek language. 

We have now arrived at by far the greatest name we have yet met in astronomical 
science—that of Hipparchus of Bithynia (160-125 B.c.), and here may be said to begin 
the real written history of scientific A.; for not until his era were there facts correct 
enough and sufficient in number upon which to build a system. Hipparchus was at 
once a theorist, a mathematician, and an observer. He catalogued no less than 1081 
stars. This is the first reliable catalogue we have. He discovered, as we have already 
mentioned, the precession of the equinoxes; he determined, with greater exactitude than 
his predecessors had done, the mean motion as well as the inequality of the motion of 
the sun; and also the length of the year. He also determined the mean motion of the 
moon, her eccentricity, the equation of her center, and the inclination of her orbit; and 
he suspected the inequality afterwards discovered by Ptolemy (the evection). He 
invented processes analogous to plane and spherical trigonometry, and was the first to 
use right ascensions and declinations, which he afterwards abandoned in favor of lati- 
tudes and longitudes. 

For more than two centuries and a half after the demise of this indefatigable astron- 
omer, we meet with no name of note. Ptolemy (180-150 a.p.) is the next who rises 
above the mass of mediocrities. Besides being a practical astronomer, he was accom- 
plished as a musician, a geographer, and mathematician. His most important discovery 
in A. was the libration or evection of the moon. He also was the first to point out the 
effect of refraction. He extended and improved many of the theories of Hipparchus, 
and was the founder of the false system known by his name, and which was universally 
accepted as the true theory of the universe, until the researches of Copernicus exploded 
it. The Ptolemaic system, expounded in the Great Collection, or, as it was called by the 
Arabs, the Almagest—from which source most of our knowledge of Greek A. is derived 
—placed the earth immovable in the center of the universe, making the entire heavens 
revolve round it in the course of twenty-four hours. 

With Ptolemy closes the originality of the Greek school. His successors were men 
of no mark, confining themselves for the most part to astrology, or to comments on 
earlier writers. It is to the Arabs that we owe the next advances in A. They com- 
menced making observations 762 4.p., in the reign of the Caliph Al Mansur, who gave 
great encouragement to science, as did also his successors, the “ good Haroun al Raschid” 
and Al Mamoum, both of whom were themselves diligent students of A. For four 
centuries the Arabs prosecuted the study of the science with assiduity, but they are 
chiefly meritorious as observers. They had little capacity for speculation, and through- 
out held the Greek theories in superstitious reverence. They, however, determined with 
much more accuracy than the Greeks had done the precession of the equinoxes, the 
obliquity of the ecliptic, and the solar eccentricity; and the length of the tropical year 
was ascertained within a few seconds of the truth. The most illustrious of the Arabian 
school were Albategnius or Al Batani (880 A.p.), who discovered the motion of the solar 
apogee (see ANOMALISTIC YEAR), and who was also the first to make use of sines and versed 


842 


Astronomy. 


sines instead of chords; he corrected. the Greek observations, and was altogether the 
most distinguished observer between Hipparchus and the Copernican era; and Ibn- 
Yunis (1000 a.p.), an excellent mathematician, who made observations of great impor- 
tance in determining the disturbances and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn, and who 
was the first to use cotangents and secants. 

In the northern part of Persia, an observatory was erected by a descendant of tne 
renowned warrior Genghis Khan, where some tables were constructed by Nasir-Eddin; 
and at Samarcand, Ulugh Beg, a grandson of Timur, made, in 1483 a.D,, many obser- 
vations, and the most correct catalogue of stars which, up to his time, had been 

ished. 

po the 18th c., A. was again introduced into western Europe, the first translation 
from the Almagest being made under the emperor Frederick I. of Germany, about 1280; 
and in 1252 an impulse was given to the science by the formation of astronomical tables 
under the auspices of Alfonso X. of Castile. An Englishman, named Holywood (Sacro- 
bosco), in 1220 wrote a book of great repute in its day on the spheres, chiefly abridged 
from Ptolemy; and among others who did much to promote a taste for A. were Purbach 
(1460), Regiomontanus (John Muller), who died in 1476, and Waltherus, a pupil of the 
latter, who made numerous observations of merit. 

We now come to the illustrious name of Copernicus (b. 1478, d. 1543), to whom was 
reserved the grand honor and the danger—for there is ever danger in bringing old 
notions into disrepute by introducing new systems of truth—of exploding the Ptolemaic 
idea, and of promulgating a correct though imperfect theory of the universe. His sys- 
tem is in some part a revival and systematic application of the opinions said to have 
been held by Pythagoras. It makes the sun the immovable center of the universe, 
around which all the planets revolve in concentric orbits, Mercury and Venus within 
the earth’s orbit, and all the other planets without it. In the Copernican theory, there 
were many of the old notions which have since been exploded. It is a current belief 
that Copernicus, afraid to state boldly such heterodox views of the universe as those 
he entertained, gave them forth in the form of an hypothesis. Humboldt, in his second 
volume of Cosmos (p. 845), denies that he did so. This distinguished authority says: 
«The language of Copernicus is powerful and free, and bursts forth from his inmost 
convictions, and thus sufficiently refutes the ancient opinion, that he has brought for- 
ward the system which is immortalized by his name, as an hypothesis made for the con- 
venience of calculating astronomers, or for one which has but a probable foundation.” 
The same author also refutes the popular notion that Copernicus died a few hours after 
receiving a printed copy of his book. He was broken down in body and mind when 
his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies was brought to him, but he did not 
die until ‘‘ many days afterwards, on the 24th May, 15438.” 

Among the contemporaries of Copernicus were Rheinhold, who constructed the 
Prutenic tables; Recorde, who was the first to write on A.in English; and Nonius, a 
Portuguese, who invented a method for dividing the circle. The study of A. was 
also much aided about this time by the liberality of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, 
William IV. 

Decidedly the most industrious observer and eminent practical astronomer from the 
time of the Arabs to the latter half of the 16th c. was Tycho Brahé (b. 1546, d. 1601). 
Considerable odium attaches to himon account of his repudiation of the Copernican 
system, but it should not be forgotten that in the time of Tycho that system was not 
supported by the conclusive evidence we are now in possession of. Tycho’s system, 
which made the sun move round the earth, and all the other planets round the sun, they 
moving with it round the earth, explained all natural phenomena then observed equally 
well, while it must have appeared more probable than the crude and, at that era, unde- 
monstrable theories of Copernicus. Tycho Brahé compiled a catalogue of 777 fixed 
stars, more perfect than any that had previously appeared. He made the first table of 
refractions, and discovered the variation and annual equation of the moon, the inequali- 
ties of the motion of the nodes, and the inclination of the lunar orbit, and rejected the 
trepidation of the precession, which had hitherto injuriously affected all tables. He 
also made some interesting cometary investigations. 

To his researches are mainly due the discovery by Kepler (b. 1571, d. 1630) of those 
famous laws which have rendered his name immortal. See KEPLER. To Kepler is due 
the credit of divesting the Copernican system of its absurdities. Kepler is also said to 
have had some notion of the law of gravitation. 

Galileo Galilei (b. 1564, d. 1642) first applied the telescope (which he made from a 
general description of the instrument of Hans Lipperhey of Holland, who was the first 
inventor of the telescope) to the investigation of the heavens. He was rewarded by the 
discovery of the inequalities on the moon’s surface. The important discoveries of the 
four satellites of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn—not then distinctly recognized as a circle— 
the spots on the sun, and the crescent form of Venus, followed in quick succession. 
For propagating the Copernican doctrine of the world, Galileo incurred the displeasure 
of the priests, and was compelled by the Inquisition to retract his opinions. 

But the eternal laws of nature are not to be suspended by the recantation of a 
philosopher forced by the tyranny of priestcraft. The earth moved grandly on round 
the Sun In spite of both; and scientific truth was now too old ¢o remain in the restrictive 
‘eading-strings of any ecclesiasticism. 


843 


Astronomy. 


The next great epoch in the history of A. brings us to England and Newton (b, 1642, 
d. 1727). In the interval, practical A. had profited largely by the logarithms of Napier; the 
mathematical researches of Descartes ; the application of the telescope to the quadrant by 
Gascoigne, an Englishman, and afterwards by Auzout and Picard; by Rémer’s dis- 
covery of the progressive motion, and measurement of the velocity, of light; by the 
invention of Vernier; and the application of the pendulum to clocks by Huyghens, who 
also brought into use the spiral spring, and made some valuable observations on the ring 
and satellites of Saturn; as well as by the investigations of Norwood, Horrocks, Hooke, 
Hevelius, Gilbert, Leibnitz, and Dominicus Cassini, to the last of whom especially the 
scientific world owes much. Among a variety of other valuable observations and dis- 
coveries may be mentioned his thorough investigation of the zodiacal light, his deter- 
mination of the rotations of Jupiter and Mars, and of the motions of Jupiter’s satellites 
from their eclipses, his discovery of the dual character of Saturn’s ring, and also of four 
of his satellites. Newton’s fame rests upon his discovery of the law of gravitation, upon 
which the common belief is he was led to speculate by the fall of an apple. Newton 
announced his discovery in the Principia in 1687, which was briefly that every particle of 
matter is attracted by, or gravitates to, every other particle of matter, with a force 
inversely proportional to the squares of their distances. The first gleam of this grand 
conclusion is said to have so overpowered Newton that he had to suspend his calculations, 
and call in a friend to finish the few arithmetical computations that were incomplete. 
This discovery is perhaps the grandest effort of human genius of which we have any 
record. Newton also made the important discovery of the revolution of comets round 
the sun in conic sections, proved the earth’s form to be an oblate spheroid, gave a theory 
of the moon and tides, invented fluxions, and wrote upon Optics. 

While the foundations of physical A. were thus broadly laid by Newton, Flamsteed 
—the first astronomer-royal at Greenwich, to whom, until recently, scant justice has 
been done—and Halley were greatly improving and extending the practical department 
of the science. To the former we are indebted for numerous observations on the fixed 
stars, on planets, satellites, and comets, and for a catalogue of 2884 stars. His Historia 
Colestis formed a new era in sidereal A. Dr. Halley, who succeeded Flamsteed as 
astronomer-royal, discovered the accelerated mean motion of the moon, and certain 
inequalities in Jupiter and Saturn, but he is most famed for his successful investigations 
into the motions and nature of comets. His successor was Dr. Bradley, who, in the 
year of Newton’s death, made the important discovery of the aberration of light, which 
furnishes the only direct and conclusive proof we have of the earth’s annual motion. 
To him also we are indebted for our knowledge of the nutation of the earth’s axis. He 
was, besides, an unwearied observer, and left behind him at his death upwards of 60,000 
observations. Altogether, Bradley’s is deservedly one of the most honored names in 
modern A. Dr. Maskelyne, who was appointed to the observatory after Bradley, origi- 
nated the Nautical Almanac. 

Merely to mention the names of men who from the death of Bradley to the present 
‘time have added, by theory and practice, to our knowledge of A., would extend this 
synopsis much beyond the limit necessarily assigned to it. If the 18th c. opened with 
lustre derived from the physical demonstrations of Newton, it closed magnificently with 
the telescopic discoveries of Sir William Herschel, who added to our universe a primary 
planet (Uranus) with its satellites, gave two more satellites to Saturn, resolved the milky- 
way into countless myriads of stars, and unraveled,the mystery of nebule and of double 
and triple stars. Laland, Lagrange, Lacaille, and Delambre, in the latter half of the 
18th c.,did much by their researches and analyses to systematize and improve the 
science of A. The instrumental means of observation were also, during that time, 
brought to high perfection. Laplace, in his great work the Mécanique Céleste (1799- 
rae: gave what further proof was needed of the truth and sufficiency of the Newtonian 

1e0ry. 

The 19th c. opened with the discovery of the four small planets—Ceres, in 1801, by 
Piazza; Pallas and Vesta by Olbers—the former in 1802, and the latter in 1807; and Juno, 
by Harding, in 1804. In 1845, Hencke discovered the fifth of this group revolving 
between Mars and Jupiter, to which the name of Astrea was given; and by the end of 
1879, 200 planetoids (q.v.) had been discovered. The greatest event of the first half of 
the century has been the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846. 

Observations upon Uranus had shown the motions of that planet to present great 
irregularities, which could not be explained by the action of Jupiter and Saturn; and 
after carefully examining the analytical theory of Uranus, Leverrier, a young academi- 
cian of France, in the summer of 1846, published the elements of an undiscovered planet, 
the cause of the perturbations. He boldly predicted its existence, calculated its mass, 
and referred to its place in the heavens; and scarcely a month afterwards, on the 23d of 
Sept., the hitherto concealed object (Neptune) was found by M. Galle of Berlin. But 
it has only been by accidental circumstances that France has the honor of this remark 
able achievement. Mr. Adams of Cambridge had arrived at results more perfect than 
those of Leverrier, and had communicated them to Mr. Challis, professor of A. at Cam- 
bridge in Sept., 1845, a year before the discovery of the planet, and nearly a year before the 
publication of Leverrier’s final calculations. Mr. Challis, it appears, commenced a 
search for the planet on July 29th, and on Aug. 4th and 12th, he actually seized the 


Astruc. 844 


Atacama, 


planet, and recorded two positions of it, but did not recognize it, through not comparing 
his observations, which a pressure of occupation, and an impression that the discovery 
required a much more extensive search, prevented. But for this, and the non-publication 
of the Cambridge mathematician’s results at the time they were forwarded to Sir George 
Airy in Oct., 1845, the honorable position of M. Leverrier would have been occupied by 
Mr. Adams, and that of M. Galle by Mr. Challis. 

The latter half of the century has been remarkable chiefly for the development of 
astronomical photography of precision, due principally to Rutherfurd of New York, and 
for the application of the spectroscope to the measurement of the motion of the fixed 
stars in the line of sight. This method of research, invented by Huggins of London, 
and brought toa high state of perfection under the direction of Vogel, at the observatory 
of Potsdam, has enriched A. with an entirely new body of knowledge. For it was 
formerly possible to measure on the sky only the directions of the heavenly bodies, and 
we had to depend for our knowledge of velocities upon calculation. The spectroscope 
has now enabled us to measure linear velocities directly. The present century has also 
witnessed laborious efforts to correct, systematize, and extend the results of former dis- 
coveries. Admirable and extensive catalogues of stars and double stars, and of nebula, 
have been made; and optical and other instruments have been brought to what appears 
almost a state of perfection, the 36-inch refracting telescope of the Lick observatory 
and the new 40-inch instrument of the Yerkes observatory in Chicago being triumphs 
of modern mechanical and mathematical skill. 

ASTRUC, Jean, 1684-1766; a French physician, He had the anatomical chair im 
Toulouse, became professor after Chirac in Montpellier medical college, regent and pro- 
fessor of the faculty of medicine in Paris, and physician to the king. His attention 
was given chiefly to venereal and sexual diseases, in which he is regarded as excellent 
authority, his De Morbis Venereis Libri Sex being known in most languages. He wrote: 
also on diseases of women, and on obstetrics. 

AS'TUR. See FALconip and GosHAawkK. 

ASTU’RIAS (OvIEDo), a former division of Spain, now included in the province of 
Oviedo, bounded on the n. by the bay of Biscay, e. by Santander, s. by Leon, and w. 
by Galicia. The low hills of Leon and Old Castile rise gradually to the mountain-chain 
which forms the s. boundary and towers to a height of about 11,000 ft. in the summit 
Peiia-de-Petiaranda, The northern slopes are broken by steep and dark valleys or 
chasms, which are among the wildest and most picturesque in Spain. The summits of 
the mountains are covered with snow even as late in the year as August. The climate 
is damp; clouds hang almost continually about the peaks, gathering to them the fogs 
of the Atlantic. From the mass of calcareous rock, marble crags rise from 200 to more 
than 400 ft. The principal kinds of wood are oak, chestnut, silver, and Scotch firs. 
Some of the forests in the remoter districts are very superb. Alpine pasturage decks 
the slopes, and a richer covering of green is found in the narrow valleys. In the wider 
valleys, the soil yields barley, wheat, maize, figs, olives, grapes, oranges. The coasts 
have good fisheries. The chief minerals of the province are copper, iron, lead, cobalt, 
arsenic, antimony, and coal. The pasturage of the higher valleys supports an excellent 
breed of horses, with numerous horned cattle. 

A. was never firmly occupied by the Arabs, but afforded a place of refuge to the 
Goths in the 8th century. Here the famous Pelayo was made king in 718 a.p.; and his. 
successors, after contending successfully against the Arabs, were made kings of Leon in 
the 10th century. The Asturian still boasts of his independence as a free hidalgo, and 
is simple in manners and brave, but less industrious and sociable than his neighbors in 
Biscay and Galicia. Many Asturians leave their province to seek a livelihood in other 
parts of Spain, and after saving money, return to dwell among their native hills and 
valleys. They have been termed the Swiss of Spain; and they are equally faithful and 
fond of money. Among them, the Vaqueros form a distinct caste, intermarrying among 
themselves, and leading a nomadic course of life, spending the winter on the sea-coast, 
and the summer on the hills of Leytariegos. OvIEDo, the capital, has, since 1833, given 
its name to the whole province. 'The other considerable towns are the ports Gijon and 
Aviles. The whole area of the province of Oviedo includes 4091 sq. m., with a popula- 
tion of (1887) 595,420. 

_ The eldest son of the Spanish king has the title of prince of A., professedly an imita- 
tion of the English prince of Wales, having been taken at the solicitation of the duke of 
Lancaster in 1888, when his daughter married the eldest son of Juan I. 


ASTY'AGES, the last King of Media, son and successor of Cyaxares, 595 B.c. Inffu 
enced by a dream, A. gave his daughter Nandane in marriage to Cambyses, a Persian of 
eminence; and, again led by a dream which gave him alarm, he sent Harpagus to 
destroy the child which was the fruit of the marriage. But the child was hidden away 
by a shepherd, and it was after many years that his existence was brought to the notice: 
of A., who easily discovered the boy’s parentage. A, punished Harpagus for deceiving 
him, and Harpagus instigated Cyrus (the child now grown up) to lead a revolt, through 
which A. was made prisoner, and Cyrus took the scepter. A. was treated mildly, but 
Kept a prisoner until his death. 


ASUAY’, Assuay, or Azuay, a department of Ecuador, being all of the s. and e. 
vortion of the republic, on the e. slope of the Andes, between 5° s. and 1° n., and 68° to 


845 Atacama. 


80° w.; about 120,000 sq. m.; pop. 243,450. There is a large desert in the west, but the 
eastern part is fertile, being watered by several affluents of the Amazon. The chief 
employments are cattle breeding, agriculture, and the gathering of cinchona bark. Loja 
and Cuenca are the chief towns. 

ASUNCION’, NuESTRA SEXNORA DE LA, or ASSUMPTION, the capital of Paraguay, 
25° 16’ s., 52° 42’ w., on the e. bank of the Paraguay river. The city was founded in 
1536, and for more than a century was the capital of all the Spanish territory along the 
Rio de la Plata. There are a cathedral, several other churches, a government palace, a 
public library, a college, ete. <A railway connects it with Paraguari, and a line of 
steamers with Buenos Ayres, It has a considerable commerce, the principal articles of 
export being leather, tobacco, sugar and maté or Paraguay tea. Most of the houses are 
of brick and one story high. Population, 1886, 24,888; estimated 1895 at 45,000. The 
place is intensely warm in summer, but not especially unhealthful. 


ASYLUM, a place of refuge. In ancient times, sacred places, especially the temples 
and altars of the gods, were appointed as asylums to which criminals, as well as perse- 
cuted individuals, might flee for refuge; and to molest them in such places was regarded 
as an impiety. An analogous institution is found in the laws of the Jews as described 
in the 35th chapter of Numbers, where six ‘‘ cities of refuge” are appointed for persons 
guilty of manslaughter. Among the Greeks in early times, these asylums might be 
sometimes useful in preventing hasty retribution; but in the course of time they were so 
much abused that their sanctity was in a great measure disregarded. Thus Pausanias, 
who fled to the altar of Minerva, was taken and slain there by the Lacedemonians, and 
in other cases the refugee was compelled to leave the A. by fire or starvation. In Rome, 
the emperor Tiberius abolished all such places of refuge from law, excepting those in 
the temples of Juno and Aisculapius. The custom of allowing to real or supposed crimi- 
nals a place of safety in temples, was also adopted by the Christian church. In the 
time of Constantine the great, the churches were made asylums; and Theodosius II. 
extended the privilege to all courts, alleys, gardens, and houses belonging to the church. 
In 681 a.D., the synod of Toledo extended the privilege of A. to a space of 380 paces 
around every church. In the lawless periods of the middle ages, the influence of the 
church often prevented deeds of gross injustice and violence; but the sanctity of 
churches was abused by criminals; and this led to several modifications which gradually 
destroyed the privilege of sanctuary (q.v.). In England, it was abolished by acts passed 
in 1534 and 1697. The word A.is now applied to places of shelter for unfortunate or 
destitute persons, and especially to hospitals for the insane. See Lunacy. 


AS'YMPTOTE (Gr. not coinciding), a line that approaches nearer and nearer to some 
curve without ever meeting it. An example of an A, will be seen under HYPERBOLA. 
As another illustration, let AB be a a ai 
straight line which can be produced to i 
any length towards B. Take any point, 
C, without the line, and draw a perpen- 
dicular reaching to any distance, D, be- 4 

yond the line; set off any equal distances, 

—1, 1—2, 2-3, etc., along AB; and 
draw Cl1d, C2d', C3d”, etc., making 1d, 
2d’, 3d", etc., equal to ED. Now, it is 
evident that each of the points d, @’, etc., 
is nearer to the line AB than the one to 0 
the left of it; if, therefore, a curve is 
traced through these points (the curve is 
called the conchoid), it must continually approach the line AB. On the other hand, it is 
evident that the curve can never meet AB; for a line drawn from C to any point in AB, 
however distant that point, must, when produced cross AB. AB is thus an A. to the 
curve. To the senses, indeed, the curve and line soon become one, because all physical 
or sensible lines have breadth. It is only with regard to mathematical lines (see LINE) 
that the proposition is true; and the truth of it has to be conceived by an effort of pure 
reason, for it cannot be represented. 

ATACA’MA, formerly a department in s.w. Bolivia. It is mostly a barren, sandy 
desert, entirely uninhabitable; but in the n. part there are fertile valleys. The minerals 
are gold, silver, copper, and iron. In 1884 that part lying west of the Andes was 
annexed by Chili to her province of the same name described below. The part retained 
by Bolivia has a small area. ; 

ATACA’MA, a province in n. Chili; a narrow strip between the Andes and the Pacific, 
w. of Bolivia; 41,180 sq.m.; pop. ’94, 73,216. The copper and silver mines are the richest 
known; of silver there are about 250, and of copper nearly 1000 mines. Since the dis- 
covery of silver by the shepherd Juan Godoy, in 1832, the product has been considerably 
over $100,000,000. The town of Chafiarcillo is on the site of the silver discovery, 51 m. s.e. 
of Copiapo, the capital of the province, with railway connection. The first railway built 
in South America connects the capital with Caldera, the best ocean port of Chili. 


Asymptote. 


Atacamite. 846 


Ataxy. 


'AMITE. an ore of copper, found as a crust on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, 
Paes sees: Recah ape in the years 97, 1804, 1820, and 1822, It occurs 
abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama in Peru, from which it derives 
its name: at Remolinos, Santa Rosa, and other districts in Chili; and at Sarapaca in 
Bolivia, where it is associated in veins with ores of silver. The natural varieties of A. 
are crystallized, massive, and pulverulent or granular. The massive or compact variety 
is usually reniform, with a fibrous structure. The crystals are short and needle-shaped ; 
the primary form is a rhombic prism. It has been sometimes described as a chloride of 
copper, but incorrectly; and sometimes as a hydrochlorate (muriate) of copper; it 1s rather 
to be regarded as a combination of protoxide of copper with chloride of copper. It is 
a rich and productive ore, containing about 55 to 60 per cent of copper. The percentage 
composition of various specimens of A. is as follows: 


Copper Muriatic 
protoxide. acid. Water. Total. 


Compact atacamite ....... ee eeeeeeeeees 72.0 16.3 LT steak OU) 

# (CT Sha wisie = bk tae sigs ake 76.5 11.0 12.5 100 
Sandy atacamite........seeeesesereeees 70.5 11.5 18.0 100 
Crystallized atacamite. ............000- 73.0 16.2 10.8 100 


A. often forms on the surface of copper exposed to the air or sea-water; and the 
greenish incrustation observed on antique bronze utensils, weapons, and other articles, 
and commonly known as the ewrugo nobilis, is composed of this salt. On some antique 
bronzes from Egypt the A. is crystalline. Atacamite is worked in South America as an 
ore of copper; and considerable quantities are sent to England to have the metal extracted 
therefrom. See COPPER. 

ATAHUALPA, the favorite son of Huayna Capac, Inca of Peru, who died in 1525, 
about seven years before Pizarro’s arrival in Peru. The mother of A. not being of the 
pure Inca blood, her son was formally excluded from inheriting the throne; but his 
handsome figure, bold spirit, and quick intelligence so won upon the affections of his 
father, that, on his death-bed he declared it to be his will that A. should receive as his 
portion the ancient kingdom of Quito (recently conquered), while Huascar, his eldest 
son, should possess Peru. For five years the brothers lived on terms of real or apparent 
friendship; but at length the restless ambition of A., who was constantly aspiring to 
new conquests, excited the uneasiness of Huascar, who, in an evil hour, was induced to 
send an envoy to his brother, with instructions to require him to render homage for his 
kingdom of Quito. <A. fired at the proposal, and war was instantly declared. Placing 
himself at the head of the army of veterans which his father had left him, he invaded 
Peru, and in the spring of 1532 completely defeated Huascar on the plains of Quipaypan, 
in the neighborhood of Cuzco, the native Peruvian metropolis, only a few months before 
the arrival of the Spaniards. Huascar was taken prisoner, and confined in the strong 
fortress of Xauxa. Then followed, according to Garcilasso de la Vega, a series of atro- 
cious massacres of all in whose veins ran the blood of the Incas; but his statements are 
so monstrous, and possess so little congruity, that they are rejected by Prescott as 
intrinsically incredible. In the mean time, the Spaniards had disembarked at Tumbez; 
and after a long, brave, and perilous march through the unknown country, Pizarro, at 
the head of his 200 cavaliers, approached the victorious camp of A., where he found some 
50,000 menassembled. By a daring but diabolical statagem, Pizarro obtained possession 
of the person of the king, who had come to visit him in a friendly spirit. While a 
pie was explaining the Christian religion, and the power of the pope over all the 

ingdoms of the earth, and how the pope had presented Peru to the Spanish monarch, 
in whose name they had come, A., indignantly interrupting him, told him that the pope 
(whoever he was) must be a crazy fool to talk of giving away countries which were 
not his own. When he inquired on what authority such claims were made, the priest 
pointed to the Bible, on which A. dashed the book on the ground, and the fields began 
to fill with Indians. The moment was critical. The crime which Pizarro had resolved 
upon the night before must be executed then or never. He waved a white scarf, which 
was the signalagreed upon. The mysterious artillery poured sudden death into the ter- 
rified masses of Peruvians, while the Spanish cavalry rode them down with merciless 
fury. Confusion seized the natives; they submitted—being unarmed—to this horrible 
butchery, only anxious to save their sacred Inca; but all their efforts to accomplish this 
proved unavailing, and after exhausting hours in the miserable work of murder, the 
inhuman Spaniards succeeded in capturing him. A. was treated with a great show of 
kindness at first, and more especially when he offered, as a ransom, ‘‘ not merely to 
cover the floor, but to fill the room in which he stood with gold as high as he could 
reach.” When A.’s brother, Huascar, who was still a prisoner, heard of this, he offered 
still more advantageous terms for himself. To prevent this, A. had him secretly assas- 
sinated. The golden treasure which was to constitute the ransom of A. now began to 
pour in, and at length A. demanded his freedom. This Pizarro refused to grant, and 
accused A. of plotting against him. The result, after much base treachery on the part 
of the Spaniard, was a mock-trial, in which A. was condemned to be burned. On the 
29th of Aug., 1533, he was led to the stake, but on agreeing to be ‘‘ baptized,” his sen- 
tence was commuted to death by strangulation. 


Atacamite 
8 4 7 Ataxy. 


ATALAN TA, a mythical personage, the daughter of Jasus and Clymene, was born in 
Arcadia, and celebrated as a huntress, well skilled in the use of the bow and arrow. 
Her father, who had wished a son, exposed her, while an infant, on Mt. Parthenios, 
where she was found near the entrance of a cave by hunters, who are said to have 
brought her up, and afterwards restored her to her parents. While living as a wild 
mountain-maiden, she slew the centaurs Rheecus and Hyleus. Afterwards, she sailed 
with the Argonauts (q.v.) to Colchis, and took a prominent part in the chase of the 
Calydonian boar (q.v.). She had many suitors, but was merciless in the conditions which 
she imposed on them. Being the swiftest of mortals, she offered to become the wife 
of him that should outstrip her—the penalty of defeat being death. At length she was 
conquered bya trick of one Meilanion, whom she was compelled to marry. He 
obtained from Venus a gift of three golden apples, which he successively dropped in 
the race; and A. was so charmed by their beauty, that she could not refrain from stoop- 
ing to gather them, and so lost.—Mention is made of another A. in Greek antiquity, to 
whom a different parentage is assigned, but regarding whom the myth is essentially the 
same. 


ATARAIPU’, a term signifying devil’s rock. It is applied to one of the most singu- 
lar eminences in the world, a granite pyramid in British Guiana, which rises abruptly 
from the plain about 900 ft., wooded for rather more than one third of the height, but 
bare thence to the peaked summit. 

ATASCO’SA, a co. in s, Texas on the upper branches of the Nueces ; 1200 sq.m. ; 

op. 90, 6459. The climate is good, soil sandy and easily cultivated, but stock-raising 
1s the main business, Co. seat, Pleasanton. 

ATAUL'PHUS, ATAULF, or ADOLF, the brother-in-law of Alaric, and his successor 
as king of the Visigoths. He assisted Alaric in the siege of Rome, and after A.’s death 
went to Gaul, taking as a captive Placidia, sister of the Roman emperor Honorius; and 
she afterwards became his wife. Jornandes says A. took Rome a second time, carried 
off Placidia, and made a treaty with Honorius which was solemnized by the marriage 
with Placidia in the forum; that A. was a faithful ally of Rome in Gaul, and went to 
Spain to suppress insurrections of the Vandals, where, according to others, he was assas- 
sinated. 

A'TAVISM in physiology, the resemblance of a man or other animal to a remote 
progenitor, as a man who resembles his great-grandfather and not the intermediate 
parents. Watson, in a lecture on the practice of medicine, cited this case: A deaf-mute 
married a woman whose hearing was normal; they had two children; a deaf-mute 
son who left no children, and a daughter with perfect hearing, who married a man 
with perfect hearing, and became the mother of two deaf-mute daughters and a hear- 
ing son; this son married a woman with perfect hearing, and by her had a deaf-mute 
son; one of the daughters married a deaf-mute and bore a son whose hearing was 
perfect. There are some diseases of hereditary nature that lie dormant for two or three 
generations and then develop, such as insanity and consumption. Darwin uses rever- 
sion as nearly synonymous with A., to denote not merely the recurrences of long lapsed 
physical traits, but even the returning to a remote variety of species. Domestic animals 
running wild will gradually lose their civilized development and become like wild 
animals of their species. All the wild horses in America are from stock imported from 
the old world, yet they are nearly of one color, size, and form. Darwin, looking further 
back, suggests that the occasional appearance of a striped horse or mule indicates descent 
from some equine genus long ago extinct, 


AT’AXY LOCOMO'TOR, a nervous disease showing itself in disordered movements 
of the limbs of locomotion. It is not paralysis, but loss of power to order harmoni- 
ously the museles that move the body and maintain equilibrium. It begins insidiously 
and grows slowly. Theearlier symptoms are disorder of vision, uneasiness in the back, 
with shooting pains through the limbs; increasing or perverted sensibility, and disturb- 
ance in the genito-urinary functions. Later, the victim feels that his walking is not firm 
and sure; that there is some soft substance between his feet and the ground; he walks 
with difficulty, and with short and hurried steps; each leg is lifted well up, but as he 
moves it forward, it is thrown out from him and the heel descends with force while 
the sole comes awkwardly after it. He now requires the aid of vision to walk at all, 
and looks steadily at his feet or at a point a little in front of them, and he cannot 
make a sudden turn without great risk of falling. If he stand erect with his feet 
together or nearly so, and take his eyes off them, he begins to totter and would fall if 
not supported. These phenomena are not the result of weakness of motor power, but 
only of defective muscular co-ordination. Diminished sensibility in the feet and legs 
is usual in this disease. The upper limbs are sometimes affected, so that though the 
hands retain all their natural muscular power, the sufferer cannot unfasten a button, 
or pick up a pin, or feed himself, At later stages the disease renders walking impossé 
ble, the legs moving loosely about, and the control of the sight upon the feet ceasing. 
Then the patient takes to his bed, the pains and jerking of the limbs increase, the 
motor power is quite gone, and he sinks under complete exhaustion or some intercur- 
rent disease. Although usually going to a fatal termination, the disease is sometimes 
arrested, and appears to be quite conquered, particularly in its earlier stages. In most 


Atbara: | 848 


A Tempo. 


i veral years. A. L. arises from disease of a portion of the spinal 
cone Scr eee and the posterior nerve roots, which become atrophied 
and indurated, The exciting causes are not well understood, but exposure to cold, 
over exertion, privation, intemperance, and mental anxiety have been suggested as prob- 
able. It is sometimes hereditary, and is more common among males than females. 
It is developed usually not till middle life, from the age of 30 to 50. Beyond allevi- 
ation of pain little can be done by medicine, though many remedies have been tried. 
Electricity has been recommended by eminent authorities. Perhaps the best course is 
to attend carefully to the general health and regimen. 


ATBA’RA, or BAur-EL-Aswap. See NILE 


ATCHAFALAY’A, a branch of the Mississippi at its delta. It forms so large an angle 
with the main river, that, after a course of only 130 m., it enters the gulf of Mexico, 
120 m, to the w. of New Orleans. From the Red river, which enters the Mississippi just 
above its own point of departure, the A, had received so much driftwood, as formed 
at last a stationary raft 10 m. long, 220 yds. broad, and 18 ft. deep—an obstacle to navi- 
gation which the state of Lousiana required 4 years to remove. 


ATCHAFALAY’A BAYOU, an outlet of Red river in Louisiana, connecting also 
with the Mississippi and flowing southward to the gulf of Mexico. It is about 225m. 
long, and navigable for steamers. 


ATCHEEN, or AcHIN, or ACHEEN, a region in the n. w. part of the island of 
Sumatra, once a powerful kingdom; area, 20,471 sq.m. The interior is mountainous, 
some of the mountains rising to a height of 11,000 ft. The natives rebelled in 1873, but 
the Dutch succeeded in subduing them in 1878 and in extending their administrative 
system over the district. The capital Atcheen is in the northern part and has a pop. 
of about 35,000. The pop. of the entire district in 1893 was estimated at 529,562. 


ATCHEVEMENT is a term nearly equivalent to armorial bearings, and is often used 
when speaking of the arms of a deceased person as displayed at his funeral or else- 
where. In this sense it is more commonly used in its abbreviated form of hatch- 
ment (q. V.). 

ATCHISON, a co. in n. e. Kansas on the Missouri border; 423 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 26,758. 
Agriculture is the main occupation. The central branch of the Union Pacific railroad 
intersects. Co, seat, Atchison. 

ATCHISON, aco. inn. w. Missouri between the Missouri and Nodaway rivers; crossed 
by the Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs railroad; 560 sq. m.; pop. ’90, 15,533. 
Agriculture is the chief business, Co. seat, Rockport. 

ATCHISON, a city and co. seat of Atchison co., Kan.; on the Missouri river and the 
Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka, and 
Santa Fé, and the Burlington Route railways; 33 miles n. by w. of Leavenworth. Its 
exceptional facilities by rail and water for commercial traffic have given it a rapid 
and substantial growth, and made it an emporium of much importance. 'The wholesale 
trade amounts to more than $50,000,000 per annum, and its lumber, grain, grocery, and 
drug interests are conspicuous among its industries. Manufacturing is well advanced, 
especially in the lines of architectural iron and wood work. ‘The city has gas and 
electric plants, electric railways, improved sewer and water services, paved streets, 
public parks, and a notable bridge across the Missouri river. There are churches of the 
leading denominations, public library, public high and graded schools, the Atchison 
Latin School, Midland College (Lutheran), St. Benedict’s College (Roman Catholic), 
business college, the State Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home. Union depot, national banks, 
and daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. Pop. ’90, 13,963. 


ATCHISON, DAvip R., 1807-86, b. in Ky. He was in the Missouri legislature in 1834, 
and a county judge in 1841, but was soon chosen to the U. S. senate, where he at first 
opposed, and finally advocated, the right to hold slaves in the territories. He advocated 
the repeal of the Missouri compromise, and became the especial champion of those who 
were determined to force slavery into Kansas. He was for several sessions president 
pro tem, of the senate, and by virtue of his office was president of the U. 8. during 
panes ia an 4, 1849, as Gen. Taylor was not sworn into office till the following day. 
He d. 1886. 

A'TE, according to Homer, the daughter of Jupiter—or of Eris, as Hesiod says— 
was a vengeful goddess, ever attending dysnomia, or transgression of law, though she 
herself prompted men to such. She was banished from Olympus by Jove, whom she 
had incited to take an oath of which he subsequently repented. She then traveled to 
and fro over the earth with great rapidity, always intent on exercising a pernicious influ- 
ence on mankind. But her steps were followed by the goddesses Zitat (prayers), benevo- 
lent daughters of Jove, who healed those who had been afflicted by A. The tragic 
writers describe A. as the goddess of retribution. Their representations almost identify 
her with Numusis and Errnys. 


; AT'ELES (Gr. incomplete), a genus of American monkeys, of the division with lon 
* prehensile tails, to which the name Sapasou (q.v.) is sometimes collectively applied. 
n the genus A., the head is round, and the facial angle about 60°; the limbs are 


— - 


Cs 


Ss 


Atbara, 
849 : A Tempo, 


wemarkably long and slender, upon which account the English name Sprp—ER MonKkry 
{q.v.) is sometimes used as a generic designation; and the forelimbs are either entirely 
destitute of a thumb, or have a mere rudimentary one, a peculiarity in allusion to which the 
name A, was given. The name coaita or quata is frequently given to some of the species 
of A., but is sometimes limited to A. paniscus, as spider monkey sometimes is to A. 
arachnoides, One of the best known species is the marimonda (A. belzebub), a common 
pane of Guiana, and which occurs in immense numbers on the banks of the 
rinoco, 


ATELIERS NATIONAUX, or NatrronaL WorksHops, a term under which such 
institutions became renowned in connection with the French revolution of 1848. In 
almost all countries and ages, there have been projects for organizing labor under 
public authority, designed generally for the benevolent purpose of obviating the distress 
caused by casual depressions in trade. However distinctly the laws of political economy 
were laid down on the point, it could always be said that these were merely theoretic, 
and therefore this one instance of practical experiment, however calamitous in its day, 
left behind it a valuable lesson. The principles of political economy on this matter are 
that competition only can fix the extent to which labor is required in any department, 
and the rate at which it must be remunerated; that it is this competition which gives 
the workman a stimulus to labor effectively and profitably; and that if this stimulus 
were withdrawn, and all were paid alike, whether they worked well or ill, all wouid 
work ill, the public would be losers, and the large fund out of which laborers are 
supported under the competitive system would cease to exist. Immediately on the 
formation of the provisional government in Feb., 1848, a permanent department 
was established, called The Committee of the Government for the Workmen. ‘This establish- 
ment acted on the doctrine that all workmen were entitled to havea living provided for 
them on a certain uniform scale. They did not forcibly abolish private employment, 
but they held out inducements which made workmen leave and employers break up the 
existing establishments. Consequently, nearly all the Parisian workmen threw them- 
selves on the government, and others flocked in from other quarters in alarming numbers. 
It was found that these crowds of men, who claimed the privilege of employment by 
the state, had very little idea of the duty of working, even were there distinct employment 
for them. But when the body had increased to considerably above a hundred thousand, 
the government found that they had this ever-increasing mass to feed, and nothing to 
feed them with, since trade thus meddled with was in reality ruined. It was conse- 
quently found necessary to put an end to the system, and the result was the bloody 
battle of Paris, which brought about the restoration of despotism. One incidental 
experiment will perhaps best explain the ruinous tendency of the whole system. In 
the Hotel Clichy,. 1500 tailors were assembled to make uniforms for the new garde mobile. 
The men were to receive among them for the completed work as much as an army- 
contractor would have demanded. In the meantime they were paid two francs a day of 
subsistence money; the rest was to be divided among*them at the end. The men were 
buoyed up with the notion that they were to receive not only their own proper wages, 
but the indefinite and enormous sum which they supposed to form the profit of the 
contractor, forgetting that such profit seldom exceeds about three per cent. Their 
disappointment was great when they found nothing to divide. There was, in fact, a 
loss. When paid their two francs— not much more than half what they obtained when 
employed by a contractor —they were paid more than the value of their labor and the 
profit of the transaction to boot. The reason is pretty obvious. Each man working for 
himself, and paid for his work on the competitive system, exerted himself; but when 
one man’s exertions went virtually for nothing, unless he got the 1499 others to exert 
themselves to the same amount, all were alike lazy. 


ATELLA'NA, Fabule Atellane (also styled Ludi Osci), a kind of popular drama in 
Rome, first introduced from Atella, a t. in Campania, between Capua and Naples. 
After the Greek drama had been brought to Rome by Livius Andronicus, the old Fabule 
Atellane were still retained as interludes and after-pieces. They are not to be confounded 
with the Greek satiric drama, although the character of both was to some extent the 
same. In the latter, satyrs figured; while the former personated real Oscan characters. 
The Macchus and Bucco of the Fabule Atellane may be considered the origin of the 
modern Italian arlecchino (harlequin), and other characters of the same stamp. They 
were the favorite characters; spoke the Oscan dialect, and excited laughter by its quaint 
old-fashioned words and phrases. The A. were neither so dignified as the comedia 
pretectata, nor so low as the comedia tabernaria, but indulged in a kind of genial and 
decent drollery. The caricature was at first always pleasant, and, though quizzical, it 
did not lapse into obscenity, like the mimi. Respectable Roman youths, who could not 
appear as actors in the regular Greek drama without losing caste, were allowed to take 
partin the A. A few fragments in these popular farces have been collected by Bothe in 
his Poetarum Latinorum Scenicorum Fragmenta (Leip., 18384). See also Munk, De Habulis 
Atellanis (Leip., 1840). 


A TEMPO (Ital.), in time. A term used to denote that, after some short relaxation" 
in the time, the performer must return to the original degree of movement. 


A Tempo. 850 
Athanasius, 


A TEMPO GIUSTO (Ital.), in correct time. A term used to denote that, after a recita, 
tive, the performer should keep the music true and correct, which, during the recitative, 
had been altered to suit the action and passion of the scene. 


A'TESHGA (the place of fire), a spot on the peninsula of Apsheron, on the w. coast 
of the Caspian sea. It is considered sacred by the Guebres, or Persian fire-worship- 
ers, who visit it in large numbers, and bow before the holy flames which issue from 
the bituminous soil. It is about a mile in diameter, and from its center, in clear dry 
weather, creeps forth a blue flame (caused by the ignition of the naphtha), which shines 


with great brightness by night. 


ATES'SA, at. of south Italy, in the province of Chieti, and 23 m. s.s.2e. from Chieti. 
It has a beautiful collegiate church, and several other churches and convents. Pop. 
5200. 


ATH, or ATH, a strongly fortified t. in the province of Hainault, Belgium, situated 
on the Dender, in lat. 50° 36’ n., long. 3° 46’ e. It has anarsenal, hospital, and college, 
and important manufactures of linen, calicoes, lace, gloves, cutlery, large hammers, etc., 
and carries on a brisk trade. Pop. 8260. The ancient church of St. Julien in A. is 
noted for its extraordinarily high tower, 

ATHABASCA, a river and lake in the n.w. of America, forming part of the 
great basin of the Mackenzie, and lying, therefore, in the n.w. territory of the 
Canadian dominion. The river rises in the Rocky mountains near Mt. Brown, the 
highest point in the range. Its actual source is the small lake, already mentioned under 
the head of AMERICA as the Committee’s Punch Bowl, which sends its tribute at once 
through the A. to the Frozen ocean, and through the Columbia to the Pacific. Its 
general course is n.e., till, after passing through A. lake, or rather crossing its 
w. end, it turns towards the n.w., and after a course of 30 or 40 m., unites with the 
Peace river, from beyond the Rocky mountains, to form the Slave river, which, again, 
after passing through Great Slave lake, takes the name of the Mackenzie.—Lake A. 
receives nearly all its waters from the A. river, and is probably unique in this, that its 
principal feeder traverses not its length but its breadth, and that not in its middle, but at 
its extremity. The lake’s single outlet is the river A. The lat. is about 59° n., and the 
long. between 102° and 116° w., the length 230 m., and the average width 20. 

ATHABASCA, district in Canada, formed in 1882 out of the Northwest Territory, 
containing abt. 106,000 sq.m. It is bounded on the n. and e. by the Northwest Terri- 
tory (the Slave river forming, mainly, its boundary), onthe s. by Alberta, on the w. by 
British Columbia. ‘The famous Peace river district is in A. Principal places, Dunne- 
gan, Vermilion, Peace river, Athabasca, forts Macleod and Lesser Slave. Cap., Regina, 
in Assiniboia district. 

ATHABAS'CAS, Indians of British North America along the Arctic ocean and from 
Hudson’s bay westward to the Pacific. There are several tribes, of whom the best 
known are the Umpquas, the Tinnes, the Dog Ribs, and the Beavers, It is thought that 
there are from 30,000 to 33,000 of them. They are peaceable and to some extent indus- 
trious. ‘There are other A. Indians on the Mexican border from Texas to California, 
among them the savage and warlike A paches, and their opposites, the quiet Navajoes 
and the Lipans. They say that their ancestors came from the west over seas and 
islands of snow and ice; possibly a tradition of a Tartar origin. They are larger and 
have more beard than other Indians. 


ATHA-BEN-HAKEM, or ALHAKEM-IBN-ATTA. See MOHAMMEDAN SECTS. 


ATHALI'AH, the daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, married Jehoram, king of Judah, 
who d. 885 B.c. After the death of her son Ahaziah, who succeeded him, but reigned 
for only one year, she paved her own way to the throne by putting to death (as she sup- 
posed) all the seed-royal. ‘‘But Jehosheba, the daughter of king Jehoram, sister of 
Ahaziah, took Joash, the son of Ahaziah, and stole him from among the king’s sons, who 
were slain.” The young prince thus rescued was privately educated in the temple, and, 
after A. had reigned six years, the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash on the throne (878 
B:C.). A., hearing the noise attending the coronation, hastened to the temple, where the 
people were shouting, ‘‘God save the king!” As she looked round in astonishment on 
the young kivig, whom she had supposed to be dead, surrounded by priests, Levites, rulers, 
captains, and a rejoicing multitude, she “‘rent her clothes, and cried, ‘ Treason! treason!’” 
By the command of the high-priest, she was led out of the temple, and slain in the gate- 
way of the palace. The house of Baal, with its altars and images, was broken down. 
This narrative (2 Kings xi.; 2 Chron. xxi. 6, xxii. 10-12, xxiii.) is the subject of 
Racine’s drama, Athalie. 

ATHA'NARIC, a king of the western Goths, whose settlements lay on the n. bank of 
the lower Danube, in the 4th century. Having taken advantage of the weakness of the 
Roman empire when the imperial armies were engaged in suppressing the rebellion of 
Procopius, war was declared against him by the emperor Valens. A. acted strictly on the 
defensive during two campaigns, in which ‘the Romans gained no advantage over him; 
but in the third year of the war (369 4.D.), he hazarded a general battle, and was defeated, 
whereupon he sued for peace, and, with that object, had a conference with Valens in a 
boat on the Danube.. Peace was concluded, and‘A. had his attention occupied in settling 
dissensions arising out of the Arian controversy which then agitated his people, when 

+ 


a A Tempo. 
851 Athanasius. 


the first advance of the Huns on Europe alarmed the Gothic nation. A. attempted to 
secure the eastern borders of his kingdom; but the Huns forced the passages of the 
Dnieper, defeated the Goths, and advanced in great force into the plains of Dacia. When, 
in 374, the western Goths were received by the Romans as allies, and had settlements 
granted them on the s. of the Danube, A., with a part of his people, refused to accom. 
any them, removing to the west, and fortifying himself against the newenemy. In 380, 
owever, he was obliged to retire, when he accepted the hospitality of the empire, and 
removed to Constantinople, where he met with a cordial and honorable reception by the 
emperor Theodosius. At this time died Fritigern, the king of the Goths that had settled 
on the s. of the Danube; and A. being made king of the whole western Gothic nation, 
concluded a treaty of peace, in behalf of the whole, which had the effect of incorporat- 
ing that people with the other subjects of the empire. He d. at Constantinople in 381. 


ATHANASIAN CREED, the third of the three ecumenical symbols, derived its name 
from its composition being attributed to Athanasius; it is also known, from its initial 
words in Latin, as the creed Quicunque Vult. The first part of this creed contains a 
detailed exposition of the Trinity; the second, the doctrine of the incarnation. Modern 
criticism has called in question the title of Athanasius to be considered the author of this 
creed. It was known as early as the beginning of the 6th c., but not under its present 
name. It is spoken of as ‘‘ Athanasius’s Tract on the Trinity,” in some articles of the 
middle of the 8th c., and is supposed to be alluded to, ‘‘as the faith of the holy prelate 
Athanasius, in the council of Autun, about 670. Athanasius himself makes no mention 
of this creed, although its doctrines are essentially his; nor do any of the church fathers. 
Other two circumstances speak against its authenticity: it is in Latin, and Athanasius 
wrote in Greek; the expressions, again, are different from those used by Athanasius in 
speaking of the same things. By Protestants, therefore, and even by most Catholics, its 
Athanasian origin has been given up, and its production has been assigned with most 
probability to the 5thc., and to Gaul; Hilary, archbishop of Arles (about 480), being 
conjectured to be the author. The title of Athanasian probably became attached to it 
during the Arian controversy in Gaul, as being an exposition of the system of doctrine 
which was opposed to the Arian system, and which would naturally be called Athana- 
sian from its chief propounder. It was received into the public offices of the Gallic 
church in the 7th c., and by the middle of the 10th c. it was adopted at Rome and all 
over the west. In Britain, it was probably in use as early as 800. ‘The Greek church 
was late in receiving it, and even then not without altering the article concerning the 
** Procession of the Holy Ghost.” The reformers adhered to the A. C., and Luther called 
it ‘‘a bulwark of the apostles’ creed.” Even those churches that do not in any way 
acknowledge it as a symbol (as the Presbyterian churches of Britain and America, as well 
as the independents) generally accept its doctrines. 

The A. C. is the most rigid and intolerant of the three Catholic symbols, and has 
given rise to much controversy; and though still generally received by Protestants as 
well as Catholics, the regard once had for it has declined. The points in this creed that 
give offense to some are defended by others, on the plea that it was not drawn up for the 
sake of gratuitously dogmatizing on abstruse speculative truths, but to counteract other 
dogmas which were held to be dangerously heretical. Waterland, in his Critical History 
of the Athanasian Creed, says: ‘‘'The use of it will hardly be thought superfluous so long 
as there are any Arians, Photinians, Sabellians, Macedonians, Apoilinarians, Nestorians, 
or Eutychians in these parts.”’ (See articles under these heads.) With respect to what 
are called the ‘‘damnatory clauses” (the clauses, namely: ‘‘ Which faith except every 
one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly;” and: 
“This is the Catholic faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be saved”), 
the churches which adopt the creed do not mean by them to imprecate curses, but to 
declare, as a logical sequence of a true faith being necessary to salvation, that those who 
do not hold the true faith are in danger of perishing; as it is said, Mark xvi. 16, ‘‘He 
that believeth not shall be damned.” These clauses are also held to apply to those who 
deny the substance of the Christian religion, and not infallibly to every person who may 
be in error as to any one particular article. A rubric to this effect was drawn up by the 
commissioners appointed in 1689 for the review of the English common prayer-book, 
but none of their suggestions took effect. Compare also the 18th article of the church 
ef England with these clauses. 


ATHANASIUS, primate of Egypt, was b. in Alexandria about the year 296 A.p. There 
are no particulars on record of his lineage or his parents. Alexander, then officiating as 
primate or patriarch of Alexandria, brought him up in his own family, and superin- 
tended his education, with the view of his entering on the Christian ministry. In his 
youth, he often visited the celebrated hermit St. Antony, and embraced for a time the 
ascetic life with the venerable recluse. He was but a youth and only a deacon when 
appointed a member of the first general council at Nice, in which he distinguished him- 
self by his erudition and his eloquence. 

His patron, Alexander, having died in the following year, he was duly elected to the 
primacy by the clergy and people; and was but newly installed in his office, when 
Arius, who had been banished at the time of the condemnation of his doctrine at Nice, 
was recalled, and made a recantation of his erroneous principles. A., it is said, refused 


a 


Atheism. = 
Athenais, 8 52 


on this occasion to comply with the will of the emperor that the heretic should be 
restored to communion. On this account, and in consequence of several other charges 
brought against him by the Arian party, he was summoned by the emperor Constantine 
to appear before the synod of Tyre, in 835 A.D., which deposed him from his office. His 
sentence was confirmed by the synod of Jerusalem in the following year, when he was 
banished to Treves. In 838, Constantius, now emperor of the east, though unfriendly 
to the principles of the Trinitarians, recalled A. from his banishment, and restored him 
to the primacy at Alexandria. His entrance into the city was like a triumphal procession; 
but the Arians soon rose against him, and (in 841) he was again condemned by a coun- 
cil of 90 Arian bishops assembled at Antioch. Against this decision a protest was made 
by 100 orthodox bishops at Alexandria; and in a council held at Sardis, 300 bishops, 
with Julius, bishop of Rome, at their head, confirmed the decision in favor of A., who 
was again replaced in his office (849 a.p.). The Arians once more acquired the ascend- 
ency after Constantius (in 853) had been made emperor of both the east and the 
west; for in that year A. was condemned by a council held at Arles, and the sentence 
was confirmed by another held at Milan in 355, the influence of the sovereign being 
strongly exerted to secure his condemnation. As the resolute patriarch had declared 
that he would not leave his place without an express order from the emperor, violent 
means were resorted to for his expulsion. While engaged in conducting divine service, 
he was interrupted by a company of soldiers, from whom he made his escape into the 
Egyptian desert. A price was set on his head; and to avoid his persecutors, he retired 
from the usual haunts of the anchorets to a remote desert in upper Egypt, where he was 
attended by one faithful follower. Here he wrote several works to confirm orthodox 
Christians in their faith. On the accession of Julian to the imperial throne, toleration 
was proclaimed to all religions, and A. returned to his former position as patriarch of 
Alexandria (861 4.pD.). His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of Julian, 
to whom the patriarch, by his zeal in opposing their religion, had made himself very 
offensive. To save his life he was compelled again to flee from Alexandria, and remained 
concealed in the Theban desert until 368, when Jovian ascended the throne. After 
holding office again as patriarch for only a short space of time, he was expelled anew 
by the Arians, under the emperor Valens. A. now found refuge in the tomb of his 
father, where he remained hidden four months, until Valens, moved by petitions from the 
orthodox Alexandrians, restored the patriarch to his see, in which he continued till his 
death in 378 A.D. 

A.was the leading ecclesiastic in the most trying period of the history of the early 
Christian church. His ability, his conscientiousness, his judiciousness and wisdom, his 
fearlessness in the storms of opposition, his activity and patience, all mark him out as an 
ornament of the age, as well as the most influential public character in matters of reli- 
gion. Though twenty years of his life were spent either in exile or what was equiva- 
lent to it, yet his prudence and steadfastness, combined with the support ofa large party, 
crowned his exertions with complete success. He was a clear thinker, and as a speaker 
was distinguished for extemporaneous precision, force, and persuasiveness. 

His writings are polemical, historical, and moral; all marked bya style simple, cogent, 
and clear. The polemical works treat chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incar- 
nation of our Savior, and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. 

The earliest edition of the collected works of A. in the original Greek appeared in 
two volumes, folio, at Heidelberg, in 1600. It was accompanied with a Latin transla- 
tion. The most complete edition is that published at Padua in 1777. A.’s four orations 
against the Arians, and his oration against the Gentiles, were translated by S. Parker 
(Oxford, 1718); also his treatise on the incarnation of the word was translated by W. 
Whiston, forming part of that gentleman’s Collection of Ancient Monuments Relating to 
the Trinity and Incarnation, London, in 1713. The epistlesof A. in defense of the Nicene 
creed, and on the councils of Ariminum and Seleucia, together with his first oration 
Revo the Arians, were translated, with notes, by the Rev. John Henry Newman, Oxford, 
(1842). 

ATHEISM, a word of modern formation, from Gr. atheos, ‘‘ without God,” signifies 
the doctrine of those who deny the existence of aGod. The term atheist conveys such 
terrible associations to almost all minds, that there is perhaps no reproach from which 
men shrink more; and yet it has been freely applied by the zealous of all ages to those 
whose notions of the invisible powers differed from theirown. The imputationis the most 
damaging that can be made, and it requires only a little ingenuity to make out a case of 
constructive A. from any set of opinions at all differing from the common. Thus, the 
ancient Greeks accused some of their philosophers of A. though they did not deny the 
existence of a divinity, but only rejected the common notions of a plurality of gods. 
And in the Christian church, after the doctrine of the Trinity had been fixed and defined, 
those that denied the divinity of Christ were not unusually branded as atheists. . 

The horror inspired by this name is strikingly shown in the way it is repudiated by 
the adherents of pantheism (q.v.), who reject a personal god, and substitute the idealized 
principle of order that pervades the universe. It is hardly to be denied, however, that 
the idea associated with the word God has hitherto involved personality as its very 
essence; and, except for the purpose of avoiding odium, there could be little propriety in 
retaining the word when the hotion is so completely altered. 


Atheisms 
8 D 3 Athenais,. 


The view of those who, like Kant, believe it impossible to demonstrate satisfactorily 
the existence of God, though it must be held on other grounds, is called speculative A., in 
opposition to the dogmatic A. of those who attempt to disprove that existence. 


ATH'ELNEY, [sie or, a marsh at the junction of the rivers Tone and Parret, in the 
middle of Somersetshire. Here Alfred, when driven from his throne, hid from his ene- 
mies, and founded, in 888, a Benedictine abbey, now entirely gone. Among the many 
relics found in this spot is a ring of Alfred’s preserved in the Oxford museum. The 
name Athelney means “‘ island of the nobles,” or ‘‘ royal island.” 


ATH’ELSTAN, the grandson of Alfred the Great, was b. about 895 a.p., and was the 
first Saxon monarch who took the title of king of England, Alfred himself only assum- 
ing that of king of the Anglo-Saxons. He was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, in 
925, and seems to have possessed both great ambition and high talent. Itis supposed that 
his design was to unite in subjection to his single sway the entire island of Britain. His 
resources, however, were not equal to the undertaking, and he had to content himself 
with the acquisition of portions of Cornwall and Wales. On the death of Sigtric, king 
of Northumbria, who had married one of his daughters, A. took possession of his domin- 
ions. This excited the alarm and animosity of the neighboring states, and a league, 
composed of Welsh, Scotch, and Irish, was formed against the English king, for the 
purpose of placing Aulaff, the son of Sigtric, on his father’s throne. <A fierce and deci- 
sive battle was fought at Brunenburgh, in which the allies were utterly defeated, and 
which became famous in Saxon song. After this, the reputation of A. spread into the 
continent. His sisters were married into the royal families of France and Germany, and 
he himself enjoyed the greatest influence and consideration. At home, he exhibited a 
deep interest in the welfare of his people, improved the laws, built monasteries, and 
encouraged the translation of the Bible into the vernacular. Hed. at Gloucester, on the 
25th Oct., 941, in his 47th year. 

ATHE’NA. See MINERVA. 

ATHENZE'UM (Gr. Athenaion), the temple of Minerva (Gr. Athene) at Athens, which 
was frequented by poets, learned men, and rhetoricians, who there read aloud their 
works.—The A. in Rome was a school or college erected, by the emperor Hadrian, for 
the study of poetry and rhetoric, with a regular staff of professors. It existed fora long 
period. In thetime of Theodosius II., it had three professors of oratory, ten of grammar, 
five of sophistry or dialectics, one of philosophy, and two of jurisprudence.—In modern 
times, the name A. has been revived as an appellation for certain literary institutions, and 
also as a collective title for literary essays and reviews. A. is the title of two weekly 
journals of literature, science, and art—one published in London, the other in Paris, 


ATHENZE'US, a Greek rhetor and littérateur, b. at Naucratis in Egypt. He lived at the 
close of the 2d and beginning of the 8d century. His work, entitled Detpnosophiste (Ban- 
quet of the Learned), in fifteen books, but of which we possess the first two, and parts of the 
third, eleventh, and fifteenth only in an abridged form, is very interesting, as it has pre- 
served for us copious fragments of old writers, and treats,in the form of dialogue, of 
almost all the topics of ancient Greek manners, private and public life, arts, sciences, 
etc. It is not a work indicative of any high ability; the author, for the most part, appears 
in the character of an agreeable, well-read, epicurean gentleman, excessively fond of 
tit-bits, both of scandal and cookery. He tells many stories to the disadvantage of peo- 
ple whom history praises; but these we are by no means bound to believe, nor, indeed, 
is he a man whose opinions are worth much on any subject; but as a melange of liter- 
ary, social, and domestic gossip, the value of the work is unrivaled. A. appears to 
have read enormously; he states that he had made extracts himself from 800 plays of 
the middle comedy alone. But his dialogue is prolix and lumbering; and his work is 
not irradiated by a single gleam of genius, and has only achieved immortality through 
being a store-house of miscellaneous information, that otherwise would have been lost 
to the race. The best editions are by Schweighaiiser (14 vols., Strasb., 1801-7), and Din- 
dorf (8 vols., Leip., 1827). There is an English translation of A. in ‘‘ Bohn’s Classical 
Library,” (8 vols., Lond., 1854). 

ATHENAG'ORAS, an early Christian philosopher, who taught first at Athens, and 
afterwards at Alexandria. He is one of the oldest of the apologetical writers, and is 
favorably known by his Legatio pro Uhristianis, which he addressed to the emperor Mar- 
cus Aurelius, in the year 177 A.D. He therein defended the Christians against the mon- 
strous accusations of the heathen, viz.: that they were guilty of atheism, incest, and 
cannibalism. His work is written in a philosophical spirit, and ismarked by great clear- 
ness and cogency of style. We likewise possess a valuable treatise of his on the resur- 
rection of the dead. 

ATHENAIS, an Athenian of distinguished beauty, the daughter of Leontinos the 
Sophist, was b. about the close of the 4th c. A.D. She received from her father a supe- 
rior education, being skilled in Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric, astronomy, geom- 
metry, and the science of arithmetic. After his death, she repaired to Constantinople, 
to obtain justice for the harsh treatment to which her brother subjected her. Here her 
beauty and intelligence made her the favorite of Augusta Pulcheria, sister of Theodo- 
sius 1a who considered that she would make an excellent wife for the emperor, In 


Athenodorus. 4 
Athens. 85 


_ having been baptized and named Eudocia, was married to Theodosius, and in 
438 stiide a Eplendid niiesinaase to Jerusalem, bringing with her, on her return, the sup- 
posed relics of the first martyr, Stephen. Afterwards, she lost the favor of Pulcheria— 
the real manager of affairs—and was banished from the court. She then retired to Jerusa- 
lem, where she suffered many persecutions, and d., in the odor of sanctity, 460 A.D. A. 
wrote an epic poem on the war of Theodosius against the Persians, and several other 
metrical works which have not been preserved. 

ATHENODO'RUS, surnamed Canantres, or SANDONUS, a stoic philosopher, who 
probably gave instruction to Augustus when he was at Apollonia, and who was made 
tutor to Tiberius, who esteemed him highly for virtue and probity. He was in the habit 
of giving his opinions freely, and often warned Augustus that when he found himself 
giving way to anger he should repeat the letters of the alphabet. He d. in Targus, his 
native t., aged 82. None of his works have survived. Another A., surnamed CoRDIL- 
ION, was librarian at Pergamus, and d.in Rome. There were also two sculptors of the 
name, one of whom assisted Agesander in the group of the ‘‘ Laocodn.” 


ATH'ENS, the capital of the ancient state of Attica, is said to have been founded by 
Cecrops, about 1550 B.c., and styled Cecropia; but even the ancients themselves doubted 
this tradition. Equally uncertain is the story that it was first styled A. in honor of 
Athene, during the reign of Erichthonius. The ancient citadel was situated on the top 
of a square craggy rock, 150 ft. high, with a flat summit, 1000 ft. long, and 500 broad. 
Gradually, as population increased, A. extended itself over the wide and beautiful plain 
below. ‘This increase is said to have been occasioned by the organization of the 12 
Attic tribes into a political confederacy or union by Theseus, the brightest figure that 
shines through the ‘‘ dark ages” of Attic history. The position of A. near the gulf of 
Saronica, opposite the eastern coast of the Peloponnesus, was favorable to the acquire- 
ment of naval power. The city, which was distant 4 or 5 m. from the sea, pos- 
sessed three harbors, all situated on the s.w., and connected with it by walls. The 
oldest of these harbors was Phalerum. It was also the nearest to the city, and accessible 
at all times by a dry road. The Pireus was first used as a harbor by Themistocles. 
Munychia was the acropolis of the whole rocky peninsula termed the Peirseus, and of 
immense importance strategically. The two last harbors were connected with the 
city by the famous ‘“‘long walls,” of which we read so much in Athenian history. ‘They 
were 40 stadia, or nearly 5m., in length. Two streams flowed in the vicinity of 
A.; on the e. side, the Ilissus, which also washed the southern part of the city; and on 
the w., the Cephisus, about a mile and a half beyond the walls. To the w. lay 
Salamis, with Eleusis on the n.w., Phyle and Decelea on the n., Marathon on the n.e., 
and Hymettus on thes. All along the coast rose splendid buildings. 

The whole of the magnificent prospect was crowned by the acropolis, filled with monu- 
ments. See illustration, Grercr, vol. VIl. First rose the parthenon (q.v.), or 
temple of Minerva, a pile which even now, after the lapse of centuries, remains among 
the wonders of the world. The propylea, all built of white marble, formed the entrance 
to the parthenon. Close to it, on the n. side of the acropolis, rose the erechtheium, tne 
most venerated of all Athenian sanctuaries, and connected with the oldest religious 
history of the city. The whole of it was destroyed by the Persians, but was restored 
during the Peloponnesian war. Its ruins still exist, and allow us to form a very. correct 
idea of its external form and structure. In some points, it differed from all other 
examples of Greek temples. But it would be tedious and unprofitable to mention in 
detail all those magnificent buildings which were the glory of ancient Athens. It is 
sufficient to say that gods were never more superbly honored in any land. That 
enthusiastic love of the beautiful which animated the Athenians, turning their religion 
into an art, and making worship an education in esthetics, is nowhere so clearly visible 
as in their religious architecture. Their mythological faith stood daily before their 
eyes in monumental splendor, for almost every deity had his temple or shrine in the 
city. Two of the finest buildings—the temple of Theseus, and that of Jupiter Olympus 
—were on the outside of the city; the first to the n.w., the second to the s. The 
former was both a temple and a tomb, inasmuch as it held the remains of Theseus 
himself. It was built about 465 B.c., and was therefore older than the parthenon. It 
had the privilege of an asylum for slaves, and the large space of ground which it 
inclosed was frequently used as a muster-ground for the Athenian soldiery. It was 
built of the favorite Pentelic marble, in the doric style of architecture, and is the best 
preserved of all the monuments of ancient Athens. For centuries it was a Christian 
church, appropriately enough dedicated to St. George, the chivalrous hero of the ‘‘ dark 
ages” of Christianity, as Theseus had been of the ‘‘dark ages” of Attic history; but is 
now the national museum of the city. The temple of Jupiter, of which 16 grand 
Corinthian columns are still extant, to the s.e. of the acropolis, and near the right bank 
of the Ilissus, in size, splendor, and beauty excelled all other Athenian structures. 
Immense sums of money were expended upon it from the time when it was commenced 
by Peisistratus, until it was completed by Hadrian, a period of 700 years. The build- 
ing of it was frequently suspended, so that Philostratus calls it ‘‘a struggle with time.” 
At the time the Persians sacked the city, it was fortunately only beginning to be built, 
and so escaped destruction. Aristotle speaks of it as a work of despotic grandeur, and 


* - 
Athenodorus, 
855 Athos 


equal to the pyramids of Egypt. The exterior was decorated by about 120 fluted col 
umns, 61 ft. in height, and more than 6 ft. in diameter. It was 354 ft. long, and 171 
broad, and contained the celebrated statue of the Olympian Jupiter in ivory and gold, 
the work of Phidias. 

Besides these wonders of art, the city contained places of interest of which the 
memory will perpetually remain—the academy where Plato, whose estate lay near it, 
gave his lessons in a grove of plane-trees adorned with statues; tradition alleged it to 
have belonged originally to Academus. Hipparchus surrounded it with a wall, 
and Cimon adorned it with walks, fountains, and olive-groves. The lyceum, the 
most important of the Athenian gymnasia, where Aristotle lectured; and, near to this, 
the cynosarges, where Antisthenes the Cynic expounded his ‘‘harsh and crabbed” 
doctrine; the hill of the areopagus, where the most venerable court of judicature was 
held; and the prytaneum, or senate-house. About a quarter of a,mile to the w. of the 
acropolis rises a low hill, which marks the locality of the pnyx, a place of public 
assembly, forming a large semicircular area, bounded at the base by a limestone wall, 
from which projects a pedestal, carved out of the rock, and ascended by steps. This 
most interesting place has been preserved almost in its integrity, and, as we look around, 
we are carried back to the times when some 6000 Athenian citizens were here 
assembled, when the orator, standing upon the pedestal, could survey the acropolis, 
with all its temples, the venerable areopagus, and beyond the city the extended plains 
and villages of Attica, with corn-fields, olive-grounds, and vineyards. 

A., in its most flourishing period, numbered 21,000 free citizens; from which we 
may calculate that it contained about 200,000 inhabitants. More than 2000 years have 
passed over the beautiful city, and still its remains excite the admiration of the world. 
The Turks surrounded it with wide irregular walls, partly built out of the ruins of the 
old walls, and containing many fragments of noble columns. Of the propylea, the right 
wing, or temple of victory, was destroyed in 1656 by the explosion of a powder maga- 
zine. Six columns, with lofty arches, remain to mark the site of the opposite wing. 
The interior of the parthenon was used for some time as a Turkish mosque. Hight 
columns remain on the e. of the front, several colonnades at the sides; and of the back 
pediment, where the combat of Minerva and Neptune was sculptured, nothing remains 
save the head of a sea-horse, and two decapitated female figures. Of the pediment in 
front, several figures belonging to the group representing the birth of Minerva are pre- 
served in the British museum, and justly regarded as masterpieces of ancient sculpture. 
Of all the statues which the parthenon contained, only one, that of Hadrian, has been 
preserved. Ruined as it has been, the general aspect of the parthenon is still sublime. 
Of the erechtheum (or temple of Neptunus Erechtheus) considerable vestiges remain, 
especially the beautiful female figures styled caryatides. 

The situations and vast extent of the two theaters may still be traced, though grain 
is now grown in the arenas. All these remains belong to the acropolis. In the city 
below, there are no such splendid memorials. The horologium, or octagonal temple of 
the winds (built by Andronicus Kyrrhestes), has been well preserved; but a few frag 
ments found in broken walls are all that remain to tell of the splendid gymnasium built 
by Ptolemeus. Beyond the city, the attention of the spectator is arrested by the sub\ime 
ruins of the temple of Jupiter Olympus. Pedestals and inscriptions have been found 
here and there, sometimes buried in the earth. The sculptures on the friezes of the 
interior of the temple of Theseus, representing the exploits of Theseus, have been ‘well 
preserved, while the external sculptures are almost utterly destroyed. A Turkish 
burial-place now occupies the hill where the areopagus held its sittings. The site of 
the lyceum is indicated only by scattered stones, and a modern house and garden 
occupy the place of the academy. Scarcely anything remains to show the old mag- 
nificence of the harbors Pirzeus, Phaleros, and Munychia. 

It is probable that, in the time of Pausanias, many structures remained belonging to 
the period before the Persian war, as Xerxes, during his short time of mastery over A., 
would scarcely have been able to destroy more than the fortifications and principal 
public buildings. Themistocles, in his restoration of the city, had chiefly a regard to 
utility; Cimon paid attention to its decoration; but Pericles far exceeded them in the 
magnificence of his designs, which were too vast to be carried into effect in later times. 
The civilization, spreading from A. as its center, raised Macedon and other states into 
dangerous rivalry. The defeat at Cheroneia was as fatal to the fine arts as to the liberty 
of the Athenians. After the works at the Peirseus had been destroyed by Sulla, the 
naval power, and with it the whole political importance of A., rapidly declined. It is 
true that the city was treated leniently by its conquerors; the temples and statues were 
preserved from violation, and A., with all the trophies of eight centuries of greatness, 
remained under the Antonines; but the free national spirit of the Athenians had departed 
forever, and slowly, but surely, the fine arts shared the fate of Grecian liberty. Their 
treasures, which had been spared by the Roman emperors, were gradually stolen away 
by various thievish collectors, especially for the decoration of Byzantium, or were 
destroyed by irreflective Christian zeal and barbarian invasion. About 420 a.p., the 
ancient religion and temple-service of A. had entirely disappeared; afterwards, the 
schools of philosophy were closed by Justinian, and Greek mythology was gradually 
forgotten. St. George took the place of Theseus, and the parthenon was converted into 


Athens. ~ 856 


Atherton. 


acburch. The surviving industry of A. was injured by Roger of Sicily, who removed 
its silk manufactures. In 1456, A. fell into the hands of Omar, and, to consummate its 
degradation, under the low, sensual Turks, the city of Athene was regarded as an 
appanage of the harem, and governed by a black eunuch. The Venetians, having 
captured the city in 1687, intended to carry away asa trophy the quadriga of victory from 
the w. front of the parthenon, but shattered it in their attempt to remove it. In 1688, 
A. was again delivered into the hands of the Turks, and the work of demolition now 
proceeded rapidly. The grand remains of antiquity were used as quarries to supply 
materials for all ordinary buildings, and, in the course of another century, the city was 
reduced to its lowest point of degradation. 

Modern A. (styled by the Turks Athina or Setines) is now the capital of the new 
kingdom of Greece. Previous to the Greek revolution (1821), it was a provincial city of 
inferior importance, the seat of a Greek metropolitan bishop, and under the jurisdiction 
of the Turkish governor in Eubeea. In 1821, the war of liberation commenced, and the 
Turks surrendered Athens in the following year; but again captured it in 1826, and took 
the acropolis in 1827. After thisit was left in ruins until 1830, when Attica was declared 
united with Greece by the protocol of the London conference. In 1834, Otho, the son 
of the Bavarian monarch, who had been elected to the sovereignty of the new kingdom, 
removed his residence from Nauplia to A. Improvements now proceeded rapidly: 
Turkish manners and customs disappeared; the contemptible wooden houses and 
crooked streets were superseded by new ones—among which the Hermes, olus, Athene, 
and New Stadion streets are conspicuous; and, in 18386, the foundation of a new palace 
was laid, and it was completed in 1843. The municipal affairs of A. are now regulated 
by a mayor (demarchos) and council elected by the citizens. Modern A, has a gymna- 
sium, a library enriched with many donations from France and Germany, and a uni- 
versity, where about 52 professors and tutors are engaged. The number of students is 
about 1200. Several interesting works have been printed in A. The French and United 
States governments have founded archeological institutes, and several missionary societies 
have branches here. <A. has several printing establishments, soap-works, leather-works, 
and silk and cotton factories. It is connected with Pirzeus, its port, by rail. Pop.’89, 107,251. 

Political History of A.—It was the Ionic race that manifested most signally the dis- 

tinguishing characters of Greek civilization; and of this portion of Hellas, A., in the 
brilliant part of its history, stands out most prominently. According to tradition, its 
political power was first established by Theseus, king of Attica, who made A. the 
metropolis. Here he instituted the great popular festival of the Panathenza, and, by 
encouraging settlements in the city, greatly increased its population. He divided the 
citizens into three classes: nobility, agriculturists, and mechanics. Until the death of 
Codrus in 1068 n.c., A. was governed by kings; afterwards, by archons elected from the 
nobility. The time of holding office was limited to 10 years in 752 B.c., and tol year 
in 683 B.c., when 9 archons were annually elected, one being called the archon eponymus, 
because the year was distinguished by his name. Here begins the authentic history of 
A. ‘These archons, together with the council of nobles, afterwards called the areopagus, 
exercised the whole power of the state, and administered justice. The Athenian govern- 
ment was thus, like all other Hellenic governments, an oligarchy; but the changes intro- 
duced by the archon Solon, 594 B.c., though remarkably moderate, laid the foundation 
of that democratic constitution which was afterwards perfected by Cleisthenes. The 
condition of the population at the time of Solon was one of extreme suffering and dis- 
cord, arising chiefly from the oppressive execution, by the aristocratic archons, of the 
law of debtor and creditor. This law was of old extremely harsh in Greece as well as 
in Rome; it assigned the debtor that could not fulfill his contract as the slave of his 
treditor. The great part of the soil of Attica was in the hands of the rich, and the mass 
of the population, who tilled the lands as tenants, were either in hopeless arrears, or 
already, with their families, actual slaves. Driven to desperation, the populace were 
ready to rise in mutiny; the oligarchy were afraid or unable to enforce the laws; and 
thus it was agreed to confer dictatorial power on Solon, well known for his wisdom, 
integrity, and sympathy with the people, and allow him to solve the problem. The 
disease being desperate, Solon applied the desperate remedy of abolishing existing con- 
tracts, liberating those that had been reduced to slavery, and forbidding for the future 
any one from pledging his own person or that of a member of his family. He next 
reformed the political constitution by dividing the freemen into four classes, according 
to the amount of their property. It was only the richer classes that paid taxes and 
were eligible to the offices of state; but all had votes in the assembly that elected the 
archons, and all sat in judgment on their past conduct, on the expiry of their 
year of office. The government, though still oligarchical, was thus modified by 
popular control. Its free operation was for some time (560-510 B.c.) interrupted by 
the usurpation of Peisistratus and his sons, whose tyranny, however, was mild and 
enlightened, the forms at least of the Solonian constitution being preserved. 
_ On the banishment of the Peisistratide (510 B.c.), a further political reform was 
introduced by Gleisthenes, who extended the basis of the constitution, and rendered it 
essentially democratic. To Cleisthenes is ascribed the origin of the practice called 
ostracism (q.v.). 

Then followed the brilliant period of the Persian war, when, out of the circumstances 


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‘wnich had seemed to threaten destruction, A. rose to the highest point of power and 
prosperity. Miltiades at Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, gained the victories 
which infused new courage and enthusiasin into the Greek nation. The period between 
the Persian war and the time of Alexander the great, or from 500 to 336 B.c., was the 
most glorious in Athenian history; and in 444, Cimon and Pericles raised the city to its 
highest point of grandeur and beauty. But under Pericles, the beginning of a decline 
took place, through the decay of ancient morals and the Peloponnesian war, which 
ended in the capture of A. by the Lacedemonians. After this, A. retained only the 
shadow of its former power and dignity. The thirty appointed ministers of government 
- were, in fact, so many tyrants, supported by the Lacedsmonian army. After eight 
months of despotism had been endured, the tyrants were expelled by Thrasybulus, a free 
constitution was restored to A., and anew period of prosperity commenced. But it was not 
destined to endure long; a formidable foe, Philip of Macedon, now appeared in the north. 
The Athenians having opposed him in the Phocian war, Philip took from them several of 
their colonies. Then followed the defeat of the Athenians at Cheeroneia (888 B.c.), a 
fatal blow to Greece. A. with other states became subject to Macedon. The free 
spirit of the citizens was broken, and in moral character they degenerated. After Alex- 
ander’s death, a fruitless attempt was made to regain their liberty. Antipater instituted 
an oligarchy of wealth. Soon afterwards, A. was taken by Cassander, and placed under 
the rule of Demetrius Phalereus, who employed his power wisely and beneficently. Once 
more the old constitution of A. was restored by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a short inter- 
val of independence was enjoyed, until the city was taken by Antigonus Gonatas. After 
liberating themselves from the dominion of Macedon, and joining the Achaian confed- 
eracy, the Athenians were so misguided as to support Mithridates against the Romans. 
This last error was fatal. Sulla conquered A., destroyed the port of the Peirzeus, and 
Teft only the appearance of liberty and independence, which entirely vanished in the 
time of Vespasian. Still, after the spirit of liberty and progress had departed, A. long 
remained safe from spoliation. 'The Romans, in their respect for Grecian pre-eminence 
in art and philosophy, and moved also by religious reverence, long regarded Athens asa 
captive too noble and beautiful to suffer any indignity. 


ATH'ENS, a co. in s.e. Ohio, on the Ohio river; intersected by Hocking river ; 485 
sq.m.; pop. 90, 35,194. Co. seat, Athens. 


ATHENS, city and co. seat of Clarke county, Ga., on the Oconee river, 70 miles e. by 
n. of Atlanta, and on the Central of Ga., the Ga., the Northeastern of Ga., and the sea- 
board Air Line railroads. The city has a delightful climate, the mean annual tempera- 
ture being 60°; is an important cotton market, and contains several cotton factories, 
besides manufactures of iron, flour, furniture, etc. Here are situated the University of 
Georgia, founded in 1785, the Georgia State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
organized in 1872, the Lucy Cobb Institute for girls, Knox Institute, Jerual Academy, 
a State normal school, and several daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. Pop. 
90, 8639. 

ATH'ERINE, Atheri'na, a genus of small fishes, allied to the mullet family (mugilide), 
but latterly separated into a distinct family, atherinidw. The atherines have more than 
twice as many vertebre as the mullets; they are of a rather slender form; but few of 
them exceed 6 in. in length. They have a protractile mouth, and very small teeth; some 
are quite toothless. Almost all the known species, which are numerous, and found in 
the seas of different parts of the world, have a broad silvery band along each flank. 
Some of them are much esteemed for their delicacy. They all congregate in great 
shoals. They abound in the Mediterranean. One species, A. presbyter, is very common 
on the s. coast of England and on some parts of the coast of Ireland, but is rare on the 
e. coast of Britain. In the markets of some of the southern towns of England, where 
the smelt (q.v.) is unknown, it is sold under that name; in Brighton and some other 
places, it is called sand smelt. Where this fish abounds, it is often taken by anglers 
from the shore, biting readily at almost any bait. 


ATHERO'MA, or “‘ fatty deposit,” is generally found in the tissues of aged persons, 
or those who have lived dissipated and ill-nourished lives. In appearance, it is yellow 
and cheesy, showing under the microscope fatty granules and crystals of cholesterine. 
Its most common situation is between the middle and inner coats of arteries, and is dan- 
gerous, inasmuch as it interferes with the elasticity of the arterial tube, rendering it 
more liable to injury, and less able to repair itself, should any occur. A. generally pre- 
cedes aneurism (q.v.). Cysts filled with contents resembling bread-sauce, which 
frequently occur in the scalp, are termed atheromatous tumors. 


ATH’ERSTONE, a market t. of Warwickshire, England, on the borders of Leicester- 
shire, 16 m. n.e. from Birmingham; in a valley surrounded by finely wooded hills, on 
the Roman road called Watling street, the Trent Valley railway, and the Coventry and 
Fazely canal. The town is irregularly built; many of the houses are very ancient; the old 
houses are of stone, the modern ones of brick. Some of the modern churches and other 
bs buildings are handsome structures. Hats, stockings, and ribbons are manufac- 
tured here. 


ATHERTON, CHarLEs Gorpon, 1804-53; b. N. H., senator of the United States 
from New Hampshire. He was a member of the lower house of congress, where, Dec. 
11, 1888, he introduced what gave him the cognomen of “‘ gag-rule Atherton.” Itwasa 


Athias. wes 
Atlantic. 5 v 8 


resolution to lay on the table, without reading or reference, any petition touching the 
subject of slavery. A.’s resolution passed by 120 votes to 78, and for several years all 
such petitions were treated with entire silence. A. was chosen to the senate in 1848, and 


again in 1882. 

ATHI’AS, Joseru, a printer of Amsterdam, who printed two editions of the Old 
Testament in Hebrew, remarkably accurate, and the first edition in which the verses 
were numbered in figures. For this and other meritorious works, the states-general gave 
him a gold medal. 


ATHLETE (Gr. athleo, to contend), the name given to a combatant, pugilist, wrestler, 
or runner, in ancient Greece. Athletics were studied in Greece as a branch of art, and 
led to several useful rules of diet, exercise, etc., applicable to ordinary modes of life. 
Bodily strength and activity were so highly honored by the Greeks, that the A. held a 
position in society totally different from that of the modern pugilist. When he proposed 
to enter the lists at the Olympic or other public games, he was examined with regard to 
his birth, social position, and moral character. A herald then stepped forth and called 
upon any one, if he knew aught disgraceful to the candidate, to state it. ven men of 
genius contended for the palm in athletic exercises. Chrysippus and Cleanthes, the 
famous philosophers, were victorious athletes, or, at least, agoniste, 1.e., persons who 
pursued gymnastic exercises, not as a profession, but for the sake of exercise, just as at 
the present day we have gentlemen-cricketers, amateur-pugilists, etc. The profound 
and cloquent Plato appeared among the wrestlers in the Isthmian games at Corinth, and 
also in the Pythian games at Sicyon. Even the meditative Pythagoras is said to have 
gained a prize at Elis, and gave instructions for athletic training to Eurymenes, who 
afterwards gained a prize at the same place. So great was the honor of an Olympian 
victor, that his native city was regarded as ennobled by his success, and he himself con- 
sidered sacred. He entered the city through a special breach made in the walls; he was 
supported at the public expense; and when he died, was honored with a public funeral. 
Euthymus, of Locri in Italy, who had, with only one exception, been regularly victori- 
ous at Elis, was honored with a statue, to which, even during his lifetime, homage was 
paid by command of an oracle. Athletic sports were first witnessed at Rome 186 B.c. 


They were introduced by M. Fulvius at the end of the Atolian war, and became exces. . 
sively popular in the time of the emperors. At Rome, the athletes formed a cor-; 


poration. 

ATHLONE’, a small t. in the center of Ireland, on both sides of the Shannon, chiefly 
in the co. of Westmeath, but partly in that of Roscommon. Itis the largest town between 
Dublin and Galway, and lies on a commanding situation, 8m. below Lough Ree, in a 
carboniferous limestone district. The chief manufactures are felt hats, friezes, linens, 
and stays. A canal here, a mile long, enables large river-steamers to navigate the Shan- 
non for 116 m., from Killaloe to Carrick-on-Shannon, uninterrupted by the river-rapids. 
The Shannon is crossed by a fine bow-string and lattice iron bridge of two arches, 175 
and 40 ft. span. Pop. about 6000. A. sends one member to parliament. A. castle, on the 
Roscommon bank of the Shannon, was founded in the reign of king John, and has now 
been rendered one of the chief military positions in Ireland. The fortifications cover 15 
acres, and contain barracks for 1500 men. 


ATHOL, a town in Worcester co., Mass., on the Fitchburg, and a branch of the 
Boston and Albany railroads. It contains churches, banks, a high-school, a foundry, 
and manufactures shoes, mechanical tools, pocket-books, sashes and blinds, billiard 
tables, pianoforte cases, etc., and publishes weekly and monthly papers. Pop. 
90, 6319. 


A'THOLE (Pleasant Land), a district of 450 sq.m. in the n. of Perthshire. It occupies 


. & great part of the southern slopes of the Grampian mountains, and is intersected by 


many narrow glens, down which flow the rapid tributaries of the Tay. It is chiefly 
composed of gneiss and quartz rock, with beds of primary limestone. Dr. Hutton’s 
explorations among the granite veins in Glen Tilt, were among the chief means of estab- 
lishing the Plutonic theory of geology. A. was once one of the best hunting districts 
in Scotland. Athole deer-forest contained 100,000 acres, and 10,000 head of deer, of 
which 100 were killed annually. In the picturesque pass of Killiecrankie, in this dis- 
trict, 17 m. n.w. of Dunkeld, Claverhouse fell in 1689, though victorious over the troops 
of king William ITI. 


A'THOR, or AtTHyR, but properly, Het-her, i.e., ‘‘the habitation of God,” the name 
of an Egyptian goddess who, in the mythological system of that people, is ranked among 
the second class of deities. She was the daughter of Ra, the sun. By the Greeks, she 
was identified with Aphroa.te (Venus). The cow was regarded as her symbol, and, in 
hieroglyphics, she generally appears with the head of that animal, bearing between her 
horns the figure of the sun’s disk. A. is also represented as a cow itself, and as a bird 
with human face, horns, and the sun’s disk. On the oldest monuments, she is frequently 
portrayed bearing a temple on her head, as in the Athor-capitals of the Ptolemaic build- 
ings, falsely supposed to be heads of Isis. Originally, the goddess had a cosmogonic 
significance; later, she was called the ‘‘ mistress of dance and jest,’ and held in her 
hands, as symbols of joy, the cord of love and the tambourine. Queens and princesses 
were often represented by the figure of A. Her worship was generally spread through 


Ss 


Athias. 
859 Atlantic. 


Egypt. Her most sacred abode was at Denderah. After her the third month of the 
Egyptian year was named. 

A'THOS, Ha’aton O'Ros, or Mon'T& SAn’To, i.e., the Holy hill, the principal moun- 
tain of a chain extending, in a peninsular form, from the coast of Macedonia into the 
Hgean sea, between the gulfs of Contessa and Monté Santo, and connected with the 
mainland by a narrow isthmus. The length of the peninsula is 40 m.; breadth, 4 m. 
According to tradition, it received its name from A., son of Neptune, or from A., a giant 
who battled against the gods. The highest summit in the chain, or Mt. A. proper, a 
solitary peak at the southern extremity of the peninsula, rises 6350 ft. above the sea- 
level. In ancient times, several towns were built on A. Herodotus mentions five. The 
most memorable thing in connection with A., is the canal which Xerxes cut through 
the isthmus, in order to escape the stormy gales which rendered the navigation round 
the promontory very perilous, and which had shattered the fleet of Mardonius some 
years betore. Traces of this cane] still exist. 

ATKINSON, EpwWARp, economist, b. Brookline, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827. He has written 
many articles of value upon social and monetary subjects, among which are dw Easy 
Lesson in Money and Banking, Atlantic, 1874, Aug.; Commercial Development in the First 
Century of the Republic, Harper’s Memorial Volume, 1816; An American View of American 
Competition, Fortnightly, 1879, Mar.; What is a Bank? pamphlet, 1881; The Rapid Spread 
of Communism, Atlantic, 1882, July; Labor and Capital Allies, Not Enemies, in Harper's 
Half-Hour Series; Taxation and Work (1892), and Every Boy his own Book (1893). 


ATLANTA, capital of Georgia and of Fulton county, is the largest city in the state, 
and the commercial centre of the northern section. It lies at the base of the Blue Ridge, 
1100 feet above the sea, near the Chattahoochee river, about midway between the 
Atlantic ocean and the Mississippi river, and is at the junction of many railroads. 
Savannah is 294 miles southeast of it, and Augusta, 171 miles east by south. From its 
elevated location among the mountains it is popularly called the ‘‘ Gate City,’’ and the 
climate is healthful and enjoyable, with a mean annual temperature of 61.6° Fahrenheit. 
The natural drainage is perfect, although it has no water connections. 

Atlanta was settled in 1845, and was first called Terminus from the fact of the com- 
pletion here of the Georgia and Western and Atlantic railroads. It afterwards received 
the name of Marthasville, but was incorporated in 1847 with its present designation. 
The history of Atlanta is closely connected with that of our civil war. It had then a 
population of 15,000. From its admirable location it soon became a great central point 
of the Confederate armies for manufactures and supplies, and the population rapidly 
increased to 30,000. It was-besieged by Gen. Sherman’s army (q.v.), July 21, 1864; the 
bombardment lasted forty days, many citizens being killed by the shells. It was cap- 
tured by the Federal troops September 2, 1864, and retained until November, when it 
was burned by them previous to their march to the sea. 

Piedmont, Oglethorpe, and the driving park have fine grounds and beautiful views. 
Grant Park covers 140 acres. Oakland and West View cemeteries are advantageously 
laid out. Among the noteworthy buildings are the Capitol, which cost $1,000,000, the 
Equitable building, the Chamber of Commerce, and the Kimball House. There are a 
large number of churches, hospitals, an orphans’ home, several universities and colleges, 
both for colored and white students, the State Technological school, Spelman seminary, 
a Baptist seminary, military schools, medical colleges, a law school, academies and busi- 
ness colleges, besides high and grammar schools. The State Library and the Young 
Men’s Library are located here. There are many newspapers and other publications, 
dailies and weeklies. Waterworks near the city derive an ample supply from the 
Chattahoochee river. 

It was the scene of the cotton state exposition in 1881 and of the great Atlanta expo- 
sition (q.v.) in 1895. Cotton goods, foundry and machine products, furniture, lumber, 
oil, tobacco, agricultural implements and fertilizers are some of the principal staples. 
Ft. McPherson, four miles distant is one of the largest military posts in the United 
States. Pop. 1890, 65,533; has greatly increased since that date. 

ATLANTA EXPOSITION, a cotton state and international exposition, in Piedmont. 
park, Atlanta, Ga.; opened by President Cleveland from his summer home at Buzzard’s 
Bay, Mass., Sept. 18, 1895, and closed Dec. 31 following. There were 13 principal 
buildings, besides those erected by the states and foreign governments, and over 
$2,000,000 was expended on buildings and out-door attractions. The Federal govern- 
ment made a large and diversified display of buildings and exhibits, and each of the 
Southern States exhibited its distinctive industries and economic interests. A number 
of national congresses were held during the exposition. The exhibits showing the 
development of electrical science and the advancement of the negro race were especially 
significant. 

ATLANTIC CITY, a seaside resort, on a long, narrow, sandy island, known as Abse- 
con beach, in Atlantic county, New Jersey; sixty miles southeast of Philadelphia, and 
137 miles west by south of New York. The island, three-quarters of a mile wide, 
stretches for ten miles along the coast, four to five miles from the mainland. Absecon 
lighthouse is on the north end of the beach. The city is well arranged, Atlantic avenue 
being 100 feet wide; the streets are named after the states of the union. <A board walk 
skirts the ocean for four miles, forming a charming promenade. The boating and bath- 
ing facilities are good for summer or winter, 50,000 persons having enjoyed the surf in 
one day. There are fine public schools and many churches. Hotels, boarding-houses, 
and private cottages are numerous for the accommodation of visitors. Forty express 


I.—28 


860 


Atlantic. 


trains daily connect with the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Central railroads. Popula- 
tion, ’90, 13,055. During the summer the transient population varies from 25,000 to 
150,000. 

ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS, a town and seaside resort in Monmouth co., N. J., on Sandy 
Hook bay and the Central Railroad of New Jersey, 20 miles s. of New York. It has 
beautiful drives, several churches, schools and newspapers, driven well water, electric 
lights, and well-known Methodist camp-meeting grounds. 


ATLANTIC OCEAN, so called either from Mt. Atlas, or from the fabulous island of 
Atlantis, is that part of the ocean that divides the old world from the new. Its extreme 
breadth is about 5000 m., and its narrowest part, between cape St. Roque, in Brazil, 
and the nearest point in Africa, about 1600 miles. If the A. be supposed to be bounded 
by the polar circles, and to include the Caribbean sea, Hudson’s bay, Mediterranean sea, 
and the other connected water-surfaces, it covers an area computed at 35 million 
sq. miles. The A.is naturally divided into three portions—the north, south, and inter- 
tropical A. It stands in open connection with the n. and s. polar seas, and in the 
remarkable parallelism of its coasts, resembles rather a vast river than an ocean. Its 
northern half sends off numerous ramifications on both sides, some of them forming 
almost shut seas: on the w., Hudson’s bay, the gulf of St. Lawrence, and the gulf of 
Mexico; on the e., the Baltic, North, Mediterranean, and Black seas. In the s., again, 
both coasts present a comparatively unbroken line; and there is a remarkable cor- 
respondence between their projecting and retiring angles, the convex coast of Brazil 
lying opposite to the gulf of Guinea, and the projection of Senegambia answering to 
the retirement of the American coast in the Caribbean sea. | 

The whole of the new world, with the exception of the narrow strip lying w. of the 
Andes and Rocky mountains, belongs to the dasin of this ocean. It drains compara- 
tively little of the old world, as may be seen by tracing the water-shed on a map. Owing 
to the numerous seas and inlets connected with it, the @xtent of its shores is immense, 
over 50,000 m., several thousands more than that of the shores of the Pacific and Indian 
oceans. Except near the continents, the Atlantic is poor in islands compared with the 
Pacific. The chief islands in the open ocean are Iceland, Farée, Bermudas, Azores, 
Ascension, St. Helena, the Falkland islands, South Georgia, and Sandwich land. 

The chief A. currents are two. The equatorial current, which, starting from about 
the island of St. Thomas, in the gulf of Guinea, with a rate of motion varying from 18 
to 24 m. a day, proceeds westwards on both sides of the equator till near cape San 
Roque, where it divides, one branch running s. along the coast of Brazil, and the other 
along the coast of Guinea into the Caribbean sea. The velocity of this current is 24 m. 
a day at the point where it curves s., whence it gradually diminishes in strength as it 
proceeds southward to little more than 6m.a day. Within the south A. there is a 
complete circulation of the waters, induced by the prevailing winds, and maintained at 
about 12m. aday. Its force also varies with the months, being determined by the pre- 
vailing force of the wind ofeach month. Its breadth varies from 200 to 400m. ; and since 
it is fed by currents from n. ands. of it, its temperature is consequently considerably 
lower in the eastern than in the western part of its course. The other great current is 
the gulf stream. ‘This, originally part of the equatorial current, after flowing past the 
Guinea coast, and through the Caribbean sea, issues from the gulf of Mexico through 
the strait of Florida, and after following the direction of the American coast to about 
40°, turns seaward, touches the great Newfoundland bank, and gradually curving 
round, is lost as a distinct current about the Azores (see GULF STREAM). The water of 
this stream is often upwards of 20° warmer than the surrounding ocean. The gulf 
stream has an immense influence on the Atlantic. Besides these great currents, the A. 
abounds in smaller ones, such as the northerly currents along the e. Greenland and 
Labrador coasts (this Arctic current extending as fars. as 36° n. lat., its rate being 
from 24 to 10 m.a day); the southerly current along the w. of Greenland; Rennel’s cur- 
rent, w. of the bay of Biscay; and the great current along the w. of Africa, from 
Morocco southwards, till it is merged in the Guinea current. The whole of these 
currents follow in every case the prevailing winds of the regions where they flow. 

Since over the whole of the eastern half of the A., from about n. lat. 45° northwards, 
the prevailing winds are south-westerly, there is over the same region a general flow of 
the water of the ocean towards the n.e., passing the British isles, and thence along the 
coast of Norway, to some distance e. of the North cape. It is to this circumstance that 
the mild temperatures of north-western Europe must be referred. The amelioration of 
the winter climates from this cause is very great, amounting to about 30° in the 
Hebrides, and to fully 40° in the Lofoden islands. This effect is directly brought about, 
not by the winds alone, but by the influence of the winds and sea combined. The influ- 
ence of currents on the temperature of the ocean is so great, that even in Aug., the 
isothermal of 50° touches the n. of Norway in lat. 72° n., whereas to s.e. of Newfound- 
land the same isothermal descends to about lat. 42° n. Again, on the meridian of 
74° w., the change of temperature from lat. 40° to 35° n., or in 300 m., is 18°.0; whereas 
on the meridian of 20° w. from lat. 40° to 10°, a distance of 1800 m., the change of the 
temperature of the sea is only 15°.0. 

The temperature of the A. about the equator is, if we except the part between 20° 
and 30° w. long., above 80°: that of the gulf of Guinea reaches the maximum of 85° in 


861 Atlantic. 


April; from Oct. to May it is above 80°; in June and Sept. about 80°; and in 
July and Aug. it falls below 80°: that of the Caribbean sea is above 80° from July to 
Oct., during the rest of the year below 80°, except in July. Between 10° and 30° lat. 
n., the temperature of the eastern part of the A. is always from 2° to 7° colder than the 
western, and the maximum and minimum temperatures take place later in the year in 
the Caribbean sea than off the African coast. 

Much has been done recently, particularly by H.M.’s ships Porcupine and Challenger, 
in throwing light on the physical geography of the A. The most important of the 
observations are those of deep and bottom temperatures, from their connection with 
oceanic circulation, and the distribution of life in the depths of the sea, and the bearings 
of the questions thereby raised on geological speculation (see art. SEA). Animal life 
abounds at much greater depths than was formerly supposed; although beyond 6000 ft. 
it gradually diminishes. <A great part of the bottom of the n. Atlantic is covered with 
a slimy ‘‘ ooze,” composed for the most part of the chalk-producing globigerina; in very 
deep parts this is replaced by a brown, clay-like mud, with few traces ot animal forms. 

Regarding the depth of the A., it is only recently that reliable data have been 
obtained; along certain tracts, especially those of the Challenger, the profile of the bot- 
tom can now be laid down with considerable certainty. The deepest sounding made by 
the Challenger with its improved method of sounding (see SOUNDINGS), is 3875 fathoms, 
or 23,250 ft., at a point about 90 m. off St. Thomas, West Indies. A remarkable ridge, 
about 400 m. wide, and 10,000 to 12,000 ft., or 2 to 24 _m., below the surface of the sea, 
extends along the bottom of the A. from cape Clear in Ireland to cape Race in New- 
foundland, a distance of 1640 miles. Along this, which is known as the “‘ telegraph pla- 
teau,” the Atlantic cables are laid. 


ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, History or. The first experiment in submarine teleg- 
raphy was made in 1839 by Dr. W. O’Shaughnessy at Calcutta. Having laid across the 
river Hooghly a copper wire, insulated with a covering of cotton thread saturated with 
pitch and tar, he was able to transmit signals through it. In 1842, prof. Morse, of New 
York, having stretched a submarine cable between Castle Garden and Governor’s island, 
New York, and succeeded in transmitting an electric current from one end to the other, 
expressed his opinion that it would be possible to effect an electric communication through 
the sea. After further investigations, he announced to the secretary of the treasury of the 
United States, ‘‘that a telegraphic communication on his plan might with certainty be estab- 
lished across the Atlantic ” but it was the successful submarine telegraphic undertakings 
of Messrs. Brett, who, in June, 1845, registered a ‘‘ General Oceanic Telegraph Company,” 
with the object, among others, of joining England and America by means of a telegraph 
“across the Atlantic ocean” (see TELEGRAPH, History), that first fairly convinced the 
public mind that the new world might be put on what may be termed conversational] 
terms with the old. His experiment was followed in 1847 by that of J. J. Craven, who 
insulated an iron wire with gutta-percha and placed it in the circuit of the New York and 
Washington telegraph line, submerging it in the waters of a small creek. This led, in 
1848, to the laying of a gutta-percha cable between New York and Jersey City. An 
experimental line laid across the English channel in 1850 was followed in 1851 by the per- 
manent cable which is still in use. The success of this undertaking revived the project 
of a telegraph by way of Newfoundland for rapid communication with Europe. The 
plan was to carry the line across that island to St. John’s, the farthest point on the Ameri- 
can coast, and there connect with a line of fast steamers, which it was thought could 
reach the nearest point in Ireland in five days. ‘Thus America could be brought easily 
within a week of Europe. The supposed great depth of the Atlantic ocean presented the 
most imposing obstacle to this desired closeness of communion ; but when it was dis- 
covered that between Ireland and Newfoundland there extended, along the bottom of the 
Atlantic, at a depth of not more than two miles below the surface, a fine, broad platform 
(see ATLANTIC OCEAN) seemingly so specially formed by nature for the purpose of electric 
communication that capt. Maury at once designated it the telegraphic plateau, the object 
of an Atlantic submarine cable assumed a practical form. In 1854, the attention of Mr. 
Cyrus W. Field, of New York, was directed to the subject, and while he was considering 
this proposal, the thought flashed upon him, ‘‘ why not carry the line across the ocean ?” 
In 1854, the colonial government of Newfoundland passed an act incorporating a com- 
pany to establish telegraphic communication between the old world and the new, and 
aided by a subsidy, and by grants of land. The colonial government also conferred upon 
the company the exclusive right of landing a telegraphic line upon the coast under its 
jurisdiction. The governments of Prince Edward’s island and the state of Maine made 
similar concessions ; and authority for certain subsidiary operations in Canada were also 
obtained. The company, incorporated under the title of ‘‘The New York, Newfound- 
land and London Telegraph Company,” commenced operations by uniting St. John’s in 
Newfoundland with lines in the United States and British North America. But ina 
work of such magnitude, it was very much easier to conceive than to execute. To build 
the line across Newfoundland was no small undertaking. It was a distance of 400 m., 
through a wilderness, over land that was wild and waste, marsh and moor, or rocks and 
hills, and often through dense forests, where every step of the way had to be cleared by 
the woodman’s axe. This overland work took many months’ time. Then to connect the 


+) 

Atlantic. 862 

island with the mainiand, a cable had to be laid across the gulf of St. Lawrence. One was 
sent out from England in 1855, but the first attempt to lay it was a failure. The next 
year a second attempt was made with success. The work thus completed, though costly, 
was merely preliminary to the more serious undertaking which now began. For now, 
numerous preliminary experiments were undertaken by eminent electricians and engineers, 
in order to determine the amount of retarding force which inducted and disguised elec- 
tricity were likely to offer to the transmission of currents along submarine wires of 
unusual length. Having by these experiments, 2000 in number, tried with 62 different 
kinds of cable, determined the one best adapted for the conveyance of electricity through 
such a length, and at such a depth in the Atlantic, the next step was the formation of a 
more influential company. The practicability of a transatlantic telegraph was doubted 
by many of the first authorities, both in England and America. Eminent engineers 
declared that it was beyond the resources of human skill to span the ocean with a cable 
ever 2000 m. long. Even the great Robert Stephenson shook his head, and anticipated 
only failure. Electricians added that even if it were laid, the electric current could not 
be sent that distance. To be sure, there were eminent authorities on the other side. 
The great Faraday encouraged the American projector. But still, both scientific men 
znd practical men were so divided, that it was very difficult to inspire in either country 
the degree of confidence necessary to success. In face of all these obstacles, Mr. Field 
went to London, and there succeeded in 1856 in organizing the first Atlantic telegraph 
company and raising the necessary money to carry out the project, subscribing himself for 
more than one-quarter of the entire capital, and ‘‘the A. T. Company,” to which all the priv- 
ileges conferred on the old company were handed over, was formed with a capital of 
£350,000. The governments of Great Britain and the United States liberally aided the 
company, guaranteeing until such time as its dividend reached 6 per cent., a subsidy of 
£14,000 a year, and of £10,000 subsequently. They also agreed to furnish ships for lay- 
ing down the cable of 1857. The conductor consisted of 7 fine copper wires, no. 22 gauge, 
twisted tightly together, forming a cord 4, in. thick, and weighing 107 Ibs. per mile. This 
thickness was increased to 2 in., by a core of three layers of gutta-percha. Outside the 
core was a jacket of hempen yarn, saturated with pitch, tar, beeswax, and boiled linseed 
oil. The outer sheath ccnsisted of 18 strands, each formed of 7 no. 22 iron wires. 
The whole diameter was about ;', in., and the weight 1 ton per mile. In the manufac- 
turing processes, the wires and yarns were twisted round each other by revolving drums 
and circular tables worked by steam-power, while the coatings of gutta-percha were 
applied by forcing the substance through dies which had the copper conductor passing 
through their center. 

The Niagara and the Agamemnon, the one lent by the U. 8. government and the 
other by the English, took 1250 m. of the cable each, and steamed forth from Valentia 
(w. coast of Ireland) on August 7, 1857. The Niagara paid out her portion of cable as 
she went. On the 11th, in an attempt to slacken the rate of paying out, the cable 
snapped, and the end sank in 2000 fathoms water, at 280 m. from Ireland. The appli- 
ances on board were not sufficient to remedy the disaster, and the two ships returned to 
Plymouth, where the two portions of cable were placed in tanks until the next following 
year. ® 

The Atlantic Telegraph company raised more capital, made 906 m. additional cable, 
and prepared for a new attempt in 1858. The Magara and Agamemnon were again 
employed ; but the submersion was to begin in mid-ocean, one ship proceeding eastward, 
and the other westward, after splicing the two halves of the cable. They left Valentia 
June 10; but it was not till the 26th that they could finish the splice and ccmmence the 
submersion. On the 29th, a double breakage took place, and 144 m. of cable went to the 
dvottom, wholly severed from the rest. The Agamemnon returned to England for 
improved appliances and further instructions ; and a month was thus lost... Then came the 
severest trial—for even the directors lost faith. When it was proposed to renew the 
attempt the vice-president left the room in disgust, and refused to take part in an under- 
taking so hopeless. But the rest stood by manfully, and resolved to try again. The 
ships returned to mid-ocean, whence they were to start, paying-out towards opposite 
shores, on the 17th of July, 1858. The cable was united and lowered on the 29th of the 
same month; and the Agamemnon, notwithstanding a severe gale of wind, arrived at 
Valentia, having successfully laid her portion of it, on the morning of the 6th of Aug. 
The Niagara about the same time arrived in Trinity bay, Newfoundland, and to the 
amazement of the world, this time the experiment proved a success. On the 17th Aug., 
the extremities of the cable having been put in connection with the recording-instru- 
ments, the following message was flashed through the ocean in thirty-five minutes : 
‘* Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest; on earth 
peace and good-will towards men.” Messages and replies from the queen to the president 
of the United States, from the mayor ef London to the mayor of New York, etc., fol- 
lowed. The American people were in a frenzy of enthusiasm, lauding the ocean tele- 
graph as the greatest achievement of modern times, and giving unbounded praise to its 
heroic projector ; the president of the United States and many distinguished persons on 
both sides of the Atlantic sending congratulatory messages to Mr. Field. The station at 
Newfoundland was connected by wires and cables with the general telegraphic system of 

America and that at Valentia with the general system of Europe. The cable continued 


863 Atlantic, 


working until Sept. 1, sending 129 messages (of about 11 words each on an average), from 
England to America, and 271 from America to England; but as it had been injured by 
the winter’s sojourn at Plymouth, it soon began to mutter fitfully, and on the 4th of 
September, the signals of Valentia became unintelligible. Then ensued one of those 
revulsions of feeling so common in the history of all great enterprises, where at first 
success alternates with defeat. The public became almost ashamed of its late enthusiasm. 
Many doubted whether there had ever been a message across the ocean, and the whole 
subject became one for incredulity and ridicule. One commercial message of great 
importance passed through the cable, in reference to the collision between the Atlantic 
steamers, the Huropa and Arabia; this single message saved the commercial world 
£50,000, which would doubtless have been spent in extra insurance on the vessels and car- 
goes thus delayed. Three years after, the civil war commenced, and it was difficult to 
get people in the United States to listen to commercial enterprises during the excitement 
of that great contest. But Mr. Field was not idle; he was constantly crossing and re- 
crossing the Atlantic, and addressing chambers of commerce and public meetings in Eng- 
land and the United States, the results being that in 1864 the necessary capital was raised 
to renew the enterprise. 

From 1858 to 1864, the company were engaged in endeavoring to raise new capital, 
and to obtain increased subsidies from the English and American governments; while 
scientific men were making improvements in the form of cable, and in the apparatus for 
submerging it. At length the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance company 
(formed by an amalgamation of the Gutta-percha company with the wire-cable-making 
firm of Glass & Elliott) made an entirely new cable, much thicker and more costly than 
the former one. ‘The conductor, 300 lbs. per mile, and 4th in. thick, consisted of 7 No. 
18 copper wires, each 3th in. thick. The core was formed of four layers of gutta-percha 
alternating with four of Chatterton’s compound (a solution of gutta-percha in Stockholm 
tar); the core and conductor together were 700 lbs. per mile, and th in. thick. Out- 
side this was a jacket of hemp or jute yarn, saturated with preservative composition, The 
sheath consisted of 10 iron wires, No. 18 gauge, each previously covered with 5 tarred 
manuilla yarns. The whole cable was 1} in. thick, and weighed 352 cwt. per mile, with a 
breaking strain of 7? tons. 

As the cable (2300 m.) weighed more than 4000 tons, it was resolved to employ the 
Great Eastern steamship to carry it out and lay it. Three enormous iron tanks were 
built in the fore, middle, and aft holds, from 50 to 60 ft. diameter each, by 203 ft. deep; 
and in these the cable was deposited, in three vast coils. On July 23, 1865, the Great 
Hastern started from Valentia with her burden, the main cable being joined end to end 
to a more massive shore cable, which was drawn up the cliff at Foilhummerum bay, to 
a telegraph house at the top. The electric condition of the cable was kept constantly 
under test during the progress of the ship; and more than once the efficiency was dis- 
turbed by fragments of wire piercing the gutta-percha and destroying the insulation. On 
Aug. 2, the cable snapped by over-straining, and the end sank to the bottom in 2000 
fathoms water, at a distance of 1064 m. from Ireland. Then commenced the remarkable 
process of dredging for the cable. <A five-armed grapnel, suspended from the end of a 
strong iron-wire rope, 5m. long, was thrown overboard; and when it reached the bot- 
tom, it was dragged to and fro across the line of cable by slow steaming of the Great 
Hastern; the hope being that one or other of the prongs would catch hold of the cable. 
A series of disasters followed by the breaking of swivels, and the loss of grapnels and 
ropes; until at length, on Aug. 11, it was found that there were no more materials on 
board to renew the grappling. The Great Hastern returned to England, leaving (including 
the operations of 1857-1858) nearly 4000 tons of electric cable useless at the bottom of the 
‘Atlantic. 

A new capital, and new commercial arrangements altogether, were needful for a 
renewal of the attempt. Another cable was made, slightly differing from the former. 
The jacket outside the core was made of hemp instead of jute; the iron wires of the 
sheath were galvanized, instead of being left in their natural state; and the manilla 
hemp which covered them was left white instead of being tarred. These few changes 
made it weigh nearly 500 lbs. per mile less, mainly through the absence of tar; while its 
strength or breaking strain was increased. Enough of this cable was made to span the 
Atlantic, with allowance for slack; while a sufficient addition of the 1865 cable was pro- 
vided to remedy the disaster of that year. 

The A. T. operations in 1866 were of a remarkable and interesting kind. On July 13, 
the Great Eastern set forth from Valentia, accompanied by the steamers Terrible, Med- 
way, and Albany, which were to assist in the submersion and in subsidiary matters. The 
line of route was chosen midway between those of the 1858 and 1865 cables, for the most 
part afew miles from each. The Great Hastern exchanged telegrams almost continuously 
with Valentia during her progress. The mishaps were few in number, and easily remedied; 
and the Great Hastern safely entered the harbor of Heart’s Content, Newfoundland, or 
the 27th. After this, operations commenced for recovering the end of the 1865 cable, 
and completing the submersion. The Albany, Medway, and Terridle set off, on Aug. 1, 
to the spot on the ocean beneath which the end of the cable was lying, or as near to it 
as calculations could establish. Certain buoys, left anchored there twelve months pre- 
viously, had been carried away by the storms of the preceding winter: but the latitude 


Atiantis. 864 


as. 


and longitude had been very carefully registered. The Great Eastern started from 
Heart’s Content on the 9th, and then commenced a series of grappling operations, which 
continued through the rest of the month. The cable was repeatedly caught, and raised 
to a greater or less height from the ocean-bed; but something or other snapped or 
slipped every time. After much trial of patience, the end of the cable was safely fished 
up on Sept. 1; and electric messages were at once sent through to Valentia, just as wel) 
as if the cable had not had twelve months’ soaking in the Atlantic. An additional 
length having been spliced to it, the laying recommenced ; and on the 8th the squadron 
entered Heart’s Content; having thus succeeded in laying a second line of cable from 
Ireland to America. 

Mishaps have since taken place; but in every case the injuries have been attended 
to, and the two cables maintained in good working order. The rapidity of signaling 
fat first only two words per minute) was greatly increased; the tariff of charges was 
lowered; the public of the two nations used the cable-telegraph extensively; and the 
company realized good dividends, notwithstanding the heavy expenditure which had 
been incurred. 

The art of laying submarine cables being thus established, many other projects for 
Atlantic telegraphy have from time to time been started. One scheme was for a line 
from the n. of Scotland to Farée islands, Iceland, Greenland, and some point near the 
mouth of the St. Lawrence; but the projectors did not succeed in raising capital. A 
French company afterwards planned a direct route from France to America. In June, 
1869, the Great Hastern steamed out of Brest with this new cable, no less than 2328 m. 
long; and the submersion was successfully effected. There is a connection between 
Brest and Falmouth. A new French cable from Brest to the island of St. Pierre, to the 
s. of Newfoundland, was laid in the end of 1879. In the year 1874, a third British cable 
was successfully laid from Ireland to Newfoundland. A ‘‘ Direct United States Cable 
Company” was also formed; Messrs. Siemens undertook the manufacture of the cable, 
the lightest yet planned for Atlantic telegraphy, its weight being 480 lbs. of copper and 
400 lbs. of gutta-percha per mile; about 3060 m. were needed from Ireland to New 
Hampshire. The laying of this cable was completed early in the summer of 1875. 

Lower down the Atlantic, extensive operations have been or are being completed. 
When a cable had been laid from Falmouth to Lisbon, the latter became the starting- 
point for extensive ocean routes. The ‘‘ Brazilian Submarine Cable Company” began in 
1873 a cable to extend from Lisbon to Madeira, St. Vincent, and Pernambuco. The 
whole length is 4000 m., of which the longest section (across the ocean) is somewhat 
under 2000 m.; it is connected at Pernambuco with other cables to Para, Rio Grande, etc. 

There is a ‘‘ Direct Spanish Cable” from the Lizard to Bilbao; and there are dupli- 
cate lines from Falmouth to Lisbon. In and near the gulf of Mexico, the electricians 
have been working with great energy. Most of the principal West India islands are 
connected by cable one with another, with Colon (Panama), and with the U. S. main- 
land at Florida. The French cable co., (beginning 1880,) contracted with the American 
Union telegraph co., for the exchange of business for 20 years, based on the understand- 
ing that the former was to agree to no consolidation with other cable cos. Considerable 
cutting of rates ensued between the rival lines, but in the end the French cable co. entered 
into an arrangement with the Anglo-American and the direct U.S. cable cos., for a divis- 
ion of business. In consequence, the American telegraph and cable co. was incorporated 
in the interest of the American Union telegraph co., which laid two new transatlantic 
cables and opened them for business, 1881, Sept. 17. Next year, however, this line also 
joined in consolidation with the other three lines. In 18838 the Commercial cable co., 
better known as the Mackay-Bennett co., was organized. No stock was offered to the 
public. Two lines of cable were laid from Valentia, Ireland, to Dover bay, Nova Sontia, 
and opened for business in 1884. See TELEGRAPH. 


ATLANTIS, according to ancient tradition, the name of a vast island in the Atlantic 
ocean. It is first mentioned by Plato, who represents an Egyptian priest as describing 
it to Solon, but, of course, according to Plato’s view of the matter. In this description, 
A. appeared as an island larger than Libya and Asia Minor taken together, and lying off 
the pillars of Hercules in the Atlantic ocean. Plato gives a beautiful picture of the 
interior of this imaginary land, and enriches it with a fabulous history. Some early 
writers supposed that the Canary islands were the remains of the old A.; for Plato had 
stated that at the close of the long contest which its inhabitants maintained against the 
Athenians, 9000 years before his time, the sea suddenly engulfed the island, and had 
ever since been unnavigable, by reason of the shoals of mud created by the sunken 
island. Some found it in the Scandinavian peninsula; others (first Bircherod in 1685) 
have supposed that Phoenician or Carthaginian merchant ships had been driven by storm 
on the coast of America, and that the supposed vast island of A. mentioned by Plato, as 
well as the great unnamed island spoken of by Pliny, Diodorus, and Arnobius, may 
have been the new world. See Donnelly, Atlantis (1882). 


ATLAS isthat piece of the human vertebral column which is nearest to the skull; in 
other words, it is the first cervical vertebra. It may be known from the other six by its 
being without a body or spinous process, by its being a mere irregular bony ring, partly 
divided into two unequal parts by a constriction; this division in the recent subject is 
completed by a ligament, the part in front being occupied by the tooth-like process of the 


S65 ° Aras 


second cervical vertebra, and that behind by the spinal marrow. On each side, the ring 
is very thick; it is smooth and cupped above to receive the condyles of the occipital bone. 
The corresponding parts below are flat, and rest on the second cervical vertebra. 

The A., with the occipital bone forms the joint on which the head moves in bow- 
ing; and turns on the pivot of the second cervical vertebra, when we look from side to 
side. 


ATLAS, according to Hesiod’s theogony, one of the Titans, the son of Iapetus and 
Clymene, and brother of Mencetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. Apollodorus, how- 
ever, states him to have been a son of Asia, and Hyginus, a son of Aither and Gaea. 
He married Pleone, daughter of Oceanus (or Hesperis, his own niece), and became the . 
father of the Pleiades. As leader of the Titans, he attempted to storm the heavens, and 
for this supreme treason was condemned by Zeus to bear the vault of heaven on his head 
and hands—the sting of this mythological punishment obviously being that A. was 
compelled to support what he thirsted to destroy. The later writers, however, rational- 
ize the myth, and state that A. was a mighty king who had great skill in astronomy, 
and only tried to storm heaven intellectually.—In consequence of the ancient views 
which made the vault of heaven rest on solid pillars or other supports, the name A., 
originally mythological and cosmogonic, was introduced into geography. Mercator, 
in the 16th c., gave the name A., to a collection of maps; probably because the figure 
of A. supporting the heavens had been given on the title-pages of such works. 


ATLAS, a mass of mountain-lard in the western part of north Africa. Herodotus 
mentions a smoking mountain of this name situated on the s.w. of the Little Syrtis, and 
twenty days’ journey westwards from the Garamantes, styled by the natives the ‘‘ pillars 
of heaven.” By later writers, after the time of Polybius, the name A, was always given 
to the chain of mountains in n.w. Africa extending from the island of Cerne (now 
eape de Ger) n.w. through Mauritania, and Tingitana (now Fez and Morocco), and 
including also the heights dispersed through the region of Sahara. It is divided into the 
Little Atlas and the Great Atlas; the former denominating a secondary range in the 
country of Sous, and the other, the loftier mountains of Morocco. The A. is not properly 
a mountain-chain, but rather a very irregular mountainous mass of land formed of many 
chains running in various directions, meeting in mountain-knots, or connected by yokes, 
or short chains of inferior height, and diversified still further by several solitary moun- 
tains and groups of mountains. The A. attains its greatest height (13,000 ft.) in 
Morocco, the only part where it rises above the snow-line, and obtains the name of 
Jebel-el-Thelj, or Snowy Mountains. Its highest peaks are Miltsin—27 m. s.e. of the 
city of Morocco—Bibawan, and Tagherain. The most southern chain diverging here 
from the central mass bears the name Jevbel-Hadnar. The heights approach the sea, and 
form the promontories jutting out into the Atlantic. From Morocco, the A. gradually 
decreases in height towards the east. In Algeria, the elevation is only 7678 ft.; in 
Tunis, 4476 ft.; and in Tripoli, 3200 ft. The whole mountain-system is intersected by 
the valley of the Muluia river, which flows through the n.e. part of Morocco, and falls 
into the Mediterranean. The slopes on the n., w., and s. are covered with vast forests 
of pine, oak, cork, white poplar, wild olive, etc. The valleys are well watered and 
capable of cultivation with great profit. The A. seems to be chiefly calcareous in its 
composition. 'The mineral wealth remains, however, almost wholly unexplored, though 
copper, iron, lead, antimony, etc., are stated to exist in abundance. 


ATLAS, the name given, in commerce, to a silk satin manufactured in India and other 
eastern countries, and at one time largely imported by European merchants. Atlas means 
satin in the Danish, Dutch, German, Polish and Russian languages, and the Swedish 
atlask has the same significance. This material was wrought with threads of gold or 
silver, was either striped or flowered, and was woven in the most skillful manner, though 
it lacked the lustre of French silks. The practice in China was to weave strips of paper 
gilded on one side into the silk, or to twist the slips about gold thread ; the result being a 
showy but inexpensive fabric. 


ATLAS POWDER, an explosive containing nitro-glycerine, but cheaper and less dan- 
gerous than some compounds of that element, while effecting as great results. For use in 
shafts, tunnels, etc., it is superior to blasting powder, as it penetrates deeper and breaks 
the rock into smaller pieces. It may be burned in the open air with safety, but, when 
confined and fired, explodes with tremendous power. It decomposes when exposed to the 
sun for any length of time. Like dynamite, it becomes solid in cold weather, is ineffect- 
ive when frozen, and is most sensitive in its normal, pasty state. The cartridges, contain- 
ing from 15-75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine, are 6 or 8 in. long, and from Z in. to 2 in. in 
diameter. See EXPLOSIVES. 


ATLEE, SAMUEL JOHN, 1788-86; b. Pa.; commander of a Pennsylvania company in 
the old French war, and of an advanced battalion in 1776; was taken prisoner by the 
British, on Long Island, in that year ; afterward became a commissioner to the Indians ; 
was a member of the continental congress, 1778-82, representing Lancaster, and served 
on the committee on the mutiny of the Pa. troops in 1781. 


ATLEE, WaAsHINGTON L., 1808-78, born at Lancaster, Pa., surgeon, graduate 
of Jefferson medical college, and professor of chemistry there in 1844. He was 
the author of a great number of medical papers, and was distinguished for success in 
ovariotomy. 


id ter. 
Atmosphere. i 


ATMIDOMETER or ADMOMETER (Gr. atmos, vapor, and metron, a measure ; Latin, 
admidometrum), an instrument for measuring the vapor exhaled from a humid surface in & 
given time, and used in the practice of the English medical corps. One form of A., used 
for measuring the rate of evaporation from ice, snow, or water, consists of a copper or 
glass, oblong bulb, connected by a slender neck with a globular bulb which is weighted, 
with mercury or shot. A stem of metal or glass surmounts the upper bulb. The stem is 
graduated to grains and parts, and a shallow metal pan is fixed to its top. The instrument 
is placed in a vessel filled with water and fitted with a cover having a circular hole, through 
which the stem protrudes. Distilled water is then poured into the pan until the zero on 
the stem sinks to the level of the cover of the vessel. The stem rises as the water in the 
pan evaporates, and the amount of evaporation in grains and fractions is indicated by the 
scale. 

ATMOMETER (Gr. atmos, smoke, vapor, and metron, @ measure); an instrument in- 
vented by Sir John Leslie for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of water exhaled in 
a given time from a humid surface, and described as a thin, porous, earthenware ball, 
one to three in. in diameter, with a small neck cemented to a long, wide glass tube, to 
which a brass cap with a close-fitting collar of leather is adapted. When filled with dis- 
tilled water, the waste and descent of this column shows the quantity of evaporation from 
the surface of the ball. The tube has from 100-200 lines marked downwards on it; these 
corresponding to the rings of fluid that would form a film 1000th of an in. thick if spread 
over the entire exhaling surface. - The cavity of the instrument is then filled with distilled 
water, (the cap tightened and the ball wiped dry,) and the A. hung where it will be ex- 
posed to wind, but not to rain. As fast as the water evaporates from the external surface, 
it transudes through the ball, and the liquid, descending in the stem correspondingly, gives 
the measure of the waste. 

In another form of A., a balance is used, on one end of which a porous earthenware 
vessel full of water is poised, the weights indicating the amount of evaporation: in a given 
time. 

The possibility of obtaining an accurate A. is doubtful, owing to the meteorological 
and other causes that influence the process of evaporation. 


ATMORE, CHARLES, 1759-1826; b. England; son of a sea-captain. Entering the 
Wesleyan ministry in 1779, he was in Feb. 1781, sent out as an itinerant evangelist by 
Join Wesley, and in August appointed a regular preacher. Wesley. three years after, 
caused the young man’s name to be inserted in the deed of declaration as a member of the 
legal conference ; a high tribute to his character. He became prominent in the denomi- 
nation ; especially so in the consolidating of the Wesleyan Methodist church He minis- 
tered in York, Edinburgh, London, Sheffield, and other towns until 1825, and while at 
Hull in 1811 was made president of the Wesleyan conference. His chief publications 
were Discourses on the Lord’s Prayer (1807); and the Methodist Memorial, which has been 
described as ‘‘a perfect treasury of information on early Methodism.” 


ATMOSPHERE (Gr. atmos, vapor, sphaira, sphere) is the name applied to the gaseous 
envelope which surrounds the earth. The existence of an A. is to us a matter of vital 
importance. We owe to its influence the possibility of animal and vegetable life, the 
modifying and retaining of solar heat, the transmission of sound, the gradual shading of 
day into night, the disintegration of rocks, and the occurrence of weather phenomena. 
In consequence of the action of gravity, the A. assumes the form of a spheroidal stratum 
concentric with the earth, and presses heavily on its surface. It exhibits, in common 
with all fluid bodies, the usual characteristics of hydrostatic pressure, but its internal 
condition differs from that of a liquid inasmuch as its particles repel each other, and 
can only be held in proximity by external force. From this circumstance, it foliows 
that the volume of any portion of air varies much more under the influence of 
external pressure than that of an equal volume of water; hence, the stratum of air 
nearest the earth is denser than strata in the upper regions, where, from their being 
subjected to the weight of a smaller mass of superincumbent air, the repulsive force 
of the particles has freer play. 

That air possesses weight, is illustrated by the following simple experiment: If a 
hollow glass globe of 5 or 6 in. in diameter be weighed first, when filled with air, and 
then, after the air has been extracted from it by means of the air-pump, it will, when 
thus exhausted, weigh sensibly less than it did before, and the difference of the two 
results will represent the weight of the quantity of air which has been withdrawn. It has 
been determined by Biot and Arago that 100 cubic in. of dry air, when the barometer is 
at 80 in., and the thermometer at 60° Fahr. weigh 31.074 grains. The law of Archim- 
edes (see ARCHIMEDES, PRINCIPLE OF), that a body immersed in a fluid loses a part of 
its weight equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by it, finds its application 
in the A, as well as in water. If a glass globe filled with air and closed be suspended 
at the extremity of the beam of a delicate balance, and be kept in equilibrium by a brass 
weight at the other extremity, and if the whole be then placed under the receiver of an 
air-pump, and the air extracted, the equilibrium previously existing in air will be dis- 
turbed, and the larger body will become the heavier. The reason of this is, that when 
first weighed, they each lose as much of their own weight as that of the respective vol- 
umes of air displaced by them, and are therefore made buoyant, though in different de- 
grees, the ball with the larger volume having the greater buoyancy. In avacuum, they 


Atmidometer. 
867 Aimbhphere 


ere deprived of this buoyancy, and the larger body, suffering the greater loss, becomes 
sensibly heavier than the other. In like manner, a balloon filled with heated air or 
hydrogen gas is lighter than the volume of air displaced by it. It is therefore forced 
upwards till it reaches a stratum of such density that the weight of the volume of air there 
displaced by it equals the weight of the balloon itself. In this stratum it will remain 
poised, or move horizontally with the currents to which it may be exposed. 

In endeavoring to determine the form of the atmospheric envelope, it is necessary to 
bear in mind that, according to the law of fluid-pressure, in order to produce a state of 
equilibrium at the level of the sea, the pressure of the A. must be equal at that level 
over the whole of the earth’s surface. Gravity acts with less force on the air at the 
equator than on that at the poles, in consequence of the spheroidal form of the earth. 
It has there, in addition, to contend with the centrifugal force, which entirely fails at 
the poles, and which has a tendency to lighten the air by acting contrary to that of 
gravity. Hence we infer, that in order to produce the same pressure at the level of the 
sea, the atmospheric height at the equator must be greater than that at the poles, and 
that the A. must therefore possess the form of an oblate spheroid, whose oblateness is 
considerably greater than that of the earth itself. The greater heat at the tropical 
regions must also have the effect of increasing the oblateness. 

The height of the A. has not yet been determined. That it must have a certain limit, 
is evident from the consideration that there must be a point at which gravity on the one 
hand, and centrifugal force and the repulsive action of the particles on the other, are 
poised,and beyond which, the latter forces overbalancing the former force, the aérial par- 
ticles would be borne away from the earth. As, however, the law of the diminution of 
temperature, which materially affects the repulsive action, is unknown for the upper 
regions of the air, it is impossible to calculate the height of the atmosphere from the 
relations of these forces. From the observation of luminous meteors, it is inferred that it 
is at least 100 m. high, and that, in an extremely attenuated form, it may even reach 200 
miles. 

The pressure of the A. is one of its most important properties. Its effect is exhibited in 
the action of the ordinary water-pump. The piston is fitted air-tight in its cylinder; and 
on being drawn up, createsa vacuum. The water within the pump being thus freed from 
pressure, while that outside of it is exposed to the pressure of a column of air reaching 
to the surface of the A., is at once forced up by reason of the weight of air which it 
must rise to balance. The ascent of the water takes place till the piston has reached the 
height of nearly 34 ft., from which we conclude that a column of air is equal in weight 
to a column of water of the same horizontal section, and of the height of nearly 34 feet. 
As mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water, a mercurial column freed from atmospheric 
pressure at the one extremity, and subjected to it at the other, is 13.6 times less in height 
than the column of water, or about 30 in. From the more convenient size of this 
column, mercury has been adopted as the standard for atmospheric pressure, and is 
employed in our ordinary barometers (q.v.) A mercurial column of 30 in. in height, and 
1 sq.in. in section, weighs 15 Ibs. (more accurately, 14.78), which gives us the equivalent 
weight of a column of atmospheric air of the same section. The word A. is often 
employed to express this weight or pressure on a sq.in. of surface, so that when we speak, 
in mechanics, of the pressure of steam on a boiler as amounting to three atmospheres, 
we mean a pressure of 45 Ibs. on the sq.in. The pressure on a sq.in. being thus 
ascertained, we have merely to multiply it by the number of sq.in. on the earth’s sur- 
face to obtain the total weight of the A. It amounts to 11.67085 trillions of lbs., or about 
rssosooe0 Of the earth’s mass. Jt must be observed that the height of the barometric 
column is not a constant quantity, as it varies with the latitude, the season of the year, 
and the hour of the day. At London, its mean height is 29.88 in.; at Paris, 29.92 in. 
The pressure of the A. in the northern hemisphere increases as we recede from the 
equator, reaching a maximum at 30° n. lat., and decreasing from 80° to 65°, where it 
again begins to rise. The greater height at 30° is said to be due to the: accumulation of 
air at that latitude by the action of the trade-winds. As the heat of the earth’s surface 
increases the rarity of the air above it, and causes the air at the top of the heated column 
to overflow, we would expect that, during the year, the barometer would stand at a 
minimum in summer, and a maximum in winter. In reality, however, although the 
barometer is highest in midwinter, there is another maximum in midsummer, making 
thus two minima—one in spring, the other in autumn. This arises from the part which 
watery vapor plays in the pressure of the atmosphere. The heat of midsummer intro- 
duces into the air a large quantity of moisture, in the form of elastic vapor, which, 
adding its pressure to that of the dry air, raises what would otherwise be-the minimum 
barometric column to a higher point than that at which it stands in spring and autumn. 
Similar causes affect the pressure of the A. during the 24 hours of the day. There are 
two maxima—one at 10 A.M., the other between 10 and 11 P.m.; and two minima—at 
4a.M. and 4 p.m. Very slight variations indicate the existence of atmospheric tidal 
waves; but this subject is still involved in some obscurity. The pressure of the A. 
exercises a most important influence on the organism of the human frame. A man of 
ordinary stature is exposed to a pressure of about 14 tons; but as the air permeates the 
whole body, and presses equally in all directions, no inconvenience is found to result 


868 


Atmospheric. 


from it. From experiments instituted by the brothers Weber in Germany, it has been 
ascertained that the heads of the thigh and arm bones are kept in their sockets by the 
pressure of the A.; and in balloon ascents the aéronaut often suffers from bleeding at 
the nose, lips, and even eyes—a fact that would seem to indicate that the strength of the 
blood-vessels has been adjusted with reference to atmospheric pressure. ’ 

Chemical Composition of the A.—Recent chemical researches give the following as the 
mean composition of 100 volumes and of 100 grains of dry air: 


Volumes. Grains. 
INIGTOGEN, 15 we coe vice Miva eyelet a nlnk eer eternal ata t en ietoutte 79.02 76.84 
CONVO, ga ee cine tks elephee seen meee APRA AS a | 20.94 23.10 
Carponic aCiGs ni: .smeen cole sini oe lees a..01h elk also Stem MEO ee 0.06 


100.00 100.00 


Besides the substances just named, other gaseous matters occur, but in quantities so 
smali as not sensibly to increase the bulk of the A., such as ammonia and ammoniacal 
salts, carbureted and sulphureted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, sulphurous and sulphuric 
acid, nitric acid, and perhaps iodine, the quantity and even the presence of which are 
affected by local and meteorological causes. Roughly speaking, then, dry air may be 
said to consist of 4 volumes of nitrogen and 1 of oxygen, with a slight admixture of 
carbonic acid, and a mere trace of several other substances. As, however, the air of the 
A. is never found dry, we must add to the constituents already named watery vapor, 
the amount of which is constantly changing, according to locality, weather, wind, and 
temperature. It is stated that of 1000 grains of atmospheric air, the proportion due to 
aqueous vapor varies from a minimum of 4 to a maximum of 16 grains. By far the 
most active chemical constituent of the A. is oxygen, to the agency of which are owing 
the existence of animal life, the maintenance of combustion, the rusting of metals, and 
the occurrence of several other chemical phenomena too numerous to be detailed. A 
small portion of this oxygen occurs in the form of ozone (q.v.), a modification which, 
according to recent chemical discoveries, plays an important part in the chemistry of 
the A. The nitrogen which forms the bulk of the A. possesses few chemical properties. 
of importance, but performs the important part of diluting the oxygen, which, if it 
occurred alone, would act with too great intensity. The presence of carbonic acid in 
the air is Shown by the production of the white carbonate of lime in lime-water freely 
exposed to its influence. Carbonic acid is produced in all processes where carbonaceous 
matter unites itself with the oxygen of the air, such as in animal respiration, in combus- 
tion, in fermentation, in putrefaction, and similar processes. The green leaves of plants, 
on the other hand, possess, in presence of sunshine, the power of decomposing carbonic 
vcid into its elements, absorbing the carbon for their own tissues, and restoring the 
oxygen to the A. in its original purity. Between the processes above mentioned, on the 
one hand, and the action of plants on the other, the quantity of carbonic acid in the air 
is kept nearly constant. F'rom the table it will be seen that 10,000 volumes of atmos- 
pheric air contain 4 voiumes of carbonic acid. If it occurred in a much larger propor- 
tion, being poisonous, it would become dangerous to animal life; and if it occurred in 
a much less proportion, the vegetable world would lack its requisite nourishment. The 
other substances, of which a trace is always or only sometimes found in atmospheric 
air, are difficult to detect in the air itself, but are generally found dissolved in rain- 
water, more especially in that which has fallen immediately after along drought. Of 
these, by far the most important and widely diffused are ammonia and ammoniacal salts, 
which are of essential importance to the vegetable economy, because, dissolved in the 
rain, they furnish plants with the nitrogen required by them for the production of their 
flowers and fruit. Nitric acid is detected ir the air after thunder-storms, sulphureted 
hydrogen in the tainted air of sewers and such like places, and sulphurous and sulphuric 
acid only in the neighborhood of chemical or smelting works. A considerable quantity 
of carbonic oxide and carbureted hydrogen escapes unconsumed from our furnaces: 
and although the latter gas is in addition given off to the air in marshy and bituminons 
districts, the two occur in almost inappreciable quantity in the atmosphere. 

In addition to its gaseous constituents, the A. contains solid substances in a state of 
exceedingly fine division, the presence of which is revealed in the sunbeam. Many of 
these minute particles, being the seeds or germs of plants and animals, must exert an 
important influence on the organic substances on which they may finally settle, inducing 
in many of them the conditions of disease or putrefaction. 

When the composite nature of the A. was first discovered, it was supposed to be a 
chemical combination of nitrogen and oxygen, but further inquiries have rendered this. 
opinion highly improbable. When any two bodies unite with each other chemically, 
the substance which results from their combination invariably possesses properties 
which the original constituents did not possess. Now the atmospheric union of oxygen 
and nitrogen is distinguished by no properties which may not be attributed individually 
to these gases. We have, then, in this respect, no indication that the atmospheric com- 
bination of oxygen and nitrogen is a chemical one. Again, when any composite gas is 
dissolved in water, the proportion of the ingredients dissolved in it is exactly the same as 
that in which they occur in the compound itself; but this is not the case with air dis- 


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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.—1I. Raising a column of water by suction. 2,3. Pipettes. 4, 
barreled air-pump. 17, 18. Magdeburg hemispheres. 19. Fall zm vacuo. 20, 21. 
25, 26. Hiero’s fountain. 30. Graduated inclined plane. 31. Trajectory or path 
36, 37. Compound pendulums. 38. Application of friction. 39. Mariotte’s bottle. 


Wei 


‘Siphons. 6to8. Barometers. 9 to 11. Mariotte’s law. 12 to 14. Air-pump. 15, 16. T‘wo- 
wometer in rarefied atmosphere. 22. Mercury air-pump. 24. Air-chamber of force-pump. 
’ projectiles. 32. Centrifugal force. 33. Sling. 34. Gyroscope. 35. Simple pendulum. 


> 
8 6 9 Atmospheric. 


solved in water, which is found to be richer in oxygen than atmospheric air. Now, as 
oxygen dissolves more readily in water than nitrogen, it is manifest that this larger pro- 
portion of oxygen arises from both gases acting independently of each other in respect 
to the water, a condition that would be impossible if they were in chemical union, 
From these and other corroborative facts, the A. is considered to be simply a mechanical 
combination of the gases contained init. This, however, does not prevent the A. from 
having a uniform composition, as might at first sight be supposed; for when gases are 
mixed with each other, they intermingle thoroughly throughout the whole space 
occupied by them. Local causes may temporarily affect the relative proportion of the 
atmospheric ingredients, but the changes are so minute as to require the most delicate 
analysis to detect them. 


ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. Franklin was the first to establish the identity of 
the lightning of the heavens with the electric spark. By his famous kite-experiment, he 
ascertained that the thunder-cloud assumes an electrical condition precisely similar to 
that of the conductor of an electrical machine, and that the same mechanical and lumi- 
nous effects are common, though in a different degree, to both. The attention that was 
first directed by this discovery to the A. E., as displayed in the thunder-cloud, has since 
then been extended to the electrical condition of the air in all the different states of the 
weather. It is now found that, the air is sensibly electrical not only when the sky is 
overcast with thunder-clouds, but when the weather is clear, or when no thunder-clowds 
are present. Observations on A. E. are made by delicate electrometers connected with 
insulated rods at the top of the building, or other collecting apparatus. The following 
are some of the results got by continental observers: When the sky is clear and free 
from clouds, the A. E. is always positive, and an electroscope exposed to the action of 
the air is charged with positive electricity. On the other hand, the electricity of the 
ground is found to be negative. This was shown in a very ingenious way by Volta, 
who, by catching the fine spray of a fountain on the plate of a straw electroscope, found 
the straws to diverge with the negative electricity communicated to them by the water, 
which was necessarily of the same character as that of the ground. It is from this fact 
that electroscopes, or the collecting apparatus connected with them, must not be over- 
topped by the neighboring trees or buildings, the negative electricity of which materially 
affects the indications given, and it is due to the same fact that no A. E. is discovered 
in the middle of a wood, or ina room, however high the ceiling. Under aclear sky, 
the potential of the A. E. is found to increase as we ascend, the lower aérial strata being 
less electrical than the higher. Becquerel proved this by a simple experiment on the 
plateau of Mt. St. Bernard. Ona piece of oiled silk he placed a silk thread, covered 
with tinsel, one end of which, terminated by a ring, was connected with the rod of a 
straw electroscope, and the other end was tied to an arrow armed with a metal point. 
When the arrow was shot horizontally, the straws showed no divergence; but when the 
arrow was shot upwards, they opened as it ascended, and diverged most when the arrow, 
in ascending, disengaged the ring from the rod of the electroscope. The same fact is 
shown in the following way: When a very delicate electroscope is adjusted for any 
particular position, it will, when elevated a few feet above that position, give indication 
of positive electricity, and when placed a few feet below, it will be charged negatively. 
In clear weather, likewise, the A. E. is found to be subject to certain daily periodical 
variations, and appears to have two maxima and two minima in the course of twenty- 
four hours. The first maximum takes place a short time after sunrise, and the second 
shortly after sunset; the first minimum shortly before sunrise, and the second in the 
afternoon, when the heat of the day is greatest. In cloudy weather, the electroscope is 
affected sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and is generally less influenced 
than in clear weather. The electricity of rain, snow, hail, etc., is sometimes positive, 
sometimes negative. In Stuttgart, for instance, it was found in the course of a year that 
the rain was 71 times positive to 69 times negative, and the snow 24 times positive to 6 
times negative. 

Sir William Thomson, in Great Britain, has made various observations on atmos- 
pheric electricity. His delicate electrometers give him not only great facility of obser- 
vation, but their delicacy far transcends that of any instrument hitherto employed in 
such observations. Instruments such as his electrometers, that are sensitive to the 
electro-motive force of a single Daniell’s cell with any condensing contrivance, are a 
wonderful advance in observing power. Sir William’s collecting apparatus is an insulated 
can of water placed inside a window, with a nozzle extending four feet and a half beyond 
the wall, the window being only open so far as to admit of the nozzle-tube passing without 
touching. The can, when the stop-cock is opened, assumes the potential of the air outside 
at the point where the jet breaks up into drops. In the portable electrometer for outside 
observations, he uses as the collector a burning match at the top of a long rod attached 
to the instrument. The collecting apparatus is, of course, insulated and connected with 
the electrometer. He estimates the amount of atmospheric electricity per foot or per 
inch. He calculates the difference of potential at the perpendicular distance, say, of a 
foot from any portion of the earth’s surface, whether the level ground or an upright 
wall. He finds, as mentioned above, that the earth is always negative in clear weather, 
and the air positive, and that the difference of potential per foot is very different at 
different times. Thus, in the isle of Arran, he found this to vary in ordinary fine 


Atmospheric. : 
Atom. 5 7 vy) 


weather from 22 to 44 Daniell’s cells; with an e. or n.e. wind, the difference of potentials 
was from 6 to 10 times that per foot. He also finds sudden and unaccountable variations 
of potential within even comparatively few minutes, and he can only suggest that there 
may be cloudless yet cloud-like masses of clear air floating in the atmosphere, which are 
charged with electricity, and which, in their passage over or near the electrometer, give 
yise to these marked variations. 

The cause of A. E. has given rise to much discussion. The electricity developed by 
evaporation and vegetation has been thought by some to account for the positive 
electricity of the air; but this view has been combated, and as yet no theory has been 
proposed which satisfactorily accounts for it. With the instrument that Sir William 
Thomson has placed in the hands of observers, and with a cordon of observers all over 
the world, data may be got for a satisfactory theory, but as yet our knowledge of the 
subject is too fragmentary to reach anything like a satisfactory account of it. For the 
electricity of the thunder-cloud, see LIGHTNING. 


ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, worked by air-pressure ; one was driven by cold air on @ 
small, and hot air on a large piston ; one was without heat (see CALoRIc ENGINE). The 
A. E. is now worked with compressed air only. ‘Trains on a city railway have been 
run with an A. E., using air compressed into a strong cylinder and applied like steam in 
a steam-engine. Condensed steam is used in a similar way, so as to dispense with fire 
on the streets; in either cause the power is taken at a fixed station. An A. E. was used 
in the mont Cenis tunnel, where the hydraulic power of a cataract near the entrance was 
used to compress air in reservoirs, whence it was carried in flexible pipes to the 
rock-drills. The same method was used in working the Hoosac tunnel, in Massachu- 
setts, and is now commonly applied for railway and mining works. The mechanism 
and operation of the A. E. are almost identical with those of the high-pressure steam- 
engine. See ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. 


ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCE, the power of the air over inorganic bodies to affect 
them chemically, varying in degree with the constituents and condition of the air itself. 
Normally, 1000 parts of the air contain 208 parts of oxygen and 792 of nitrogen; but 
many other gases are taken up, so that the air varies widely at places not far apart. 
Electricity, humidity, and temperature are other disturbing agents. The effect of A. I. 
is shown on buildings, many fine structures having been speedily ruined by it. Granite, 
in its order of purity, best withstands it among building stones. Egyptian porphyry is 
also remarkably enduring. Basalt is disintegrated unequally, according to the amount 
of feldspar therein. The atmosphere of large towns usually contains an excess of carbonic 
acid gas, and is hurtful to turpentine in timber or other material. Slate is durable in 
proportion to its density. Sandstone, millstone grit, or conglomerates are affected 
through the decomposition of the material cementing their particles, or by the mechanical 
effect of moisture, as by freezing. Limestone decays with varying degrees of rapidity. 
A. I. on bricks, tiles, etc., depends on the chemical composition of their material and 
the amount of baking or burning in their manufacture. If bricks contain lime, they will 
erack and crumble under moisture. In making cements, the A. I. is carefully studied 
and guarded against by a proper selection of materials. All timbers are affected easily. 
If moist and exposed to currents of air, evaporation is rapid and cracks are produced by 
shrinkage. Dry-rot comes from exposure to high temperature, and consequent impris- 
onment of natural moisture. Common wet rot is well Known to come from air and 
water combined. The influences of both are greatly lessened by covering the wood 
with oil paint. Kyanizing, creosoting, and pickling in mineral salts are methods 
of protecting wood. On metals A. I. is complicated by electro-chemical changes. Iron 
becomes rusty, that is, the surface is converted into hydrous oxide and will scale off. 
The more iron is used the less the rusting, as may be seen on comparing a well-worn 
railway track with a little used siding. Zinc when exposed to air and moisture is rapidly 
covered with white oxide of zinc, a coating which arrests further oxidation. For this 
reason, also, galvanizing or plating with zinc is a means of protecting iron. Copper 
strongly resists A. I.; like zinc, it is soon covered with an oxide that serves as a protec- 
tion. Lead changes but little in air or water. Glass which is deficient in silica is 
exposed to decay by the decomposition of its potash and soda. The A. I. causes decay 
of paintings, statuary, and other works of art, and the destruction of books and manu- 
scripts. 

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, a railway on which the locomotive-power is supplied by 
- the pressure of the atmosphere more or less directly on the carriages themselves. The 
idea of producing railway locomotion in this manner has been successively prosecuted 
by Lewis, Medhurst, Vallance, and Pinkus; and latterly with a greater prospect of 
success by Clegg, in connection with Samuda. Vallance patented a plan which proposed 
the conveyance of passengers along a railway laid within an air-tight tunnel exhausted 
in front of a carriage working asa piston, the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the 
carriage from behind. This plan was made public in 1825, and ultimately brought into 
experimental operation at Brighton, proving the possibility of such a mode of transit. 
The general opinion as to its merits was, that though it might succeed in the transmission 
of goods, or, with a smaller tube than the tunnel, might suit well the conveyance of the 
mails, it could not be expected to enjoy the favor of the traveling public, on account of 


Atmospheric 
8 fl 1 tom. x 


its dark close tunnel. Thus the subject of atmospheric railways had ceased to attract 
attention, when the curiosity of the public was again called to it, by the proposal of 
another plan of propulsion, by Henry Pinkus, an American gentleman, resident in 
England, who took out a patent for it about the year 1835, under the name of the 
pneumatic railway. The apparatus for this was to consist of a cast-iron tube of about 
40) in. diameter, having a slit of about 2 in. wide on its upper side, the slit (which was 
covered by a flexible flap or valve) furnishing an opening through which the mechanism 
of a piston working within the tube might be connected with that of the leading carriage 
without. See Locomotive, COMPRESSED AIR, 

Under improved arrangements of the details, Messrs. Clegg and Samuda made an 
experiment of this plan in 1840, on a part of the line of the West London railway; and 
so favorable was the issue, that the directors of the Dublin and Kingstown railway 
adopted the atmospheric pressure system for a projected extension of their line from 
Kingstown to Dalkey. Accordingly, parliamentary sanction was obtained for the line, 
and the first A. R. was in full operation at the beginning of the year 1844. In that year 
the London and Croydon railway company began to lay down a line of A. R. alongside 
of their locomotive line from London to Croydon. The South Devon railway company 
also adopted the atmospheric mode of working on a part of their railway. Both ofthese 
lines, however, were shortly afterwards abandoned as unsatisfactory. 

The result of these trials has clearly shown that the A. R. system cannot stand in 
competition with that of the locomotive engine, unless, perhaps, in some very peculiar 
situation. The expense and care necessary to keep the tube with its valve in good 
working-order, ied to the removal of the atmospheric mechanism from the various 
railways on which it was established; so that the history of A. R. may be ranked under 
the chapter of failures. They survive only in the form of pneumatic dispatch tubes, 
which are used largely in London (in connection principally with the telegraph service), 
for the conveyance of parcels or messages. See PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 


ATOLL’, the name given by the Malays to a coral reef which forms an annular island, 
inclosing a lake of water which is connected with the sea by an open strait. Some A. 
are nearly 100 m. in circumference, and have from 15 to 60 fathoms of water. They make 
excellent harbors, with safe entrances, always on the windward side. Some of the reefs 
sustain considerable vegetation, and are inhabited. 


ATOM (Gr. atomos, an indivisible particle; from a, not, and temné, I cut). In ancient 
philosophy, two theories of the nature of matter were recognized, and these have 
continued to form subjects of argument among speculative men since the year 510 B.c. 
to the present time. The one theory is that matter is infinitely divisible. 
Thus, a needle may be divided into two, and each of the parts may in its turn be broken 
or cut into two, and each of the latter again and again be subdivided, till the parts 
become so small that it may be impossible to see them by the naked eye; but these parts are 
regarded as capable of still further division, without limit or stoppage, provided more 
perfect or delicate means could be employed to act upon them. The second theory 
regarding the constitution of the matter is that in the repeated division and subdivision 
of a solid, liquid, or gas, a point will be at length reached when it will no longer be 
possible, by any conceivable means, to break a molecule in two, the molecule being a 
real unity, not composed of separate parts—in other words, an atom. The latter theory 
recognizes the finite divisibility of matter, and considers that all matter is more or less 
compactly built up of myriads of atoms aggregated together, and having spaces or pores 
between the several atoms or particles. If it were possible to subject such matter to the 
scrutiny of a sufficiently powerful magnifying-glass, or microscope, and thus exhibit or 
behold the atoms so separated by spaces, then an appearance would be presented similar 
to that which the painter chooses to depict on the canvas when he is representing a 
snow-storm, and where every little flake of snow is separated from its neighbor one by 
a space in which there are none; or that which would be observed if, during a hail-storm, 
some great power were to cry, ‘‘ Halt!” and that instant every minute hail-stone was 
arrested in the spot it had reached. 

This view of the physical nature of matter is that which is known as the atomie 
or corpuscular theory, and has in modern times received some support from the facts 
embodied in the chemical atomic theory originated by Dalton. Granting, however, 
that the chemist can prove that his simple and compound forms of matter are built 
up of chemical atoms, the problem still remains to be solved as to the possible iden- 
tity of physical and chemical atoms. What the chemist regards as an A. in his sci- 
ence, may not be an ultimate and indivisible A. in a physical point of view; the 
chemical A., though incapable of division as a chemical A., may still be composed or 
built up of many physical atoms, and may be capable of being subdivided into such. 
Indeed, whilst the atomic theory of Dalton, when first announced, was eagerly seized 
upon as the best possible evidence for the existence of both chemical and physical 
atoms, the tendency of recent researches and discussions in chemistry has been to 
show that the chemical A. is different from the physical, and does not necessitate 
the existence of the latter. See Aromic THEoRy. According to the ordinary accep. 
tation of the term, it is a molecule of matter having a definite weight, magnitude, 
and form, possibly alike for the atoms of the same material, but differing in those of 


Atomic. 

different substances. 'The form of an A. is supposed by some men of science to be 
the same as that which the fragments of a substance assume when it is split in the 
direction of the planes of the cleavage of its crystals (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY), but a 
more general belief has been that all atoms are spherical, and that the various crys- 
talline forms are produced by the manner in which the atoms are grouped together, 
In regard to the size of atoms, Sir William Thomson has shown, by three entirely 
different trains of argument from observed facts, that ne Rr ee 78 A. Seep 
be greater than svepoop nor less than z,55q, a0, 500 Of an inch. urther consider- 
Rone regarding “atoms will be found under the head Matter (q,.v.); also in the article 
Vortex (q.V.). 

ATOMIC THEORY. Analysis shows that compound bodies contain certain ele- 
ments (see CHEMISTRY) in certain proportions. These proportions have been minutely 
and carefully examined by many chemists since the time when the balance was first 
applied to chemical investigation, and it has been proved that the respective quanti- 
ties of each of the combining elements are not dependent entirely upon external con- 
ditions, but are regulated by certain laws. ‘These laws were partially observed and 
discussed by earlier chemists and physicists, but it was reserved for Dalton (q.v.) to 
systematize the somewhat incoherent labors of his predecessors, and to announce, in 
positive language, the four laws which regulate the union of various kinds of sub- 
stances, and which are still acknowledged by chemists as the LAWS OF COMBINING 
PROPORTION, or the atomic theory. These laws regulate the combination of unlike 
substances by wezght, and not by volume; and they are based upon the preliminary 
acknowledged fact, capable of experimental demonstration, that the same compound 
substance is always composed of the same ingredients or elements. 

The first law of combination by weight comprehended under the A. T. is THE LAW 
OF CONSTANT PROPORTION, Which teaches that the elements or ingredients which 
form a chemical compound are always united in it in the same proportion by weight. 
Thus, water, which consists of oxygen and hydrogen, does not contain one or both 
of these elements in indefinite amount, but it is invariably made up of 8 parts by 
weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen. It makes no matter whether 
the total amount of either element be represented by grains, ounces, pounds, or tons, 
it will always be found that the proportion of 8 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydro- 
gen is kept up. Neither does the source of the water make any difference, for pure 
water obtained from rain, snow, or hail, the river or the sea, the sap of plants or the 
juices of animals, invariably contains the same elements in the same proportions. 
Again, common salt (chloride of sodium), whether it be obtained from sea-water, salt- 
springs, rock-salt, or even the blood of animals, always consists of chlorine and sodium 
in the exact and never varying proportion of 354 parts of chlorine to 23 parts of 
sodium. Whilst the law of constant proportion teaches us that the same compound 
is always built up of the same ingredients in the same proportion, it does not neces- 
sarily follow that the same elements or components in the same proportions will 
invariably form the same compound body. It is far otherwise; and many examples 
can be obtained, especially from organic chemistry, where the same components in 
the same proportions produce very different substances. Thus, starch and cotton 
(lignine)—very dissimilar substances—consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the 
very same proportions; and gum-arabic and cane-sugar are similarly circumstanced. 
See ISoMERISM. 

The second law is the LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTION, which tells us that the 
proportions in which two substances unite with a third have a simple arithmetical rela- 
tion to that proportion in which they unite with each other. Thus oxygen and 
hydrogen unite in the proportion of 8 to 1 to form water. Carbon and hydrogen are 
present in olefiant gas in the proportion of 6 to 1, and oxygen and carbon unite in the 
proportion of 8 to 6 to form carbonic oxide. Again we have a compound of oxygen 
and iron containing these elements in the proportion of 8 to 28; we have also a com- 
pound of sulphur and iron in the proportion of 16 to 28; and sulphur and oxygen 
unite together to form sulphurous acid gas, which contains equal weights of the two 
Ilene proportion of 1 to 1 having a simple arithmetical relation to the propor- 
tion 8 to 16, 

Numbers representing the proportions in which the elements combine (such as 1 
for hydrogen, 8 for oxygen, 6 for carbon, 16 for sulphur, 28 for iron, etc.), are called 
their ‘‘combining proportions,” or atomic weights (q.v.). It is obvious that analysis 
alone cannot enable us to fix definitely such numbers. There is nothing in the com- 
position of their compounds to lead us to adopt the proportional numbers given above 
for hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulphur, and iron, rather than simple multiples or sub- 
multiples of them. In fact, the numbers adopted by Berzelius, and now reintroduced, 
are in the proportion—hydrogen 1, oxygen 16, carbon 12, sulphur 82, iron 56. The 
reasons for preferring certain particular numbers to any multiples or sub-multiple of 
them will be found in the article CHEMISTRY. 

The third law is THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION, which is, that when one sub- 
stance combines with another in several proportions, the higher proportions are multiples 
of the first or lowest. Thus, hydrogen unites with oxygen in two proportions: as 1 of 
hydrogen to 8 of oxygen, when ordinary pure water is the result of union; and as 1 of 


®) 6 
873 Atomic, 
hydrogen to 16 of oxygen, when peroxide of hydrogen, a powerful bleaching agent, 
is produced—the difference in the respective amounts of the oxygen—8 and 16—being 
that the latter is a multiple of the former by 2. Again, carbon unites with oxygen in 
two proportions: as 6 of carbon to 8 of oxygen, when the inflammable gas, carbonic 
oxide, is formed; and as 6 of carbon to 16 of oxygen, when the non-inflammable gas, 
carbonic acid, is the result. The variation in this instance is, that the oxygen is 
present in the one case as 8, and in the other as a multiple of that number by 2, viz. 16. 
One of the best illustrations of this law occurs in the case of the union of nitrogen and 
oxygen: 14 parts of nitrogen can unite with 8 of oxygen, and thus form laughing- 
gas; but the same amount of nitrogen can combine with 16, 24, 32, or 40 of oxygen 
—in the latter case constituting anhydrous nitric acid—all of the higher numbers being 
multiples of the first or lowest, viz. 8 by 2, 3, 4, and 5. 

The fourth law is THE LAW OF COMPOUND PROPORTION, which teaches that the com- 
bining proportion of a compound substance is the sum of the combining proportions of 
its components. Thus, the compound body, carbonic acid, which consists of 6 of car- 
bon united with 16 of oxygen, has the combining proportion 22, which is the sum of the 
combining proportions of the carbon and oxygen composing it, viz. 6+16=22. Simi- 
larly, the compound substance lime contains 20 of the metal calcium combined with 8 
of oxygen, and has the combining proportion of 20-+-8 or 28. When carbonic acid and 
lime are linked together, as in marble, which is the carbonate of lime, then they are 
united in the proportion of 22 parts of carbonic acid and 28 of lime. Not only is 22 the 
proportion in which carbonic acid will combine with lime, but it is the proportion in 
which it will form compounds with every other substance of similar chemical constitu- 
tion. 

The preceding laws regulating the union of substances by weight have been obtained 
by comparing together the results of numerous experiments, and every careful analysis 
serves to confirm their accuracy. But Dalton’s theory was not limited to the statement 
of these laws; it was also an attempt to explain them. It assumes that each elementary 
substance consists of extremely small indivisible particles or atoms; that the atoms of 
any one element are all exactly alike, but differ from the atoms of every other element. 
Among other points of difference, they differ in weight, and although the absolute 
weight of an atom is unknown, the weights of two atoms, one of one element, the other 
‘of another element, are in the proportion of the combining weights of the elements they 
belong to. Thus the combining weight of sulphur is twice that of oxygen: we do not 
‘know the absolute weight of an atom of either, but the A. T. assumes that each atom 
of sulphur is twice as heavy as an atom of oxygen. Further, Dalton’s theory assumes 
that the ultimate particles of compound bodies contain a comparatively small number of 
atoms of the component elements. It is easy to see how this theory explains the laws 
enunciated above. We must, however, remember that while the theory satisfactorily 
explains the laws, the laws do not prove the theory. It is quite conceivable that such 
laws might exist, although matter did not consist of atoms. The A. T., however, rests 
not only on a chemical but also upon a physical foundation. According to the modern 
molecular theory, matter consists of small particles, each of which is in motion, and this 
motion is the more rapid the hotter the substance is. These small particles or ‘‘ mole- 
cules” cannot be broken up without changing -the character and properties of the sub- 
stance. They are not, however, atoms. In the case of compounds, as the molecules of any 
one substance are all similar to one another, each molecule must contain all the compo- 
nents; and in many elementary substances it can be proved, assuming the truth of the 
molecular theory, that each molecule consists of several similar atoms. A molecule, 
then, is either a single atom, as in some elementary substances, or a group of atoms which 
remain together during those movements which depend on the temperature of the sub- 
stance. Now, the velocity of these motions increases as the temperature is raised; when, 
therefore, the temperature is raised so high, and the velocity of the molecules becomes 
so great that the collision of the molecules with one another is sufficiertly violent to 
break them up and separate their constituent atoms, the substance is decomposed, the 
atoms rearranging themselves into new groups (or molecules) capable of remaining 
unbroken under the new conditions. This explains the decomposition of compounds by 
the action of heat. 

When the temperature is not so high, and the violence of collision insufficient to 
break up the molecules, these are merely shaken, thrown into a state of vibration, and 
thus the hold of the atoms upon each other is loosened. Now, if two substances are 
mixed together, it may happen that some atoms in the one set of molecules are so 
attracted by some atoms in the other set, that. when a molecule of the one set meets one 
of the other set in a vibrating or loosened condition, an exchange of atoms may take 
place between them, or each may lose a part of its atoms, these going to form a new 
molecule. This gives an explanation of the action of one substance upon another, and 
further shows why, in general, a certain temperature is required in order that the action 
may take place. 

Gay Lussac first pointed out that a relation exists between the density of a gas and 
its atomic weight. Avogadro greatly simplified the statement of these relations by 
announcing the law of molecular volumes of gases, a law which Prof. Clerk Maxwell 
has since proved to be a necessary consequence of the molecular theory of gases. This 


Atomic. be) 14 7 
Atonement. 


law is, that a given volume of gas at a given temperature and pressure contains the 
same number of molecules whatever be the nature of the gas. 

From this law, to which we may give the name of ‘‘ Avogadro’s law,” and from 
Boyle’s law, and the law (often called Charles’s law) that the volume of a gas is directly 
proportional to the absolute temperature—that is, to its temperature reckoned from a 
point 273° centigrade below the freezing-point of water—it follows that the volume 
occupied by a given mass of a gas is a function of the pressure, the temperature, and 
the molecular weight of the gas; understanding by the ‘‘molecular weight” of a 
substance a number M, such that M:2:: the absolute weight of a molecule of the 
substance: the absolute weight of a molecule of hydrogen. The number 2 appears in 
this proportion because we assume the atom of hydrogen as our unit, both of atomic 
and of molecular weight, and it can be proved (see CHEMISTRY) that the molecule of 
hydrogen gas consists of two atoms. If, then, P be the pressure in millimeters of mer- 
cury at 0° C; ¢, the temperature of the gas, as indicated by a centigrade thermometer; 
M, the molecular weight of the substance; and V, the volume (in cubic centimeters) 


occupied by a gramme of the gas, V = OO ey oo See ea In the gaseous state, 


Puce, Se oig snk wale 

the average distance between the molecules, although extremely small, is great com- 
pared with the size of the molecules, so that the volume of the gas depends almost 
exclusively upon the distance between the molecules: it is not so in the case of solids and 
liquids, in which the molecules are so closely packed as to be almost always in contact. 
The volume occupied by solids and liquids depends, therefore, far more upon the atoms 
of which the substance is made up, than upon its molecular structure. For further 
recent modifications of the atomic theory, see CHEMISTRY. 


ATOM'IC VOLUMES. See Atomic THEORY above, and CHEMISTRY. 


ATOMIC WEIGHTS are the proportions by weight in which the various elementary 
substances unite together. It is necessary that one element be selected as the starting- 
point of the series, and an arbitrary sum affixed to it, and thereafter all the other ele- 
ments can have their sums awarded to them, according to the proportional amounts in 
which they combine with each other. The second /aw, mentioned under the Atomic 
Theory (q.v.), explains the manner in which this can be done, and how far the num- 
bers are arbitrary. In all systems of atomic weights in modern use, the atomic weight 
of hydrogen is taken as unity, and the atomic weights of the other elements are then 
fixed, so as to give on the whole the simplest and most consistent formule for their 
compounds. 

There are two systems of atomic weights at present in use. 1st, The ‘‘old” system, 
which, after a good deal of discussion, was generally adopted about 1845; and 2d, The 
new system, which is, in many respects, a revival of the system of Berzelius, and which 
may be said to have come into general use by scientific chemists about 1860. 

The subjoined table gives the names of the elements, their chemical symbols, and 
their atomic weights, according to these two systems. The reader is referred, for the 
reasons for the change of atomic weights, to the article CHEMISTRY. 


ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES, WITH THEIR SYMBOLS AND ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 


Atomic Weights. Atomic Weights. 
Name of Element. Symbol. Old. New. Name of Element. Symbol. Old. New. 
Alomini 0a. te ciee ee eee ee Al 13.7 27.0 Molybdenum...... a8 SEC ACIAG Mo 48.0 96.0 
Antimony (Stibium).......... Sb 122.0 120.0 NICKEL. Mois eidtinis see eeee cere Ni 29.5 58.6 
ATAENIC) ore rages cnc ere ee aero As 75.0 75.0 INIODINIMN pees cones tae tee teenie Nb 94.0 94.0 
Baxi bina die deena. 8s sone Ba 68.5 137.0 Nitrogen tA. cciaete ¢ Marsewcls oe om N 14.0 14.0 
BASING ecetmei de hee cece en: Bi 208.0 208.0 Osmium........ somcdecneeeeiine Os 100.0 193.0 
Boron soe ie nec eect B 11.0 11.0 Oxy Sen ee eaeee ees POAC O 8.0 16.0 
BVOMINCEZS, picsrcevaieaese aries Br 80.0 80.0 Palladinm cece ec stares ces Pd 53.0 106.0 
Cadmium ety laos setacceeen ates Cd 56.0 112.0 PhHOSPHOTUIS see eew cece eats ie 31.0 31.0 
Caslvmetes..conden secmnocs Cs 133.0 132.7 Platinum eee ee scan teeetee Bt 99.0 194.3. 
Oalcluyi: 2oaechrcacmes tie he Ca 20.0 40.0 Potassium (Kalium).......... K 39.0 39.0 
CANON, 0% vets enema rs toes C 6.0 12.0 RAROGiMM Meee cseccmeceeee Rh 52.0 104.0 
CernumMy aan ii Sar Ce 46.0 140.0 aoe 85.4 85.2 
Chlorine reese ecentet eee Cl 35.5 305.4 52.0 104.4 
Chromium srt vetee eee Cr 26.0 52.4 150.0 
Cobalta23a. et ie sees Co 29.5 59.0 Scandium Ayes se se eewee eee Sc 44.0 
Copper (Cuprum)......... Ree Sle 63.2 Selenium; ei. octeeteniee Se 89.5 79.0 
Digdyannnni aie sent ce 8 eee Di 47.5 144.0 SiiGON. iS. 2 s6ree wate tie on eae Si 14.0 28.3 
Birbimoh Pspicieenc es pix se eee 56.3 166.0 Silver (Argentum).....:...-. Ag 108.0 107.6 
PWOrine cyees seve steer ateen ¥ 19.0 19.0 Sodium (Natrium),............ Na 23.0 23.0: 
Gallium: 2702) Aiewee Sere te Ga 69.9 Sirontinm igus eessee terres Sr 43.8 87.3 
Germanium.......... reg nae e 72.3 Sulphur. hee vosccodeh cpmte eee s 16.0 32.0 
Glucinum (Beryllium, Be).... G 4.7 9.1 Marital meee ear ee MRR hse Ta 182.0 182.0 
Gold. (Aurum)tecreceesh cones Au 196.0 197.0 Tellurium:2728 ¢ ck ese cece eee Te 64.0 125.0 
Hydrogen 400%, ween apace H 1.0 1.0 OSULUIYS)  ceececceee pe nemeee Tl 204.0 203.6 
Indium 2/fyt chy ease eres In 37.8 113.4 Thorium; Gee Vite cece Goeeeeee Th 57.8 231.8, 
loding-v7 ty dulce erteeee I 127.0 126.5 Tin (Stannum) sees. cece Sn 59.0 118.0. 
Tnidivuin eee cae eee eae wn Tr 99.0 192.5 Titanium).. oa... wae ee eee Sut 25.0 48.0 
|S ne eras arg Fe 28.0 56.0 Tungsten (Wolfram).......... W 92.0 183.6 
Lanthanum s4.5 eee La 46.0 138.5 Uraniumina as eee U 60.0 240.0) 
Lead (Plumbum),............. Pb 108.5 206.4 Vanadium s.-nseneee meee V 51.3 51.2 ° 
ECO re a cae one Li 7.0 7.0 Ytterbium....... BRR ero Yb 173.0 
Maorionitim <2... 22 .ttire Oe Mg 12.0 24.0 Yttrium. 20. Cpe ose eee Y 30.8 89.6 © 
Manvanese: 64... 75 922. ee n PIGS: 55.0 FANGS ee & eee ee Zn 32.5 65.6 
Mercury (Hydrargyrum)......Hg 100.0 200.0 Zirconinm yee nee ye sais Zr 44.8 90.¢@ 


875 Atonemient. 


ATOMIC ‘WEIGHTS. See CuemistTrRy, and ELEMENTS, CHEMICAL. 
ATOMISTS. See Democritus, LEvuctPPus, EPICURUS. 


ATONEMENT. Sin violates the ground of union which the personal creature has, by 
nature, with the holy God. The act of sin is one of separation; the act begets the state 
of sin, the state confirms and repeats the act. The doctrine of the A. treats of the 
mediation necessary for restoring the union between God and man, which has been lost 
by sin. The A., therefore, must ever be the fundamental doctrine in every religion of 
sinful creatures. In the Christian religion, it manifestly occupies this central position; 
for the Christian doctrine of the A. is but the explanation of its great historic fact—the 
embodiment in one person of the divine and human natures in perfect agreement. In the 
person of Christ, God and man are atoned: he is their atonement. 

So fundamental is the doctrine of the atonement in the Christian religion, that it does 
not, like many other doctrines, form a ground of distinction among the different bodies 
into which the Christian world has been divided. All churches may be said to be equally 
orthodox on this point. The church of Rome, the Greek church, the various Protestant 
churches—established and dissenting—all agree, taking their standards as a criterion, 
in resting the sinner’s hope of salvation on the mediatorial work or A. of Jesus 
Christ. . Nevertheless, there have been from the very beginning of speculative Christian 
theology, and still continue to be, within the bosom of the several churches, various ways 
of conceiving and explaining the exact nature and mode of operation of this mediatorial 
work. What follows is a brief sketch of the historical development of these speculations. 

Christianity differs from heathenism in the clear perception which it has of the 
antagonism sin has introduced between God and man. Heathenism but’ vaguely con- 
ceives of this variance, and consequently has but an ill-defined notion of the atonement 
required, the notion seldom containing more than the idea of a reconciled union of the 
individual man with nature and the universal life. Even where its mythical divinities 
assume personality, it is but an ideal personality without any concrete reality of life, and 
consequently without any real significance for the conscience. In this state, the abject 
subjection of man to nature prevents his rising into that sphere of conscious freedom 
which makes sin sinful, and demands an A. with one who is Lord both of nature and 
man. 

In Judaism, man stands above nature, in conscious relation to a personal God, whose 
written law exhibits the requirements of his relationship with man—requirements which 
are never met, and which only make him fearfully conscious of the ever-widening breach 
between him and his God. ‘Thus the law awakened the sense of guilt, and the desire for 
an A.; a desire it could never satisfy. The never-ceasing demands of these ever-unful- 
filled requirements were constantly acknowledged by its whole sacrificial cwltws, which 
expressed the hidden ground of Jewish hope, and prophetically pointed to its future 
manifestation. 

But whilst the holy Scriptures, throughout the Old Testament, exhibit the making of 
an A. by vicarious sacrifice (Lev. xvi. 21; xvii. 11), and the idea, both of the suffering 
and the deliverance of many by the sins and virtues of one, was common to all antiquity, 
the idea of the suffering and vicarious Messiah, plainly declared in the writings of the 
prophets (Luke xxiv. 46; Isaiah liii.; Psalms xxii.), and not entirely hidden from the 
more thoughtful and devout contemporaries of Jesus (Luke ii. 34; John i. 29), was one 
which was foreign to the Messianic faith of the great body of the people. 

In the New Testament, Christ is everywhere exhibited as one sent from God for the sal- 
vation of the world (John iii. 16,17); and as the condition, on the part of man, of his obtaining 
this salvation, we read of the requirement of repentance, faith, and reformation (Matt. iv. 
17; v. 3, 11; vi. 12; Mark xvi. 16; Luke xv. 11), whilst, onthe part of God, as conditioning 
and mediating his forgiveness of sins, we have exhibited the entire life of Christ upon 
earth conceived of as embracing severally its individual features (Acts v. 31; Rom. iv. 
25; viii. 34); but more especially his death as a ransom for our sins (Matt. xx. 28; xxvi. 
28), as a vicarious sacrifice (1 Peter i. 19; 2 Cor. v. 21), by which we are redeemed from 
the bondage of sin (1 Tim. ii. 6; Gal. iii. 18; 2 Peter ii. 1), and obtain forgiveness (Rom. 
v.19; 1 Cor. xv. 3; 1 John i. 7), and eternal life and peace with God (John x. 11; Col.i. 
20). Christ is therefore the Mediator between God and man (1 Tim. ii. 5), having made 
peace through the blood of his cross (Col. i. 20); the propitiation for our sins (1 John ii. 
2; iv. 10); and our high-priest who offers himself a sacrifice to reconcile us with God 
fiep, ii, 17% Vv. Peete co), 

In accordance with this full and explicit teaching of holy Scripture, we find that the 
sufferings and death of Christ were ever regarded as of primary and essential importance 
in his work of redemption; but notwithstanding this, we look in vain throughout the 
early centuries of the Christian church for anything like a systematic development of the 
doctrine of the A. The germs of the doctrine existed, but without any logical con- 
nection or clearness. ‘‘On this head there has been a twofold mistake—sometimes the 
existing beginnings of many later elaborated dogmas have been overlooked; or, on the 
other hand, it has been attempted to point out with literal distinctness church doctrines 
as if already developed.” Theearly church fathers dwell with a sort of inspired devotion 
upon those facts of the gospel which represent Christ as the sacrifice for our sins, as the 
ransom paid for our redemption, as our deliverer from the power of Satan, as the restorer 
to mankind of whatever was lost by the fall of Adam; but they seldom attempt to show 


876 


Atonement. 


how these blessed results connect themselves with the sufferings and death of Christ; 
neither do they show in what manner the A. has objectively been made, nor how it is 
brought to the experience of its individual subjects. 

The narrow limits of this article will not allow us to specify the many ways in which 
the sufferings and death of Christ were regarded in relation to their A. for sin. During 
the first four centuries there appeared no certainty of opinion as to whether they were a 
ransom-price paid to God or to the devil. The latter supposition is the more prevalent, 
and is shared in by Origen and St. Augustine. Gregory of Nyssa explains this opinion 
by saying that the devil consented to receive Jesus as a ransom, because he regarded 
him as more than an equivalent for all those under his power; but that, notwithstanding 
his subtilty, he was outwitted, for, owing to the humiliation in which Christ was veiled, 
he did not fully recognize him as the Son of God, and consequently was himself deceived. 
But having consented to receive him as a ransom for mankind, he was righteously 
deprived of his dominion over man, whilst he could not retain Jesus when he discovered 
him to be the holy one of God, being horrified and tormented by his holiness. 

Athanasius first of all successfully controverted this notion, and maintained that the 
ransom was paid to God. He argued that as God had threatened to punish transgressors 
with death, he could but execute his threat. But then it was not becoming the charac- 
ter of God to allow his purpose in the creation of man to be frustrated by an imposition 
practiced upon him by the devil. The only expedient, therefore, which remained for his 
deliverance from death, was the incarnation and sacrifice of the Logos in his stead, by 
which the justice and veracity of God would be maintained, man delivered, the law 
fulfilled, andthe power of the devil broken. It has often been stated that Tertullian 
uses the term satisfaction with respect to Christ’s A. for sin, but this is incorrect, for 
although he employs the term, he never does so in the sense of a vicarious satisfaction, 
but only in the sense of making amends for our own sins by confession and repentance. 

These elemental and mythical conceptions of the doctrine of the A. remained ina 
most imperfect and altogether undeveloped condition, until the acute and subtle genius 
of the Piedmontese archbishop of Canterbury reduced them to order, and presented them 
in logical consistency. We must regard Anselm, therefore, as the author, at least as toits 
form, of the doctrine of vicarious satisfaction, which, under various modifications, has 
ever since continued to be held as the orthodox doctrine of the church. The following 
is, in all essential respects, his statement of the doctrine: The infinite guilt which man 
had contracted, by the dishonor of his sin against the infinitely great God, could be 
atoned for by no mere creature; only the God-man Christ Jesus could render to God the 
infinite satisfaction required. God only can satisfy himself. The human nature of 
Christ enables him to incur, the infinity of his divine nature to pay, this debt. But it 
was incumbent upon Christ as a man to order his life according to the law of God; the 
obedience of his life, therefore, was not able to render satisfaction for our guilt. But 
although he was under obligation to live in obedience to the law, as the Holy One he 
was under no obligation to die. Seeing, then, that he nevertheless voluntarily surrendered 
his infinitely precious life to the honor of God, a recompense from God became his due, 
and his recompense consists in the forgiveness of the sins of his brethren.—In this form 
of the doctrine we are taught the necessity of an active vicarious satisfaction; but 
Anselm nowhere teaches the passive satisfaction, he nowhere says that Christ endured 
the punishment of men. Nor do we find in his writings the development of the sub- 
jective side of the doctrine—namely, how the satisfaction rendered to God mediates the 
A. in the experience of the believer. 

Subsequent to the time of Anselm, and prior to the reformation, there are two views 
of the A. which divide the opinions of this period: the one regarding the peculiar manner 
in which it was accomplished as absolutely necessary, and deriving its efficiency from 
its objective nature; the other supposing a subjective connection between the sufferings 
of Jesus and the price of redemption, because this was best fitted to effect the moral 
transformation of men. According to Anselm, the satisfaction rendered by Christ was 
greater than the guilt for which he atoned; and it needed to be greater, for the payment 
of the debt due to God gave men no claim to the favor of God. Thomas Aquinas and 
his followers maintained Augustine’s opinion of the infinite value of the blood of Christ 
rendering it more than sufficient; while the Scotists maintained that it was sufficient 
;only because God was pleased to regard it as sufficient. But in the period between 
ee and the reformation, little or no progress was made in the development of this 

octrine. 

We now come to the period of the reformation, when the objective speculations of 
the schoolmen are brought under the subjective requirements of human souls, and the 
doctrine of the A. is viewed in this light. In the writings of Luther, one will only with 
difficulty arrive at his intellectual apprehension of this doctrine in its scientific form; 
but setting out with the consciousness of sin, one will everywhere discover how he real- 
ized that in Christ all sin is ‘‘ vanquished, killed, and buried, and righteousness remaineth 
a conqueror and reigneth forever.” The following is an outline of the Lutheran doctrine, 
as laid down in the Concordienformel: It is alone by faith we can receive the blessings 
presented to us in the gospel by the Holy Ghost. Faith justifies, because it appropriates 
the merit of Christ. Therefore, the righteousness which is imputed to the believer, 
simply by the grace of God, is the obedience, the suffering, and the resurrection of 


877 


Atonement, 


Christ, by which he has satisfied the claims of the law, and atoned for our sins. For as 
Christ is not merely man, but God and man in one person, he was, as Lord of the law, 
no more subject to it than he was subject to suffering and death. For this reason, his 
twofold obedience—that which he rendered, on the one hand, by his suffering and 
death; and, on the other, by his righteous fulfillment of the law on our behalf—is imputed 
to us, and God acquits us of our sins, and regards us as just, in view of his complete 
obedience in what he did and suffered. This obedience embraces the entire existence 
of Christ upon earth, and is so complete that it fully covers the disobedience of men, so 
that it is not reckoned against them for condemnation. Christ is our righteousness, 
therefore, only in so far as in his entire person the most perfect obedience is exhibited, 
which he was able to render in that he was neither God alone nor man alone, but both 
in one, God and man. 

According to Calvin: if one asks how Christ has reconciled us with God, and pur- 
chased a righteousness which made him favorable to us, it may be answered generally, 
that he accomplished this by the whole course of his obedience. But although the life 
of Christ is to be regarded as paying the price necessary for our deliverance, the Scrip- 
tures ascribe our redemption especially to his death. Calvin attached great importance 
to the particular mode of his death—any other mode of death would not have rendered 
the same satisfaction to God. He, however, says little or nothing about Christ’s fulfilling 
the law for us, but dwells upon his delivering us from its curse. He does not, there- 
fore, exhibit his active obedience separated, as an essential part of his satisfaction for 
sin, from his passive obedience. The importance attached to the obedience of his life 
arises from its natural and necessary connection with his suffering and death. And the 
great importance attached to his death is drawn rather from the view of its subjéctive 
necessity, than from the idea of the divine righteousness—namely, that without such a 
death there would have been no sufficient ground for the subjective realization of deliv- 
erance from sin and guilt. Calvin’s view differs from that of the Lutheran Concordien- 
formel in that he does not regard the relationship of God to man merely from the 
stand-point of punitive and satisfying righteousness, which always leads to the merely 
negative notion of a Redeemer from guilt and punishment, but looks upon Christ as the 
highest Mediator, through whom the nature of God is communicated to man. There 
was a necessity for Christ’s incarnation, not merely because, apart from the suffering of 
the God-man, the divine righteousness could not be atoned, but also because, without 
such a divine Mediator, there could be no vital relation between God and man. ‘‘Had 
man remained free from all taint, he was of too humble a condition tu penetrate to God 
without a Mediator.” 

While the reformers established the doctrine of the A. on the theory of Anselm, and 
extended it so as to make the sufferings of Christ include the divine curse, and introduced 
distinctions between Christ’s active and passive obedience, Socinus endeavored to prove 
the falseness of Anselm’s theory. He shares with the Protestants the subjective princi- 
ple, which the period of the reformation established, but developed it in a one-sided 
manner. Socinianism represents man as attaining to oneness with himself and with God 
by his own moral energy. It rejects that idea of the righteousness of God which makes 
it impossible for him to forgive sin without satisfaction, as imposing finite limitations 
upon the divine Being; and also objects to the doctrine of satisfaction, on the ground 
that satisfaction for sin and forgiveness of sin are incompatible with each other; and, 
moreover, objects that sin and punishment are of so personal a nature as not to allow of 
their being transferred. It further opposes the doctrine of the active and passive obedi- 
ence of Christ, on the ground that the one excluded the other. Another objection 
muintained the actual impossibility of Christ’s rendering the supposed satisfaction for 
sin. 

The doctrine it sought to establish in the place of the one it attempted to overthrow may 
in brief be stated as follows. Man is reconciled to God by repentance and reformation. 
Only from an act of man changing his disposition, and not from an act of God changing 
his relation to man, follows his reconciliation with God. God isin himself ever the 
same towards man—reconciled from all eternity; man alone has to assume a new rela- 
tion; as soon as he does this, he is immediately reconciled; by this act of his will, he is 
at one with God. Only in man’s moral state is there any obstacle to his reconciliation. 
This greatest and holiest accomplishment, the reconciliation of man with God, is achieved 
by an act of his will. 

In this purely subjective theory, repentance occupies the place of faith in the orthodox 
doctrine, and faith becomes identical with obedience; for repentance and reformation 
are regarded as but the two sides of the same act of the will. It follows from this that 
justification is of works as well as reconciliation. A necessity for the sufferings of 
Christ is shown for the following objects—that he might become our example; better 
fitted to render us help; that we might have a pledge and guarantee of the divine for- 
giveness; and as conditioning his resurrection and ascension to glory. 

We must now hasten to the form of this doctrine among ‘‘ modern Calvinists,” with. 
out attempting further to exhibit the links in the chain of its historic connection. 
‘Modern Calvinism” represents the A. as that satisfaction for sin which was rendered 
to God, in his public character as moral governor of the world, by the perfect obedience 
unto death of our Lord Jesus Christ. The nature of this satisfaction was a moral, not a 


878 


Atonement. 


pecuniary satisfaction. It preserves to the moral government of God its authority, 
whilst its tendency is to secure the forgiveness of sin. The value of the sufferings of 
Christ consists in their tendency to uphold the divine moral government unimpaired 
whilst pardon is extended to those who have violated it, rather than in their intrinsic 
excellence, which, though essential to, did not constitute their value. There was a moral 
necessity for Christ’s sufferings and death—obstacles to the bestowment of pardon had 
to be removed—the influence of the Holy Spirit had to be secured. The whole contents 
of Christ’s earthly existence, embracing both his active and passive obedience—a dis- 
tinction which is unsupported by the word of God—must be regarded as contributing to 
the A. which he made. Of the actual sufferings of Christ immediately attending his 
death, it would be unpardonable to speak with confidence, so little has been revealed. 
It may, however, be considered whether the Savior’s deprivation of his Father’s coun. 
tenance may not have been indirectly caused rather by his awful and afflicting sense of 
the evil of sin, than otherwise?—As to the ‘‘extent” of the A., there is a broad distine- 
tion to be made between the sufficiency of the A., and its efficiency. It may be true that 
Jehovah did not intend to exercise that influence of the Holy Spirit upon all which is 
necessary to secure the salvation of any one, but as the A. was to become the basis of 
moral government, it was necessary that it should be one of infinite worth, and so in - 
itself adequate to the salvation of all. The bedy called Universalists (q.v.) hold both the 
efticiency and ultimate sufficiency of this great event in history. 

The foregoing represents the modified view of the doctrine as advocated by Dr. 
Payne, and as held, in all essential respects, by such men as Pye Smith and Wardlaw, 
which in its earlier form, and as found in the writings of Owen and Edwards, maintains 
that the A. was made only for the elect; and that its necessity with respect to them arose 
out of the eternal justice of God, which required that every individual should receive 
his due desert; and, consequentiy, that the sufferings of Christ were the endurance of 
punishment equivalent in amount of suffering, if not identical in nature—as Owen 
maintains—with that to which the elect were exposed; and, moreover, that the merit- 
orious obedience of Christ in fulfilling the law, imputes a righteousness to those for 
whom the A. secures salvation, which gives them a claim to the reward of righteousness. 

Our space will not allow us to present to the reader the various forms which this 
doctrine is made to assume in the philosophic theology of Germany from Kant to the 
present times See NEANDER. Wemust, therefore, confine ourselves to the presentation 
of those views of the doctrine advocated by our own countrymen in our own time, which 
may fairly represent the present state of opinion with respect to this fundamenta? 

octrine. 

Let us begin with the view of modern Unitarianism, which may very clearly and fairly 
be presented in the words of one of the most able of its advocates, the Rev. Prof. 
John James Tayler: ‘‘‘ There is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ 
Jesus.’ This can only refer to unrivaied pre-eminence, not to exclusive function. For 
all higher minds do, in fact, mediate between their less gifted fellow-creatures and the 
great realities of the invisible world. This ‘one’ is a human mediator, ‘the man Christ 
Jesus ’—not a being from another sphere, an angel or a God—but a brother from the bosom 
of our own human family. ‘He gave himself a ransom for ali’ who embrace his offers 
and will hearken to his voice. He brings from God a general summons to repent; and 
with that he conveys, through faith, a spiritual power to shake off the bondage of sin, and 
put on the freedom of anew heart and anew life. He is a deliverer from the power of 
sin and the fear of death. This is the end of his mediation. This is the redemption of 
which he paid the price. His death, cheerfully met in the inevitable sequence of faith- 
ful duty, was only one among many links in the chain of instrumentalities by which that 
deliverance was effected. It wasa proof, such as could be given in no other way, of trust 
in God and immortality, of fidelity to duty, and of love for mankind. In those who 
earnestly contemplated it, and saw all that it implied, it awoke a tender response of grati- 
tude and confidence, which softened the obdurate heart, and opened it to serious impres- 
sions and the quickening influences of a religious spirit.” 

Prof. Jowett advocates an opinion peculiarly his own, if, indeed, language so confess- 
edly vague and indefinite can be said to embody an opinion. It is this: ‘‘that the 
only sacrifice, A., or satisfaction with which the Christian has to do, is a moral and 
spiritual one; not the pouring out of blood upon the earth, but the living sacrifice ‘to do 
thy will, O God;’ in which the believer has part as well as his Lord; about the meaning 
of which there can be no more question in our day than there was in the first ages.”— 
‘Heathen and Jewish sacrifices rather show us what the sacrifice of Christ was not, 
than what it was. They are the dim, vague, rude, almost barbarous expression of that 
want in human nature which has received satisfaction in him only. Men are afraid 
of something; they wish to give away something; they feel themselves bound by some- 
thing; the fear is done away, the gift offered, the obligation fulfilled in Christ. Such 
fears and desires can no more occupy their souls; they are free to lead a better life; 
they are at the end of the old world, and at the beginning of a new one.”—The work 
of Christ is set forth in Scripture under many different figures, lest we should rest in one 
only. His death, for instance, is described as aransom. It is not that God needs some 
payment before he will set the captives free. Ransom is deliverance to the captive. 
‘* Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin.” Christ delivers from sin. ‘‘If the 


879 


Atonement, 


son shali make you free, ye shall be free indeed.” To whom ? for what was the ransom 
paid ? are questions about which Scripture is silent, to which reason refuses to answer. 

A remarkably original work was issued several years ago by the Rev. John M’Leod 
Campbell, on the subject of the A. His views are as follows: The work of the 
Son of God, who came to do and did the will of his Father, must, in view of the deliver- 
ance which he wrought, be regarded as twofold: first, as dealing with man on behalf of 
God, and second, as dealing with God on behalf of man. 

In dealing with man on behalf of God, Christ revealed to us the Father in his rela- 
tion to a sinful world, showed us what our sins were to God, vindicated in the world 
the Father’s name, and witnessed to the excellency of that will against which we were 
rebelling. In thus revealing the will of the Father towards sinful men, he necessarily 
became a man of sorrow and suffering, but these arose naturally out of what he was, 
and the relation in which he stood to those for whom he suffered; and to the holiness 
and love of his very nature must we refer their awful intensity and immeasurable 
amount. He suffered what he suffered just through seeing sin and sinners with God’s 
eyes, and feeling in reference to them with God’s heart. By what he suffered, he con- 
demned sin, and revealed the wrath of God against it. His holiness and love taking the 
form of suffering, compose the very essence and adequacy of his sacrifice for sin. 

Again, in dealing with God on behalf of man, the oneness of mind with the Father 
which towards man took the form of condemnation of sin, became in his dealing with 
the Father in relation to us a perfect confession of our sins, which was a perfect amen in 
humanity to the judgment of God on the sin of man. Such an amen was due in the 
truth of all things, due on our behalf, though we could not render it, due from him as 
in our nature and our true brother. He who was the truth, could not be in humanity 
and not utter it; and it was necessarily a first step in dealing with the Father on our 
behalf. This confession of our sins by him who, as the son of God and the son of man 
in one person, could perfectly realize the evil of man’s alienation, was a peculiar develop- 
ment of the holy sorrow in which he bore the burden of our sins; and which, like his 
sufferings in confessing his Father before men, had a severity and intensity of its own. 
But apart from the sufferings present in that confession, this amen from the depths of 
the humanity of Christ to the divine condemnation of sin is necessarily conditioned by 
the reception of the full apprehension and realization of the wrath of God, as well as of 
the sin against which it comes forth into his soul and spirit, into the bosom of the divine 
humanity, and, so receiving it, he responds to it with a perfect response, and in that per- 
fect response he absorbs it. For that response has all the elements of a perfect repent- 
ance in humanity, for all the sin of man—a perfect sorrow—a perfect contrition—all the 
elements, of such a repentance, and that in absolute perfection; all—excepting the per- 
sonal consciousness of sin—and by that perfect response or amen to the mind of God, in 
relation to sin, is the wrath of God rightly met, and that is awarded to divine justice 
which is its due, and could alone satisfy it. 

This confession of the world’s sin by the head and representative of humanity, was 
followed up by his intercession as a part of the full response of the mind of the Son to 
the mind of the Father—a part of that utterance in humanity which propitiated the 
divine mercy by the righteous way in which it laid hold of the hope for man which 
was in God. ‘‘He bore the sins of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.” 

The Rev. F. D. Maurice professed to hold a purely biblical theology, as opposed to 
the theologies of consciousness, which he repudiates. His doctrine of the A. is the 
answer which the Bible gives to the demands of a sin-smitten conscience. A sinner 
requires, and is content to be told on the authority of Scripture, that the Son of God has 
taken away sin. This message from God is the gospel for all men. The sinner wants to 
be assured that God has spoken, that he has declared himself the reconciler, and desires 
to be shown how and in whom he has accomplished that work on his behalf. 

To this question—How and in whom the work of reconciliation has been accom- 
plished ?—Mr. Maurice replied, in effect and almost in words as follows: The will of God 
is set forth in the Bible to be a will which is good to all, and the ground of all that is 
right, true, just, and gracious; that it also sets forth the Son of God as being one in will, 
purpose, and substance with the Father, and that his whole life on earth was an exhibition 
of and submission to his Father’s will; that the Son of God was Lord of men, the root and 
head of humanity, and the source of all light and righteousness in man: that being thus 
one with God and one with man, he brought the will of God into our nature, fulfilled 
it in our nature perfectly, and carried it down into the lowest condition into which it 
had fallen through sin; that in the fulfillment of this will in our nature, as its head, he 
shared its sufferings, enduring that wrath, or punishment, which proceeded from holy 
love, thus realizing, on the one hand, the sins of the world, and on the other, the con- 
suming fury of the holiness of the love of God—with an anguish which only a perfectly 
pure and holy being, who is also a perfectly sympathizing and gracious being, can feel: 
that the man Christ Jesus was for this reason the object of his Father’s continual com- 
placency—a complacency fully drawn out by the death of the cross—which so perfectly 
brought out to view the uttermost power of self-sacrifice which lay hidden in the divine 
love, and consequently that he exhibited humanity, in its head, atoned for, reconciled. 
In this way, to Mr. Maurice, is Christ ‘“‘the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of 
the world.”—Dr. Horace Bushnell’s writings also are exceedingly suggestive. 


Atool. 880 


Atropia. e 

Finally, Dr. Trench, who may be regarded as fairly representing the prevalent views 
of the more devout and thoughtful men of the present day holding orthodox opinions, 
speaks as follows: ‘‘The spirit of man cries out for something deeper than repentance, 
confession of sin, amendment of life; something which shall reach further back; which 
shall not be clogged with sinful infirmities, as his own repentance even at the very best 
must be. Men cry for some work to rest upon, which shall not be thei? work, but which 
shall be God’s; perfect, complete. They feel that there must be something which God 
has wrought, not so much ¢7 them as for them; they yearn for this, for A., propitiation, 
ransom, and conscience purged from dead works by the blood of sprinkling; a rock to 
flee to which is higher than they, than their repentance, than their faith, than their obedi- 
ence, even than their new life in the spirit. Now, this rock is Christ; and John the 
Baptist pointed to this rock, when, to those about him who longed after more than 
amendment of life, he exclaimed, in the memorable words: ‘Behold the Lamb of God 
which taketh away the sin of the world.’” 

Christ’s sacrifice was vicarious—he died not merely for the good of, but in the room 
and in the stead of others, tasted death for them. He did this of his own free will. He 
saw that nothing else would overcome their sinful perversity and willful obduracy, and 
that this would be effectual to do so. 

Christ took upon himself the penalties of a sinful world, and his self-sacrifice is only not 
righteous, because it is so much better than righteous, because it moves in that higher 
region where law is no more known, but only known no more because it is transfigured 
into love. Vicarious suffering is the law and condition of all highest nobleness in the 
world. It is this which God is continually demanding of his elect, they approving them- 
selves his elect as they freely own themselves the debtors of love to the last penny of 
the requirements which it makes. ; 

But the sufferings and death of Christ were not merely vicarious, they were also 
satisfactory; and thus atoning or setting at one, bringing together the holy and the 
unboly, wno could not have been reconciled in any other way. It is not maintained 
that God could have pleasure in the sufferings of the innocent and the holy, and that 
innocent and holy his own Son; but only that he must have the highest pleasure in the 
love, the patience, the obedience which those sufferings gave him the opportunity of 
displaying, which but for those he never could have displayed. Christ’s sublime devo- 
tion to the will of God permitted the Father to say, ‘‘ have found a ransom.” Christ 
satisfied herein, not the divine anger, but the divine craving and yearning after a nerfect 
holiness, righteousness, and obedience in man; which craving no man had satisfied, but 
all had disappointed before. 

The reader is referred for further and fuller information on this subject to the follow- 
ing works, which have been consulted and used in the preparation of this article: Baur’s 
Christliche Lehre von der Versihnung; Hase’s Hutterus Redivivus; Neander’s Christliche 
Dogmengeschichte; Gieseler’s Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte; Hagenbach’s Lehrbuch der 
Dogmengeschichte, vierte Auflage; Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion; Edwards, 
Concerning the Necessity and Reasonableness of the Christian Doctrine of Satisfaction for 
Sin; Owen’s Death of Death in the Death of Christ, and Of the Death of Christ; Payne’s 
Lectures on Divine Sovereignty; Chalmers’s Institutes of Theology; Wardlaw’s Systematic 
Theology ; Campbell’s (John M’Leod) Nature of the Atonement, etc.; Tayler’s (J. J.) 
Christian Aspects of Faith and Duty (discourse on ‘‘Christ the Mediator”); Maurice’s 
Theological Essays; Jowett’s St. Pauls Epistles, first and second editions (article ‘‘ On 
Atonement and Satisfaction”); Trench’s Hive Sermons (sermon on ‘‘ Christ the Lamb of 
God’’). Among works on this subject by American writers are Shedd’s History of Chris- 
tian Doctrine ; Bushnell’s The Vicarious Sacrifice, etc. 


ATOOI, Atauai, the name sometimes given to Kauai (q.v.) one of the Hawaiian islands. 


ATOSSA, the daughter of Cyrus and the wife successively of Cambyses, Smerdis and 
Darius Hystaspis. She is mentioned by Herodotus, and according to one account was 
killed by Xerxes. 


ATRA'TO, a river of Culombia, more important from its position than from its 
magnitude. It has already been mentioned under the head of AMERICA in connection 
with the scheme of opening a communication between the Atlantic and the Pacific. 

The main stream falls into the gulf of Darien by 9 mouths—the quantity of water, 
from the almost daily rains, being large in proportion to the area drained, which does 
not, at the utmost, exceed 300 m. by 75. Of the 9 mouths, the third in rank, the Boca 
Coquito, appears to offer the most available facilities for improving the navigation. 
About 220 m. above this entrance, opposite to Quibdo, the A. is 850 ft. wide and 8 ft. 
deep at the shallowest parts, while the entire fall to the sea averages less than 3 in. toa 
mile. Unfortunately, however, the A. itself cannot advantageously be followed thus 
far, because, as one advances to the s., the intervening ridge to the w. and its streams 
towards the Pacific become less and less practicable. 

A comparatively convenient route was surveyed through the munificence of Mr. 
F. M. Kelley, a private citizen of New York. Ascending the Boca Coquito as before, 
this route leaves the main stream at a distance of 63 m. from the sea, following the 
Truando, one of its western affluents, for 86 m. more without impediment or interrup- 
‘ion. From this point on the Truando to the Pacific there would still remain 32 miles 


881 Tet Hy 


The heaviest work would be a tunnel of 8} m. in length. According to the plan, the 
canal would be without a lock. The examination made by the United States govern- 
ment in 1871, resulted in the opinion that the route which promised the least difficulty 
lay between the middle branch of the A. and the Jurador, flowing into the Pacific, which 
would require 48 m. of canal. 


ATREB'ATES, or ATREBAT'II, a people of Belgian Gaul, whose name survives in 
Artois. In a confederation against Julius Ceesar they furnished 15,000 troops. There 
was once a colony of them in Britain, in Berks and Wilts. 


A’TREUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodamia, grandson of Thyestes 
and Nicippe, whose fortunes and misfortunes, with those of his family, were the favorite 
themes of Grecian writers and artists. A. married Cleola, by whom he was the father 
of Pleisthenes; his next wife was Aérope, widow of his son Pleisthenes, and by her he 
had Agamemnon and Menelaus; his last wife was Pelopia, daughter of his brother 
Thyestes. The main story of A. begins in blood, he and Thyestes being induced by their 
mother to kill their step-brother Chrysippus, the son of Pelops and the nymph Axioche 
After the murder, the perpetrators fled to Mycenz, where the king, Sthenelus, was their 
brother-in-law. The son and successor of Sthenelus lost his life in war with the 
Heracleids, and Atreus succeeded him as king of Mycens. Calamity and crime 
followed rapidly. Thyestes seduced A.’s wife Aérope, and stole the golden fleeced ram 
which was the gift of Hermes. <A. expelled Thyestes, who sent A.’s own son to kill 
hin, but the father slew the son without recognizing him. Then A. prepared a great 
revenge. Professing to be reconciled to Thyestes, he invited him to Mycene, killed 
Tantalus and Plastenes (the two sons of Thyestes), and served them for a banquet to their 
father. In the midst of the meal, A. had the skeletons of the dish brought in to edify 
Thyestes, who, struck with horror, cursed the house of A. and fled, while the sun 
turned its face from the scene. The kingdom of A. was next stricken with famine, 
which the oracle saia could be remedied only by recalling Thyestes. A. went in search 
of him, and, at the cvurt of king Thesprotus, married a third wife, Pelopia, who was the 
daughter of his brother Thyestes, though A. supposed her to be the daughter of 
Thesprotus. When married, Pelopia was with child by her own father, and this child 
she exposed to die, but he was brought up by shepherds, and known as AXgisthus, and 
when A. heard of him he brought him up as his own son. Adschylus says that A. sent 
Agamemnon and Menelaus in search of Thyestes, whom they brought back to Mycene; 
that A. imprisoned him and sent ®gisthus to kill him; that Aigisthus, having been 
recognized by his real father, returned with thestory that he had done the deed, and 
immediately slew A., who was offering sacrifice on the sea-shore.—It is believed that the 
tomb and the treasury of Atreus in Mycene have been discovered by Dr. Schliemann, 
the explorer of the ruined city. 


A’TRI (ane. Adria or Hadria), a t. of south Italy, in the province of Teramo, Abruzzi 
and Molise, and 14 m. s.e. from Teramo, on a steep hill, 6m. from the Adriatic. It is 
of very great antiquity, and some of its coins bear a legend in Etruscan characters. 
Numerous remains of public buildings, baths, and walls attest its ancient importance. 
In a hill near the town are some remarkable subterranean chambers, supposed to be 
excavations of a very remote age. They are formed with the greatest regularity, but. 
their purpose is unknown. Population about 10,000. 

ATRIP. An anchor issaid to be A. when it is just drawn out of the ground in a per- 
pendicular direction. A top-sail is A. when it is just started from the cap. 


ATRIPLEX. See CHENOPODIACE and ORACHE, 


A'TRIUM, in Roman architecture, was the covered court or entrance-hall which 
formed the chief part of a Roman house. It was lighted from the roof, which sloped 
towards an opening in the center (the compluviwm), through which the rain-water flowed 
ito a kind of cistern situated on the floor (the démpluviwm). On both sides, passages led 
to the several chambers. Its size was in proportion to the other parts of the house. 
After the burning of Rome in the reign of Nero, great attention was paid to the decora- 
tions of the entrance-halls or atria. Here the female slaves were engaged in weaving 
and other domestic occupations, under the superintendence of their mistress. Family 
pictures were preserved in the A., it alsocontained the nuptial couch, and it served as a 
general waiting-room for visitors and clients. The atria of the temples were used as 
places of assembly of the senators, and for other public meetings. 

AT'ROPA. See BELLADONNA. : 

ATROPHY (Gr. atrophia, want of nourishment; from a, not, and trophé, nourishment) 
isa morbid condition of animal or vegetable life, resulting in deficient nutrition of the 
body, or part of the body, and a consequent decay and waste of itssubstance. The term 
is not applied to the mere withholding the requisite supply of nutriment, but to the con- 
dition produced by various diseases that affect the body. See Nurrition, also DicxEs- 
TION, DyspEPsIA, HYPERTROPHY. 

ATRO'PIA, or A’TROPINE, Ci7H2sNOs, is an alkaloid existing in all parts of the deadly 
night-shade (atropa belladonna). The seeds of the thorn-apple (datura stramontum), also 


Atropos. 882 


Attainder. 


contain an alkaloid, Daturine, which for long was believed to be identical with atropia. 
Recent researches seem to indicate that it is, however, only isomeric, and that it is only 
half as poisonous as atropia. It may be prepared from the juice of belladonna by heat- 
ing it to 194° F. (90° C.), filtering, and after addition of potash, shaking with chloroform 
The crude alkaloid obtained after evaporation of the chloroform is purified by crystalliza- 
tion from hot alcohol. The crystals occur in colorless silky needles, united in tufts. It 
is very poisonous, y}y of a grain causing dryness of the throat; but it is nevertheless 
used internally or by injection in cases of whooping-cough and pytalism. It is also used 
as an antidote in cases of opium poisoning. A solution of sulphate of atropia in water 
dropped into the eye is now generally preferred to belladonna lotions or ointments for eye 
diseases. It produces dilatation of the pupil and paralysis of the accommodation, which 
do not completely pass away for some days; and also a sedative and curative effect 
in many inflamed conditions. A solution of about four grains to the ounce is most 
often employed; but a single drop of a very much weaker solution affects the 


pupil. 
AT’ROPOS, one of the Motraz, or Fates—she who severs the thread of man’s life. She 
is represented with a cutting instrument, or a pair of scales, or a sun-dial. 


ATROW'LI, or ATRAULI, a t. of British India, in the district of Allygurh, North- 
west Provinces, 63 m. n.n.e. from Agra. The streets are wide, the bazaar good, and the 


supply of water abundant. 


A’'TRYPA, a genus of fossil brachiopod or lamp-shells, having a close resemblance to 
the well-known terebratula. It possessed a perforation for the passage of the peduncle, 
by which the animal attached itself to foreign bodies. This foramen is not visible in all 
examples of the same species, from the beak touching and overlying the umbo of the 
other valve; the animal was, therefore, probably free during a portion of its existence. 
The name (derived from a, without, and trypa, foramen) was given to this genus by 
Dalman, as he erroneously supposed that the perforation was entirely absent. Judging 
from the markings on the interior of the shell, the animal seems to have differed little 
from the recent riynconella, except that it had large calcareous spines for the support of 
its labial appendages. A. is a strictly paleozoic brachiopod, the solitary permian species 
being the last representative of the genus. Of the 179 described species, 100 are silurian, 
06 devonian, 22 carboniferous, and 1 permian. 


ATTACHE (French), a subordinate or assistant. The term is generally applied to 
young diplomatists who accompany embassies. 


ATTACHMENT is an English legal term, signifying the form of process by the 
authority of which the person or the goods of a debtor may be seized in satisfaction. 
As a proceeding against the person, it is a species of criminal process, and has the force 
of much that will be found under Apprehend (q.v.): but in strictness, it means a pro- 
cess issuing from a court of record against a person guilty of a contempt, or, more 
properly, of a judicial contempt, and who is punishable in a summary manner by the 
court in whose presence, against whose authority, or against whose writs the contempt 
has been overtly displayed. Thus, in Hawkins’s Pleas of the Crown, such contempts are 
thus classed: 1. Disobedience to the queen’s writs; 2. Contempts in the face of a court: 
3. Contemptuous words or writings concerning a court; 4. Refusing to comply with 
the rules and awards of a court; and 5. Forgery of writs, or any other deceit tending to 
impose on a court. Parties are also liable to the process of A.as for a contempt. of 
court where, in an arbitration (see ARBITRATION) the award having been made a rule of 
court under the 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 15, the parties refuse to obey the same. In Chan. 
cery, there may be A. of the person for judicial default or other offense to the court, as, 
for example, where a defendant fails to put in his answer or proper plea to the plaintiff's 
bill of complaint. The only other process of A. against the person which it is necessary 
here to notice, is the non-attendance in court of a witness, who in such event is con- 
sidered to have committed a contempt of court, and to be liable to be punished for such 
eontempt by attachment. An action may also be brought against such defaulting wit- 
hess at the suit of the aggrieved party, on account of any loss or damage occasioned by 
the non-attendance. a 

The proceeding by A. of goods resembles in some respects the Scotch diligence or 
process of arrestment. See ARRESTMENT. The best illustration we can give of it, in 
this sense, is that relating to the power of a judgment creditor to recover under his judg- 
ment. By the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, it is provided that the judgment creditor may 
apply to the court or a judge for a rule or order to have the debtor orally examined as 
to the debts owing to him by any third party or garnishee, as he is called (see GAR- 
NISHEE), and also for an order that all such garnishee debts be attached to answer the 
judgment debt, the service of which order has the effect of binding or attaching the 
debts in the garnishee’s hands, : 

_ Attachment is in our American usage applied generally to a writ for taking posses: 
Sion of person or property. In regard to persons A. is issued for contempt of court 
or of its proceedings and is in the nature of a criminal process. Concerning prop- 
erty, A. Issues to seize effects, credits, or rights, to secure the demands of a plaintiff 
In New England a summons has the force of A.; but in most of the states the writ 


8 8 8 Atropos. 


Attainder, 


1s issued only upon cause shown, and must be antedated by a bond from the defendant 
to make good any damages that may come from the act. In general, remedy by A. is 
allowed to a creditor only. Corporations and legal. representatives may be reached by 
A. An A. does not affect the status of the property seized, and neither impairs nor 
enhances the owners’ rights; it isonly a lien on the property, and valueless if the claim 
be unfounded. Usually the officer making an A. is held responsible for the things seized 
until final adjudication. In some states the owner may keep possession of the property 
by giving a bond with sureties to deliver as the court may direct; in some, the A. may be 
dissolved on giving a bond to secure the plaintiff and what he may recover. Judgment 
for the defeadant dissolves an A.; in some states it is dissolved by the death of the 
defendant, or of a corporation. Suits may be brought for malicious A., and the proceed- 
ings will be governed by the law applicable to malicious prosecution. 


ATTACK, In music, a technical term meaning the spirit and action with which a per- 
former or singer begins a phrase. 


ATTACHMENT, Foreicn. See FOREIGN ATTACHMENT. 


ATTACK, It has been frequently maintained that the balance of advantage will rest 
with the defense on the introduction of smokeless powders. Certainly the absence of 
smoke will benefit the well-covered defenders more than the exposed attacking troops. 
The superiority of the defense in a prepared position, with aclear field of fire, will, when 
the assailants enter on a frontal attack, be greater than formerly. The attack will re- 
quire more time, in order that the position, no longer defined by smoke clouds, may be 
recognized, and the attack prepared by fire directed on it. It follows from this that the 
defense should never occupy sharply defined positions, such as villages and the borders 
of woods. The attack will have to make more use of the ground to cover its troops and 
to prepare their advance more thoroughly by means of artillery fire. But the defense, 
if it seek to decide the fight must make a counter attack, thereby changing the roles. 

From all this it appears that the relative values of the attack and the defense have 
not much changed. The fire action begins now at a far greater distance than formerly ; 
fighting in extended order is the only form adopted, not only for the opening and carry- 
ing through of the fight, but also for its decision. Movements of bodies of troops in the 
vicinity of the enemy’s fire will be more difficult ; and columns cannot longer be ex- 
posed to it. The extension of front of the fighting troops, no less than the distances be- 
tween the several lines and the reserves, are increased. Direct advance upon theenemy, 
without his fire having been previously beaten down, exposes the troops to destructica. 
Frontal attacks, without simultaneous pressure on the flanks, will not secure any decisive 
advantage, and deployments must be carried out earlier owing to the increased difficulty 
of reconnaissance. For a serious attack it is considered that about 10,000 men per mile 
are required, which is equivalent to deploying the attacking infantry into a continuous 
line four deep. The advanced guard of the attacking force skirmishes with the cavalry 
of the defense and endeavors to learn something of his force, then the artillery takes up 
positions toward the flanks of the line, in order to shell the position at as close a range as 
he can find cover from the ground, and to cover the advance of the infantry. The 
artillery, including the machine guns, keeps up its fire as long as it possibly can with- 
out endangering the attacking infantry, which moves rapidly forward, driving in the ad- 
vanced posts of the enemy, whose main line will probably resort to volley firing as much 
as possible. The main objective of the attack will be what is judged to be the most de- 
cisive point. The attacking artillery will now have lessened its range to support the in- 
fantry, and will probably have to cease firing altogether during the last quarter of a 
mile of the advance. The guns must, however, be pushed forward as far as possible, 
particularly the machine guns. . 

In advancing, every advantage must be taken to secure cover offered by the ground 
passed over until near enough for the final rush, and while the chief strength is concen- 
trated upon the objective point, the real intentions must be masked as far as possible by 
feigned operations. In order to make success as much felt as possibile the attacking. 
body should be supported by a reserve; a neglect of this precaution has frequently, 
caused the entire failure of an attack. 'The troops told off to attack the flanks conceal 
their march as long as possible ; on reaching the prolongation of the enemy’s line they 
must act with rapidity and decision. The fire of the direct attack is redoubled. The 
advance of the troops detailed for the flank attack into the fighting line is the signal for 
the general assault of the position. If successful the infantry and artillery take up the 
works recentiy occupied by the enemy, and the cavalry pushes forward in pursuit on the 
enemy’s flanks. If unsuccessful, the reserves, with the artillery and cavalry, cover the 
retreat. Close order, if employed, is only recommended for the reserve and for feeding 
the firing line; also for those moments when a powerful impulse is required to push 
forward the skirmish line, and when a decisive attack is to be made. The extension of 
the front must not be greater than is required for the greatest possible development of 
fire. The encounter resulting from the meeting of two opposing forces on the march. 
must be distinguished from the attack of a regular defensive position. 


ATTAINDER js the legal consequence of judgment of death or outlawry, in respect 
of treason or felony. It is said to have been derived from the Latin word attinctus, 


Att inder. ? 
A titan tion. 8 8 4 


attaint, stained, and it is followed by forfeiture of estate, real and personal, and by con 
ruption of blood; and generally it imported extinction of civil rights and capacities. 
Thus, an attainted person cannot sue in a court of justice ; he loses all power over his: 
property; and he is by his A. rendered incapable of performing any of the duties or enjoy- 
ing any of the privileges of a free citizen. But absolute and severe as the consequences 
of A. seem to be, they had their limits. In regard to the attainted person, neither the 
government nor the crown could exercise absolute or capricious authority; everything 
must be done according to legal and constitutional principle and rule, and for the ends 
of public justice alone. Formerly, ap attainted person could not give evidence ina 
court of justice; but that disability in /ngland has been removed by the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 
85, and in Scotland by the 15 and 16 Vict. c. 27. 

We have stated that the immediate consequences of A. were forfeiture of estate and 
corruption of blood. The forfeiture was of estate real and personal. Put in 1870 the law 
on this subject was revised and made more consistent with reason by the act 83 and 
84 Vict. 28. No conviction for treason or felony now causes any A. or corruption of 
blood, or forfeiture or escheat. When a convicted person is sentenced to any punish- 
ment more severe than 12 months’ hard labor, he is deprived of any public office or 
employment, and of any public pension, or of the right of voting at elections. He may be 
condemned to pay the costs or expenses incurred in procuring his conviction, and in cases 
of felony to make payment of asum not exceeding £100, as compensation for any loss 
of property caused by such felony. He cannot sue for any property, debt, or damage. 
While he is a convict undergoing any imprisonment, her majesty may appoint paid 
administrators to take charge of his property at the convict’s expense, to deal with the 
property, and pay debts, and do what is needful. They may also pay out of his prop- 
erty satisfaction for any loss or injury suffered by third parties in consequence of his 
criminal or fraudulent acts, though no proof of such criminal or fraudulent acts may 
have been made in any court of law. They may also make allowances to support the 
convict’s family. If the crown does not appoint an administrator, justices of the peace 
may appoint interim curators, if satisfied that it will benefit the convict or his family, 
or the due administration of his property and affairs. Should any person intermeddle 
with the convict*s property, the attcrney-general or next of kin might call them to 
account. When the convict ceases to be such, by the expiration of his sentence, then 
the administrators or curators are to account to him for all his property, or rather the 
surplus, like and other guardians appointed by law. If during the sentence any prop- 
erty be acquired by the convict, it is not to vest in the administrators, but is to be his 
own, as in other ordinary cases. 

The old consequence of A.— viz., corruption of blood, is anxiously and learnedly 
treated of in old law-books, and in Blackstone’s Commentaries; but the ancient law on. 
the subject had been so much narrowed in its application by modern legislation as to 
have lost much of its importance; and, indeed, this doctrine of corruption of blood was 
in modern times always looked upon as a peculiar hardship, at least as regards the 
family of the offender; and now, by the statutes 54 Geo. III. c. 145, already referred to, 
3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 106, and 18 and 14 Vict. c. 60, whatever savored of inhumanity or 
harshness under the ancient system has been effectually removed; in fact, it is now 
enacted that,even with the cases of treason and murder, the law of corruption of blood, 
so far as the family of the offender are concerned, has ceased to form part of the law, 
Besides A, by the operation of law as above stated, there have been frequent instances of 
attainders by express legislative enactment, as to which see BILL or ATTAINDER. 

The Scotch law of A., consequent on a conviction for treason, corresponds to the: 
English doctrine; and although the word A.is not a Scotch technical term in regard to 
crimes other than treason, the forfeitures consequent on conviction and judgment are 
very much the same as the English. 

Attainder is wholly unknown in the United States, the 9th section of the 1st article 
oi the pet constitution declaring: ‘‘ No bill of attainder or ex-post facto law shall 

e passed.” 


ATTAINDER, biti or, See BILL or ATTAINDER. 


ATTAINT, Writ oF, was anciently a mode of inquiring whether a jury had given a 
false verdict, which has been abolished by the 4 Geo. IV. c. 50. A. is, however, still in 
use to some extent as a technical word in the law of England ; thus, there is the plea of 
autrefois A., or of a former attainder, for the same crime, and now regulated by the 7 
and 8 Geo. LV. c. 28, s. 4. 


a the old Scotch criminal law, A., or attaynt, signified a conviction, or being con. 
victed. 


ATTAK’APAS, an unofficial designation for a large and fertile section in the south- 
western part of Louisiana, remarkable for the production of sugar and molasses. The 
ATTAKAPAS INDIANS were a tribe in Louisiana called by the Choctaws ‘‘ Men Haters.” 
The tribe became extinct many years ago. 


ATTA'LA, a co. in central Mississippi, on Big Black river ; 750 sq.m. ; pop. ’90, 22.- 
213, with colored. It produces cotton, corn, “sweet potatoes, Aare sa tee The: 


me St. Louis and New Orleans railroad touches the w. border. Co. seat, Kosci- 


, Attainder. 
8 8 9) Attention. 


ATTALF’A, a genus of palms, comprising a number of species, natives of the tropical 
parts of South America. ‘They have in general lofty cylindrical smooth stems, but there 
are some stemless species. ‘The leaves are large and pinnate. The fruit has a dry 
fibrous husk, inclosing a nut with three cells and three seeds. The leaves of some 
species are much used for thatching, and those of some are woven into hats, mats, etc. 
The nuts of A. eacelsa and of A. speciosa are burned to dry the India-rubber obtained from 
the siphonia elastica, which acquires its black color from their smoke. The leaf-stalks 
of A. funifera, which is found in the southern maritime provinces of Brazil, and is there 
called piassaba, yield a fibre much used for cordage. The ropes made of it are very 
strong, and extremely durable in salt water. The piassaba palm of the northern parts 
of Brazil, however, is totally different, and much of the piassaba (q.v.) fibre imported 
into Britain is obtained from it. The fruit of A. fwnifera, known by the name of coquilla 
nut, is as large as an ostrich’s egg, and supplies a kind of vegetable ivory, used for mak-’ 
ing umbrella handles, etc. The fruit of A. compta, the pindova or indaja palm, is of the 
size of a goose’s egg, and the kernels are eatable. It isa stately and beautiful tree, with 
a wide-spreading crown. 

AT’TALUS, uncle of Cleopatra, the wife of Philip of Macedon. He was a general 
under Philip, and had much influence over him. At the marriage of his niece he asked 
the company to beg of the gods a legitimate heir to the throne, an insinuation against 
Alexander, who was present and who resented it. In the fight which ensued, Philip 
drew his sword against Alexander, who, with his mother, soon afterwards withdrew 
from the kingdom. Philip lost his life because of his partiality for A., for when A. 
had outraged Pausanius, a young man of noble family, and Pausanius had asked redress 
from the king without getting it, the incensed youth assassinated Philip himself. There- 
after A. played a double part with Alexander and Demosthenes, and was finally assassin- 
ated by Alexander’s orders. 


AT TALUS L,, 269-197 B.c., King of Pergamus. He defeated the Gauls who had occu- 
pied Galatia, and was an ally of Rome in a war against Philip of Macedon. 


AT’ TALUS II., surnamed ParLADELPHUS, 200-138 B.c. ; king of Pergamus. Before 
coming to the throne he gained distinction as a brave and able military eader, and was 
on several occasions sent as ambassador to Rome. He succeeded his brother Eumenes, 
159 B.c. His reign was full of wars, in which his fortune was generally good. He 
founded Philadelphia in Lydia, and Attila in Pamphylia, and was a generous patron of 


the arts. 


AT’TALUS III., called also PornomeTor, son of Eumenes II. and Stratonice; suc- 
ceeded his uncle A. Philadelphus as king of Pergamus, 138 B.c. He is unfavorably 
known for conduct so extravagant as to seem the effect of insanity, and for the murder 
of friends and relatives. Being overcome with remorse, he suddenly abandoned public 
business, and spent his time in gardening and in sculpture. He was sunstruck while 
supervising the erection of a monument to his mother, and died of fever, 183 B.c. His 
will made the Roman people his heir. 


AT'TALUS, FLtAavius Priscvus, for one year (409-10) emperor of the west, and the first 
raised to that office solely through barbarian influence, being declared by Alaric and his 
Gothic army after the second surrender of Rome, when Honorius was deposed. 'The 
barbarians set A.up at Ravenna, whence he sent a message to Honorius commanding 
him to leave the throne, retire to a desert island, and cut off his feet. But Alaric soon 
wearied of him, and he was deposed. After Alaric’s death, A. remained with Ataulphus, 
where he celebrated as a musician the nuptials of Placidia. Ataulphus put A. forward 
again as a rival emperor during the insurrection of Jovinus, but he was taken prisoner 
and brought to Honor1us, who inflicted on him a part of the sentence he had written for 
the Roman emperor; he cut off his thumb and forefinger, and banished him to the 
island of Lipari. 


AT’ TAMAN, or HETMAN, the title of the leading chief of the Cossacks of the Don. 
Formerly the A. was elected by the people, the mode being for each man to throw his 
fur cap at his candidate, the one having the largest heap of caps being elected. While 
the Cossacks were under the Poles, the A. was chosen by the Polish king. Under Russia 
they reserved their A. rights until the insurrection of Mazeppa, after which the office 
was suppressed. The last elected A. was Platoff, after whom the title became hereditary 
in the Russian heir-apparent. 

ATTAR. See Orvo. 


_ ATTEMPT to commit a felony or criminal offense is in many instances equally cog- 
nizable by the criminal tribunals with the completed crime itself. See TrREAson, FEL- 
ONY, MISDEMEANOR. | 


ATTENTION, the concentration of consciousness, or direction of mental energy 
upon a definite object. By means of it we bring within the circle of our conscious life, 
perceptions and ideas which could not otherwise have risen from their obscurity; or we 
render clearer and more distinct those already under notice. Its mode of operation, and 
the effect produced, may be compared with the concentration of visual activity on some 
definite part of the field of vision, and the clearer perception of the limited portion 


Atterbom. i 
nie 886 


thereby attained. In both cases the effect is brought about, not by any change in the 
perceptions themselves, but by isolating them and considering them to the exclusion of 
all other objects. Since all consciousness involves discrimination, that is, the isolation of 
one object from others, it involves A., which must therefore be defined as the necessar 
condition of consciousness. As the concentration of consciousness upon any one attri- 
pute of an object involves the withdrawal of consciousness from all other attributes, 
the withdrawal is, etymologically and logically, abstraction, which is thus the negative 
side of attention, the two processes forming the positive and negative poles of the same 
mental act. 

AT’TERBOM, Perer DanreEL AMADEUS, 1790-1855; a poet of Sweden. He was a 
leader among the students in the university of Upsal, who formed the association known 
as the ‘‘ Aurora,” designed to release Swedish literature from slavery to French models 
and taste. He traveled in Germany and Italy, and became German tutor to prince 
Oscar; he was afterwards professor at Upsal, and still later a member of the academy 
which he had so violently assailed. He was the founder and editor of the Poetical 
Calendar, which had much influence on the esthetic culture of the people. Besides 
many poems, he was the author of a valuable review of Swedish literature. 


AT TERBURY, Francis, Bishop of Rochester, was b. on the 6th of Mar., 1662, at _ 
Milton, near Newport Pagnel, in Buckinghamshire, and educated at Westminster school, 
from which, in 1680, he passed to Christ Church, Oxford. In 1687, he gave proof of 
that ready controversial talent which distinguished him through life, in a reply to a 
pseudonymous attack on Protestantism by Obadiah Walker, master of University 
college. Disappointed in his expectation of succeeding to his father’s rectory, in 1693, 
he sought a wider field of distinction, for ambition seems to have stimulated his efforts 
rather more than the love of souls, and in London his rhetorical powers soon won him 
reputation. He became a royal chaplain, minister of Bridewell, and lecturer of St. 
Bride’s. In 1698, a temporary sensation was created in the learned world by the appear- 
ance of the Hon. Charles Boyle’s Hxamination of Dr. Bentley’s Dissertations on the Epistles 
of Phalaris and the Fables of Avsop. This clever, but shallow and malicious performance 
was in reality composed chiefly by A., who had been the young nobleman’s tutor at 
Christ Church. In 1700, he distinguished himself in a controversy with Dr. Wake and 
others regarding the powers and privileges of convocations. A.’s zealous and caustic 
defense of the ecclesiastical against the civil authority, procured him the thanks of the 
lower house of convocation, and the degree of p.p. In 1704, he was promoted to the 
deanery of Carlisle, on which occasion he subjected himself to just obloquy by attempt- 
ing to procure an alteration in the date of his predecessor’s resignation, which happened 
to interpose a temporary obstacle to his appointment. In 1707, he was made a canon of 
Exeter; in 1709, preached at the Rolls chapel; in 1710, he was chosen prolocutor to the 
lower house of convocation, and in the same year he had the chief hand, according to 
the common belief, in drawing up the famous defense of Dr. Sacheverell; in 1712, he 
became dean of Christ Church, where, however, his turbulent and combative spirit had 
meanwhile involved him in so many controversies, that there was no peace until he was 
removed; in 1718, he was made bishop of Rochester and dean of Westminster. It is 
supposed, not unreasonably, that A. aspired to the primacy; but the death of queen 
Anne extinguished his hopes in that direction. His known character and Jacobite 
leanings made him no favorite with George J. In 1715, he refused to sign the bishops’ 
declaration of fidelity, and some of the most violent protests of the peers against the 
government measures proceeded from his reckless pen. Hisdeep complicity in a succes- 
sion of piots for the restoration of the Stuarts, brought down upon him at length the 
charge of treason, and, in Aug., 1722, he was committed to the Tower. A bili of pains. 
and penalties was brought into the house of commons, and passed in ‘the lords by a 
majority of 83 to 48. A., who had defended himself with great ability, was deprived of 
all his ecclesiastical offices, incapacitated from holding any civil or spiritual office in the 
king’s dominions, and condemned to perpetual banishment. There is no doubt of the 
fact that A. was implicated in treasonable plots, but the legal proof on which his sentence 
was founded cannot be regarded as sufficient to justify its severity. In June, 1723, he 
quitted England for France, and after a short stay at Brussels, finally settled at Paris, 
where he d., Feb. 15, 1732. In his exile, he maintained a constant correspondence with 
his friends, and took an active part in the abortive conspiracies of the Jacobites. His 
fame as a writer is founded on his sermons, and his lettersto Pope, Swift, etc. ; asa letter- 
writer, indeed, he has seldom been surpassed. 


_ATTESTATION, in conveyancing, is the verification of the execution of deeds and 
wills by witnesses; hence the clause at the end of these instruments which immediately 
precedes the signatures of the witnesses, is called the A. clause. See DEED; WILL; 


Nie In the Scotch practice, the corresponding clause is called the testing- 
clause. 


ATTIC, a term in architecture, employed to designate a low story rising above the 
cornice that terminates the main elevation of a building ; in domestic architecture, it is 
usually applied to sky-lighted rooms in the roof. 


ATTIC (pertaining to Attica), characteristic of the people of Athens, or Attica; as ‘A. 
dialect,’’ which came to be the best form of Greek, and that in which most of the 


Atterbom, 
8 8 < Atticus. 


reat works of antiquity were written. There was an old and anew A. dialect; the 
ormer represented in Sophocles, Euripides, etc., and the latter in Demosthenes, and 
contemporary orators. Sophocles was called ‘‘the A. bee,” from the sweetness of his 
compcsitions; the nightingale was the ‘‘ A. bird,” because Philomel was the daughter of 
a king of Athens; Xenophon the ‘‘ A. muse,” for eloquence in composition; ‘‘ A. salt,” 
indicates pungency of wit. 


ATTICA, one of the political divisions or states of ancient Greece or Hellas, of which 
Athens was the capital. The territory is of triangular shape, having its n.e. and s.w. 
sides washed by the sea, while on the n. it is connected with the mainland. In ancient 
times, it was bounded on the w. by Megaris, and the gulf of Saronica; on the s., which 
ran out into the ‘‘ marble steep” of Sunium, by the Aigean sea; on the e., by the Hgean 
sea; and on the n., by Boeotia, from which it is separated by a lofty range of hills, the 
most famous part of which was formerly called Cithzron. Ancient A. was thus walled 
in from the rest of Greece. The two principal rivers were the Cephissus and Ilissus; 
and if they exhibited the same features in ancient times as they do now, must have been 
mere mountain-torrents, dry in summer. The unfruitfulness of the soil, and the scarcity 
of water, compelled the inhabitants occasionally to send out colonies. According to 
ancient tradition, the aborigines of A. were first civilized under Cecrops, who is said to 
have come hither from Sais, at the mouth of the Nile in Egypt, about 1550 B.c. ; and to 
have introduced the culture of olives, and of several species of grain, as also to have 
implanted milder manners, and taught the worship of the gods. He is stated to have 
divided the country into 12 communities or states. This, however, was not the only 
division known in early A. A still older division into phyla?, or tribes, existed, as also 
a minute subdivision into demoi, or townships. By Theseus, Athens was united with 
the 11 other states of A. under one government, of which Athens was made the seat. 
After this union of the several states, the whole of A. shared in the fortunes of Athens 
(q.v.), and, under Vespasian, became a Roman province. On the division of the Roman 
empire, A. naturally fell into the hands of the Greek emperors. In 396 A.D., it was cap- 
tured by Alaric, king of the Goths. What may have been its population in ancient 
times, it is impossible to determine precisely. Clinton estimates it at upwards of half a 
million, but this is probably exaggerated. 

In the present arrangement, Attica and Beeotia form a department or government in 
the kingdom of Greece. The surface of the country is broken into hills and narrow 
plains. The most considerable hills are—Oxea, 4686 ft.; Elaté, 4629; Pentelicus, famous 
for its marble in ancient times, of a white brilliant appearance and perdurable character, 
3884; and Hymettus, 3506. The largest plains extend in the neighborhoods of Athens 
and Eleusis. As early as the time of Scion, A. was well cultivated, and produced wine 
and corn. Mt. Hymettus was celebrated for its bees and honey, and metals were found 
in the range of Laurium. Figs, olives, and grapes are still cultivated. 


ATTIC SALT, a poignant, delicate wit peculiar to the Athenians. See Artic. In 
like phrase, the old Roman wit is called Jtalian vinegar. 


AT’TICUS, TrTUs Pompontvs, one of the most noble and generous men in ancient 
Rome, was b. in 109 B.c.,or a few years before the birth of Cicero. His excellent 
education, during which he enjoyed the companionship of Torquatus, the younger 
Marius, and Cicero, developed, at an early age, a love of knowledge, which was increased 
during his stay in Athens, where he remained many years, glad to be separated from the 
political distractions of his native land. After 65 B.c., when he was induced by Sulla 
to return to Rome, he still devoted himself chiefly to study and the pleasures of friend- 
ship, and refused to take any part in political affairs. Yet he was by no means without 
influence on public matters, as he lived on terms of familiar intercourse with several — 
leading statesmen, and freely gave his counsel, which was generally sound and whole- 
some, while it was always benevolent. He was a man of great wealth, having been left 
a large inheritance by his father and his uncle, which he greatly increased by judicious 
mercantile speculations. His mode of life was frugal. When he was informed that a 
disorder under which he was laboring was mortal, he voluntarily starved himself, and d. 
in 82 B.c. Among his personal friends, Cicero held the first place. The Annales, 
written by A., were highly commended by his contemporaries. They were especially 
valuable on account of containing genealogical histories of the old Roman families. A. 
was one of those men (not uncommon either in ancient or modern times) in whom fine 
culture and a fortunate social position had highly developed the faculty of good taste. 
He had no creative genius, but was possessed of such delicate discernment that he could 
detect the flaw that would have been invisible to Cicero. Every author was anxious to 
secure his favorable opinion. None of his writings have been preserved. His biography 
is found in Cornelius Nepos, and in Cicero’s Epistles to A. 


ATTICUS HERODES, TrBERIUS CLAuDIvs, b. about 104 A.p., a rich Athenian. To 
a vast sum of money left him by his father, he added much more by marriage. He was 
educated by the best masters, devoting special attention to oratory, in which he greatly 
excelled. He was also a noted teacher of rhetoric, having for pupils Marcus Aurelius 
and Lucius Verus. From Aurelius he received the archonship of Athens and the con- 
sulate of Rome. His fame rests mainly upon immense expenditures for public purposes. 
In Athens he built a race-course of Pentelic marble, and a splendid theater. In Corinth 


; 


Attila. 888 5 


Attorney. 


he built a theater; in Delphi, a stadium; at Thermopyle, hot-baths; at Canusium, in 
Italy, an aqueduct. He contemplated a canal across the isthmus of Corinth, but gave 
it up because Nero had tried and failed. He restored several of the partially ruined cities 
of Greece, where inscriptions testified the public gratitude to him. For some reasons the 
Athenians became his enemies, and he left the city for his villa near Marathon, where 
he d. 180 a.p. Nothing of his-writing is known to exist. 


AT'TILA (Ger. Etzel; Hungarian, Hthele, conjectured to have been originally titles of 
honor), King of the Huns, was the son of Mundzuk, a Hun of the royal blood, and in 
434 A.D. succeeded his uncle Roas as chief of countless hordes scattered over the n. of 
Asia and Europe. His brother Bleda, or Blédel, who shared with him the supreme 
authority over all the Huns, was put to death by A. in 444 or 445 a.p. The Huns 
regarded A. with superstitious reverence, and Christendom with superstitious dread, as 
the ‘‘scourge of God.” It was believed that he was armed with a supernatural sword, 
which belonged to the Scythian god of war, which must win dominion over the whole 
world. It is not known when the name ‘‘scourge of God” was first applied to A. He 
is said to have received it from a hermit in Gaul. The whole race of Huns was regarded 
in the same light. In an inscription at Aquileia, written a short time before the siege in 
452, they are described as imminentia peccatorum flagella (the threatening scourges of 
sinners), The Vandals, Ostrogoths, Gepidse, and many of the Franks, fought under his 
banner, and in a short time his dominion extended over the people of Germany and 
Scythia—i.e., from the frontiers of Gaul to those cf China. In 447, after his unsuccessful 
cainpaign in Persia and Armenia, he advanced through Illyria, and devastated all the 
countries between the Black sea and the Mediterranean. Those inhabitants who were 
not destroyed were compelled to follow in his train. The emperor Theodosius collected 
an army to oppose the inundation of the barbarians, but in three bloody engagements 
fortune declared against him. Constantinople owed its safety solely to its fortifications 
and the ignorance of the enemy in the art of besieging; but Thrace, Macedon, and 
Greece were overrun; seventy flourishing cities were desolated, and Theodosius was 
compelled to cede a portion of territory s. of the Danube, and to pay tribute to the 
conqueror, after treacherously attempting to murder him. In 451, A. turned his course 
to the w., to invade Gaul, but was here boldly confronted by Aétius, leader of the 
Romans, and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, who compelled him to raise the siege of 
Orleans. He then retired to Champagne, and in the wide plain of the Marne—called 
anciently the Catalaunian plain—waited to meet the enemy. The army of the west, 
under Aétius and Theodoric, encountered the forces of the Huns near the site now 
occupied by the city of Chalons-sur-Marne. Both armies strove to obtain the hill of 
moderate height which rises near Mury, and commands the freld of battle, and after a 
terrible contest, the ranks of the Romans and their allies, the Visigoths, were broken. 
A. now regarded victory as certain, when the Gothic prince, Thorismond, immediately 
after his father had fallen, assumed the command, and led on the brave Goths, who were 
burning to avenge the death of Theodoric. Their charge from the height into the plain 
was irresistible. On every side the Huns were routed, and A. with difficulty escaped 
into his encampment. This, if old historians are to be trusted, must have been the most 
sanguinary battle ever fought in Europe; for it is stated by contemporaries of A., that 
not less than 252,000 or 300,000 slain were left on the field. A., having retired within 
his camp of wagons, collected all the wooden shields, saddles, and other baggage into a 
vast funeral pile, resolving to die in the flames rather than surrender; but by the advice 
of Aétius, the Roman general, the Huns were allowed to retreat without much further 
loss, though they were pursued by the Franks as far as the Rhine. In the following 
year, A. had recovered his strength, and made another incursion into Italy, devastating 
Aquileia, Milan, Padua, and other cities, and driving the terrified inhabitants into the 
Alps, Apennines, and the lagoons of the Adriatic sea, where they founded Venice. The 
Roman emperor was helpless, and Rome itself was saved from destruction only by the 
personal mediation of pope Leo I., who visited the dreaded barbarian, and is said to 
have subdued his ferocity into awe by the apostolic majesty of his mien. This deliver- 
ance was regarded as a miracle by the affrighted Romans, and old chroniclers relate that 
the apostles Peter and Paul visited the camp of A., and changed his purpose. By 453, 
however, A. appears to have forgotten the visit of the two beatified apostles, for he 
made preparations for another invasion of Italy, but died of hemorrhage on the night of 
his marriage with the beautiful Ildiko. His death spread consternation through the host 
of the Huns. His followers cut themselves with knives, shaved their heads, and prepared 
to celebrate the funeral rites of their king. It is said that his body was placed in three 
coftins—the first, of gold; the second, of silver; and the third, of iron; that the caparison 
of his horses, with his arms and ornaments, were buried with him; and that all the 
captives who were employed to make his grave were put to death, so that none might 
betray the resting-place of the king of the Huns. 

Jornandes describes A. as having the Mongolian characteristics—low stature, a large 
head, with small, brilliant deep-seated eyes, and broad shoulders. There can be little 
doubt that circumstances conspired, in the case of A., to give a certain largeness to his 
papas conceptions, which made him a most formidable foe to the civilization of 

urope. 


2 


‘ Attila. 
889 Attorenh 


ATTIUS, or ACCIUS, Lucrus, a Roman tragic poet, born 170 B.C., died about the 
be 90 B.C. He exhibited his first play at the age of 30, continuing from that time till 
is death his literary labors. He is, perhaps, the greatest of the Roman tragic writers, 
He wrote about 40 tragedies, of which only about 750 lines are extant. He wrote also 
Annales, mythological histories in hexameter verse, Didascalica, a history of Greek and 
Roman poetry, and a work called Pragmatica, treating of literary history. He wrote 
also on agriculture. 

ATTLEBORO, a town in Bristol co., Mass., 31 miles southwest of Boston, on Mill river, 
and the junction of branches of the Old Colony railroad, formed originally a part of 
Rehoboth, and was incorporated in 1694. It comprises nine villages, has public schools, 
banking facilities, churches, manufactures of jewelry, clocks, watches, buttons, silver- 
ware, cotton, woolen and worsted goods, leather belting, coffin hardware, and shuttles. 
Pop. ’90, T7577. 

AT’TOCK, a t. and fort of the Punjab, on the left or e. bank of the Indus, lat. 33° 54’ 
n.; long. 72° 20’ e. Pop. 2000. A. stands within the limits of the fort, which is itself 
a parallelogram of 800 yards by 400. The place was established by the emperor Akbar 
in 1581, to defend the passage of the river. In modern warfare, however, it is no longer 
a position of strength, being commanded by the neighboring heights. The Indus is 
crossed at A. by a railway bridge. 


ATTORNEY, in its general meaning, is one appointed by another to act for him in his 
absence, the authority for so acting being expressed by a deed called a power of at- 
torney. 

ATTORNEY, one put in another’s place to manage his affairs. An A. in fact 
is one formally appointed, and any person of sufficient age and understanding can be 
chosen. An A. at law is an officer of the court employed by a client to manage his cause; 
his business being to carry on the formal and practical work of the suit, to be true to 
the court, and faithful to his client; if called as a witness he may refuse to disclose matters 
a confidence between himself and his client. An A. may be disbarred for certain 
offenses. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, the title by which, in England and Ireland, the first minis- 
terial law officer of the crown is known. The A. is appointed by letters-patent. His 
office, powers, and duties correspond in many respects to those of the lord advocate in 
Scotland (see ADVocATE, LoRD), though the powers of the latter are more extensive 
and less clearly defined. Originally, the A. was simply the king’s attorney, and 
stood to the sovereign in the same relation that any other attorney does to his employer. 
The term ‘‘ general’ was afterwards conferred to distinguish him from attorneys 
appointed to represent the interests of the crown in particular courts, such as the court 
of wards; or from the master of the crown office, who is called the ‘‘ coroner and 
attorney for the queen.’’ The early history of this office is involved in obscurity. 
Though there can be no doubt that the crown must always have been represented by an 
attorney in the courts of justice, there is no trace of the existence of such an officer as the 
A., in the modern sense, till some centuries after the conquest. Up toa period comparative- 
ly recent, the king’s serjeant was the chief executive officer of the crown in criminal pro- 
ceedings, and this circumstance gave rise to various questions of difficulty as to the right to 
precedency of these officers respectively. These questions were set at rest in 1811, by 
a special warrant by the then prince Regent, afterwards king George IV., by which it 
was declared that both the attorney and solicitor general should have place and audience 
before all other members of the English bar. A similar question arose in a Scotch appeal 
in the house of lords in 1835, between the A. and lord advocate, which was also de- 
cided in favor of the former. The following may be enumerated as the principal 
duties of the A.: 1st, To exhibit informations and conduct prosecutions for crimes 
which have a tendency to disturb the peace of the state or endanger the constitution 
(see Plea of the Crown under PLEA); 2d, To advise the government on legal questions ; 3d, 
To conduct prosecutions and suits relating to the revenue; 4th, To file informations in 
the exchequer for personal wrongs committed on any of the possessions of the crown; 
5th, To protect charitable endowments in the sovereign’s name, as parens patria, and, 
generally, to appear in all legal proceedings in which the interests of the crown are at 
stake. ‘The attorney and solicitor general are two of the commissioners of patents (q.v.) 
ex officio. 'The powers of the solicitor general are co-ordinate with those of the A., and in 
the absence of the latter, or during a vacancy, the former may perform his functions in 
all their extent. Both usually have seats in the house of commons, and their tenure of 
office concurs with that of the government of which they are members. They were 
formerly paid by fees, but now by fixed salary. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in the United States, an officer of the cabinet, charged 
with the conduct of the legal business of the government. There is an A.-G., or some 
officer having similar powers and duties, in each state. 


ATTORNEY, POWER OF, an instrument authorizing a person to act as the agent or 
attorney of the person granting it. A general power authorizes the agent to act gen- 
erally for the principal. <A special power limits the agency to particular things. A 
power of attorney may be by parole, or under seal. The attorney cannot execute a 


Attorneys. 890 
Attribute. 


sealed instrument that will bind his principal unless his own power is given under seal, 
Grants of this nature are very strictly construed. Authority given to one person can- 
not be delegated by him to another, unless expressly set forth in the original grant. The 
death of the principal at once cancels a power of attorney. All conditions in the power 
must be strictly observed to render the attorney’s action legal. 


ATTORNEYS AnD SOLICITORS are those practitioners in England who conduct suits in 
courts of justice, preparing the cause for the barristers, or counsel, as they are called, 
whose duty and privilege it is to plead and argue on behalf of the contending parties, 
and who in open court have its exclusive audience. A. and §. also practice convey- 
ancing, or the preparation of legal deeds and instruments, and they manage a great deal 
of other general business connected with the practice of the law, for which, as well as 
for the discharge of all their duties, they are mostly remunerated by a fixed and minute 
scale of charges. Theirs is, indeed, an extremely important, influential, and lucrative 
profession, and the well-employed attorney, and the ‘‘ family solicitor,” are expressions 
which readily suggest the idea of acute intelligence, along with high character and con- 
fidential trusts seldom abused. 

They are called A., as practitioners in the courts of common law, because the 

attorney is one who is put in the place, stead, or turn of another. Formerly, when 
prosecuting or defending, suitors were obliged to appear personally in court; but now, 
on principles of convenience, A. may represent, and can often prosecute or defend any 
action or suit in the absence of the parties. They are called S. in the courts of chancery, 
according theoretically to the more gentle (but not less absolute) compulsion of equity. 
S. also is the name usually given to this profession when they transact family or other 
general business out of court, and in their own chambers. a and 8. are admitted by 
the superior courts, of which, therefore, they are officers, having many privileges as 
such, and they are, in consequence, peculiarly subject to the censure and control of the 
judges, 
The statutes relating to this branch of the legal profession being numerous and 
complicated, were amended and consolidated by the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 73, etc., and 33 
and 34 Vict. c. 28. No person shall act as an attorney or solicitor in any court of 
civil or criminal jurisdiction, or in any court of law or equity in England or Wales, 
unless he shall have been admitted, enrolled, and be otherwise duly qualified according 
to the provisions of the act. And it has been decided that the person who acts as an 
attorney without being properly qualified, is liable to be indicted for a misdemeanor. 
There is an exception, however, to the rule of admission as stated, contained in a sub- 
sequent act, the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 101, s. 68, which provides that clerks or other officers 
to any board of guardians under the poor laws, may commence or defend proceedings 
before magistrates, in special or petty sessions, or out of sessions, without being quali- 
fied as attorneys. And by the 20 and 21 Vict. c. 39, facilities are afforded for the admis- 
sion and enrollment in England of A. and 8. of those colonial courts where the English 
system prevails. 

To entitle a person to admission as an attorney and solicitor under 23 and 24 Vict. c. 
127, and 6 and 7 Vict. c. 78, it is required, first, that he shall have served—having been 
duly bound by contract in writing so to do—with some practising attorney or solicitor 
in England or Wales, a clerkship of five years; or—if a barrister, advocate, W.S., or 
8.8.C., or graduate of Scotch or Irish university, or of Cambridge, Oxford, Dublin, Dur- 
ham, or London—a clerkship of three years. In some cases, four years’ service are 
allowed. He must now pass a preliminary examination in general knowledge, as well 
as occasional examinations in legal subjects. during his articles. The judges now have 
large controlling and dispensing powers as to the articles, service, fitness, and capacity 
to act; and the judges (or master of the rolls, as the case may be), upon being satisfied 
by such examination, or by the certificates of examiners appointed by them, of the com- 
petency of any candidate for admission, shall administer to him such oath as specified 
in the act, viz., ‘‘that he will truly and honestly demean himself in practice,” and also 
the oath of allegiance; and after such oaths, shall cause him to be admitted as an attorney 
of the said courts of law at Westminster, or as solicitor of the high court of chancery. 
{t is moreover enacted, that there shall be a registrar of A. and S., whose duty it shall be 
to keep an alphabetical list or roll of all A. and §., and to issue certificates as to persons 
who have been duly admitted and enrolled; and the duties of this office are by the act 
committed to the ‘incorporated law society,” until some person shall be appointed in 
their room. Such a certificate from the registrar, of due admission and enrollment, 
must be produced to the proper authorities, by any person desirous of practicing as an 
attorney or solicitor, before he can obtain the stamped certificate required by the stamp 
act, 33 and 34 Vict. c. 97, authorizing him to practice for the ensuing year; and in order to 
obtain such registrar’s certificate, a declaration in writing, signed by the attorney desirous 
of practicing, or by his partner, or in some cases by his London agent, containing his 
name and address, the courts of which he is an admitted attorney or solicitor, and the 
date of his admission, must be delivered to the registrar. And if any attorney or solici- 
tor shall practice in any of the courts aforesaid, without having obtained a stamped cer- 
tificate for the current year, he shall be incapable of maintaining any action or suit to 
recover his fees, and be guilty of a contempt of court, and subject to fine. 


Attorneys, 
89 : Attribute. 


The same statute also contains the following regulations, among others of less yen- 
eral information: That no attorney or solicitor shall have more than two clerks, bound 
by contract in writing, at one and the same time; nor any such clerk after he shall have 
left off business. That all persons admitted as A. of one of the superior courts of law at 
Westminster may, upon production of a certificate thereof, be admitted in any other 
court of law in England or Wales, upon signing the roll of the same; and that persons 
admitted as 8. in the high court of chancery may in like manner obtain their admission 
in all other courts of equity, and in the court of bankruptcy. That no attorney or 
solicitor, who shall be a prisoner in any jail or prison, may commence or defend any 
action, suit, or proceeding in law, equity, or bankruptcy; or maintain any action for 
fees for business done during such his confinement; and that no practicing attorney or 
solicitor shall be a justice of the peace in England or Wales, except in counties or towns 
corporate having justices by charter or otherwise. And that no attorney or solicitor 
shall commence an action or suit for his fees or charges in respect of any business what- 
ever, until after the expiration of one calendar month after a bill of his costs and charges, 
signed by such attorney or solicitor, shall have been delivered to the party to be charged; 
and such party may, on a proper application, obtain an order for referring such bill to 
be taxed; and for staying all proceedings to recover the amount thereof in the mean time. 
An order may also be’ obtained directing an attorney or solicitor to deliver his bili 
(when he has not done so); and also an order for his delivering up, upon payment of 
what is due, all deeds, papers, and documents in his possession or power touching the 
business in such bill comprised. Attorneys may now, under the act 33 and 34 Vict. c. 
28, enter into special agreements with their clients as to their remuneration. But this 
agreement, as regards suits and actions, must be deemed by the taxing officer or a court 
to be reasonable and fair. They may now also make it one of the stipulations that they 
shall not be liable for negligence. But they are still prohibited from stipulating for 
vayment only in the event of success. 

The position of A. and 8. in Ireland, like the system of law and practice in that 
country generally, is so like that of the same profession in England, that it is unneces- 
sary here to give any details respecting them. 

The corresponding professional class in Scotland was, up to the year 1874, composed 
of several distinct bodies called writers to the signet, and solicitors before the supreme 
courts, who had the exclusive right to practice before the court of session; and of pro- 
curators, whose practice was confined to their own sheriff courts. The unsatisfactory 
relations existing between these bodies led to a revision of the law, which was embodied 
in the law agents’ act of 1873 (86 and 37 Vict. c. 63). No person was thereafter entitled to 
be admitted a law agent in Scotland except under the new regulations, and all enrolled law 
agents were to have the right, on payment of proper stamp-duties, to practice in any 
court of law in Scotland. Applicants for future admission are to be apprenticed for 
five years with a practicing law agent; but advocates, English barristers, and attorneys 
are to serve only three years, as also graduates of a university. * 

In the United States the functions of attorney, solicitor, and barrister (or counsellor) 
are all discharged by the same person, who is fully entitled ‘‘ attorney and counsellor- 
at-law.” He is regarded as an officer of the court, and is liable to have his name stricken 
off the roll in case of aggravated breaches of legal decorum and other weighty causes. 
See LAWYER. 


ATTRACTION is the general name for the force or forces by which all bodies, from 
the minutest particles to the largest planets, suns, and systems of suns, tend to approach, 
or are drawn towards (ad, to; tractus, drawn) one another, and when in coniact, are held 
together. The term is generic, embracing a vast variety of facts, which are subdivided 
under 5 heads or speciesof A. These are: 1. gravitation; 2. cohesion; 8. adhesion; 4. 
chemical affinity; 5. the attractions of electricity, magnetism, etc. See GRAVITATION, 
CoHESION, etc. Attempts have been made to deduce all these phenomena from one prin- 
ciple of A., modified by an opposing force of repulsion, but as yet without success. 
Still less can they be explained by assuming only one force—A. alone, or repulsion 
alone—for this, too, has been attempted. The idea of an attractive force acting as the 
bond of the universe was first introduced as a scientific hypothesis by Newton, and was 
violently combated by Leibnitz and others. 


ATTRIBUTE, in the fine arts, is a species of symbol, consisting of a secondary figure, 
or object accompanying the principal figure—as the trident of Neptune, or the owl of 
Minerva. Attributes serve to mark the character meant, and add to the significance of 
the representation. The necessity of using them lies in the limited means of expression 
possessed by the formative arts. Attributes may be either essential or conventional. 
Essential attributes have some real relation or resemblance to the object or idea to be 
expressed; and are often such as could stand alone as symbols—as the bee, representing 
diligence. Attributes, in the strictest sense, and as distinguished from symbols, are such 
as are significant only in connection with a figure, to which theyin a manner belong; 
e.g., the wings of genii, the finger on the mouth of Harpocrates. The last is an example 
of an accidental or conventional A., of which kind are also the anchor, to express hope; 
the cross, faith. Common attributes in Christian art are—the harp for king David, and 
writing materials for the evangelists, especially St. John. 

L.—29 


Attribute. 
Auber. 8 9 2 


? 

ATTRIBUTE, in logic, is used to denote the opposite of substance. The latter is con. 
sidered to be self-existent, while the former can only be conceived as possessing a 
dependent existence. Attributes are commonly said to belong to substances. Thus, 
wisdom, holiness, goodness, and truth are termed attributes of God, who is Himself 
regarded as the substance in which they inhere; in the same way, whiteness Is called an 
A. of snow. ; 

ATTU, or Arroo, the westernmost of the Alaskan group of Aleutian islands, and the 
extreme w. point of U. S. territory, being further west of San Francisco than San Fran- 
cisco is of the boundary of Maine. Lat. 52° 58’ n. ; long. 187° 34’ w. It has a village 
witk about 60 native families. 

ATTUCKS, Crispus, an Indian mulatto, of Framingham, Mass., killed Mar. 5, 1770, 
in the ‘‘Boston massacre.” There had been several collisions between the people and 
the soldiers, in one of which A. headed a party in King street, now State street. He 
seized the bayonet of a soldier and knocked him down ; a volley was fired, and A. was 
the first tofall. There wasa great funeral in Faneuil Hall, and the incident was for some 
time annually commemorated, serving well the purposes of the approaching revolution. 


ATWATER, Lyman Horcnukiss, D.D., b. Conn., 1818; a graduate of Yale, and 
tutor and theological student there. Dr. A. was pastor of a Congregational church in 
Fairfield, Conn., and professor of mental and moral philosophy, and of logic and 
moral and political science in the college of New Jersey. In 1869, he became editor of 
the Princeton Review. He was the author of a Manual of Logic, and a frequent writer 
for periodicals. He held high rank as a christian thinker and teacher : He d. 1883. 

ATWOOD’S MACHINE, an instrument for illustrating the relations of time, space, and 
velocity in the motion of a body falling under the action of gravity. It was invented by 
George Atwood or Attwood, a mathematician of some eminence, who was b. in 1745, 
educated at Cambridge, became fellow and tutor of Trinity college in that university, 
published a few treatises on mechanics and engineering, and died in 1807. It is found 
that a body falling freely, passes through 16 ft. in the first second, 64 ft. in the first two 
seconds, 144 ft. in the first three seconds, and so on. Now, as these spaces are so large, 
we should require a machine of impracticable size to illustrate the relations just men: 
tioned. The object of A. M. is to reduce the scale on which gravity acts without in any 
way altering its essential features as an accelerating force. The machine consists essen-: 
tially of a pulley, P (see fig. 1), moving on its axis with very little friction, with a fine 
silk cord passing over it, sustaining two equal cylindrical weights, p and g, at its 
extremities. The pulley rests on a square wooden pillar, graduated on one side in feet 
and inches, which can be placed in a vertical position by the leveling-screws of the sole 
on which it stands. Two stages, A. and B, slide along the pillar, and can be fixed at 
any part of it by means of fixing-screws. One of thesestages, A, has a circular hole cut 
into it, so as to allow the cylinder, p, to pass freely through it; the other is unbroken, 
and intercepts the passage of the weight. A series of smaller weights, partly bar-shaped, 
partly circular, may be placed on the cylinders in the way repre- 
sented in figs. 2and 3. A pendulum usually accompanies the 
machine, to beat secondsof time. The weight of the cylinders, 
p and g, being equal, they have no tendency to rise or fall, 
but are reduced, as it were, to masses without weight. When 
a bar is placed on », the motion that ensues is due only to the 
tl wise action of gravity upon it, so that the motion of the whole must 
| be considerably slower than that of the bar fallingfreely. Sup- 
pose, for instance, that p and g are each 74 ozs. in weight, and 
that the bar is 1 oz., the force acting on the system—leaving the 
friction and inertia of the pulley out of account—would be +; 
of gravity, or the whole would move only 1 foot in the first 
second, instead of 16. If the bar be left free to fall, its weight 
or moving force would bring its own mass through 16 ft. the 
first second; but when placed on 7, this force is exerted not 
only on the mass of the bar, but on that of p and g, which is 15 
times greater, so that it has altogether 16 times more matter in 
the second case to move than in the first, and must, in con- 
sequence, move it 16 times more slowly. By a_ proper 
adjustment of weights, the rate of motion may be made as 
small as we please, or we can reduce the accelerating force to 
any fraction of gravity. Suppose the weights to be so adjusted 
that under the moving force of the bar or circular weight the 
whole moves through 1 in. in the first second, we may insti- 
tute the following simple experiments: Haperiment 1.—Place the 
bar on p, and put the two in such a position that the lower sur- 
face of the bar shall be horizontally in the same plane as the 0 
point of the scale, and fix the stage A at1linch. When allowed 
to descend, the bar will accompany the weight, », during one 
second and for 1 in., when it will be arrested by the stage A, 
after which p and g will continue to move from the momentum 
they have acquired in passing through the first inch. Their 


-- {ay 3 
FTI TI Lrrie) sammaks ae ae 5 We 5 
aS == SS SSS OSS =i Sy, 
SSS SS SS SS aS =F =A 
ip 
.<—_ * 


Atwood’s machine. 


Attribute, 
89 3 Auber, 


velocity will now be found to be quite uniform, being 2 in. per second, illustrating the 
principle that a falling body ac yuires, at the end of the first second, a velocity per 
second equal to twice the space it has fallen through. Hp, 2.—Take, instead of the 
bar, the circular weight, place the bottom of pin a line with the 0 point, and put the 
stage B at 64in. Since the weight accompanies p throughout its fall, we have in this 
experiment the same conditions as in the ordinary fall of a body. When let off, the 
bottom of the cylinder, p, reaches 1 in. in 1 second, 4 in. in 2 seconds, 9 in. in 3 seconds, 
16 in. in 4 seconds, 25 in. in 5 seconds, 49in. in 7 seconds, and 64 in. and the stage in 8 
seconds—showing that the spaces described are as the squares of the times. Hp, 3— 
If the bar be placed as in erp. 1, and the stage A be fixed at 4in., the bar will accom- 
pany the weight, p, during 2 seconds, and the velocity acquired in that time by p and g 
will be 4in. per second, or twice what it was before. In the same manner, if the stage 
A be placed at 9, 16, 25, etc. in., the velocities acquired in falling through these spaces 
would be respectively 6, 8, 10, etc. in.—2 in. of velocity being acquired in each second 
of the fall. From this it is manifest that the force under which bodies fall isa uniformly 
accelerating force—that is, adds equal increments of velocity in equal times. By means 
of the bar and thestage A, we are thus enabled to remove the accelerating force from the 
falling body at any point of its fall, and then question it, as it were, as to the velocity it 
has acquired. 


ATYS, ATTIs, or ATTES, a beautiful shepherd of Phrygia, son of Nana. Cybele 
loved him, and made him her priest, on condition that he should preserve entire 
chastity; but he transgressed with the daughter of a river god, for which offense Cybele 
made him insane, in which condition he deprived himself of further temptation to 
unchastity. He was about to kill himself when Cybele changed him into a fir-tree, 
which she made sacred to herself, and decreed that all her priests thereafter should be 
eunuchs. Like many other myths, this one is supposed to represent the successive 
death and regeneration of nature by the changes of the seasons. In art, A. is repre- 
sented as a shepherd with crook and flute. He was worshiped with the goddess in 
Cybele’s temples. 


AUBAGNE (anc. Albania), a t. of the dep. of Bouches-du-Rh6éne, France, stands on 
the Huveaune, 9 m. e. from Marseilles, with which it is connected by railway. It is 
built with some regularity and elegance. The ancient town stood on a hill, at the base 
of which the present town is situated. It was the capital of the Albicii. 


AUBE, the name of a river and a department of France. The river A. is a tributary 
of the Seine, rises near Pralay, on the plateau of Langres; flows in a n.w. course by 
Rouvres, La Ferté, Bar, and Arcis; and falls into the Seine at Pont-sur-Seine, after a 
course of 90 miles.—The department of A., which occupies the southern part of the old 
Pe ovIE Ge of Champagne, and a small portion of Burgundy, is bounded on the n. by the 

arne, on the e. by the Haute-Marne, on the s.w. by the Yonne, and on the n.w. by the 
Seine-et-Marne. The eastern part belongs to the basin of the A.; the western, to the 
basin of the Seine. Area, 2317 sq.m. Pop. ’96, 251,435. The climate is mild, moist, 
and changeable; but on the whole healthy. A great portion of the area is arable land. 
The n.e. is chiefly applied to pasturage; but the s.e. is far more fertile, rich in meadow- 
Jand and forest, and producing grain, hemp, rape, hay, timber, and wine. In minerals, 
the department possesses little besides limestone, marl, and potters’ clay. The chief 
manufactures are woolen cloth, cotton and linen goods, ribbons and stockings, leather, 
parchment, etc. The sausages and bacon of A. have long been famous. Tvoyes is the 
capital of the department. 


AUBENAS, a t. in France, in the department of Ardéche. It is picturesquely situated 
on the right bank of the Ardéche, 14 m. s.w. from Privas, in the middle of the volcanic 
region of Vivarais. It looks well from a distance; but the streets, with the exception of 
one traversed by the diligence, are narrow and crooked, the squares small, and the houses 
very irregularly built. An old and rapidly decaying wall, flanked with towers, girds 
the town, which contains an ancient castle. A. is the principal mart for the sale of chest- 
nuts and silk in the department. Several important fairs are also held here. It possesses 
in addition manufactures of silk, paper, cotton, coarse cloths, leather, etc., the machinery 
of the mills being driven by water. Pop. of commune ’91, 7824. 


AUBER, DANIEL FRANGotIs Esprit, a composer of operas, was b. at Caen in Normandy, 
Jan. 29, 1782. His father was a printseller in Paris, and being desirous that his son 
should devote himself to business, he sent him to London to acquire a knowledge of the 
trade. But his irresistible passion for music obtained the upper hand, and after a short 
stay he returned to Paris. Among his earliest compositions may be noticed the concertos 
for the violoncello, ascribed to Lamare the violoncellist; the concerto for the violin, 
played by Mazas with great applause at the conservatory of music, Paris; and the comic 
opera, Julie, with a modest accompaniment for two violins, two altos, and a bass. These 
works were very successful; but A., aspiring to greater things, now devoted himself to a 
deeper study of music under Cherubini, and wrote a mass for four voices. His next 
work, the opera Le Séjour Militaire (1818), was so coldy received that A. grew disheartened, 
and resolved to abandon the idea of reaching eminence as a musical composer. However, 
the death of his father compelled him to be dependent on his own resources; and in 1819 


Aubert. 89 4 


Auchmuty. 


appeared Le Testament et les Billets-douw, which was also unsuccessful; but in La Bergere 
Chatelaine he laid the foundation of hissubsequent fame. In all these early essays, as well 
as in the opera of Hmma (1821), he displayed an original style; but afterwards he became 
an imitator of Rossini, and disfigured his melodies with false decorations and strivings 
for effect. All his later works, excepting La Muette de Portici (Masaniello), produced in 
1828, are written with an assumed mannerism, but in a light and flowing style, with many 
piquant melodies which have made the tour of Europe. The operas Leicester (1822), La 
Neige (1828), Le Concert a la Cour, and Léocadie (1824), Le Magon (1825), Miorella (1826), La 
Fiancée (1829), Fra Diavolo (1830), were followed by a series of lighter works: L’ Hliair 
d Amour, Le Dieu et la Bajadére, Les Faux Monnayeurs, etc.; the later operas, Gustave ou 
le Bal Masqué, Le Lac des Fées, Le Cheval de Bronze, Les Diamants de la Couronne, La Part 
du Diable, La Siréne, and Haydée, exhibiting the same popular qualities as their predeces- 
sors; but their interest is evanescent, as they are deficient in depth of thought and feel- 
ing, His later works are Jenny Bell (1855) and Manon Lescaut (1856). In 1842, A. was 
appointed director of the conservatory of music, Paris. Hed. May 14, 1871. 


AUBERT DU BAYET, JEAN BaprTisTE ANNIBAL, 1759-97; a French general who 
served with Rochambeau in the American revolution. He was in the French assembly 
in 1791; commanded at the siege of Metz in 1793; was minister of war in 1795, and 
minister to Constantinople, where he d. in 1797. 


AUBERT, JEAN ERNEsT, b. France, 1824; artist. He took the Prix de Rome, 1844, 
for engraving, and devoted himself to that art and to lithography until abt. 1877, when 
he became known as a painter. Among his works are, ‘‘ The Broken Thread,” ‘‘ At the 
Fountain,” and ‘‘ The Lesson in Astronomy.” 


AUBERVILLIERS, a village of France, near Paris; pop. 19,487. There was once 
a picture of the Virgin in the village church which was thought to possess miraculous 
powers, and the church was known as Notre Dame des Virtus. 


AUBIGNE, MERLE D’. See MERLE D’AUBIGNE. 


AUBIGNE, THEODORE AGRIPPA D’, a famous French scholar, was b. on 8th Feb., 1550, 
near Pons in Saintonge. At an early period, he exhibited a remarkable talent for the 
acquisition of languages. Although come of a noble family, he inherited no wealth from 
his father, and consequently chose the military profession. In 1567, he distinguished 
_ himself by his services to the Protestant cause, and was subsequently rewarded by Henry 
IV., who made him vice-admiral of Guienne and Bretagne. His severe and inflexibie . 
character frequently embroiled him with the court; and after the death of Henry, he 
betook himself to Geneva, where he spent the remainder of his life in literary studies. 
He d. Apr. 29, 1630. 

His best known work is his Histotre Universelle, 1550-1601 (Amsterdam, 1616-1620), 
was burned in France by the common hangman, as also his Histoire Secréte, écrite 
“ar lut-méme (1721). A. was possessed of a spirit of biting satire, as is proved by his 
Confession Catholique du Sieur de Sancy, and his Aventures du Baron de Feneste. 

AUBREY, Joun, 1625-97; an English antiquary. He wasa diligent collector of old 
documents, and left some valuable works of his own. He wrote Natural History and 
Antiquities of Sussex and Letters written by Hminent Persons of the Seventeenth and 
Highteenth Centuries, giving in the latter work much biographical matter concerning 
Evglish poets. 


AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, a French knight who lived in the times of Charles V., and, 
as tradition says, was assassinated in the forest of Bondy by Richard de Macaire in 1371. 
The latter became suspected of the crime on account of the dog belonging to the deceased 
Aubry invariably displaying towards him the most unappeasable enmity. Macaire was 
therefore required by the king to fight with the animal in a judicial combat, which was 
fatal to the murderer. This tale was afterwards, under the titles of Awbry’s Dog, Thé 
Wood of Bondy, The Dog of Montargis, frequently acted, the ‘‘dog’’ always gaining 
the greatest share of applause! After being performed with success at Vienna and Berlin, 
it was appointed to be played at the Weimar theatre, of which Goethe was the manager ; 
but the poet resigned his office before the dog made his début. © 


AUBURN, city and co. seat of Cayuga co., New York, on the outlet of Owasco lake, 
173 m, n.w. of Albany, on the New York Central and Hudson River and Lehigh Valley 
railroads. There are a state armory, an Academy of Music, the Auburn Theological 
Seminary (Presbyterian), established in 1820, a hospital, an orphan asylum, and a state 
prison—a large stone structure capable of holding 1000 to 1200 convicts. The city has 
churches, public libraries, many fine public and private buildings, a statue of William H. 
Seward, whose home was here, water supply from Owasco lake, and manufactures carpets, 
iron, woolen and cotton goods, engines, boilers, threshing and mowing machines, farm 
eee and paper. Several daily and weekly newspapers are published. Pop. 1890, 

d,858., 

AUBURN, city and co. seat of Androscoggin co., Me., on the Maine Central and 
Grand Trunk railroads, 34 m. from Portland. It has extensive cotton and shoe manu- 
factures, a furniture factory, a cotton-mill, a tannery, churches, banks, a high school, 
circulating libraries, water works, and electric lights. Pop. 1890, 11,250. 


_ AUBUSSON, at. of the department of Creuse, France, 125 m. w. from Lyon. It is 
picturesquely situated on the Creuse, in a narrow valley or gorge, surrounded with moun- 


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895 4 Auterk, / hi / 


Auchmuty. 


tains and rocks. lt is a well-built town, consisting chiefly of one broad street. It is 
celebrated for the manufacture of carpets, which is said to have been introduced by the 
Arabs or Saracens, who settled here in the 8th century. Tanning and dyeing are car- 
ried on, and there is some trade in wine. Pop. about 6400, 


AUBUSSON, PIERRE D’, grand master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, was b. 
in 1423 of an ancient and noble French family. His early history isimperfectly known, 
but he is said to have borne arms, when very young, against the Turks in the wars in 
Hungary, and to have distinguished himself by the mingled zeal and valor he displayed. 
Here he acquired that intense antipathy to the ‘‘ Infidels” which subsequently animated 
his whole public career, and gave a peculiar bias to his ambition. Having returned to 
France, he accompanied the dauphin in his expedition against the Swiss, and was instru- 
mental in securing their defeat at the battle of St. Jacob near Basle. His mind, how- 
ever, constantly reverted to the ominous encroachments in the east of the dreaded Mus- 
sulman, and at last he resolved to betake himself to Rhodes, where he enrolled himself 
among the brotherhood of Christian knights. Now his history emerges into clear light, 
and assumes a very considerable importance. He swept the Levant, and chastised the 
pirates who prowled perpetually among the Greek isles, obtaining the approbation and 
regard of the grand master. In 1458, by his ardor and address he succeeded in forming 
a kind of Christian league between the French monarch and Ladislaus, king of Hun- 
gary, against Mohammed II. This was the great aim of A.’s life, the ‘‘ idea” which con- 
tinually possessed him—viz., the necessity of a vast organization of all Christendom to 
overthrow the power of the Turks. Step by step, through long years, he won his way 
to supreme power in his order. In 1476, he was elected grand master. It was a critical 
period for the civilization and religion of Europe. Constantinople had recently been 
taken and the Byzantine empire destroyed by Mohammed IJ. Every day the conqueror 
marched further w. Thrace, Macedonia, central Greece, Servia, Wallachia, Bosnia, 
Negropont, Lesbos, and the islands of the Adriatic had been successively conquered by 
him. Proud of his rapid glories, and sustained by an immense prestige, the sultan 
threatened to dictate terms from Rome to the entire west. Rhodes, however, stood in 
his way, the sentinel isle of Christianity, on the great maritime route between Asia and 
Europe. Mohammed saw that the battle between the two faiths must begin here; and 
in May, 1480, a Turkish army of 100,000 men, commanded by a Greek renegade, Paleo- 
logos, landed in the island, and commenced to besiege the town. Two desperate assaults 
were made. The Turks, however, were compelled to desist, and sailed away, leaving 
9000 dead. Mohammed was enraged, and planned a second expedition, which was inter- 
rupted by his death at Nicomedeia in Asia Minor, May, 1481. After this, A. took a lead- 
ing part in the religious diplomacy of the papal court, and received from the pontiff 
many honors and privileges. Meanwhile, he exerted himself to improve and strengthen 
the internal organization of the brotherhood, enriching the diplomatic code of his order 
with several wise statutes and regulations relative to the election of dignitaries, the 
finances, etc., and exciting great admiration throughout Christendom. In 1501, he was 
appointed generalissimo of the forces of the German emperor, the French king, and the 
pope, against the Turks; and, in spite of his great age, he enthusiastically entered on his 
duties, and sailed to attack Mitylene; but the expedition failed on account of the dis- 
cordant aims which the various belligerents had in view. Broken by disappointment 
rape tea the grand master returned, and died at Rhodes in July, 1508, at the age 
of 80. 


AUCH, the capital of the department of Gers, in the s. of France, situated on the river 
Gers, 42 m. w. of Toulouse, lat. 43° 38’ n., long. 0° 35’ e. Pop. ’91, 14,782, It is the 
seat of an archbishop, and possesses a museum of natural science, together with an old 
and beautiful cathedral, the painted windows of which are greatly admired. Its chief 
articles of trade are woolen and cotton stuffs, fruits, wine, and brandy. 

In ancient times, it was called Hiimberrum, at a somewhat later period took its name 
from the Auscii, whose chief town it was. Inthe 8thc., it became the capital of Gas- 
cony, and later, of the county of Armagnac. 


AUCHE'NIA (from the Gr. auchen, the neck), a genus of ruminating quadrupeds, of 
which the llama (q.v.) and the alpaca (q.v.) are the best known. The genus is exclu- 
sively South American; indeed, the species occur only on the lofty ranges of the Andes. 
They are nearly allied to the camels, and may be regarded as their representatives in the 
zoology of America. They form, along with them, the family camelide (see CAMEL), 
and were included by Linneus in the genus camelus. They agree with the camels in 
certain important anatomical characters, particularly in the structure of the stomach; 
and also resemble them very much in general form, in the long neck, small head, pro- 
longed and movable upper lip, and small apertures of the nostrils. They differ from 
them partly in dentition, and partly in the more cloven feet and movable toes. The 
nails, also, are strongerand curved, and each toe is supported behind by a pad or cushion 
of its own; by all which the feet are admirably adapted for the rocky heights which the 
animals inhabit. The genus A. is by some naturalists called llama. 


AUCH MUTY, Rosert, a lawyer of Scotch descent, b. in England, but a settler in 
Massachusetts in early life. He was judge in admiralty in 1733, and in 1741 went to 


| Anchmuty, 896 


Auction, 


England as colonial agent, where he published a pamphlet on the importance of cape 
Breton to England, with suggestions for its capture. He died in Boston, April, 1750. 


AUCH’MUTY, Rosert, son of Robert the lawyer, also a lawyer in Massachusetts, 
and admiralty judge in 1767. He was associated with John Adams in the defense of 
capt. Preston, who was one of the British officers in the ‘‘ Boston massacre.” A. was 
a strong royalist, and went to England, where he d., 1788. Some of his letters to peo- 
ple in England, which were sent to the colonies by Franklin, created much excite- 
ment. 


AUCH’MUTY, SAMUEL, D.D., 1722-77; son of the first Robert. He graduated at 
Harvard, and took priest’s orders in England. The society for the propagation of the 
gospel sent him to New York as assistant minister of Trinity parish, and in 1764 he had 
charge of all the Episcopal churches in the city. When the American revolutionists 
took possession of the city, he was forbidden to read prayers for the king, but he con- 
tinued until troops invaded the church and threatened force. He locked the church and 
chapels, and fled to New Jersey with the keys, ordering that no church should be opened 
until the forms of prayer could be read without abridgment. A few months later the 
British took the city, and A. worked his way through the American lines, with great 
difficulty, just after his church and all its records had been destroyed by fire. He 
preached only one more sermon, in St. Paul’s, was taken ill from exposure and hardship, 
and died a few days later. 


AUCH'MUTY, Sir SAMUEL, 1758-1822; son of Rev. Samuel. He was a graduate of 
King’s (Columbia) college, and went into the English service in 1776; was in the battles 
of Brooklyn and White Plains, and served in three campaigns. Having risen to a cap- 
taincy, he served in India from 1783 to 1796, participating in the siege of Seringapatam. 
In Egypt, in 1800, he was Abercrombie’s adjutant-general; and a brigadier-general in 
South America, where, in Feb., 1807, he took by assault the fort and city of Montevi- 
deo, for which parliament voted him thanks. In 1810, he commanded in the Carnatic, 
and the next year reduced the Java settlements, and was again voted thanks. In 1813, 
he held the chief command in Ireland. 

AUCHTERAR’DER, a village in the s.e. of Perthshire, on the w. side of the Scottish 
Central railway. Pop. ’91, 3000, chiefly employed in cotton-weaving. The popular 
opposition to the presentee to the church of A. originated (1839) the struggle which 
ended in the secession from the church of Scotland and the formation of the free church 
in 1848. 

AUCKLAND, the northern provincial district of New Zealand, includes fully a half 
of North island, and is about 400 m. long by 200 wide, at its greatest breadth. A. has 
a coast-line of nearly 1200 m.; and is, in addition, remarkable for its rivers, which serve 
as carriage-ways for the produce of the interior. It has several safe harbors. Pop. ’96, 
153,564. There are three almost natural divisions of this province: North Peninsula, 
East Coast, and the Waikato Country — the latter two being mainly in the hands of the 
natives. Gold, copper, tin, iron, coal, and other minerals exist in A. Gold is largely 
produced in the Thames district. A. is very rich in timber, the most important tree 
being the kauri pine. The fossil gum found wherever the kauri forests have been, is 
an important article of export. The government grants the right, at a low price, to 
cut the phormium, or New Zealand flax, which grows on waste districts. The rearing of 
live-stock is more attended to than the cultivation of cereals. The principal agricultural 
products are wheat, oats, barley, hay, and potatoes. 

AUCKLAND, city of New Zealand, capital of the above-named province, in lat. 36° 50’ 
s., and long. 174° 50’ e., was, till 1865, capital of New Zealand, when the seat of govern- 
ment was transferred to Wellington, the chief city of the province of the same name. 
A. is distant from Sydney 1236 m.; from Melbourne, 1650; and keeps up steam com- 
munication with these two cities. Picturesquely situated, its position for commerce is 
also excellent, as, in addition to its harbor at Waitemata, it possesses also a western 
harbor, the Manakan, 6 m. distant. There is a wharf 1690 ft. in length. It is sur- 
rounded by numerous thriving villages, with several of which it is connected by railway. 
A. contains a well laid out botanical garden, and shows numerous public buildings, gov- 
ernment house, barracks, etc. It supports two daily papers. In 1895 the number of 
in-coming vessels was 250, with a tonnage of 267,983; of out-going, 235, with a tonnage 
of 215,501. A. was founded in 1840. Pop. ’96, 31,424; but including the suburban dis- 
tricts, 57,616. The temperature appears to be singularly equable. The mean of the 
coldest month is 51° F., and that of the warmest 68°. The annual rainfall is 434 in.; 
‘and the days of rainfall average 100. 

AUCKLAND, BisHop, a small t. in the middle of the co. Durham. Pop. ’81, 10,087. 
It stands on an eminence, 140 ft. above the plain of the Wear. A. contains the abbey- 
like palace of the bishop of Durham. 

AUCKLAND, Lord WILLIAM EDEN, an able statesman and diplomatist, third son of 
Sir Robert Eden, bart., of West Auckland, Durham, b. in 1744, educated at Eton and 
Oxford, and called to the bar in 1768. In 1772 he was appointed under-secretary of 
state, and afterwards filled the positions of a lord of trade, a commissioner to treat with 


- rena 


897 Auchmuty.! 


Auction, 


the insurgent colonists of North America, chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ire- 
land, minister-plenipotentiary to France (concluding a commercial treaty with that coun- 
try, 1786), ambassador to Spain, ambassador to Holland, and joint-postmaster-general. 
In 1788, he was created an Irish peer as baron A.; and in 1793 he was made a British 
baron. Hed. suddenly, May 28, 1814. A. was the author of the Principles of the Penal 
Law (1771, 8vo); Remarks on the Apparent Circumstances of the War (1795); Speech on the 
Income-tax (1799); Speech in Support of the Union with Ireland (1800); and other pam- 


phlets. 

AUCKLAND, Earl of, GEorGE EDEN, governor-general of India, son of William 
Eden, lord Auckland, b. Aug. 25, 1784, succeeded his father in 1814 as lord A.; and in 
Noy., 1838, joined earl Grey’s administration. In July following, in viscount Mel- 
bourne’s first ministry, he became first lord of the admiralty. He vacated that office in 
Nov. of the same year, but was appointed to it again in 184¢. In 1835, he went 
out to India as governor-general. He returned to England in 1841, and died unmarried, 
Jan. 1, 1849. 

AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands to the s. of New Zealand, being about the 
dist parallel s., and the 167th meridian e. The largest of them measures 30 m. by 15. 
It has two good harbors, and is covered with the richest vegetation. The government 
of New Zealand has established on it a depot containing provisions and clothing for ship- 
wrecked sailors. 

AUCTION (Lat. auctio). The character of this convenient mode of offering property 
for sale is correctly indicated by the name. The Latin word auctio means ‘‘an increas- 
ing or enhancement,” and an A. is an arrangement for increasing the price by exciting 
competition amongst purchasers. What is called a Dutch auction, in which the usual 
mode of proceeding is reversed, the property being offered at a higher price than the 
seller is willing to accept, and gradually lowered till a purchaser is found, is thus no A. 
at all in the original and proper sense of the term. The A. is of Roman origin, and is 
said to have been first introduced for the purpose of disposing of spoils taken in war. 
Such sales were said to take place sub hasté (under the spear), from the custom of stick- 
ing a spear into the ground, probably to attract purchasers to the spot. ‘‘ Conditions of 
sale,” or ‘‘articles of roup,” as they are called in Scotland, constitute the terms on which 
the seller offers his property, and form an integral part of the contract between seller 
and purchaser. The contract is completed by the offer or bidding on the part of the 
purchaser, and the acceptance by the seller or his representative, which is formally 
declared by the fall of the auctioneer’s or salesman’s hammer, the running of a sand, 
glass, the burning of an inch of candle (hence the term ‘‘sale by the candle”), or any 
other means which may have been specified in the conditions of sale. These conditions 
or articles ought further to narrate honestly and fully the character of the object or the 
nature of the right to be transferred, to regulate the manner of bidding, prescribe the 
order in which offerers are to be preferred, and to name a person who shall be empow- 
ered to determine disputes between bidders, and in cases of doubt to declare which is the 
purchaser. Before the sale commences, these conditions, which are executed on stamped 
paper, are read over, or otherwise intimated to intending purchasers. The conditions, 
thus published, cannot be controlled by any verbal declaration by the auctioneer. The 
implied conditions, which, in addition to those thus expressed, are binding on the seller 
and purchaser in all auctions, are: 1. That the seller shall not attempt to raise the price 
by means of fictitious offers, but shall fairly expose his goods to the competition of pur- 
chasers; and 2, That the purchasers shall not combine to suppress competition. Much 
doubt has arisen as to the lawfulness of biddings for the exposer. The exposer may set 
a price below which the thing is not to be sold, which is best and most openly done by 
fixing an upset price, or he may expressly reserve to himself a power to offer. ‘‘ But if 
the sale is declared to be without reserve, or at the pleasure of the company, the plain 
meaning and effect of this, even in England, is held to be to bar all biddings in behalf 
of the seller.” In Scotland, the law condemns absolutely such interference. ‘‘It has 
been said that if there be no upset price, and no agreement to sell at the pleasure of the 
company, the owner may bid, but that is not law, or is at least too broadly laid down.” 
Bell’s Commentaries, i. 97, edit. 1858. The A. duties were repealed by 8 and 9 Vict. 


AUCTION, AnD AUCTIONEER. Auctions are generally conducted by specially 
licensed auctioneers. In the U. S. the only conditions of such sales are those printed in 
the advertisements or catalogues of sale, or announced by the auctioneer at the time of 
sale. In general, the auctioneer acts as agent of both parties. A memorandum of the 
sale and its terms, duly made and signed by him, binds both buyer and seller. A bidder 
may retract his offer before acceptance, which is usually signified by the dropping of the 
auctioneer’s hammer. The auctioneer has a lien upon the goods for his charges. If the 
goods sold have been stolen, the auctioneer is liable to theowner. Heis bound to sell to 
the highest ona fide bidder, unless such person bids below a previously announced up- 
set price (see ante). While the employment of ‘“ puffers,’”’ or persons who make fictitious 
bids for the purpose of unfairly raising the price of the article sold, may render a sale 
void, yet the seller is allowed to have persons bid in his interest to prevent a sacrifice of 
his property under a given price. Unfair conduct on the part of purchasers will also 
avoid the sale; so, error in the description of real estate, if it be material. 


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AUCTIONEER, the person who conducts an auction (q.v.). The A. is in a certain. 
sense the agent both of seller and purchaser, and by the fall of his hammer, or by writ- 
ing the purchaser’s name in his book, he binds him to accept the article sold at the price 
indicated. The A. may also, and frequently does, act as agent for absent purchasers, 
or for persons who have instructed him to make biddings for them during the sale. In 
both cases, however, the purchaser must be bona fide, otherwise the A. would himself 
become a “‘ puffer.” As to the circumstances in which he may bid for the seller, see 
Auction. Where the A. declines or omits to disclose the seller’s name, he undertakes 
his responsibilities to the purchasers. To the seller, again, he is responsible for ordinary, 
skill, assiduity, and prudence. 


AU'CUBA, a genus of plants of the natural order cornacee (q.v.), of which the only 
known species is A. japonica, an evergreen shrub resembling a laurel, but with dichoto- 
mous or verticillate yellow branches, and, as seen in Europe, always with pale green 
leaves curiously mottled with yellow. It is dicecious, produces its small purple flowers 
in summer, and ripens its fruit, a small red drupe, in Mar. It is a native of China 
and Japan, and was originally introduced into Britain as a stove-plant, but is found to 
be at least as hardy as the common laurel, and is now a very common ornamental shrub; 
especially in the suburbs of large towns, a sort of situation for which it is particularly 
adapted, as it is very little liable to suffer injury from smoke. It is often called the 
variegated laurel. The mottled appearance of the leaf is said, however, not to belong to 
the plant in its ordinary natural state; but only this variety has yet been brought to 
Europe, and of it only the female plant. 

AUDZE'US, Aupr'vs (or, according to his native Syriac name, Udo), the founder of a 
religious sect in Mesopotamia, flourished during the 4th century. He commenced by 
accusing the regular clergy of worldliness, impure morals, etc., and is said to have 
opposed to their manner of life a strict asceticism, until his conduct seemed dangerous 
to the welfare of the church, when he was excommunicated. His disciples, who were 
oretty numerous, now clung more closely to him, and he was elected their bishop. In 
338 A.D., he was banished to Scythia, where he instituted a kind of rival church, and 
where he died about 870 A.D. Our knowledge both of his character and opinions is 
derived solely from inimical authorities, such as Augustine, Athanasius, etc., and is 
therefore to be accepted with caution. But his labors amongst the fierce barbarians in 
the north are acknowledged to have been beneficial, and one writer, Epiphanius, states 
that he ought to be considered schismatical, but not heretical. But if the leading feature 
of his system was, as is alleged, a decided tendency to anthropomorphism, we cannot see 
—according to the principles upon which the church usually proceeded—why he should 
not have been so called. He is said to have held that the language of the Old Testament 
justifies the belief that God has a sensible form—a doctrine deemed heretical in all ages 
of the church’s history. This particular tenet took firm hold on many minds, and in the 
subsequent century, was widely spread through the monasteries of Egypt. 


AUDE (Ataz), a river in the s. of France, rises in the east Pyrenees, not far from 
mont Louis; flows for some time parallel to the canal of Languedoc; and falls into the 
Mediterranean 6 m. e.n.e. of Narbonne, after a course of more than 120 miles. 


AUDE, a maritime department in the s. of France. It comprises some old ‘‘coun- 
ties’? which formerly constituted a portion of the province of Languedoc. Pop. ’96, 
310,518. Area, 2488sq.m. The southern part of A. is mountainous, but the greater 
portion of it belongs to the valley of the lower A. and the canal of Languedoc. Its 
northern boundary is formed by the Black mountains, the most southerly offsets of the 
Cevennes. The coast is flat, with no bays or roadsteads, but several lagoons. The cli. 
mate is warm, but variable. The mountains are composed of granite, while the soil of 
the plains is chiefly calcareous, and about the coast—where salt and soda are procured— 
is extremely fertile, producing cereals, olives, fruits, and wines. <A. is rich in iron and 
coal, and mineral springs. The woolen and silk manufactures are of considerable 
value. There is likewise a considerable export of corn, honey, etc. The chief town is 
Carcassonne. 


_ AUDEBERT, Jean Baptists, a distinguished French naturalist, was b. in 1759 at 
Rochefort; studied the arts of design and painting at Paris, and in early life attained a. 
degree of eminence as a miniature painter. Indulging a predilection for the study of 
natural history, he was much employed by naturalists in painting the more rare and 
beautiful objects in their collections. In 1800, after having visited England and Holland 
for the purpose of making sketches, he published at Paris, on his own account, a splendid 
volume, which raised him at once to celebrity, both as a painter and author. This work, 
the Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Galéopithéques (Natural History of 
Monkeys, Lemurs, and Flying Lemurs), was a large folio, with 62 colored plates, remark. 
able alike for their truth and beauty. His method of color-printing in oil, which was 
then novel but now common, was te dispose all the colors on one plate instead of using 
a separate plate for each color. His use of gold and bronze in the illustrations and 
letterpress was then also as new as it is attractive. In his Histoire des Colibris, des 
Oiseaux-mouches, des Jacamars, et des Promérops (Natural History of Humming-birds, 
Jacamars, and Promeropses), he succeeded by the same process in giving to his plates 
even a greater brilliancy and finish. He d. in 1800. 


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